Wikibooks enwikibooks https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.47.0-wmf.10 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikibooks Wikibooks talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Cookbook Cookbook talk Transwiki Transwiki talk Wikijunior Wikijunior talk Subject Subject talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 228 4654032 4652458 2026-07-11T17:45:19Z ~2026-39312-81 3613647 4654032 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] </noinclude> '''<big>Alkanes</big>''' (also known as '''saturated hydrocarbons''') are the simplest organic molecules, consisting solely of singly-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms. Alkanes are used as the basis for naming the majority of organic compounds (their '''''nomenclature'''''). Alkanes have the general formula C_nH_2n+2. Although their reactivities are often rather uninteresting, they provide an excellent basis for understanding bonding, conformation, and other important concepts which can be generalized to more "useful" molecules. =Introduction= [[image:Dimethylpropane.png|thumb|2,2-dimethylpropane or neopentane.<br />An example of an alkane]] Alkanes are the simplest and the least reactive [[w:hydrocarbon|hydrocarbon]] species containing only carbons and hydrogens. They are commercially very important, for being the principal constituent of gasoline and lubricating oils and are extensively employed in organic chemistry; though the role of pure alkanes (such as hexanes) is delegated mostly to solvents. The distinguishing feature of an alkane, making it distinct from other compounds that also exclusively contain carbon and hydrogen, is its lack of [[w:unsaturation|unsaturation]]. That is to say, they contain no double or triple bonds, which are highly reactive in organic chemistry. Though not totally devoid of reactivity, their lack of reactivity under most laboratory conditions makes them a relatively uninteresting, though very important component of organic chemistry. As you will learn about later, the energy confined within the carbon-carbon bond and the carbon-hydrogen bond is quite high and their rapid oxidation produces a large amount of heat, typically in the form of fire. == Introductory definitions == '''Organic compounds''' contain '''carbon''' and '''hydrogen''' by definition and usually other elements (e.g. '''nitrogen''' and '''oxygen''') as well. (CO₂ is not an organic compound because it has no hydrogen). '''Hydrocarbons''' are organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only. '''Alkanes''' are hydrocarbons or organic compounds made up of only carbon-carbon single bonds.Hence they are saturated. (as opposed to double and triple bonds). The simplest alkane is '''[[w:methane|methane]].''' ==Methane== Methane, (<chem>CH4</chem>, one carbon bonded to four hydrogen atoms) is the simplest organic molecule, and thus, by extension, the simplest alkane. It is a gas at [[w:Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure|standard temperature and pressure (STP)]]. === Structure of methane === The true three-dimensional form of methane does not have any 90° angles between bonded hydrogen atoms. The bonds point to the four corners of a [[w:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]], forming <math>\arccos\left(-{1\over{3}}\right)\approx \underline{109.5}^\circ</math> angles. The formation of a [[wikipedia:Tetrahedral_molecular_geometry|tetrahedral arrangement]] is consistent with [[wikipedia:VSEPR_theory|VSEPR theory]], wherein all four electron pairs of each carbon-hydrogen bond are positioned so as to achieve maximal distance from each other. This prediction is also congruous with ''sp³'' hybridization, as illustrated by [[wikipedia:Valence_bond_theory|valence bond theory (VBT)]], which is further corroborated by the observation of the aforementioned bond angles.<gallery mode="packed-overlay" widths="240" heights="240" perrow="2" caption="Structure of ''<u&gt;methane</u&gt;'' (<chem&gt;CH4</chem&gt;), the simplest alkane, alongside its ball-and-stick model. "> File:Methane-2D-dimensions.svg|Tetrahedral structure of methane with bond angle (109.5°) and bond length (108.70 pm) highlighted File:Tetrahedral-angle-3D-balls.png|Ball-and-stick model </gallery> ==Ethane== [[File:Ethane-2D-flat.png|thumb|203x203px|Flat 2D structure of ethane (<chem>C2H6</chem>).]] Two carbons singly bonded to each other with six hydrogens is called '''[[w:Ethane|ethane]]'''. Ethane is the second simplest hydrocarbon molecule. It can be thought of as two methane molecules attached to each other, but with two fewer hydrogen atoms. Note that, if we were simply to create a new bond between the carbon centers of two methane molecules, this would violate the octet rule for the involved atoms. =Drawing alkanes= There are several common methods to draw organic molecules. They are often used interchangeably, although some methods work better for one situation or another. It is important to be familiar with the common methods, as these are the "languages" organic chemists can use to discuss structure with one another. When writing out the alkane structures, you can use different levels of the shorthand depending on the needs at hand in hand. For example, pentane can be written out. Its formula is C₅H₁₂. [[File:Pentane.svg|331x331px]], or CH₃&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₃, or CH₃(CH₂)₃CH₃, or minimized to [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] ==Line drawing shorthand== Although non-cyclic alkanes are called straight-chain alkanes they are technically made of linked chains. This is reflected in the line-drawing method. Each ending point and bend in the line represents one carbon atom and each short line represents one single carbon-carbon bond. Every carbon is assumed to be surrounded with a maximum number of hydrogen atoms unless shown otherwise. {| | [[File:Propane-2D-Skeletal.svg|60px]] [[File:Butane_simple.svg|85px]] [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] |- | ''Propane, butane, pentane'' |} Structures drawn without explicitly showing all carbon atoms are often called "skeletal" structures, since they represent the skeleton or the backbone of the molecule. In organic chemistry, carbon is very frequently used, so chemists know that there is a carbon atom at the endpoints of every line that is not specifically labeled. =Conformations= '''Conformers''', also called '''conformational isomers''', or '''rotational isomers''',or''' rotomers''' are arrangements of the same molecule made transiently different by the rotation in space about one or more single bonds. Other types of isomer can only be converted from one form to another by ''breaking'' bonds, but conformational isomers can be made simply by ''rotating'' bonds. ==Newman projections== Newman projections are drawings used to represent different positions of parts of molecules relative to each other in space. Remember that single bonds can rotate in space if not impeded. Newman projections represent different positions of rotating molecule parts. {| |- | Conformers interconvert readily, normally thousands of times a second as parts of molecules spin. | [[Image:Spinningnewman.png]] |- | In the following drawings, methyl groups are on the front and back ends of the molecule and a circle represents all that lies between. | <div align=center>[[Image:Methylnewman.png]]<small> ''Note: This is how methyl groups are represented in Newman projections'' </small></div> |} {| CELLPADDING="4" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Staggerednewmanprojection.png]]</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Eclipsednewmanprojection.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Staggered conformation'''</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Eclipsed conformation'''<br> (front end overlaps the back and also unstable)</div> |} ==Conformations and energy== Different conformations have different potential energies. The staggered conformation is at a lower potential energy than the eclipsed conformation, and is favored. In ethane, the barrier to rotation is approximately 25 kJ/mol, indicating that each pair of eclipsed hydrogens raises the energy by about 8 kJ/mol. This number also applies to other organic compounds which have hydrogen atoms at similar distances from each other. At very low temperatures all conformations revert to the stabler( due to minimized vibration of atoms at it's mean position) , lower energy staggered conformation. ==Steric effects== Steric effects have to do with size. Two bulky objects run into each other and invade each others space. If we replace one or more hydrogen atoms on the above Newman projections with a methyl or other group, the potential energy goes up especially for the eclipsed conformations. Lets look at a Newman projection of butane as it rotates counterclockwise around its axes. {| CELLPADDING="2" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection1.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection2.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection3.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection4.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">Anti</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> | || <div style="text-align: center;">Gauche</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> |} When the larger groups overlap they repel each other more strongly than do hydrogen, and the potential energy goes up. ==Entropy== Entropy, represented as a '''&Delta;S''', is a mathematical construct that represents disorder or probability. Natural systems want to find the lowest energy or organization possible, which translates to the highest entropy. ''A note about potential energy: If you are rusty on this, remember the analogy of a big rock pushed to the top of a hill. At the top it has a maximum of potential energy. When you push it and allow it to roll down the hill the potential energy stored in it is transformed into kinetic energy that can be used to generate heat or smash something. '' Notice that statistically, the ethane molecule has twice as many opportunities to be in the gauche conformation as in the anti conformation. However, because the Gauche configuration brings the methyl groups closer together in space, this generates high energy steric interactions and do not occur without the input of energy. Thus, the butane molecules shown will almost never be found in such unfavorable conformations. = Preparation of Alkanes = ===Wurtz reaction=== Wurtz reaction is coupling of haloalkanes using sodium metal in solvent like dry ether <p> <B> 2R-X + 2Na → R-R + 2Na⁺X⁻</B></p> =====Mechanism===== The reaction consists of a halogen-metal exchange involving the free radical species R• (in a similar fashion to the formation of a Grignard reagent and then the carbon-carbon bond formation in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.) One electron from the metal is transferred to the halogen to produce a metal halide and an alkyl radical. :R-X + M → R• + M⁺X⁻ The alkyl radical then accepts an electron from another metal atom to form an alkyl anion and the metal becomes cationic. This intermediate has been isolated in a several cases. :R• + M → R⁻M⁺ The nucleophilic carbon of the alkyl anion then displaces the halide in an S_N2 reaction, forming a new carbon-carbon covalent bond. :R⁻M⁺ + R-X → R-R + M⁺X⁻ :'''COREY-HOUSE reactioN''' :[Also called as 'coupling of alkyl halides with organo metallic compounds'] :It is a better method than wurtz reaction. An alkyl halides and a lithium dialkyl copper are reacted to give a higher hydrocarbon :R'-X + R₂CuLi---->R-R' + R-Cu + LiX :(R and R' may be same or different) :It ===Clemmensen reduction=== Clemmensen reduction is a reduction of ketones (or aldehydes) to alkanes using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid [[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|center|300px|The Clemmensen reduction]] The Clemmensen reduction is particularly effective at reducing aryl-alkyl ketones. With aliphatic or cyclic ketones, zinc metal reduction is much more effective The substrate must be stable in the strongly acidic conditions of the Clemmensen reduction. Acid sensitive substrates should be reacted in the Wolff-Kishner reduction, which utilizes strongly basic conditions; a further, milder method is the Mozingo reduction. As a result of Clemmensen Reduction, the carbon of the carbonyl group involved is converted from sp² hybridisation to sp³ hybridisation. The oxygen atom is lost in the form of one molecule of water. ===Wolff-Kishner reduction=== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner Summary V.1.svg|center|400px|The Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The Wolff–Kishner reduction is a chemical reaction that fully reduces a ketone (or aldehyde) to an alkane. Condensation of the carbonyl compound with hydrazine forms the hydrazone, and treatment with base induces the reduction of the carbon coupled with oxidation of the hydrazine to gaseous nitrogen, to yield the corresponding alkane. =====Mechanism===== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner-Huang Reduction.png|center|600px|The mechanism of Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The mechanism first involves the formation of the hydrazone in a mechanism that is probably analogous to the formation of an imine. Successive deprotonations eventually result in the evolution of nitrogen. The mechanism can be justified by the evolution of nitrogen as the thermodynamic driving force. This reaction is also used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. ===Mozingo Reduction=== A thioketal is first produced by reaction of the ketone with an appropriate thiol. The product is then hydrogenolyzed to the alkane, using Raney nickel [[Image:Mozingo reaction.svg|center|600px]] = Properties of Alkanes = <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:Alkane#Properties|Alkane properties]] </small></div> Alkanes are '''not very reactive''' when compared with other chemical species. This is because the backbone carbon atoms in alkanes have attained their octet of electrons through forming four covalent bonds (the maximum allowed number of bonds under the octet rule; which is why carbon's valence number is 4). These four bonds formed by carbon in alkanes are sigma bonds, which are more stable than other types of bond because of the greater overlap of carbon's atomic orbitals with neighboring atoms' atomic orbitals. To make alkanes react, the input of additional energy is needed; either through heat or radiation. Gasoline is a mixture of the alkanes and unlike many chemicals, can be stored for long periods and transported without problem. It is only when ignited that it has enough energy to continue reacting. This property makes it difficult for alkanes to be converted into other types of organic molecules. (There are only a few ways to do this). Alkanes are also '''less dense than water''', as one can observe, oil, an alkane, floats on water. Alkanes are '''non-polar solvents'''. Since only C and H atoms are present, alkanes are nonpolar. Alkanes are [[w:Miscible|immiscible]] in water but freely miscible in other non-polar solvents. Alkanes consisting of weak dipole dipole bonds can not break the strong hydrogen bond between water molecules hence it is not miscible in water. The same character is also shown by alkenes. Because alkanes contain only carbon and hydrogen, combustion produces compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen. Like other hydrocarbons, combustion under most circumstances produces mainly carbon dioxide and water. However, alkanes require more heat to combust and do not release as much heat when they combust as other classes of hydrocarbons. Therefore, combustion of alkanes produces higher concentrations of organic compounds containing oxygen, such as aldehydes and ketones, when combusting at the same temperature as other hydrocarbons. The general formula for alkanes is C_NH_2N+2; the simplest possible alkane is therefore methane, CH₄. The next simplest is ethane, C₂H₆; the series continues indefinitely. Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ hybridization. Alkanes are also known as paraffins, or collectively as the paraffin series. These terms are also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. '''Methane''' through '''Butane''' are very flammable gases at standard temperature and pressure (STP). '''Pentane''' is an extremely flammable liquid boiling at 36 °C and boiling points and melting points steadily increase from there; octadecane is the first alkane which is solid at room temperature. Longer alkanes are waxy solids; candle wax generally has between C₂₀ and C₂₅ chains. As chain length increases ultimately we reach polyethylene, which consists of carbon chains of indefinite length, which is generally a hard white solid. == Chemical properties == Alkanes react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The pKa values of all alkanes are above 50, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (Latin para + affinis, with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke; with halogens, substitution. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly branched alkanes and cycloalkanes, the bond angles may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hinderance, and can substantially increase the reactivity. The same is preferred for alkenes too. =Introduction to Nomenclature= Before we can understand reactions in organic chemistry, we must begin with a basic knowledge of naming the compounds. The [[w:IUPAC|IUPAC]] [[wikt:nomenclature|nomenclature]] is a system on which most organic chemists have agreed to provide guidelines to allow them to learn from each others' works. Nomenclature, in other words, provides a foundation of language for organic chemistry. The names of all alkanes end with ''-ane''. Whether or not the carbons are linked together end-to-end in a ring (called ''cyclic alkanes'' or ''cycloalkanes'') or whether they contain side chains and branches, the name of every carbon-hydrogen chain that lacks any double bonds or functional groups will end with the suffix ''-ane''. Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains are simply named by the number of carbons in the chain. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: # CH₄ = '''methane''' = one hydrogen-saturated carbon # C₂H₆ = '''ethane''' = two hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₃H₈ = '''propane''' = three hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₄H₁₀ = '''butane''' = four hydrogen-saturated carbons Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix ''-ane'' to the appropriate numerical multiplier, except the terminal ''-a'' is removed from the basic numerical term. Hence, C₅H₁₂ is called ''pentane'', C₆H₁₄ is called ''hexane'', C₇H₁₆ is called ''heptane'' and so forth. Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for normal) to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. ''n-hexane'' is a neurotoxin while its branched-chain isomers are not. ==Number of hydrogens to carbons== This equation describes the relationship between the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms in alkanes: :'''H = 2C + 2''' where "C" and "H" are used to represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C = 2, then H = 6. Many textbooks put this in the following format: :'''C_nH_2n+2''' where "C_n" and "H_2n+2" represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C_n = 3, then H_2n+2 = 2(3) + 2 = 8. (For this formula look to the "n" for the number, the "C" and the "H" letters themselves do not change.) Progressively longer hydrocarbon chains can be made and are named systematically, depending on the number of carbons in the longest chain. ==Naming carbon chains up to twelve== *methane (1 carbon) *ethane (2 carbons) *propane (3 carbons) *butane (4 carbons) *pentane (5 carbons) *hexane (6 carbons) *heptane (7 carbons) *octane (8 carbons) *nonane (9 carbons) *decane (10 carbons) *undecane (11 carbons) *dodecane (12 carbons) The prefixes of the first three are the contribution of a German Chemist, August Wilhelm Hoffman, who also suggested the name quartane for 4 carbons in 1866. However, the but- prefix had already been in use since the 1820s and the name quartane never caught on. He also recommended the endings to use the vowels, a, e, i (or y), o, and u, or -ane, -ene, -ine or -yne, -one, and -une. Again, only the first three caught on for single, double, and triple bonds and -one was already in use for ketones. Pent, hex, hept, oct, and dec all come from the ancient Greek numbers (penta, hex, hepta, octa, deka) and oddly, non, from the Latin novem. For longer-chained alkanes we use the special IUPAC multiplying affixes. For example, pentadecane signifies an alkane with 5+10 = 15 carbon atoms. For chains of length 30, 40, 50, and so on the basic prefix is added to -contane. For example, C₅₇H₁₁₆ is named as heptapentacontane. When the chain contains 20-29 atoms we have an exception. C₂₀H₄₂ is known as icosane, and then we have, e.g. tetracosane (eliding the "i" when necessary). For the length 100 we have "hecta" but for 200, 300 ... 900 we have "dicta", "tricta", and so on, eliding the "i" on "icta" when necessary; for 1000 we have "kilia" but for 2000 and so on, "dilia", "trilia", and so on, eliding the "i" on "ilia" when necessary. We then put all of the prefixes together in reverse order. The alkane with 9236 carbon atoms is then hexatridinoniliane. == Isomerism == The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in many ways, leading to a large number of potential different configurations (isomers). So-called "normal" alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration, but the ''n-'' isomer of any given alkane is only one of potentially hundreds or even possibly millions of configurations for that number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in some sort of chain arrangement.<br>Isomerism is defined as the compound having same moleculer formula the formula which present the different moleculer formula arrangement are called as Isomerism.<br>e.g.- The molecular formula for butane is C₄H₁₀. The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms in a given alkane molecule; for alkanes with as few as 12 carbon atoms, there are over three hundred and fifty-five possible forms the molecule can take! :{| class="wikitable" |- ! # Carbon Atoms !! # Isomers of Alkane |- | 1 | 1 |- | 2 | 1 |- | 3 | 1 |- | 4 | 2 |- | 5 | 3 |- | 6 | 5 |- | 7 | 9 |- | 8 | 18 |- | 9 | 35 |- | 10 | 75 |- | 11 | 159 |- | 12 | 355 |} ==Branched chains== Carbon is able to bond in all four directions and easily forms strong bonds with other carbon atoms. When one carbon is bonded to more than two other carbons it forms a branch. {| |[[File:Isobutane-numbered-2D.png|200px|thumb|Isobutane]] || [[File:Neopentane-2D.svg|200px|thumb|Neopentane]] |} Above you see a carbon bonded to three and four other carbons. :Note: a methane group is called a '''methyl''' group when it is bonded to another carbon instead of a fourth hydrogen. &ndash;CH₃ The common system has naming convention for carbon chains as they relate to branching. :'''n-alkanes''' are linear :'''iso-alkanes''' have one branch R₂CH— :'''neo-alkanes''' have two branches R₃C— ''Note: "R" in organic chemistry is a placeholder that can represent any carbon group.'' ==Constitutional isomers== One of the most important characteristics of carbon is its ability to form '''several relatively strong bonds''' per atom. It is for this reason that many scientists believe that carbon is the only element that could be the basis for the many complicated molecules needed to support a living being. One carbon atom can have attached to it not just the one or two other carbons needed to form a single chain but can bond to up to four other carbons. It is this ability to bond multiply that allows isomerism. '''Isomers''' are two molecules with the same molecular formula but different physical arrangements. '''Constitutional isomers''' have their atoms arranged in a different order. A constitutional isomer of butane has a main chain that is forked at the end and one carbon shorter in its main chain than butane. {| | [[File:Butan_Lewis.svg|thumb|Butane]] || [[File:Isobutane 1.svg|100px|thumb|Isobutane (2-methyl-propane)]] |} == Naming Alkanes == There are several ways or systems for the '''nomenclature''', or naming, of organic molecules, but just two main ones. #The traditional, non-systematic names. Many of these linger on, especially for simpler or more common molecules. #The systematic '''[http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC IUPAC]''' (''eye-YOU-pack (International Union of Pure And Applied Chemistry)'') names. The IUPAC system is necessary for complicated organic compounds. It gives a series of unified rules for naming a large compound by conceptually dividing it up into smaller, more manageable nameable units. Many traditional (non-IUPAC) names are still commonly used in industry, especially for simpler and more common chemicals, as the traditional names were already entrenched. ==IUPAC naming rules== <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry|IUPAC naming]] </small></div> #Find the longest carbon chain, identify the end near which the most [[Wikipedia:substituent|substituents]] are located, and number the carbons sequentially from that end. This will be the parent chain. #Consider all other carbon groups as substituents. #Alphabetize the substituents. #Number the substituents according to the carbon to which they are attached. If numbering can be done in more than one way, use the numbering system that results in the smallest numbers. Substituents are named like a parent, and replacing the ''-ane'' ending with ''-yl''. ===Numbering=== [[Image:237trimethyloctanelines.png]] The above molecule is numbered as follows: [[Image:237trimethyloctane.png]] 2,3,7-Trimethyloctane [[Image:267trimethyloctane.png]] '''Not''' 2,6,7-Trimethyloctane. Remember, number so as to give the smallest numbers to the substituents. ===Alphabetizing=== [[Image:3ethyl3methylpentane.png]] 3-Ethyl-3-methylpentane ''Ethyl'' is listed before ''methyl'' for alphabetizing purposes. == Branched Substituents == ===Naming branched substituents=== [[Image:3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimet.png]] 3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimethylpentane The main chain in the drawing is numbered 1-5. The main part of the branched substituent, an ethyl group, is numbered 1' and 2'. The methyl substituent off of the ethyl substituent is not numbered in the drawing. To name the compound, put the whole branched substituent name in parentheses and then number and alphabetize as if a simple substituent. == Common system == Some prefixes from the common system are accepted in the IUPAC system. For alphabetization purposes, '''iso-''' and '''neo-''' are considered part of the name, and alphabetized. '''Sec-''' and '''tert-''' are not considered an alphabetizable part of the name. (In the following images, the '''R-''' represents any carbon structure.) === Iso- === '''Iso-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the second-to-last carbon and end with two methyls. An isobutyl has four carbons total: [[Image:Isobutyl.png]] ''Isobutyl'' === Sec- === [[Image:Sec-.png]] '''Sec-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the first carbon . === Neo- === '''Neo-''' refers to a substituent whose second-to-last carbon of the chain is trisubstituted (has three methyl groups attached to it). A neo-pentyl has five carbons total. [[Image:Neopentyl.png]] ''Neopentyl'' === Tert- === [[Image:Tert-.png]] '''Tert-''' is short for '''tertiary''' and refers to a substituent whose first carbon has three other carbon groups attached to it. =See also= #[[Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Cycloalkanes|Cycloalkanes]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 12, 2005}} ---- <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] || [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry|<< Foundational concepts]] | Alkanes | [[Organic Chemistry/Stereochemistry|Stereochemistry >>]] </noinclude> {{BookCat}} [[pl:Chemia_organiczna/Alkany]] jtva8tgulpgqqsowh75x7rnoyx4lruw 4654034 4654032 2026-07-11T17:53:51Z Heisenberg0420 3179662 4654034 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] </noinclude> '''<big>{{Smallcaps|Alkanes}}</big>''' (also known as '''saturated hydrocarbons''') are the simplest organic molecules, consisting solely of singly-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms. Alkanes are used as the basis for naming the majority of organic compounds (their '''''nomenclature'''''). Alkanes have the general formula C_nH_2n+2. Although their reactivities are often rather uninteresting, they provide an excellent basis for understanding bonding, conformation, and other important concepts which can be generalized to more "useful" molecules. =Introduction= [[image:Dimethylpropane.png|thumb|2,2-dimethylpropane or neopentane.<br />An example of an alkane]] Alkanes are the simplest and the least reactive [[w:hydrocarbon|hydrocarbon]] species containing only carbons and hydrogens. They are commercially very important, for being the principal constituent of gasoline and lubricating oils and are extensively employed in organic chemistry; though the role of pure alkanes (such as hexanes) is delegated mostly to solvents. The distinguishing feature of an alkane, making it distinct from other compounds that also exclusively contain carbon and hydrogen, is its lack of [[w:unsaturation|unsaturation]]. That is to say, they contain no double or triple bonds, which are highly reactive in organic chemistry. Though not totally devoid of reactivity, their lack of reactivity under most laboratory conditions makes them a relatively uninteresting, though very important component of organic chemistry. As you will learn about later, the energy confined within the carbon-carbon bond and the carbon-hydrogen bond is quite high and their rapid oxidation produces a large amount of heat, typically in the form of fire. == Introductory definitions == '''Organic compounds''' contain '''carbon''' and '''hydrogen''' by definition and usually other elements (e.g. '''nitrogen''' and '''oxygen''') as well. (CO₂ is not an organic compound because it has no hydrogen). '''Hydrocarbons''' are organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only. '''Alkanes''' are hydrocarbons or organic compounds made up of only carbon-carbon single bonds.Hence they are saturated. (as opposed to double and triple bonds). The simplest alkane is '''[[w:methane|methane]].''' ==Methane== Methane, (<chem>CH4</chem>, one carbon bonded to four hydrogen atoms) is the simplest organic molecule, and thus, by extension, the simplest alkane. It is a gas at [[w:Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure|standard temperature and pressure (STP)]]. === Structure of methane === The true three-dimensional form of methane does not have any 90° angles between bonded hydrogen atoms. The bonds point to the four corners of a [[w:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]], forming <math>\arccos\left(-{1\over{3}}\right)\approx \underline{109.5}^\circ</math> angles. The formation of a [[wikipedia:Tetrahedral_molecular_geometry|tetrahedral arrangement]] is consistent with [[wikipedia:VSEPR_theory|VSEPR theory]], wherein all four electron pairs of each carbon-hydrogen bond are positioned so as to achieve maximal distance from each other. This prediction is also congruous with ''sp³'' hybridization, as illustrated by [[wikipedia:Valence_bond_theory|valence bond theory (VBT)]], which is further corroborated by the observation of the aforementioned bond angles.<gallery mode="packed-overlay" widths="240" heights="240" perrow="2" caption="Structure of ''methane'' (<chem&gt;CH4</chem&gt;), the simplest alkane, alongside its ball-and-stick model."> File:Methane-2D-dimensions.svg|Tetrahedral structure of methane with bond angle (109.5°) and bond length (108.70 pm) highlighted File:Tetrahedral-angle-3D-balls.png|Ball-and-stick model </gallery> ==Ethane== [[File:Ethane-2D-flat.png|thumb|203x203px|Flat 2D structure of ethane (<chem>C2H6</chem>).]] Two carbons singly bonded to each other with six hydrogens is called '''[[w:Ethane|ethane]]'''. Ethane is the second simplest hydrocarbon molecule. It can be thought of as two methane molecules attached to each other, but with two fewer hydrogen atoms. Note that, if we were simply to create a new bond between the carbon centers of two methane molecules, this would violate the octet rule for the involved atoms. =Drawing alkanes= There are several common methods to draw organic molecules. They are often used interchangeably, although some methods work better for one situation or another. It is important to be familiar with the common methods, as these are the "languages" organic chemists can use to discuss structure with one another. When writing out the alkane structures, you can use different levels of the shorthand depending on the needs at hand in hand. For example, pentane can be written out. Its formula is C₅H₁₂. [[File:Pentane.svg|331x331px]], or CH₃&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₃, or CH₃(CH₂)₃CH₃, or minimized to [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] ==Line drawing shorthand== Although non-cyclic alkanes are called straight-chain alkanes they are technically made of linked chains. This is reflected in the line-drawing method. Each ending point and bend in the line represents one carbon atom and each short line represents one single carbon-carbon bond. Every carbon is assumed to be surrounded with a maximum number of hydrogen atoms unless shown otherwise. {| | [[File:Propane-2D-Skeletal.svg|60px]] [[File:Butane_simple.svg|85px]] [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] |- | ''Propane, butane, pentane'' |} Structures drawn without explicitly showing all carbon atoms are often called "skeletal" structures, since they represent the skeleton or the backbone of the molecule. In organic chemistry, carbon is very frequently used, so chemists know that there is a carbon atom at the endpoints of every line that is not specifically labeled. =Conformations= '''Conformers''', also called '''conformational isomers''', or '''rotational isomers''',or''' rotomers''' are arrangements of the same molecule made transiently different by the rotation in space about one or more single bonds. Other types of isomer can only be converted from one form to another by ''breaking'' bonds, but conformational isomers can be made simply by ''rotating'' bonds. ==Newman projections== Newman projections are drawings used to represent different positions of parts of molecules relative to each other in space. Remember that single bonds can rotate in space if not impeded. Newman projections represent different positions of rotating molecule parts. {| |- | Conformers interconvert readily, normally thousands of times a second as parts of molecules spin. | [[Image:Spinningnewman.png]] |- | In the following drawings, methyl groups are on the front and back ends of the molecule and a circle represents all that lies between. | <div align=center>[[Image:Methylnewman.png]]<small> ''Note: This is how methyl groups are represented in Newman projections'' </small></div> |} {| CELLPADDING="4" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Staggerednewmanprojection.png]]</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Eclipsednewmanprojection.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Staggered conformation'''</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Eclipsed conformation'''<br> (front end overlaps the back and also unstable)</div> |} ==Conformations and energy== Different conformations have different potential energies. The staggered conformation is at a lower potential energy than the eclipsed conformation, and is favored. In ethane, the barrier to rotation is approximately 25 kJ/mol, indicating that each pair of eclipsed hydrogens raises the energy by about 8 kJ/mol. This number also applies to other organic compounds which have hydrogen atoms at similar distances from each other. At very low temperatures all conformations revert to the stabler( due to minimized vibration of atoms at it's mean position) , lower energy staggered conformation. ==Steric effects== Steric effects have to do with size. Two bulky objects run into each other and invade each others space. If we replace one or more hydrogen atoms on the above Newman projections with a methyl or other group, the potential energy goes up especially for the eclipsed conformations. Lets look at a Newman projection of butane as it rotates counterclockwise around its axes. {| CELLPADDING="2" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection1.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection2.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection3.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection4.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">Anti</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> | || <div style="text-align: center;">Gauche</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> |} When the larger groups overlap they repel each other more strongly than do hydrogen, and the potential energy goes up. ==Entropy== Entropy, represented as a '''&Delta;S''', is a mathematical construct that represents disorder or probability. Natural systems want to find the lowest energy or organization possible, which translates to the highest entropy. ''A note about potential energy: If you are rusty on this, remember the analogy of a big rock pushed to the top of a hill. At the top it has a maximum of potential energy. When you push it and allow it to roll down the hill the potential energy stored in it is transformed into kinetic energy that can be used to generate heat or smash something. '' Notice that statistically, the ethane molecule has twice as many opportunities to be in the gauche conformation as in the anti conformation. However, because the Gauche configuration brings the methyl groups closer together in space, this generates high energy steric interactions and do not occur without the input of energy. Thus, the butane molecules shown will almost never be found in such unfavorable conformations. = Preparation of Alkanes = ===Wurtz reaction=== Wurtz reaction is coupling of haloalkanes using sodium metal in solvent like dry ether <p> <B> 2R-X + 2Na → R-R + 2Na⁺X⁻</B></p> =====Mechanism===== The reaction consists of a halogen-metal exchange involving the free radical species R• (in a similar fashion to the formation of a Grignard reagent and then the carbon-carbon bond formation in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.) One electron from the metal is transferred to the halogen to produce a metal halide and an alkyl radical. :R-X + M → R• + M⁺X⁻ The alkyl radical then accepts an electron from another metal atom to form an alkyl anion and the metal becomes cationic. This intermediate has been isolated in a several cases. :R• + M → R⁻M⁺ The nucleophilic carbon of the alkyl anion then displaces the halide in an S_N2 reaction, forming a new carbon-carbon covalent bond. :R⁻M⁺ + R-X → R-R + M⁺X⁻ :'''COREY-HOUSE reactioN''' :[Also called as 'coupling of alkyl halides with organo metallic compounds'] :It is a better method than wurtz reaction. An alkyl halides and a lithium dialkyl copper are reacted to give a higher hydrocarbon :R'-X + R₂CuLi---->R-R' + R-Cu + LiX :(R and R' may be same or different) :It ===Clemmensen reduction=== Clemmensen reduction is a reduction of ketones (or aldehydes) to alkanes using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid [[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|center|300px|The Clemmensen reduction]] The Clemmensen reduction is particularly effective at reducing aryl-alkyl ketones. With aliphatic or cyclic ketones, zinc metal reduction is much more effective The substrate must be stable in the strongly acidic conditions of the Clemmensen reduction. Acid sensitive substrates should be reacted in the Wolff-Kishner reduction, which utilizes strongly basic conditions; a further, milder method is the Mozingo reduction. As a result of Clemmensen Reduction, the carbon of the carbonyl group involved is converted from sp² hybridisation to sp³ hybridisation. The oxygen atom is lost in the form of one molecule of water. ===Wolff-Kishner reduction=== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner Summary V.1.svg|center|400px|The Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The Wolff–Kishner reduction is a chemical reaction that fully reduces a ketone (or aldehyde) to an alkane. Condensation of the carbonyl compound with hydrazine forms the hydrazone, and treatment with base induces the reduction of the carbon coupled with oxidation of the hydrazine to gaseous nitrogen, to yield the corresponding alkane. =====Mechanism===== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner-Huang Reduction.png|center|600px|The mechanism of Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The mechanism first involves the formation of the hydrazone in a mechanism that is probably analogous to the formation of an imine. Successive deprotonations eventually result in the evolution of nitrogen. The mechanism can be justified by the evolution of nitrogen as the thermodynamic driving force. This reaction is also used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. ===Mozingo Reduction=== A thioketal is first produced by reaction of the ketone with an appropriate thiol. The product is then hydrogenolyzed to the alkane, using Raney nickel [[Image:Mozingo reaction.svg|center|600px]] = Properties of Alkanes = <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:Alkane#Properties|Alkane properties]] </small></div> Alkanes are '''not very reactive''' when compared with other chemical species. This is because the backbone carbon atoms in alkanes have attained their octet of electrons through forming four covalent bonds (the maximum allowed number of bonds under the octet rule; which is why carbon's valence number is 4). These four bonds formed by carbon in alkanes are sigma bonds, which are more stable than other types of bond because of the greater overlap of carbon's atomic orbitals with neighboring atoms' atomic orbitals. To make alkanes react, the input of additional energy is needed; either through heat or radiation. Gasoline is a mixture of the alkanes and unlike many chemicals, can be stored for long periods and transported without problem. It is only when ignited that it has enough energy to continue reacting. This property makes it difficult for alkanes to be converted into other types of organic molecules. (There are only a few ways to do this). Alkanes are also '''less dense than water''', as one can observe, oil, an alkane, floats on water. Alkanes are '''non-polar solvents'''. Since only C and H atoms are present, alkanes are nonpolar. Alkanes are [[w:Miscible|immiscible]] in water but freely miscible in other non-polar solvents. Alkanes consisting of weak dipole dipole bonds can not break the strong hydrogen bond between water molecules hence it is not miscible in water. The same character is also shown by alkenes. Because alkanes contain only carbon and hydrogen, combustion produces compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen. Like other hydrocarbons, combustion under most circumstances produces mainly carbon dioxide and water. However, alkanes require more heat to combust and do not release as much heat when they combust as other classes of hydrocarbons. Therefore, combustion of alkanes produces higher concentrations of organic compounds containing oxygen, such as aldehydes and ketones, when combusting at the same temperature as other hydrocarbons. The general formula for alkanes is C_NH_2N+2; the simplest possible alkane is therefore methane, CH₄. The next simplest is ethane, C₂H₆; the series continues indefinitely. Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ hybridization. Alkanes are also known as paraffins, or collectively as the paraffin series. These terms are also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. '''Methane''' through '''Butane''' are very flammable gases at standard temperature and pressure (STP). '''Pentane''' is an extremely flammable liquid boiling at 36 °C and boiling points and melting points steadily increase from there; octadecane is the first alkane which is solid at room temperature. Longer alkanes are waxy solids; candle wax generally has between C₂₀ and C₂₅ chains. As chain length increases ultimately we reach polyethylene, which consists of carbon chains of indefinite length, which is generally a hard white solid. == Chemical properties == Alkanes react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The pKa values of all alkanes are above 50, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (Latin para + affinis, with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke; with halogens, substitution. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly branched alkanes and cycloalkanes, the bond angles may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hinderance, and can substantially increase the reactivity. The same is preferred for alkenes too. =Introduction to Nomenclature= Before we can understand reactions in organic chemistry, we must begin with a basic knowledge of naming the compounds. The [[w:IUPAC|IUPAC]] [[wikt:nomenclature|nomenclature]] is a system on which most organic chemists have agreed to provide guidelines to allow them to learn from each others' works. Nomenclature, in other words, provides a foundation of language for organic chemistry. The names of all alkanes end with ''-ane''. Whether or not the carbons are linked together end-to-end in a ring (called ''cyclic alkanes'' or ''cycloalkanes'') or whether they contain side chains and branches, the name of every carbon-hydrogen chain that lacks any double bonds or functional groups will end with the suffix ''-ane''. Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains are simply named by the number of carbons in the chain. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: # CH₄ = '''methane''' = one hydrogen-saturated carbon # C₂H₆ = '''ethane''' = two hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₃H₈ = '''propane''' = three hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₄H₁₀ = '''butane''' = four hydrogen-saturated carbons Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix ''-ane'' to the appropriate numerical multiplier, except the terminal ''-a'' is removed from the basic numerical term. Hence, C₅H₁₂ is called ''pentane'', C₆H₁₄ is called ''hexane'', C₇H₁₆ is called ''heptane'' and so forth. Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for normal) to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. ''n-hexane'' is a neurotoxin while its branched-chain isomers are not. ==Number of hydrogens to carbons== This equation describes the relationship between the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms in alkanes: :'''H = 2C + 2''' where "C" and "H" are used to represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C = 2, then H = 6. Many textbooks put this in the following format: :'''C_nH_2n+2''' where "C_n" and "H_2n+2" represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C_n = 3, then H_2n+2 = 2(3) + 2 = 8. (For this formula look to the "n" for the number, the "C" and the "H" letters themselves do not change.) Progressively longer hydrocarbon chains can be made and are named systematically, depending on the number of carbons in the longest chain. ==Naming carbon chains up to twelve== *methane (1 carbon) *ethane (2 carbons) *propane (3 carbons) *butane (4 carbons) *pentane (5 carbons) *hexane (6 carbons) *heptane (7 carbons) *octane (8 carbons) *nonane (9 carbons) *decane (10 carbons) *undecane (11 carbons) *dodecane (12 carbons) The prefixes of the first three are the contribution of a German Chemist, August Wilhelm Hoffman, who also suggested the name quartane for 4 carbons in 1866. However, the but- prefix had already been in use since the 1820s and the name quartane never caught on. He also recommended the endings to use the vowels, a, e, i (or y), o, and u, or -ane, -ene, -ine or -yne, -one, and -une. Again, only the first three caught on for single, double, and triple bonds and -one was already in use for ketones. Pent, hex, hept, oct, and dec all come from the ancient Greek numbers (penta, hex, hepta, octa, deka) and oddly, non, from the Latin novem. For longer-chained alkanes we use the special IUPAC multiplying affixes. For example, pentadecane signifies an alkane with 5+10 = 15 carbon atoms. For chains of length 30, 40, 50, and so on the basic prefix is added to -contane. For example, C₅₇H₁₁₆ is named as heptapentacontane. When the chain contains 20-29 atoms we have an exception. C₂₀H₄₂ is known as icosane, and then we have, e.g. tetracosane (eliding the "i" when necessary). For the length 100 we have "hecta" but for 200, 300 ... 900 we have "dicta", "tricta", and so on, eliding the "i" on "icta" when necessary; for 1000 we have "kilia" but for 2000 and so on, "dilia", "trilia", and so on, eliding the "i" on "ilia" when necessary. We then put all of the prefixes together in reverse order. The alkane with 9236 carbon atoms is then hexatridinoniliane. == Isomerism == The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in many ways, leading to a large number of potential different configurations (isomers). So-called "normal" alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration, but the ''n-'' isomer of any given alkane is only one of potentially hundreds or even possibly millions of configurations for that number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in some sort of chain arrangement.<br>Isomerism is defined as the compound having same moleculer formula the formula which present the different moleculer formula arrangement are called as Isomerism.<br>e.g.- The molecular formula for butane is C₄H₁₀. The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms in a given alkane molecule; for alkanes with as few as 12 carbon atoms, there are over three hundred and fifty-five possible forms the molecule can take! :{| class="wikitable" |- ! # Carbon Atoms !! # Isomers of Alkane |- | 1 | 1 |- | 2 | 1 |- | 3 | 1 |- | 4 | 2 |- | 5 | 3 |- | 6 | 5 |- | 7 | 9 |- | 8 | 18 |- | 9 | 35 |- | 10 | 75 |- | 11 | 159 |- | 12 | 355 |} ==Branched chains== Carbon is able to bond in all four directions and easily forms strong bonds with other carbon atoms. When one carbon is bonded to more than two other carbons it forms a branch. {| |[[File:Isobutane-numbered-2D.png|200px|thumb|Isobutane]] || [[File:Neopentane-2D.svg|200px|thumb|Neopentane]] |} Above you see a carbon bonded to three and four other carbons. :Note: a methane group is called a '''methyl''' group when it is bonded to another carbon instead of a fourth hydrogen. &ndash;CH₃ The common system has naming convention for carbon chains as they relate to branching. :'''n-alkanes''' are linear :'''iso-alkanes''' have one branch R₂CH— :'''neo-alkanes''' have two branches R₃C— ''Note: "R" in organic chemistry is a placeholder that can represent any carbon group.'' ==Constitutional isomers== One of the most important characteristics of carbon is its ability to form '''several relatively strong bonds''' per atom. It is for this reason that many scientists believe that carbon is the only element that could be the basis for the many complicated molecules needed to support a living being. One carbon atom can have attached to it not just the one or two other carbons needed to form a single chain but can bond to up to four other carbons. It is this ability to bond multiply that allows isomerism. '''Isomers''' are two molecules with the same molecular formula but different physical arrangements. '''Constitutional isomers''' have their atoms arranged in a different order. A constitutional isomer of butane has a main chain that is forked at the end and one carbon shorter in its main chain than butane. {| | [[File:Butan_Lewis.svg|thumb|Butane]] || [[File:Isobutane 1.svg|100px|thumb|Isobutane (2-methyl-propane)]] |} == Naming Alkanes == There are several ways or systems for the '''nomenclature''', or naming, of organic molecules, but just two main ones. #The traditional, non-systematic names. Many of these linger on, especially for simpler or more common molecules. #The systematic '''[http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC IUPAC]''' (''eye-YOU-pack (International Union of Pure And Applied Chemistry)'') names. The IUPAC system is necessary for complicated organic compounds. It gives a series of unified rules for naming a large compound by conceptually dividing it up into smaller, more manageable nameable units. Many traditional (non-IUPAC) names are still commonly used in industry, especially for simpler and more common chemicals, as the traditional names were already entrenched. ==IUPAC naming rules== <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry|IUPAC naming]] </small></div> #Find the longest carbon chain, identify the end near which the most [[Wikipedia:substituent|substituents]] are located, and number the carbons sequentially from that end. This will be the parent chain. #Consider all other carbon groups as substituents. #Alphabetize the substituents. #Number the substituents according to the carbon to which they are attached. If numbering can be done in more than one way, use the numbering system that results in the smallest numbers. Substituents are named like a parent, and replacing the ''-ane'' ending with ''-yl''. ===Numbering=== [[Image:237trimethyloctanelines.png]] The above molecule is numbered as follows: [[Image:237trimethyloctane.png]] 2,3,7-Trimethyloctane [[Image:267trimethyloctane.png]] '''Not''' 2,6,7-Trimethyloctane. Remember, number so as to give the smallest numbers to the substituents. ===Alphabetizing=== [[Image:3ethyl3methylpentane.png]] 3-Ethyl-3-methylpentane ''Ethyl'' is listed before ''methyl'' for alphabetizing purposes. == Branched Substituents == ===Naming branched substituents=== [[Image:3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimet.png]] 3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimethylpentane The main chain in the drawing is numbered 1-5. The main part of the branched substituent, an ethyl group, is numbered 1' and 2'. The methyl substituent off of the ethyl substituent is not numbered in the drawing. To name the compound, put the whole branched substituent name in parentheses and then number and alphabetize as if a simple substituent. == Common system == Some prefixes from the common system are accepted in the IUPAC system. For alphabetization purposes, '''iso-''' and '''neo-''' are considered part of the name, and alphabetized. '''Sec-''' and '''tert-''' are not considered an alphabetizable part of the name. (In the following images, the '''R-''' represents any carbon structure.) === Iso- === '''Iso-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the second-to-last carbon and end with two methyls. An isobutyl has four carbons total: [[Image:Isobutyl.png]] ''Isobutyl'' === Sec- === [[Image:Sec-.png]] '''Sec-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the first carbon . === Neo- === '''Neo-''' refers to a substituent whose second-to-last carbon of the chain is trisubstituted (has three methyl groups attached to it). A neo-pentyl has five carbons total. [[Image:Neopentyl.png]] ''Neopentyl'' === Tert- === [[Image:Tert-.png]] '''Tert-''' is short for '''tertiary''' and refers to a substituent whose first carbon has three other carbon groups attached to it. =See also= #[[Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Cycloalkanes|Cycloalkanes]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 12, 2005}} ---- <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] || [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry|<< Foundational concepts]] | Alkanes | [[Organic Chemistry/Stereochemistry|Stereochemistry >>]] </noinclude> {{BookCat}} [[pl:Chemia_organiczna/Alkany]] d477npqgrbsrx6ajox0ojaj2hlt6nx3 4654035 4654034 2026-07-11T17:57:46Z Heisenberg0420 3179662 Changed the "methane" subsection, as well as edited and added media to better delineate structural highlights of methane i.e. bond angles, length, and shape. 4654035 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] </noinclude> '''<big>{{Smallcaps|Alkanes}}</big>''' (also known as '''saturated hydrocarbons''') are the simplest organic molecules, consisting solely of singly-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms. Alkanes are used as the basis for naming the majority of organic compounds (their '''''nomenclature'''''). Alkanes have the general formula C_nH_2n+2. Although their reactivities are often rather uninteresting, they provide an excellent basis for understanding bonding, conformation, and other important concepts which can be generalized to more "useful" molecules. =Introduction= [[image:Dimethylpropane.png|thumb|2,2-dimethylpropane or neopentane.<br />An example of an alkane]] Alkanes are the simplest and the least reactive [[w:hydrocarbon|hydrocarbon]] species containing only carbons and hydrogens. They are commercially very important, for being the principal constituent of gasoline and lubricating oils and are extensively employed in organic chemistry; though the role of pure alkanes (such as hexanes) is delegated mostly to solvents. The distinguishing feature of an alkane, making it distinct from other compounds that also exclusively contain carbon and hydrogen, is its lack of [[w:unsaturation|unsaturation]]. That is to say, they contain no double or triple bonds, which are highly reactive in organic chemistry. Though not totally devoid of reactivity, their lack of reactivity under most laboratory conditions makes them a relatively uninteresting, though very important component of organic chemistry. As you will learn about later, the energy confined within the carbon-carbon bond and the carbon-hydrogen bond is quite high and their rapid oxidation produces a large amount of heat, typically in the form of fire. == Introductory definitions == '''Organic compounds''' contain '''carbon''' and '''hydrogen''' by definition and usually other elements (e.g. '''nitrogen''' and '''oxygen''') as well. (CO₂ is not an organic compound because it has no hydrogen). '''Hydrocarbons''' are organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only. '''Alkanes''' are hydrocarbons or organic compounds made up of only carbon-carbon single bonds.Hence they are saturated. (as opposed to double and triple bonds). The simplest alkane is '''[[w:methane|methane]].''' ==Methane== Methane, (<chem>CH4</chem>, one carbon bonded to four hydrogen atoms) is the simplest organic molecule, and thus, by extension, the simplest alkane. It is a gas at [[w:Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure|standard temperature and pressure (STP)]]. === Structure of methane === The true three-dimensional form of methane does not have any 90° angles between bonded hydrogen atoms. The bonds point to the four corners of a [[w:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]], forming <math>\arccos\left(-{1\over{3}}\right)\approx \underline{109.5}^\circ</math> angles. The formation of a [[wikipedia:Tetrahedral_molecular_geometry|tetrahedral arrangement]] is consistent with [[wikipedia:VSEPR_theory|VSEPR theory]], wherein all four electron pairs of each carbon-hydrogen bond are positioned so as to achieve maximal distance from each other. This prediction is also congruous with ''sp³'' hybridization, as illustrated by [[wikipedia:Valence_bond_theory|valence bond theory (VBT)]], which is further corroborated by the observation of the aforementioned bond angles.<gallery mode="packed" widths="240" heights="240" perrow="2" caption="Structure of ''methane'' (CH<sub&gt;4</sub&gt;), the simplest alkane, alongside its ball-and-stick model."> File:Methane-2D-dimensions.svg|Tetrahedral structure of methane with bond angle (109.5°) and bond length (108.70 pm) highlighted File:Tetrahedral-angle-3D-balls.png|Ball-and-stick model </gallery> ==Ethane== [[File:Ethane-2D-flat.png|thumb|183x183px|Flat 2D structure of ethane (<chem>C2H6</chem>).]] Two carbons singly bonded to each other with six hydrogens is called '''[[w:Ethane|ethane]]'''. Ethane is the second simplest hydrocarbon molecule. It can be thought of as two methane molecules attached to each other, but with two fewer hydrogen atoms. Note that, if we were simply to create a new bond between the carbon centers of two methane molecules, this would violate the octet rule for the involved atoms. =Drawing alkanes= There are several common methods to draw organic molecules. They are often used interchangeably, although some methods work better for one situation or another. It is important to be familiar with the common methods, as these are the "languages" organic chemists can use to discuss structure with one another. When writing out the alkane structures, you can use different levels of the shorthand depending on the needs at hand in hand. For example, pentane can be written out. Its formula is C₅H₁₂. [[File:Pentane.svg|331x331px]], or CH₃&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₃, or CH₃(CH₂)₃CH₃, or minimized to [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] ==Line drawing shorthand== Although non-cyclic alkanes are called straight-chain alkanes they are technically made of linked chains. This is reflected in the line-drawing method. Each ending point and bend in the line represents one carbon atom and each short line represents one single carbon-carbon bond. Every carbon is assumed to be surrounded with a maximum number of hydrogen atoms unless shown otherwise. {| | [[File:Propane-2D-Skeletal.svg|60px]] [[File:Butane_simple.svg|85px]] [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] |- | ''Propane, butane, pentane'' |} Structures drawn without explicitly showing all carbon atoms are often called "skeletal" structures, since they represent the skeleton or the backbone of the molecule. In organic chemistry, carbon is very frequently used, so chemists know that there is a carbon atom at the endpoints of every line that is not specifically labeled. =Conformations= '''Conformers''', also called '''conformational isomers''', or '''rotational isomers''',or''' rotomers''' are arrangements of the same molecule made transiently different by the rotation in space about one or more single bonds. Other types of isomer can only be converted from one form to another by ''breaking'' bonds, but conformational isomers can be made simply by ''rotating'' bonds. ==Newman projections== Newman projections are drawings used to represent different positions of parts of molecules relative to each other in space. Remember that single bonds can rotate in space if not impeded. Newman projections represent different positions of rotating molecule parts. {| |- | Conformers interconvert readily, normally thousands of times a second as parts of molecules spin. | [[Image:Spinningnewman.png]] |- | In the following drawings, methyl groups are on the front and back ends of the molecule and a circle represents all that lies between. | <div align=center>[[Image:Methylnewman.png]]<small> ''Note: This is how methyl groups are represented in Newman projections'' </small></div> |} {| CELLPADDING="4" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Staggerednewmanprojection.png]]</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Eclipsednewmanprojection.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Staggered conformation'''</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Eclipsed conformation'''<br> (front end overlaps the back and also unstable)</div> |} ==Conformations and energy== Different conformations have different potential energies. The staggered conformation is at a lower potential energy than the eclipsed conformation, and is favored. In ethane, the barrier to rotation is approximately 25 kJ/mol, indicating that each pair of eclipsed hydrogens raises the energy by about 8 kJ/mol. This number also applies to other organic compounds which have hydrogen atoms at similar distances from each other. At very low temperatures all conformations revert to the stabler( due to minimized vibration of atoms at it's mean position) , lower energy staggered conformation. ==Steric effects== Steric effects have to do with size. Two bulky objects run into each other and invade each others space. If we replace one or more hydrogen atoms on the above Newman projections with a methyl or other group, the potential energy goes up especially for the eclipsed conformations. Lets look at a Newman projection of butane as it rotates counterclockwise around its axes. {| CELLPADDING="2" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection1.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection2.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection3.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection4.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">Anti</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> | || <div style="text-align: center;">Gauche</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> |} When the larger groups overlap they repel each other more strongly than do hydrogen, and the potential energy goes up. ==Entropy== Entropy, represented as a '''&Delta;S''', is a mathematical construct that represents disorder or probability. Natural systems want to find the lowest energy or organization possible, which translates to the highest entropy. ''A note about potential energy: If you are rusty on this, remember the analogy of a big rock pushed to the top of a hill. At the top it has a maximum of potential energy. When you push it and allow it to roll down the hill the potential energy stored in it is transformed into kinetic energy that can be used to generate heat or smash something. '' Notice that statistically, the ethane molecule has twice as many opportunities to be in the gauche conformation as in the anti conformation. However, because the Gauche configuration brings the methyl groups closer together in space, this generates high energy steric interactions and do not occur without the input of energy. Thus, the butane molecules shown will almost never be found in such unfavorable conformations. = Preparation of Alkanes = ===Wurtz reaction=== Wurtz reaction is coupling of haloalkanes using sodium metal in solvent like dry ether <p> <B> 2R-X + 2Na → R-R + 2Na⁺X⁻</B></p> =====Mechanism===== The reaction consists of a halogen-metal exchange involving the free radical species R• (in a similar fashion to the formation of a Grignard reagent and then the carbon-carbon bond formation in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.) One electron from the metal is transferred to the halogen to produce a metal halide and an alkyl radical. :R-X + M → R• + M⁺X⁻ The alkyl radical then accepts an electron from another metal atom to form an alkyl anion and the metal becomes cationic. This intermediate has been isolated in a several cases. :R• + M → R⁻M⁺ The nucleophilic carbon of the alkyl anion then displaces the halide in an S_N2 reaction, forming a new carbon-carbon covalent bond. :R⁻M⁺ + R-X → R-R + M⁺X⁻ :'''COREY-HOUSE reactioN''' :[Also called as 'coupling of alkyl halides with organo metallic compounds'] :It is a better method than wurtz reaction. An alkyl halides and a lithium dialkyl copper are reacted to give a higher hydrocarbon :R'-X + R₂CuLi---->R-R' + R-Cu + LiX :(R and R' may be same or different) :It ===Clemmensen reduction=== Clemmensen reduction is a reduction of ketones (or aldehydes) to alkanes using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid [[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|center|300px|The Clemmensen reduction]] The Clemmensen reduction is particularly effective at reducing aryl-alkyl ketones. With aliphatic or cyclic ketones, zinc metal reduction is much more effective The substrate must be stable in the strongly acidic conditions of the Clemmensen reduction. Acid sensitive substrates should be reacted in the Wolff-Kishner reduction, which utilizes strongly basic conditions; a further, milder method is the Mozingo reduction. As a result of Clemmensen Reduction, the carbon of the carbonyl group involved is converted from sp² hybridisation to sp³ hybridisation. The oxygen atom is lost in the form of one molecule of water. ===Wolff-Kishner reduction=== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner Summary V.1.svg|center|400px|The Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The Wolff–Kishner reduction is a chemical reaction that fully reduces a ketone (or aldehyde) to an alkane. Condensation of the carbonyl compound with hydrazine forms the hydrazone, and treatment with base induces the reduction of the carbon coupled with oxidation of the hydrazine to gaseous nitrogen, to yield the corresponding alkane. =====Mechanism===== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner-Huang Reduction.png|center|600px|The mechanism of Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The mechanism first involves the formation of the hydrazone in a mechanism that is probably analogous to the formation of an imine. Successive deprotonations eventually result in the evolution of nitrogen. The mechanism can be justified by the evolution of nitrogen as the thermodynamic driving force. This reaction is also used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. ===Mozingo Reduction=== A thioketal is first produced by reaction of the ketone with an appropriate thiol. The product is then hydrogenolyzed to the alkane, using Raney nickel [[Image:Mozingo reaction.svg|center|600px]] = Properties of Alkanes = <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:Alkane#Properties|Alkane properties]] </small></div> Alkanes are '''not very reactive''' when compared with other chemical species. This is because the backbone carbon atoms in alkanes have attained their octet of electrons through forming four covalent bonds (the maximum allowed number of bonds under the octet rule; which is why carbon's valence number is 4). These four bonds formed by carbon in alkanes are sigma bonds, which are more stable than other types of bond because of the greater overlap of carbon's atomic orbitals with neighboring atoms' atomic orbitals. To make alkanes react, the input of additional energy is needed; either through heat or radiation. Gasoline is a mixture of the alkanes and unlike many chemicals, can be stored for long periods and transported without problem. It is only when ignited that it has enough energy to continue reacting. This property makes it difficult for alkanes to be converted into other types of organic molecules. (There are only a few ways to do this). Alkanes are also '''less dense than water''', as one can observe, oil, an alkane, floats on water. Alkanes are '''non-polar solvents'''. Since only C and H atoms are present, alkanes are nonpolar. Alkanes are [[w:Miscible|immiscible]] in water but freely miscible in other non-polar solvents. Alkanes consisting of weak dipole dipole bonds can not break the strong hydrogen bond between water molecules hence it is not miscible in water. The same character is also shown by alkenes. Because alkanes contain only carbon and hydrogen, combustion produces compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen. Like other hydrocarbons, combustion under most circumstances produces mainly carbon dioxide and water. However, alkanes require more heat to combust and do not release as much heat when they combust as other classes of hydrocarbons. Therefore, combustion of alkanes produces higher concentrations of organic compounds containing oxygen, such as aldehydes and ketones, when combusting at the same temperature as other hydrocarbons. The general formula for alkanes is C_NH_2N+2; the simplest possible alkane is therefore methane, CH₄. The next simplest is ethane, C₂H₆; the series continues indefinitely. Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ hybridization. Alkanes are also known as paraffins, or collectively as the paraffin series. These terms are also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. '''Methane''' through '''Butane''' are very flammable gases at standard temperature and pressure (STP). '''Pentane''' is an extremely flammable liquid boiling at 36 °C and boiling points and melting points steadily increase from there; octadecane is the first alkane which is solid at room temperature. Longer alkanes are waxy solids; candle wax generally has between C₂₀ and C₂₅ chains. As chain length increases ultimately we reach polyethylene, which consists of carbon chains of indefinite length, which is generally a hard white solid. == Chemical properties == Alkanes react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The pKa values of all alkanes are above 50, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (Latin para + affinis, with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke; with halogens, substitution. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly branched alkanes and cycloalkanes, the bond angles may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hinderance, and can substantially increase the reactivity. The same is preferred for alkenes too. =Introduction to Nomenclature= Before we can understand reactions in organic chemistry, we must begin with a basic knowledge of naming the compounds. The [[w:IUPAC|IUPAC]] [[wikt:nomenclature|nomenclature]] is a system on which most organic chemists have agreed to provide guidelines to allow them to learn from each others' works. Nomenclature, in other words, provides a foundation of language for organic chemistry. The names of all alkanes end with ''-ane''. Whether or not the carbons are linked together end-to-end in a ring (called ''cyclic alkanes'' or ''cycloalkanes'') or whether they contain side chains and branches, the name of every carbon-hydrogen chain that lacks any double bonds or functional groups will end with the suffix ''-ane''. Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains are simply named by the number of carbons in the chain. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: # CH₄ = '''methane''' = one hydrogen-saturated carbon # C₂H₆ = '''ethane''' = two hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₃H₈ = '''propane''' = three hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₄H₁₀ = '''butane''' = four hydrogen-saturated carbons Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix ''-ane'' to the appropriate numerical multiplier, except the terminal ''-a'' is removed from the basic numerical term. Hence, C₅H₁₂ is called ''pentane'', C₆H₁₄ is called ''hexane'', C₇H₁₆ is called ''heptane'' and so forth. Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for normal) to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. ''n-hexane'' is a neurotoxin while its branched-chain isomers are not. ==Number of hydrogens to carbons== This equation describes the relationship between the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms in alkanes: :'''H = 2C + 2''' where "C" and "H" are used to represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C = 2, then H = 6. Many textbooks put this in the following format: :'''C_nH_2n+2''' where "C_n" and "H_2n+2" represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C_n = 3, then H_2n+2 = 2(3) + 2 = 8. (For this formula look to the "n" for the number, the "C" and the "H" letters themselves do not change.) Progressively longer hydrocarbon chains can be made and are named systematically, depending on the number of carbons in the longest chain. ==Naming carbon chains up to twelve== *methane (1 carbon) *ethane (2 carbons) *propane (3 carbons) *butane (4 carbons) *pentane (5 carbons) *hexane (6 carbons) *heptane (7 carbons) *octane (8 carbons) *nonane (9 carbons) *decane (10 carbons) *undecane (11 carbons) *dodecane (12 carbons) The prefixes of the first three are the contribution of a German Chemist, August Wilhelm Hoffman, who also suggested the name quartane for 4 carbons in 1866. However, the but- prefix had already been in use since the 1820s and the name quartane never caught on. He also recommended the endings to use the vowels, a, e, i (or y), o, and u, or -ane, -ene, -ine or -yne, -one, and -une. Again, only the first three caught on for single, double, and triple bonds and -one was already in use for ketones. Pent, hex, hept, oct, and dec all come from the ancient Greek numbers (penta, hex, hepta, octa, deka) and oddly, non, from the Latin novem. For longer-chained alkanes we use the special IUPAC multiplying affixes. For example, pentadecane signifies an alkane with 5+10 = 15 carbon atoms. For chains of length 30, 40, 50, and so on the basic prefix is added to -contane. For example, C₅₇H₁₁₆ is named as heptapentacontane. When the chain contains 20-29 atoms we have an exception. C₂₀H₄₂ is known as icosane, and then we have, e.g. tetracosane (eliding the "i" when necessary). For the length 100 we have "hecta" but for 200, 300 ... 900 we have "dicta", "tricta", and so on, eliding the "i" on "icta" when necessary; for 1000 we have "kilia" but for 2000 and so on, "dilia", "trilia", and so on, eliding the "i" on "ilia" when necessary. We then put all of the prefixes together in reverse order. The alkane with 9236 carbon atoms is then hexatridinoniliane. == Isomerism == The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in many ways, leading to a large number of potential different configurations (isomers). So-called "normal" alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration, but the ''n-'' isomer of any given alkane is only one of potentially hundreds or even possibly millions of configurations for that number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in some sort of chain arrangement.<br>Isomerism is defined as the compound having same moleculer formula the formula which present the different moleculer formula arrangement are called as Isomerism.<br>e.g.- The molecular formula for butane is C₄H₁₀. The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms in a given alkane molecule; for alkanes with as few as 12 carbon atoms, there are over three hundred and fifty-five possible forms the molecule can take! :{| class="wikitable" |- ! # Carbon Atoms !! # Isomers of Alkane |- | 1 | 1 |- | 2 | 1 |- | 3 | 1 |- | 4 | 2 |- | 5 | 3 |- | 6 | 5 |- | 7 | 9 |- | 8 | 18 |- | 9 | 35 |- | 10 | 75 |- | 11 | 159 |- | 12 | 355 |} ==Branched chains== Carbon is able to bond in all four directions and easily forms strong bonds with other carbon atoms. When one carbon is bonded to more than two other carbons it forms a branch. {| |[[File:Isobutane-numbered-2D.png|200px|thumb|Isobutane]] || [[File:Neopentane-2D.svg|200px|thumb|Neopentane]] |} Above you see a carbon bonded to three and four other carbons. :Note: a methane group is called a '''methyl''' group when it is bonded to another carbon instead of a fourth hydrogen. &ndash;CH₃ The common system has naming convention for carbon chains as they relate to branching. :'''n-alkanes''' are linear :'''iso-alkanes''' have one branch R₂CH— :'''neo-alkanes''' have two branches R₃C— ''Note: "R" in organic chemistry is a placeholder that can represent any carbon group.'' ==Constitutional isomers== One of the most important characteristics of carbon is its ability to form '''several relatively strong bonds''' per atom. It is for this reason that many scientists believe that carbon is the only element that could be the basis for the many complicated molecules needed to support a living being. One carbon atom can have attached to it not just the one or two other carbons needed to form a single chain but can bond to up to four other carbons. It is this ability to bond multiply that allows isomerism. '''Isomers''' are two molecules with the same molecular formula but different physical arrangements. '''Constitutional isomers''' have their atoms arranged in a different order. A constitutional isomer of butane has a main chain that is forked at the end and one carbon shorter in its main chain than butane. {| | [[File:Butan_Lewis.svg|thumb|Butane]] || [[File:Isobutane 1.svg|100px|thumb|Isobutane (2-methyl-propane)]] |} == Naming Alkanes == There are several ways or systems for the '''nomenclature''', or naming, of organic molecules, but just two main ones. #The traditional, non-systematic names. Many of these linger on, especially for simpler or more common molecules. #The systematic '''[http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC IUPAC]''' (''eye-YOU-pack (International Union of Pure And Applied Chemistry)'') names. The IUPAC system is necessary for complicated organic compounds. It gives a series of unified rules for naming a large compound by conceptually dividing it up into smaller, more manageable nameable units. Many traditional (non-IUPAC) names are still commonly used in industry, especially for simpler and more common chemicals, as the traditional names were already entrenched. ==IUPAC naming rules== <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry|IUPAC naming]] </small></div> #Find the longest carbon chain, identify the end near which the most [[Wikipedia:substituent|substituents]] are located, and number the carbons sequentially from that end. This will be the parent chain. #Consider all other carbon groups as substituents. #Alphabetize the substituents. #Number the substituents according to the carbon to which they are attached. If numbering can be done in more than one way, use the numbering system that results in the smallest numbers. Substituents are named like a parent, and replacing the ''-ane'' ending with ''-yl''. ===Numbering=== [[Image:237trimethyloctanelines.png]] The above molecule is numbered as follows: [[Image:237trimethyloctane.png]] 2,3,7-Trimethyloctane [[Image:267trimethyloctane.png]] '''Not''' 2,6,7-Trimethyloctane. Remember, number so as to give the smallest numbers to the substituents. ===Alphabetizing=== [[Image:3ethyl3methylpentane.png]] 3-Ethyl-3-methylpentane ''Ethyl'' is listed before ''methyl'' for alphabetizing purposes. == Branched Substituents == ===Naming branched substituents=== [[Image:3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimet.png]] 3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimethylpentane The main chain in the drawing is numbered 1-5. The main part of the branched substituent, an ethyl group, is numbered 1' and 2'. The methyl substituent off of the ethyl substituent is not numbered in the drawing. To name the compound, put the whole branched substituent name in parentheses and then number and alphabetize as if a simple substituent. == Common system == Some prefixes from the common system are accepted in the IUPAC system. For alphabetization purposes, '''iso-''' and '''neo-''' are considered part of the name, and alphabetized. '''Sec-''' and '''tert-''' are not considered an alphabetizable part of the name. (In the following images, the '''R-''' represents any carbon structure.) === Iso- === '''Iso-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the second-to-last carbon and end with two methyls. An isobutyl has four carbons total: [[Image:Isobutyl.png]] ''Isobutyl'' === Sec- === [[Image:Sec-.png]] '''Sec-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the first carbon . === Neo- === '''Neo-''' refers to a substituent whose second-to-last carbon of the chain is trisubstituted (has three methyl groups attached to it). A neo-pentyl has five carbons total. [[Image:Neopentyl.png]] ''Neopentyl'' === Tert- === [[Image:Tert-.png]] '''Tert-''' is short for '''tertiary''' and refers to a substituent whose first carbon has three other carbon groups attached to it. =See also= #[[Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Cycloalkanes|Cycloalkanes]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 12, 2005}} ---- <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] || [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry|<< Foundational concepts]] | Alkanes | [[Organic Chemistry/Stereochemistry|Stereochemistry >>]] </noinclude> {{BookCat}} [[pl:Chemia_organiczna/Alkany]] odk3yfvl2y4dqgreitqafdx2g2rl93p 4654046 4654035 2026-07-11T18:23:03Z Heisenberg0420 3179662 /* Preparation of Alkanes */ Changed and decluttered the "Wurtz reaction" subsection, alongside adding links and adding a proper chemical equation with regards to the reaction. 4654046 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] </noinclude> '''<big>{{Smallcaps|Alkanes}}</big>''' (also known as '''saturated hydrocarbons''') are the simplest organic molecules, consisting solely of singly-bonded carbon and hydrogen atoms. Alkanes are used as the basis for naming the majority of organic compounds (their '''''nomenclature'''''). Alkanes have the general formula C_nH_2n+2. Although their reactivities are often rather uninteresting, they provide an excellent basis for understanding bonding, conformation, and other important concepts which can be generalized to more "useful" molecules. =Introduction= [[image:Dimethylpropane.png|thumb|2,2-dimethylpropane or neopentane.<br />An example of an alkane]] Alkanes are the simplest and the least reactive [[w:hydrocarbon|hydrocarbon]] species containing only carbons and hydrogens. They are commercially very important, for being the principal constituent of gasoline and lubricating oils and are extensively employed in organic chemistry; though the role of pure alkanes (such as hexanes) is delegated mostly to solvents. The distinguishing feature of an alkane, making it distinct from other compounds that also exclusively contain carbon and hydrogen, is its lack of [[w:unsaturation|unsaturation]]. That is to say, they contain no double or triple bonds, which are highly reactive in organic chemistry. Though not totally devoid of reactivity, their lack of reactivity under most laboratory conditions makes them a relatively uninteresting, though very important component of organic chemistry. As you will learn about later, the energy confined within the carbon-carbon bond and the carbon-hydrogen bond is quite high and their rapid oxidation produces a large amount of heat, typically in the form of fire. == Introductory definitions == '''Organic compounds''' contain '''carbon''' and '''hydrogen''' by definition and usually other elements (e.g. '''nitrogen''' and '''oxygen''') as well. (CO₂ is not an organic compound because it has no hydrogen). '''Hydrocarbons''' are organic compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen only. '''Alkanes''' are hydrocarbons or organic compounds made up of only carbon-carbon single bonds.Hence they are saturated. (as opposed to double and triple bonds). The simplest alkane is '''[[w:methane|methane]].''' ==Methane== Methane, (<chem>CH4</chem>, one carbon bonded to four hydrogen atoms) is the simplest organic molecule, and thus, by extension, the simplest alkane. It is a gas at [[w:Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure|standard temperature and pressure (STP)]]. === Structure of methane === The true three-dimensional form of methane does not have any 90° angles between bonded hydrogen atoms. The bonds point to the four corners of a [[w:Tetrahedron|tetrahedron]], forming <math>\arccos\left(-{1\over{3}}\right)\approx \underline{109.5}^\circ</math> angles. The formation of a [[wikipedia:Tetrahedral_molecular_geometry|tetrahedral arrangement]] is consistent with [[wikipedia:VSEPR_theory|VSEPR theory]], wherein all four electron pairs of each carbon-hydrogen bond are positioned so as to achieve maximal distance from each other. This prediction is also congruous with ''sp³'' hybridization, as illustrated by [[wikipedia:Valence_bond_theory|valence bond theory (VBT)]], which is further corroborated by the observation of the aforementioned bond angles.<gallery mode="packed" widths="240" heights="240" perrow="2" caption="Structure of ''methane'' (CH<sub&gt;4</sub&gt;), the simplest alkane, alongside its ball-and-stick model."> File:Methane-2D-dimensions.svg|Tetrahedral structure of methane with bond angle (109.5°) and bond length (108.70 pm) highlighted File:Tetrahedral-angle-3D-balls.png|Ball-and-stick model </gallery> ==Ethane== [[File:Ethane-2D-flat.png|thumb|183x183px|Flat 2D structure of ethane (<chem>C2H6</chem>).]] Two carbons singly bonded to each other with six hydrogens is called '''[[w:Ethane|ethane]]'''. Ethane is the second simplest hydrocarbon molecule. It can be thought of as two methane molecules attached to each other, but with two fewer hydrogen atoms. Note that, if we were simply to create a new bond between the carbon centers of two methane molecules, this would violate the octet rule for the involved atoms. =Drawing alkanes= There are several common methods to draw organic molecules. They are often used interchangeably, although some methods work better for one situation or another. It is important to be familiar with the common methods, as these are the "languages" organic chemists can use to discuss structure with one another. When writing out the alkane structures, you can use different levels of the shorthand depending on the needs at hand in hand. For example, pentane can be written out. Its formula is C₅H₁₂. [[File:Pentane.svg|331x331px]], or CH₃&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₂&ndash;CH₃, or CH₃(CH₂)₃CH₃, or minimized to [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] ==Line drawing shorthand== Although non-cyclic alkanes are called straight-chain alkanes they are technically made of linked chains. This is reflected in the line-drawing method. Each ending point and bend in the line represents one carbon atom and each short line represents one single carbon-carbon bond. Every carbon is assumed to be surrounded with a maximum number of hydrogen atoms unless shown otherwise. {| | [[File:Propane-2D-Skeletal.svg|60px]] [[File:Butane_simple.svg|85px]] [[File:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|100px]] |- | ''Propane, butane, pentane'' |} Structures drawn without explicitly showing all carbon atoms are often called "skeletal" structures, since they represent the skeleton or the backbone of the molecule. In organic chemistry, carbon is very frequently used, so chemists know that there is a carbon atom at the endpoints of every line that is not specifically labeled. =Conformations= '''Conformers''', also called '''conformational isomers''', or '''rotational isomers''',or''' rotomers''' are arrangements of the same molecule made transiently different by the rotation in space about one or more single bonds. Other types of isomer can only be converted from one form to another by ''breaking'' bonds, but conformational isomers can be made simply by ''rotating'' bonds. ==Newman projections== Newman projections are drawings used to represent different positions of parts of molecules relative to each other in space. Remember that single bonds can rotate in space if not impeded. Newman projections represent different positions of rotating molecule parts. {| |- | Conformers interconvert readily, normally thousands of times a second as parts of molecules spin. | [[Image:Spinningnewman.png]] |- | In the following drawings, methyl groups are on the front and back ends of the molecule and a circle represents all that lies between. | <div align=center>[[Image:Methylnewman.png]]<small> ''Note: This is how methyl groups are represented in Newman projections'' </small></div> |} {| CELLPADDING="4" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Staggerednewmanprojection.png]]</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Eclipsednewmanprojection.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Staggered conformation'''</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">'''Eclipsed conformation'''<br> (front end overlaps the back and also unstable)</div> |} ==Conformations and energy== Different conformations have different potential energies. The staggered conformation is at a lower potential energy than the eclipsed conformation, and is favored. In ethane, the barrier to rotation is approximately 25 kJ/mol, indicating that each pair of eclipsed hydrogens raises the energy by about 8 kJ/mol. This number also applies to other organic compounds which have hydrogen atoms at similar distances from each other. At very low temperatures all conformations revert to the stabler( due to minimized vibration of atoms at it's mean position) , lower energy staggered conformation. ==Steric effects== Steric effects have to do with size. Two bulky objects run into each other and invade each others space. If we replace one or more hydrogen atoms on the above Newman projections with a methyl or other group, the potential energy goes up especially for the eclipsed conformations. Lets look at a Newman projection of butane as it rotates counterclockwise around its axes. {| CELLPADDING="2" style="margin: auto;" |- | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection1.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection2.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection3.png]]</div> | [[Image:U+21C4.svg|50px]] | <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:Newmanprojection4.png]]</div> |- | <div style="text-align: center;">Anti</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> | || <div style="text-align: center;">Gauche</div> || || <div style="text-align: center;">Eclipsed</div> |} When the larger groups overlap they repel each other more strongly than do hydrogen, and the potential energy goes up. ==Entropy== Entropy, represented as a '''&Delta;S''', is a mathematical construct that represents disorder or probability. Natural systems want to find the lowest energy or organization possible, which translates to the highest entropy. ''A note about potential energy: If you are rusty on this, remember the analogy of a big rock pushed to the top of a hill. At the top it has a maximum of potential energy. When you push it and allow it to roll down the hill the potential energy stored in it is transformed into kinetic energy that can be used to generate heat or smash something. '' Notice that statistically, the ethane molecule has twice as many opportunities to be in the gauche conformation as in the anti conformation. However, because the Gauche configuration brings the methyl groups closer together in space, this generates high energy steric interactions and do not occur without the input of energy. Thus, the butane molecules shown will almost never be found in such unfavorable conformations. = Preparation of Alkanes = ===Wurtz reaction=== The Wurtz reaction is the coupling of two haloalkanes by treating them with sodium metal in an unreactive polar aprotic solvent e.g. dry ether, [[wikipedia:Dimethylformamide|dimethylformamide (DMF)]], or [[wikipedia:Tetrahydrofuran|tetrahydrofuran (THF)]]. <chem display="block">2R-X + 2Na -> R-R + 2Na^+X-</chem> =====Mechanism===== The reaction consists of a halogen-metal exchange involving the free radical species R• (in a similar fashion to the formation of a Grignard reagent and then the carbon-carbon bond formation in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.) One electron from the metal is transferred to the halogen to produce a metal halide and an alkyl radical. :R-X + M → R• + M⁺X⁻ The alkyl radical then accepts an electron from another metal atom to form an alkyl anion and the metal becomes cationic. This intermediate has been isolated in a several cases. :R• + M → R⁻M⁺ The nucleophilic carbon of the alkyl anion then displaces the halide in an S_N2 reaction, forming a new carbon-carbon covalent bond. :R⁻M⁺ + R-X → R-R + M⁺X⁻ ===== '''Corey-House reaction''' ===== :[Also called as 'coupling of alkyl halides with organo metallic compounds'] :It is a better method than wurtz reaction. An alkyl halides and a lithium dialkyl copper are reacted to give a higher hydrocarbon :R'-X + R₂CuLi---->R-R' + R-Cu + LiX :(R and R' may be same or different) :It ===Clemmensen reduction=== Clemmensen reduction is a reduction of ketones (or aldehydes) to alkanes using zinc amalgam and hydrochloric acid [[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|center|300px|The Clemmensen reduction]] The Clemmensen reduction is particularly effective at reducing aryl-alkyl ketones. With aliphatic or cyclic ketones, zinc metal reduction is much more effective The substrate must be stable in the strongly acidic conditions of the Clemmensen reduction. Acid sensitive substrates should be reacted in the Wolff-Kishner reduction, which utilizes strongly basic conditions; a further, milder method is the Mozingo reduction. As a result of Clemmensen Reduction, the carbon of the carbonyl group involved is converted from sp² hybridisation to sp³ hybridisation. The oxygen atom is lost in the form of one molecule of water. ===Wolff-Kishner reduction=== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner Summary V.1.svg|center|400px|The Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The Wolff–Kishner reduction is a chemical reaction that fully reduces a ketone (or aldehyde) to an alkane. Condensation of the carbonyl compound with hydrazine forms the hydrazone, and treatment with base induces the reduction of the carbon coupled with oxidation of the hydrazine to gaseous nitrogen, to yield the corresponding alkane. =====Mechanism===== [[Image:Wolff-Kishner-Huang Reduction.png|center|600px|The mechanism of Wolff-Kishner reduction]] The mechanism first involves the formation of the hydrazone in a mechanism that is probably analogous to the formation of an imine. Successive deprotonations eventually result in the evolution of nitrogen. The mechanism can be justified by the evolution of nitrogen as the thermodynamic driving force. This reaction is also used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. ===Mozingo Reduction=== A thioketal is first produced by reaction of the ketone with an appropriate thiol. The product is then hydrogenolyzed to the alkane, using Raney nickel [[Image:Mozingo reaction.svg|center|600px]] = Properties of Alkanes = <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:Alkane#Properties|Alkane properties]] </small></div> Alkanes are '''not very reactive''' when compared with other chemical species. This is because the backbone carbon atoms in alkanes have attained their octet of electrons through forming four covalent bonds (the maximum allowed number of bonds under the octet rule; which is why carbon's valence number is 4). These four bonds formed by carbon in alkanes are sigma bonds, which are more stable than other types of bond because of the greater overlap of carbon's atomic orbitals with neighboring atoms' atomic orbitals. To make alkanes react, the input of additional energy is needed; either through heat or radiation. Gasoline is a mixture of the alkanes and unlike many chemicals, can be stored for long periods and transported without problem. It is only when ignited that it has enough energy to continue reacting. This property makes it difficult for alkanes to be converted into other types of organic molecules. (There are only a few ways to do this). Alkanes are also '''less dense than water''', as one can observe, oil, an alkane, floats on water. Alkanes are '''non-polar solvents'''. Since only C and H atoms are present, alkanes are nonpolar. Alkanes are [[w:Miscible|immiscible]] in water but freely miscible in other non-polar solvents. Alkanes consisting of weak dipole dipole bonds can not break the strong hydrogen bond between water molecules hence it is not miscible in water. The same character is also shown by alkenes. Because alkanes contain only carbon and hydrogen, combustion produces compounds that contain only carbon, hydrogen, and/or oxygen. Like other hydrocarbons, combustion under most circumstances produces mainly carbon dioxide and water. However, alkanes require more heat to combust and do not release as much heat when they combust as other classes of hydrocarbons. Therefore, combustion of alkanes produces higher concentrations of organic compounds containing oxygen, such as aldehydes and ketones, when combusting at the same temperature as other hydrocarbons. The general formula for alkanes is C_NH_2N+2; the simplest possible alkane is therefore methane, CH₄. The next simplest is ethane, C₂H₆; the series continues indefinitely. Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ hybridization. Alkanes are also known as paraffins, or collectively as the paraffin series. These terms are also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Branched-chain alkanes are called isoparaffins. '''Methane''' through '''Butane''' are very flammable gases at standard temperature and pressure (STP). '''Pentane''' is an extremely flammable liquid boiling at 36 °C and boiling points and melting points steadily increase from there; octadecane is the first alkane which is solid at room temperature. Longer alkanes are waxy solids; candle wax generally has between C₂₀ and C₂₅ chains. As chain length increases ultimately we reach polyethylene, which consists of carbon chains of indefinite length, which is generally a hard white solid. == Chemical properties == Alkanes react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The pKa values of all alkanes are above 50, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term paraffins (Latin para + affinis, with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In crude oil the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years. However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke; with halogens, substitution. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes. Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers. In highly branched alkanes and cycloalkanes, the bond angles may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as steric hinderance, and can substantially increase the reactivity. The same is preferred for alkenes too. =Introduction to Nomenclature= Before we can understand reactions in organic chemistry, we must begin with a basic knowledge of naming the compounds. The [[w:IUPAC|IUPAC]] [[wikt:nomenclature|nomenclature]] is a system on which most organic chemists have agreed to provide guidelines to allow them to learn from each others' works. Nomenclature, in other words, provides a foundation of language for organic chemistry. The names of all alkanes end with ''-ane''. Whether or not the carbons are linked together end-to-end in a ring (called ''cyclic alkanes'' or ''cycloalkanes'') or whether they contain side chains and branches, the name of every carbon-hydrogen chain that lacks any double bonds or functional groups will end with the suffix ''-ane''. Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains are simply named by the number of carbons in the chain. The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: # CH₄ = '''methane''' = one hydrogen-saturated carbon # C₂H₆ = '''ethane''' = two hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₃H₈ = '''propane''' = three hydrogen-saturated carbons # C₄H₁₀ = '''butane''' = four hydrogen-saturated carbons Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the suffix ''-ane'' to the appropriate numerical multiplier, except the terminal ''-a'' is removed from the basic numerical term. Hence, C₅H₁₂ is called ''pentane'', C₆H₁₄ is called ''hexane'', C₇H₁₆ is called ''heptane'' and so forth. Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for normal) to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. ''n-hexane'' is a neurotoxin while its branched-chain isomers are not. ==Number of hydrogens to carbons== This equation describes the relationship between the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms in alkanes: :'''H = 2C + 2''' where "C" and "H" are used to represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C = 2, then H = 6. Many textbooks put this in the following format: :'''C_nH_2n+2''' where "C_n" and "H_2n+2" represent the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms present in one molecule. If C_n = 3, then H_2n+2 = 2(3) + 2 = 8. (For this formula look to the "n" for the number, the "C" and the "H" letters themselves do not change.) Progressively longer hydrocarbon chains can be made and are named systematically, depending on the number of carbons in the longest chain. ==Naming carbon chains up to twelve== *methane (1 carbon) *ethane (2 carbons) *propane (3 carbons) *butane (4 carbons) *pentane (5 carbons) *hexane (6 carbons) *heptane (7 carbons) *octane (8 carbons) *nonane (9 carbons) *decane (10 carbons) *undecane (11 carbons) *dodecane (12 carbons) The prefixes of the first three are the contribution of a German Chemist, August Wilhelm Hoffman, who also suggested the name quartane for 4 carbons in 1866. However, the but- prefix had already been in use since the 1820s and the name quartane never caught on. He also recommended the endings to use the vowels, a, e, i (or y), o, and u, or -ane, -ene, -ine or -yne, -one, and -une. Again, only the first three caught on for single, double, and triple bonds and -one was already in use for ketones. Pent, hex, hept, oct, and dec all come from the ancient Greek numbers (penta, hex, hepta, octa, deka) and oddly, non, from the Latin novem. For longer-chained alkanes we use the special IUPAC multiplying affixes. For example, pentadecane signifies an alkane with 5+10 = 15 carbon atoms. For chains of length 30, 40, 50, and so on the basic prefix is added to -contane. For example, C₅₇H₁₁₆ is named as heptapentacontane. When the chain contains 20-29 atoms we have an exception. C₂₀H₄₂ is known as icosane, and then we have, e.g. tetracosane (eliding the "i" when necessary). For the length 100 we have "hecta" but for 200, 300 ... 900 we have "dicta", "tricta", and so on, eliding the "i" on "icta" when necessary; for 1000 we have "kilia" but for 2000 and so on, "dilia", "trilia", and so on, eliding the "i" on "ilia" when necessary. We then put all of the prefixes together in reverse order. The alkane with 9236 carbon atoms is then hexatridinoniliane. == Isomerism == The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in many ways, leading to a large number of potential different configurations (isomers). So-called "normal" alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration, but the ''n-'' isomer of any given alkane is only one of potentially hundreds or even possibly millions of configurations for that number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in some sort of chain arrangement.<br>Isomerism is defined as the compound having same moleculer formula the formula which present the different moleculer formula arrangement are called as Isomerism.<br>e.g.- The molecular formula for butane is C₄H₁₀. The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms in a given alkane molecule; for alkanes with as few as 12 carbon atoms, there are over three hundred and fifty-five possible forms the molecule can take! :{| class="wikitable" |- ! # Carbon Atoms !! # Isomers of Alkane |- | 1 | 1 |- | 2 | 1 |- | 3 | 1 |- | 4 | 2 |- | 5 | 3 |- | 6 | 5 |- | 7 | 9 |- | 8 | 18 |- | 9 | 35 |- | 10 | 75 |- | 11 | 159 |- | 12 | 355 |} ==Branched chains== Carbon is able to bond in all four directions and easily forms strong bonds with other carbon atoms. When one carbon is bonded to more than two other carbons it forms a branch. {| |[[File:Isobutane-numbered-2D.png|200px|thumb|Isobutane]] || [[File:Neopentane-2D.svg|200px|thumb|Neopentane]] |} Above you see a carbon bonded to three and four other carbons. :Note: a methane group is called a '''methyl''' group when it is bonded to another carbon instead of a fourth hydrogen. &ndash;CH₃ The common system has naming convention for carbon chains as they relate to branching. :'''n-alkanes''' are linear :'''iso-alkanes''' have one branch R₂CH— :'''neo-alkanes''' have two branches R₃C— ''Note: "R" in organic chemistry is a placeholder that can represent any carbon group.'' ==Constitutional isomers== One of the most important characteristics of carbon is its ability to form '''several relatively strong bonds''' per atom. It is for this reason that many scientists believe that carbon is the only element that could be the basis for the many complicated molecules needed to support a living being. One carbon atom can have attached to it not just the one or two other carbons needed to form a single chain but can bond to up to four other carbons. It is this ability to bond multiply that allows isomerism. '''Isomers''' are two molecules with the same molecular formula but different physical arrangements. '''Constitutional isomers''' have their atoms arranged in a different order. A constitutional isomer of butane has a main chain that is forked at the end and one carbon shorter in its main chain than butane. {| | [[File:Butan_Lewis.svg|thumb|Butane]] || [[File:Isobutane 1.svg|100px|thumb|Isobutane (2-methyl-propane)]] |} == Naming Alkanes == There are several ways or systems for the '''nomenclature''', or naming, of organic molecules, but just two main ones. #The traditional, non-systematic names. Many of these linger on, especially for simpler or more common molecules. #The systematic '''[http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC IUPAC]''' (''eye-YOU-pack (International Union of Pure And Applied Chemistry)'') names. The IUPAC system is necessary for complicated organic compounds. It gives a series of unified rules for naming a large compound by conceptually dividing it up into smaller, more manageable nameable units. Many traditional (non-IUPAC) names are still commonly used in industry, especially for simpler and more common chemicals, as the traditional names were already entrenched. ==IUPAC naming rules== <div class="noprint" style="border:1px solid gold; background:cornsilk; padding: 4px; text-align: center; float: right;"><small> ''On WP:'' <br> [[w:IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry|IUPAC naming]] </small></div> #Find the longest carbon chain, identify the end near which the most [[Wikipedia:substituent|substituents]] are located, and number the carbons sequentially from that end. This will be the parent chain. #Consider all other carbon groups as substituents. #Alphabetize the substituents. #Number the substituents according to the carbon to which they are attached. If numbering can be done in more than one way, use the numbering system that results in the smallest numbers. Substituents are named like a parent, and replacing the ''-ane'' ending with ''-yl''. ===Numbering=== [[Image:237trimethyloctanelines.png]] The above molecule is numbered as follows: [[Image:237trimethyloctane.png]] 2,3,7-Trimethyloctane [[Image:267trimethyloctane.png]] '''Not''' 2,6,7-Trimethyloctane. Remember, number so as to give the smallest numbers to the substituents. ===Alphabetizing=== [[Image:3ethyl3methylpentane.png]] 3-Ethyl-3-methylpentane ''Ethyl'' is listed before ''methyl'' for alphabetizing purposes. == Branched Substituents == ===Naming branched substituents=== [[Image:3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimet.png]] 3-(1-methylethyl)-2,4-dimethylpentane The main chain in the drawing is numbered 1-5. The main part of the branched substituent, an ethyl group, is numbered 1' and 2'. The methyl substituent off of the ethyl substituent is not numbered in the drawing. To name the compound, put the whole branched substituent name in parentheses and then number and alphabetize as if a simple substituent. == Common system == Some prefixes from the common system are accepted in the IUPAC system. For alphabetization purposes, '''iso-''' and '''neo-''' are considered part of the name, and alphabetized. '''Sec-''' and '''tert-''' are not considered an alphabetizable part of the name. (In the following images, the '''R-''' represents any carbon structure.) === Iso- === '''Iso-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the second-to-last carbon and end with two methyls. An isobutyl has four carbons total: [[Image:Isobutyl.png]] ''Isobutyl'' === Sec- === [[Image:Sec-.png]] '''Sec-''' can be used for substituents that branch at the first carbon . === Neo- === '''Neo-''' refers to a substituent whose second-to-last carbon of the chain is trisubstituted (has three methyl groups attached to it). A neo-pentyl has five carbons total. [[Image:Neopentyl.png]] ''Neopentyl'' === Tert- === [[Image:Tert-.png]] '''Tert-''' is short for '''tertiary''' and refers to a substituent whose first carbon has three other carbon groups attached to it. =See also= #[[Organic Chemistry/Alkanes/Cycloalkanes|Cycloalkanes]] {{stage short|100%|Jan 12, 2005}} ---- <noinclude> [[Image:Go To Organic Chemistry Contents .png]] || [[Organic Chemistry/Foundational concepts of organic chemistry|<< Foundational concepts]] | Alkanes | [[Organic Chemistry/Stereochemistry|Stereochemistry >>]] </noinclude> {{BookCat}} [[pl:Chemia_organiczna/Alkany]] ca3m77laf9llnwxp6sv2rrg3iase6st 4 385 4654152 4653714 2026-07-11T23:47:35Z Kingofnuthin 3566511 /* History Books */ Reply 4654152 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Deleted page]] == {{closed|'''Deleted''' per consensus & reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 11:49, 10 July 2026 (UTC)}} Per [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals#Retiring Template:Deleted page]], this is because the template is unnecessary given that creation protection (salting) is used instead. I am also proposing the deletion of the following categories used by this template: * [[:Category:Protected deleted categories]] * [[:Category:Protected deleted pages]] Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:36, 29 January 2026 (UTC) :This seems premature - [[:Category:Protected deleted pages]] is still in use for pages with generic names. Is there a plan to transition those pages to create protection; if so, can that be implemented before deleting the templates/categories? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:28, 30 January 2026 (UTC) ::JJPMaster proposed that the pages listed in that category should be moved to the [[MediaWiki:Titleblacklist|title blacklist]], and that {{tlx|naming policy notice}} shall be fully protected and used as an interface (title blacklist) message. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:18, 30 January 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]]: Have you seen this reply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 15:28, 11 February 2026 (UTC) ::::I have, but I'm not sure I follow. These templates, and the categories which they populate, are currently in use. Once that's no longer the case, I have no objection to deleting them - but they need to be delinked first. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:20, 12 February 2026 (UTC) :::::I deleted the categories mentioned above, moved all the generic titles to the title blacklist, and for those pages that used {{tlx|Deleted page}}, I deleted then applied creation protection. An uninvolved admin can delete {{tlx|Deleted page}} and then close this request. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:39, 30 March 2026 (UTC) : Would an uninvolved admin delete the template and close this request? Pinging @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Wireless Weekly/Issues/1928 03 23]] == {{closed|No consensus to delete —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:08, 10 July 2026 (UTC)}} Transcribed from a magazine copy that cannot be traced via the URL provided. Generally archival of primary source works is undertaken on Wikisource (not Wikibooks), backed by a suitable page scan. This isn't at present. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:32, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :This doesn't need an RfD since it is obviously out of scope. You can instead put a CSD tag on the page. Additionally, it seems that the entire /Publications section contains only source works here, so it might require a mass deletion. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 17:32, 27 April 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] looping you in here so you're aware. I don't think any pages like this (i.e. source text) can be kept here, since we are explicitly and unambiguously not a text repository per [[WB:SOURCE]]. I am inclined to speedily delete for that reason, but I want to hear from the primary editor. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:40, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks for looping me in. :::This is not simply a transcription of the magazine. :::It includes new formatting to make the content better reachable. :::It includes commentary to place the transcribed material in context. :::It permits related material to be placed in chronological order. :::The version here is not complete (as per banner included), hence the URL link not working (National Library of Australia's Trove has been updated). :::There is no point in placing this material on Wikisource as the Trove website is functionally similar and now provides for text correction (a fairly recent development). :::I have not be editing Wikibooks for the last six month's following a personal matter but now slowly returning to the task. :::[[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] ([[User talk:Samuel.dellit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel.dellit|contribs]]) 19:08, 27 April 2026 (UTC) ::::I'm still not sure whether this makes it in-scope at Wikibooks and suitable for the book-like scope of this work, so I'm looping in other admins to weigh in on scope and consensus @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. For material that is planned but not yet enacted after a significant period, I'm wondering if user space is more suitable than main space. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:48, 3 May 2026 (UTC) :::::This is just one page of a book, right? It's not like the entire wikibook is a transcription. I'm inclined to keep it unless there is something I am missing. "For material that is planned but not yet enacted after a significant period" - that's a draft and can generally stay in article space. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 05:09, 4 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::My thoughts are similar to Leaderboard's. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 05:47, 4 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] Thank you, and good to know. Unless I am misunderstanding, the plan is actually to host many source texts in this book's namespace (see other subpages in [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications]]) and not limited to this one page. Additionally, do we have anything in policy regarding how long drafts can stay in mainspace? I couldn't find anything, and it strikes me as unconstructive to the project if pages with significant issues (e.g. scope, quality, etc) are left in the mainspace for months to years. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] Thank you for your considered responses, the following is provided as background summary. :::::::(1) I should mention that all of these pages were speedily deleted six months ago on the basis of breach of copyright, despite the fact that they are in the public domain (yes I was remiss in not making this clear in the relevant discussion pages, and yes I was aware of the need for copyright explanation, but was overly focussed on content creation). I was hit by about 20 simultaneous speedily delete notifications, responded to 2 or 3 thinking that would be sufficient, but later found they had all been deleted (I was not active on Wikibooks at the time). My intention is to provide clear public domain information for each page in the coming months, but I am only one person and need time to give effect. Copyright worldwide is quite complex. :::::::(2) I was hit by this RfD about 2 weeks ago, nominally a single subpage, but with the threat of dozens of subpages being similarly treated. This time the basis of the RfD was breach of the "Not a text repository" policy, of which I was not previously aware. I see in the policy that there is a clear exception for annotated texts and I will further develop content in support of that exception (you will see that is my general practice in any event). There are literally hundreds of articles in this Wikibook already heavily annotated, simply on the basis of good authorship e.g. :::::::https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_wireless_telegraphy_and_broadcasting_in_Australia/Topical/Biographies/Clement_Edgar_Ames/Notes :::::::https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_wireless_telegraphy_and_broadcasting_in_Australia/Topical/Stations/7BU_Burnie/Notes :::::::But, again, I am only one person and need time to give effect. [[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] ([[User talk:Samuel.dellit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel.dellit|contribs]]) 19:59, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] As far as I can see, isn't the goal to annotate most of those pages? And there is no set limit for a draft. The main reason we'd delete a draft is if the book ''itself'' has nothing of value, which is not the case here. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 04:49, 5 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::Got it, thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:06, 6 May 2026 (UTC) : As an admin who was involved in deleting this (and related subpages) and ''only'' undeleting it later per the author's request, I therefore '''recuse''' (will not do) on taking any administrative actions for this request. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:33, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - including other similar pages - per nom. Transcriptions of previously published works, like these magazines, belong on Wikisource. I don't see any evidence of substantial commentary in any of the pages I've looked at. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 17:47, 28 April 2026 (UTC) ::Additionally, I'd note that creating content like [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Editing/Fair dealing]] or [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Editing/Not a text repository]] is not helpful. This sort of argumentative content clearly does not belong in a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:14, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - including other similar pages - annotated texts WB:AT are a clear exception to Wikibooks "Not a text repository" policy; these are subpages of a very large body of work (I understand the largest Wikibook in Wikibooks) and integral to its overall development; yes, the pages are a work in progress and the annotations are as yet limited, but I will now prioritise their development[[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] ([[User talk:Samuel.dellit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel.dellit|contribs]]) 19:28, 3 May 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}}. Annotated texts are an exception and while there can be a debate about how much annotation is enough, at the moment I think we should accept the primary editor's position in respect of their intent. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 13:58, 5 May 2026 (UTC) : {{keep}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:07, 19 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] Please consider closing this RFD discussion. This was running for more than one month (I believe) and as I can tell there is probably no consensus to delete. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:30, 10 July 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[History Books]] == Minimal existing content is editorialized, book scope unclear, no sourcing —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:47, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :{{comment}} - there is one unlinked subpage of this book, [[History Books/Who Was Alexander the Great/Introduction]]. I'm not impressed by the content (it's basically historical fiction written for a young child), but it's not hopeless. I'd encourage the author to create an account to allow us to communicate with them. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:34, 28 April 2026 (UTC) ::If it is really aimed at children, shouldn't it be moved to the Wikijunior: namespace? [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 18:55, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Kingofnuthin|Kingofnuthin]] and @[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]]: I am unsure whethere there is consensus to either keep or move–I am not seeing any bolded votes, and there is not much participation here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:34, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::{{del}}, I don't think this book fits the scope of Wikibooks. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">KingOfNuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 23:47, 11 July 2026 (UTC) == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Guide to Tor hidden services and elements of the Tor network]] == This book was created in 2014 with some odd history, but never really progressed beyond a preface and [[Guide to Tor hidden services and elements of the Tor network/Chapter 3: Darknet markets in theory and practice|a single subpage]]. As a result of [https://blog.torproject.org/v2-deprecation-timeline/ changes to the Tor network] made in 2020-2021, all of the .onion links in this book are dead; there's nothing usable left here. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 08:54, 4 July 2026 (UTC) == [[Earthinators]] == While no content has been added yet, the introduction and table of contents of this book suggest that it's intended to act as a position statement or manifesto for the group, not an educational text. This content would probably be more appropriate on the group's own wiki, not on Wikibooks. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 23:23, 10 July 2026 (UTC) szqu3mjocdl16q6h4i1dqmxi4exdsxz 4654164 4654152 2026-07-12T01:32:43Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* History Books */ Deleted. 4654164 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ [[Category:Wikibooks deletion|{{PAGENAME}}]] {{Discussion Rooms}} {{TOCleft}} {{shortcut|WB:RFD}} {{Requests for deletion/New deletion}} {{Requests for deletion/Deletion intro}} <!-- New deletion nominations go at the bottom of page. --> == [[Salute, Jonathan!]] and its translations == <div style="column-count: 7;"> * [[Salute, Jonathan!|Interlingue/Occidental]] ([[w:en:Occidental|w]], original) * [[Òla, Ionatà!|Audià]] * [[Holo, Jonathan!|Cristianés]] * [[Terve, Jonathan!|Ekumenski]] * [[Hej, Jonathan! (Germanisch)|Germanisch]] * [[Salom, Jonatan!|Globasa]] * [[Àlŏ, Jonathan!|Guosa]] ([[w:en:Guosa|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan!|Idiom Neutral]] ([[w:en:Idiom Neutral|w]]) * [[Saluto, Jonathan! (Ido)|Ido]] ([[w:en:Ido|w]]) * [[Hallo, Jonathan!|Interlingua]] ([[w:en:Interlingua|w]]) * [[Salut, Jonathan! (Interocidental)|Interocidental]] * [[Bune Ğonatan!|Lingaust]] * [[Oila, Jonatan!|Lingue Simple]] * [[Haloo, Jonatan!|Lingwa de Planeta]] ([[w:en:Lingwa de Planeta|w]]) * [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!|Masa Tang]] * [[Salut, ionatano!|Meteza]] * [[Salu, Jon!|Mini]] * [[Hay, Jonathan!|Mirad]] * [[Hai, Jon!|Monav]] * [[Sesan Jon!|Monkel]] * [[Salam, Jonathan!|Mundeze]] * [[Dag, Jonathan!|Negerhollands]] ([[w:en:Negerhollands|w]]) * [[Salut Jonathan!|Neo]] ([[w:en:Neo|w]]) * [[Hej, Jonathan!|Nordien]] * [[Saluto, Jonathan!|Novial]] ([[w:en:Novial|w]]) * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Novlingue)|Novlingue]] * [[Alo, Jonathan!|Numo]] * [[Hela, Jonathan!|Proyo]] * [[Salute, Jonathan! (Romanica)|Romanica]] ([[w:en:Romanica|w]]) * [[Simi, Jonathan!|Solresol]] ([[w:en:Solresol|w]]) * [[Toki a, jan Jonatan!|Toki Pona]] ([[w:en:Toki Pona|w]]) * [[Glidis, o Jonathan!|Volapük]] ([[w:en:Volapük|w]]) </div> There are a couple of issues here: # Beyond their introductions, all of these books are written in languages which are not English, making them out of scope for the English Wikibooks. # All but one of these books are in fact written in constructed languages, most of them in recently created conlangs. In some cases (e.g. [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]), I can't find any reliable sources describing the target language outside of the translation itself. # Most of the translations (i.e. other than [[Salute, Jonathan!]] itself) were abandoned within the first five or so chapters (out of 100); none of them are complete, and there seems to be little effort to complete any of them. While I recognize that this is an unusual project, and potentially one which could have some value, it's not at all clear to me that the English Wikibooks is the right place for it. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:24, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : I'm really not sure what to do about these ones. While I recognize that this approach is certainly one method of teaching a language, I'm not sure that it constitutes an educational textbook. We do require that the English Wikibooks be written in English—for language-learning books, this typically means that the instructional parts are in English while the exercises are in the language being taught. I do think that if the language doesn't have much supporting evidence outside the book itself, it can safely be deleted. — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:01, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Author of the book here. I originally wanted to put it in the Interlingue Wikibooks https://ie.wikibooks.org/wiki/Principal_p%C3%A1gine but it somehow got locked when I wasn't paying attention and so I ended up putting it here. Getting it unlocked requires going through the process of starting an Incubator and all the rest so I opted for here and then started putting some English-only content once it was done. It's sort of in the same vein as books like Lingua Latina per se Illustrata that have separate versions with teacher notes and whatnot. [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] After it was done the auxlang community really took to it which was a nice surprise. I think Ido has the largest number of chapters at the moment at 15. :If the vast content of this book could be used to justify a quick reopening of the Interlingue Wikibooks to move it there, I'd love to do that. I imagine that an incubator with 100+ book chapters would be enough to open a Wikibooks and that's what this is. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:02, 29 September 2024 (UTC) : Ah, I just realized that we do have a proposal to reopen the Interlingue Wikibooks: https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Requests_for_new_languages/Wikibooks_Interlingue along with an Incubator page here. https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wb/ie/Principal_p%C3%A1gine : How easy would it be to migrate the entirety of Salute Jonathan to there? — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 06:30, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :: Hi @[[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]]! I'm not sure how incubator projects work, but I fully support migrating these books there. You may want to inquire over there and link to this discussion to support your request to move the content over there. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 13:16, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::: Hi! Actually I have a third idea to propose after thinking about this again today (haven't been here much since I finished the book): I noticed that there is more English content than I remember and that might make it an awkward fit for the Interlingue Wikibooks. I definitely agree that having all the auxlang translations for new auxlang projects goes well beyond the scope of this Wikibooks. Finally, there are some auxlangs that are notable with their own Wikipedias. ::: So the idea is the following: :::# Leave the original here and I can continue the work on the version with English notes and grammar. That will make it the same as Lingua Latina per se Illustrata, English by the Nature Method, Athenaze and all the rest. :::# The Interlingua one can move to the Interlingua Wikibooks (maybe Romanica too if they want as it is sort of a dialect of Interlingua). :::# For Ido and Lingua Franca Nova which have a Wikipedia but not a Wikibooks, I'm a little bit unsure...technically they could have their own version like the original one but would require English explanations. I could let them know and see if they are willing to do so and see what they think (work on adding English to the books vs. move the content elsewhere). :::# The rest can move to a Github repo, then be deleted, and the front page of this book can have a single link to the repo. ::: Any thoughts on that? Adding the extra English content will be easy as it is my book and I know it inside and out. ::: Edit: [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Salute,_Jonathan!/Grammar_(pronouns) this page] I just added. — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 13:50, 29 September 2024 (UTC) :::: Thanks for taking the time to consider this! Here are my responses/questions: ::::* Is the original [[Salute, Jonathan!]] (Occidental)? Since that one is quite fleshed out, I agree that if you edit it so the primary language of the book (e.g. headers, instructions, etc) are written in English while leaving the actual story in Occidental, it would be okay and fit in more with instructional language textbooks. ::::* For your points 2 and 3, I'm not sure how those other projects work, so I'll leave it up to them. I'm not quite sure why they would need to move, since in theory they could be revised with English as the language of instruction? Although, they have been left incomplete for a long time. ::::* For your point 4, I have no problem with that. Cheers! — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:51, 29 September 2024 (UTC) ::::: Hello again, it's the weekend so I have a bit more time to work on this. I've decided to merge the extra content from the following five chapters since the difference is fairly small and the original chapters should now have this English content. Could you delete these five pages now that they are no longer needed? [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 1 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 2 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 3 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 4 - with notes]] ::::: [[Salute, Jonathan!/Capitul 5 - with notes]] [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:02, 5 October 2024 (UTC) :::::: [[File:Yes_check.svg|{{#ifeq:|small|8|15}}px|link=|alt=]] {{#ifeq:|small|<small>|}}'''Done'''{{#ifeq:|small|</small>|}} — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:34, 5 October 2024 (UTC) ::::::: Hi again! No luck trying to find a home for the random language translations on other auxlang wikis, can't find one that is actively maintained. ::::::: The thought struck me that maybe I could just put those ones on a sub page of my user page, would that be permitted? If not, I think I'll just stick them somewhere in GitHub and call it a day since none of the people who started the translations seem to care enough to do anything about them. I'd rather not see them outright disappear but since they aren't mine I don't care enough about them to do much more work than copy and paste them somewhere. ::::::: (I would leave the ones in languages with an ISO-639 code and Wikipedia here, of course) — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 14:13, 9 November 2024 (UTC) :::::::: Thank you for checking! I don't personally see an issue with moving them to your user space right now. Cheers — [[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:21, 9 November 2024 (UTC) ::::::::: Thanks a lot! I've started a single page where I will put them all here [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] and will proceed slowly due to lack of time and also to avoid stepping on any toes / asking you to delete too much at a time and possibly deleting the wrong content. ::::::::: For this week I have put the content for the languages Audia, Cristianès, Guosa, Lingaust, Mini, Mirad, and Monav on that page as they all have a single page of content and didn't take much time to move. Please delete those. Once they are gone I will add a note on the main page letting people know where they have gone (in addition to a thank you for their interest in the book! I do love how many people have recognized it as a good source material for teaching a language). — [[User:Mithridates|Mithridates]] ([[User talk:Mithridates|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mithridates|contribs]]) 04:09, 10 November 2024 (UTC) : {{keep}} the translations for languages that have an article on the English Wikipedia, i.e. Guosa, Idiom Neutral, Ido, Interlingua, Lingwa de Planeta, Negerhollands, Neo, Novial, Occidental, Romanica, Solresol, Toki Pona, and Volapük. : Translations for languages that don't have an article can be kept if they have reliable sources, which I was able to find for the following languages (if you think they are not reliable, please let me know): :* Globasa: [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-globasa/en/globasa/] [https://greyson.conlang.org/2020/01/29/shouting-out-globasa-and-pandunia/] :* Mini: [https://jprogr.github.io/mini] [https://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/mini.htm] [https://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-mini/en/mini/] : {{del}} and move to [[User:Mithridates/SJ]] the rest of the translations, i.e. Audià/Audian, Cristianés, Ekumenski, Germanisch, Interocidental, Lingaust, Lingue Simple, Masa Tang, Mirad, Monav, Monkel, Mundeze, Nordien, Novlingue, Numo, Proyo, and Scuian/Meteza. If you can find reliable sources for those languages, please let me know. : In particular, I could not find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav after searching through 15 and 17 pages on Google, respectively. It doesn't help that [[Òla, Ionatà!|their]] [[Hai, Jon!|translations]] don't explain what those languages are and where to find resources for them. This makes contributing to those translations almost impossible until @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] can provide resources to us. It's possible that the resources may have disappared from the Internet, or that those languages were created by Caro de Segeda him/herself. If you can find resources for Audià/Audian and Monav, please let me know. : I'm notifying the primary contributors of the translations: @[[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]], @[[User:Frzzl|Frzzl]], @[[User:Greatscotteh|Greatscotteh]], @[[User:IHateNumbers234|IHateNumbers234]], @[[User:Jayeless2|Jayeless2]], @[[User:Morozof|Morozof]], @[[User:Omnihom|Omnihom]], @[[User:Omoutuazn|Omoutuazn]], @[[User:PovriNaivon|PovriNaivon]], @[[User:Sir Beluga|Sir Beluga]] and @[[User:Tyoyafud|Tyoyafud]]. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 09:52, 30 June 2025 (UTC) :: Caro de Segeda said on [https://www.reddit.com/r/conlangs/comments/1lcnz9g/comment/n0sc3wx/ Reddit] that Monav was created by him/her and that he/she didn't publish any resources about it other than [[Hai, Jon!]]. With '''zero''' other resources to rely on for contributing to the translation, and the fact that Monav is in [[User:Mithridates/SJ]], [[Hai, Jon!]] should be speedy deleted. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 01:38, 3 July 2025 (UTC) ::: I've undone the speedy deletion as Caro de Segeda posted a [https://prexins.wordpress.com/2025/07/04/monav/ resource] for Monav. — [[User:EJPPhilippines|EJPPhilippines]] ([[User talk:EJPPhilippines|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EJPPhilippines|contribs]]) 07:18, 4 July 2025 (UTC) :::: You can delete all the ones that I have created myself, I have already moved them to other places. — [[User:Caro de Segeda|Caro de Segeda]] ([[User talk:Caro de Segeda|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Caro de Segeda|contribs]]) 12:39, 5 July 2025 (UTC) {{outdent|::::}}I don't know if this is helpful since it wouldn't apply to most of these, but [[s:mul:]] could hold some of these. — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 09:18, 30 November 2025 (UTC) : I don't think that would be within the scope of that project. I'm not aware of any other situation where Wikisource publishes translations of texts created on Wikimedia projects - that's usually left up to other language editions of the same project. — [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 05:34, 1 December 2025 (UTC) :: In this situation there isn't a separate [[s:ie:]] distinct from Multilingual Wikisource (see [[meta:Wikisource#List of Wikisources]]). In fact, there are very few multilingual wikis in the Wikimedia sphere; while this project ''could'' move to a Miraheze-hosted or similar wiki farm location, I think it would be a missed opportunity. I suppose an [[Interlingue]] book could be started in [[shelf:Constructed languages]] which would have all 100 chapters as an appendix (and likewise for the other languages), but that also seems non-ideal since it requires an English-language text that doesn't currently exist to be created. [[WB:AT]] seems to describe a similar situation to this one and prescribe Wikisource as the solution, and [[WB:SOURCE]] mentions fiction as out-of-scope for Wikibooks (even as in this case, language-educational fiction). [[s:mul:Wikisource:about Wikisource]] simply speaks of source texts and doesn't mention publication requirements, so maybe that is specific to some of the monolingual editions? — [[User:Arlo Barnes|Arlo Barnes]] ([[User talk:Arlo Barnes|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arlo Barnes|contribs]]) 22:28, 5 December 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} 100% keep. These books are a core part of language textbooks on Wikibooks and have been for years. Not sure why this is even being debated.--[[User:Xania|Xania]] [[Image:Flag_of_Estonia.svg|15px]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ukraine.svg|15px]] [[User talk:Xania|^talk]] 17:55, 16 May 2026 (UTC) ::With all due respect, some of the books included in this nomination (like [[Sin Chao, Jonathan!]]) are written in constructed languages which are not substantially attested anywhere else. I struggle to imagine any educational purpose for such a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:12, 17 May 2026 (UTC) == [[International Baccalaureate]] == Not actually a book in and of itself; rather, it is just a compilation of links to other books —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:24, 18 October 2024 (UTC) : Could this be salvaged as a shelf? [[User:Pppery|Pppery]] ([[User talk:Pppery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pppery|contribs]]) 05:23, 27 January 2025 (UTC) ::Probably, but are the linked books even useful? IB exams change from year to year - sometimes quite dramatically - so an old exam guide is of very limited value. Many of these books were written 10-15 years ago, and some of them (like [[IB French]]) even have comments indicating that they're no longer applicable. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:18, 8 December 2025 (UTC) == [[Character List for Baxter&Sagart]] == Seems completely out of scope as an educational book; it's just a list of characters and outlinks —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:53, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :Adding [[Character List for Karlgren's GSR]] and [[Character List for Schuessler's CGSR]] for the same reason —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:55, 18 October 2024 (UTC) :These three books do make a package and I agree they should be considered together. However, I strongly object to deleting them. They are really extremely useful resources. I use them every week and I know that many people who do work on Old Chinese phonology do so. There are lots of books out there that are lists of characters, these are called dictionaries. For example Axel Schuessler's ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese, or Pulleyblank's Lexicon of Reconstructed Pronunciation in Early Middle Chinese, Late Middle Chinese, and Early Mandarin. I see it as entirely a good thing for reference works of this kind to be available free online rather than only in expensive books in university research libraries. If this is in violation of a Wikibooks policy, I would at least like that policy to be drawn to my attention and to have some constructive comment offered about which Wikiproject such a resource should fall under. I will also say on a personal note that I have put literally hundreds of hours of work into these projects and it would grieve me a lot to see this work simply vanish, in particular when I know that colleagues around the world use these books. --[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 07:27, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::Hi @[[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]], and thank you for the feedback! Official Wikibooks policy does not permit standalone dictionaries (see [[WB:DICT]]), though I understand the argument that it is a useful resource. I am wondering if there might be a home for it at [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Welcome, newcomers|Wiktionary]] or [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]]? Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 12:14, 1 November 2024 (UTC) :::The policy says to use Wiktionary, but these books cannot be moved there. In fact they link there, you can understand me as having made an index to wiktionary, if you like, where the ORDER of the characters is extremely important, information that would be lost in Wiktionary. :::Wikiversity is not a project I participate in, and in any event my books here are older than it, so this option was not available for me at the relevant moment. If you are offering to move my books to Wikiversity, that is very kind of you and I will very graciously accept. [[User:Tibetologist|Tibetologist]] ([[User talk:Tibetologist|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tibetologist|contribs]]) 14:10, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::::I have pinged over at Wikiversity Colloquium to ask about suitability and have looped you into the conversation over there. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:20, 1 November 2024 (UTC) ::I concur. I'm just an undergrad who tries to learn about Sino-Tibetan historical linguistics in his free time but I've found this wikibook to be incredibly useful, and I keep it open in one tab while I watch Professor Nathan Hill's lectures that he uploads to youtube in another tab, and another tab for taking notes. In fact if I remember correctly Professor Hill actually pointed his students to this wikibook. ::I'm not familiar with [[wikiversity:Wikiversity:SHARE|Wikiversity]] but if all the content were as accessible there as it is here then I think that could work. [[User:ChromeBones|ChromeBones]] ([[User talk:ChromeBones|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ChromeBones|contribs]]) 02:43, 9 July 2025 (UTC) :Per [[:v:Wikiversity:Colloquium#Import_Resource_From_Wikibooks?]], I recommend copying and pasting, including attribution via the edit summary and talk page, add appropriate categories and links, and then it could be deleted locally. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:32, 3 November 2024 (UTC) == [[Suomen kieli käyttöön]] == Multiple pages in this book are written entirely in Finnish, which is out of the enWB scope. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:09, 19 October 2024 (UTC) :I was going to say whether we should ask any fiwikibooks sysop to maybe see if this could be transwikied to fiwb if it's within the scope there. But [[:fi:Toiminnot:Käyttäjät/sysop]] indicates that there are only 3 sysops, and only {{u|Anr}} and {{u|Zache}} have made edits this ''year''. If they deem it to be salvageable, then transwiki + delete, otherwise straight-up delete. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 11:24, 14 November 2024 (UTC) ::It seems that the idea behind the book was for the pages to be bilingual, as it’s a language learning book. That’s why there are Finnish texts included intentionally even on the pages that are complete. There are similar books in dewikibooks and ruwikibooks as well. For the English version, I think the easiest way to proceed would be to clean up and adjust the page layout to fit enwikibooks better, and then translate the missing parts. By the way, if anyone wants to update the book’s name in English, it can be titled ''"Using the Finnish Language"'' or ''"Put Finnish Language into Use"'' for a direct translation. [[User:Zache|Zache]] ([[User talk:Zache|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Zache|contribs]]) 11:57, 14 November 2024 (UTC) == [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] == * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/MEdia Net Configuration]] * [[AT&T Mobility FAQ/Data Connect Configuration]] An ''extremely'' outdated FAQ on AT&T's cell phone services. Most of this document was written 20+ years ago as a Usenet FAQ; very little of it is accurate or useful anymore (particularly the two subpages, which have to do with obsolete configurations for "tethering" a computer to a cell phone). No objection if someone wants to update it, but there's clearly been no appetite to do that. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:20, 30 December 2024 (UTC) :I'm wondering if it might make sense for us to develop some kind of policy on archiving books here. There are many like this one that have a good deal of content but are extremely out of date and just not useful as originally intended. ——[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:34, 30 December 2024 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]: See the newly developed [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 31 December 2024 (UTC) :::Ooh, thanks - something like that seems like it could be an appropriate way to handle this book. A lot of the other outdated books I've tagged have been so incomplete that they wouldn't have been particularly useful even as historical references; this one might at least have some interest. :::Any chance we can get a separate namespace (maybe "Archive:") set up for archived book content? That'd make it possible to do things like exclude them from on-site search by default. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:07, 31 December 2024 (UTC) ::::I think this might be a more extended discussion, so I'll bump it over to the [[Wikibooks talk:Outdated books|talk page of the draft policy]]! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 21:54, 31 December 2024 (UTC) == Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials == I personally believe that [[Algebra/Chapter 10/Symmetric Polynomials|this]], and all of the sections should be deleted for the fact that this goes WAY beyond the scope of what was intended for the Chapter (Algebra II level polynomials). [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 15:07, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :'''Split''': Deletion here is not the best solution (see [[w:WP:ATD]]). Instead, this page and its subpages should be moved to another book, most likely [[Abstract Algebra]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:35, 6 February 2025 (UTC) :{{keep}} since there is a good amount of content. If [[Abstract Algebra]] is appropriate, it seems like a fine idea to move there. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:59, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Eh, yeah, I supposed moving it is better. I just don't think it's suitable for where it appears. [[User:GoreyCat|GoreyCat]] ([[User talk:GoreyCat|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/GoreyCat|contribs]]) 01:40, 8 February 2025 (UTC) == [[Puredyne]] == Development of Puredyne Linux was discontinued in 2012, and the software no longer appears to be available for download anywhere. (An archive of the web site is still up - with a bunch of embedded spam links - but the download links are all dead.) Is this a suitable candidate for archival (cf. [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]]), or should it just be deleted? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 04:35, 5 March 2025 (UTC) :I'd just archive stuff like this. Looks like a decent bit of work went into it, and you never know when someone might need to use Puredyne for some obscure project. I'd be willing to bet mirrors exist of it somewhere, or someone has it on a drive. If you want to find some stuff worth deleting, comb through [[:Category:Allbooks categories]]. [[User:MediaKyle|MediaKyle]] ([[User talk:MediaKyle|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaKyle|contribs]]) 11:30, 5 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Qr-twwp]] == This isn't exactly a request to delete the template, but rather to merge it with {{tlx|Copypaste}}. The {{tlx|Qr-twwp}} template serves the same purpose as {{tlx|Copypaste}}, but without the seven-day period after which the page is deleted. This leads to confusion, as well as a perpetually full [[:Category:Queried pages]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 17:37, 30 March 2025 (UTC) == [[Ghouls of the Miskatonic]] == I don't think that a plot summary of a book is in-scope here. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:43, 20 August 2025 (UTC) :{{vd}} - at least, not a summary of ''this'' book. A summary and/or study guide to a notable work of literature might be in scope, but this is certainly not one. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 21:23, 25 August 2025 (UTC) ::Hi. I am the creator of the pages of this book. If I understand correctly, it has to be a summary of a notable work of literature? So what exactly is defined as such? I only started this as I thought it would be fun, interesting and encouraging to others who read the Arkham Horror novels, and I thought it was permitted as I've seen other summaries of books on wikibooks. [[User:Dayne90|Dayne90]] ([[User talk:Dayne90|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dayne90|contribs]]) 13:27, 26 August 2025 (UTC) :::Your problem is it is just the plot... it needs to include an educational textual analysis to be in scope [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:47, 28 August 2025 (UTC) ::::And ideally it'd be a text which has ''already'' been the subject of literary analysis, such that the analysis on Wikibooks isn't original research. A notable work of literature like ''Frankenstein'' or ''Moby-Dick'' would easily meet that requirement; a tie-in novel for a tabletop RPG probably does not. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:08, 29 August 2025 (UTC) == [[Template:Deleted page]] == {{closed|'''Deleted''' per consensus & reasoning. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 11:49, 10 July 2026 (UTC)}} Per [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals#Retiring Template:Deleted page]], this is because the template is unnecessary given that creation protection (salting) is used instead. I am also proposing the deletion of the following categories used by this template: * [[:Category:Protected deleted categories]] * [[:Category:Protected deleted pages]] Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:36, 29 January 2026 (UTC) :This seems premature - [[:Category:Protected deleted pages]] is still in use for pages with generic names. Is there a plan to transition those pages to create protection; if so, can that be implemented before deleting the templates/categories? [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:28, 30 January 2026 (UTC) ::JJPMaster proposed that the pages listed in that category should be moved to the [[MediaWiki:Titleblacklist|title blacklist]], and that {{tlx|naming policy notice}} shall be fully protected and used as an interface (title blacklist) message. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:18, 30 January 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]]: Have you seen this reply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 15:28, 11 February 2026 (UTC) ::::I have, but I'm not sure I follow. These templates, and the categories which they populate, are currently in use. Once that's no longer the case, I have no objection to deleting them - but they need to be delinked first. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 00:20, 12 February 2026 (UTC) :::::I deleted the categories mentioned above, moved all the generic titles to the title blacklist, and for those pages that used {{tlx|Deleted page}}, I deleted then applied creation protection. An uninvolved admin can delete {{tlx|Deleted page}} and then close this request. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:39, 30 March 2026 (UTC) : Would an uninvolved admin delete the template and close this request? Pinging @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications/Wireless Weekly/Issues/1928 03 23]] == {{closed|No consensus to delete —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 02:08, 10 July 2026 (UTC)}} Transcribed from a magazine copy that cannot be traced via the URL provided. Generally archival of primary source works is undertaken on Wikisource (not Wikibooks), backed by a suitable page scan. This isn't at present. [[User:ShakespeareFan00|ShakespeareFan00]] ([[User talk:ShakespeareFan00|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ShakespeareFan00|contribs]]) 16:32, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :This doesn't need an RfD since it is obviously out of scope. You can instead put a CSD tag on the page. Additionally, it seems that the entire /Publications section contains only source works here, so it might require a mass deletion. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 17:32, 27 April 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] looping you in here so you're aware. I don't think any pages like this (i.e. source text) can be kept here, since we are explicitly and unambiguously not a text repository per [[WB:SOURCE]]. I am inclined to speedily delete for that reason, but I want to hear from the primary editor. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:40, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :::Thanks for looping me in. :::This is not simply a transcription of the magazine. :::It includes new formatting to make the content better reachable. :::It includes commentary to place the transcribed material in context. :::It permits related material to be placed in chronological order. :::The version here is not complete (as per banner included), hence the URL link not working (National Library of Australia's Trove has been updated). :::There is no point in placing this material on Wikisource as the Trove website is functionally similar and now provides for text correction (a fairly recent development). :::I have not be editing Wikibooks for the last six month's following a personal matter but now slowly returning to the task. :::[[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] ([[User talk:Samuel.dellit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel.dellit|contribs]]) 19:08, 27 April 2026 (UTC) ::::I'm still not sure whether this makes it in-scope at Wikibooks and suitable for the book-like scope of this work, so I'm looping in other admins to weigh in on scope and consensus @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]]. For material that is planned but not yet enacted after a significant period, I'm wondering if user space is more suitable than main space. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:48, 3 May 2026 (UTC) :::::This is just one page of a book, right? It's not like the entire wikibook is a transcription. I'm inclined to keep it unless there is something I am missing. "For material that is planned but not yet enacted after a significant period" - that's a draft and can generally stay in article space. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 05:09, 4 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::My thoughts are similar to Leaderboard's. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 05:47, 4 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::@[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] Thank you, and good to know. Unless I am misunderstanding, the plan is actually to host many source texts in this book's namespace (see other subpages in [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Topical/Publications]]) and not limited to this one page. Additionally, do we have anything in policy regarding how long drafts can stay in mainspace? I couldn't find anything, and it strikes me as unconstructive to the project if pages with significant issues (e.g. scope, quality, etc) are left in the mainspace for months to years. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] Thank you for your considered responses, the following is provided as background summary. :::::::(1) I should mention that all of these pages were speedily deleted six months ago on the basis of breach of copyright, despite the fact that they are in the public domain (yes I was remiss in not making this clear in the relevant discussion pages, and yes I was aware of the need for copyright explanation, but was overly focussed on content creation). I was hit by about 20 simultaneous speedily delete notifications, responded to 2 or 3 thinking that would be sufficient, but later found they had all been deleted (I was not active on Wikibooks at the time). My intention is to provide clear public domain information for each page in the coming months, but I am only one person and need time to give effect. Copyright worldwide is quite complex. :::::::(2) I was hit by this RfD about 2 weeks ago, nominally a single subpage, but with the threat of dozens of subpages being similarly treated. This time the basis of the RfD was breach of the "Not a text repository" policy, of which I was not previously aware. I see in the policy that there is a clear exception for annotated texts and I will further develop content in support of that exception (you will see that is my general practice in any event). There are literally hundreds of articles in this Wikibook already heavily annotated, simply on the basis of good authorship e.g. :::::::https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_wireless_telegraphy_and_broadcasting_in_Australia/Topical/Biographies/Clement_Edgar_Ames/Notes :::::::https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_wireless_telegraphy_and_broadcasting_in_Australia/Topical/Stations/7BU_Burnie/Notes :::::::But, again, I am only one person and need time to give effect. [[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] ([[User talk:Samuel.dellit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel.dellit|contribs]]) 19:59, 4 May 2026 (UTC) :::::::@[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] As far as I can see, isn't the goal to annotate most of those pages? And there is no set limit for a draft. The main reason we'd delete a draft is if the book ''itself'' has nothing of value, which is not the case here. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 04:49, 5 May 2026 (UTC) ::::::::Got it, thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 00:06, 6 May 2026 (UTC) : As an admin who was involved in deleting this (and related subpages) and ''only'' undeleting it later per the author's request, I therefore '''recuse''' (will not do) on taking any administrative actions for this request. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:33, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :{{vd}} - including other similar pages - per nom. Transcriptions of previously published works, like these magazines, belong on Wikisource. I don't see any evidence of substantial commentary in any of the pages I've looked at. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 17:47, 28 April 2026 (UTC) ::Additionally, I'd note that creating content like [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Editing/Fair dealing]] or [[History of wireless telegraphy and broadcasting in Australia/Editing/Not a text repository]] is not helpful. This sort of argumentative content clearly does not belong in a book. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:14, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}} - including other similar pages - annotated texts WB:AT are a clear exception to Wikibooks "Not a text repository" policy; these are subpages of a very large body of work (I understand the largest Wikibook in Wikibooks) and integral to its overall development; yes, the pages are a work in progress and the annotations are as yet limited, but I will now prioritise their development[[User:Samuel.dellit|Samuel.dellit]] ([[User talk:Samuel.dellit|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Samuel.dellit|contribs]]) 19:28, 3 May 2026 (UTC) :{{keep}}. Annotated texts are an exception and while there can be a debate about how much annotation is enough, at the moment I think we should accept the primary editor's position in respect of their intent. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 13:58, 5 May 2026 (UTC) : {{keep}} per above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:07, 19 May 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] Please consider closing this RFD discussion. This was running for more than one month (I believe) and as I can tell there is probably no consensus to delete. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:30, 10 July 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[History Books]] == {{closed|Deleted per minimal consensus below. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:32, 12 July 2026 (UTC)}} Minimal existing content is editorialized, book scope unclear, no sourcing —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 18:47, 27 April 2026 (UTC) :{{comment}} - there is one unlinked subpage of this book, [[History Books/Who Was Alexander the Great/Introduction]]. I'm not impressed by the content (it's basically historical fiction written for a young child), but it's not hopeless. I'd encourage the author to create an account to allow us to communicate with them. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:34, 28 April 2026 (UTC) ::If it is really aimed at children, shouldn't it be moved to the Wikijunior: namespace? [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">kingofnuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 18:55, 28 April 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Kingofnuthin|Kingofnuthin]] and @[[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]]: I am unsure whethere there is consensus to either keep or move–I am not seeing any bolded votes, and there is not much participation here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:34, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::{{del}}, I don't think this book fits the scope of Wikibooks. [[User:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: lime">KingOfNuthin</span>]] ([[User talk:kingofnuthin|<span style="font-family: Georgia; color: teal">talk</span>]]) 23:47, 11 July 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == [[Objective Projection: Why the Brain Never Forgets Some Stories]] == Undisclosed AI-generated content. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 02:13, 9 May 2026 (UTC) :<nowiki>'''Keep'''</nowiki> — Comment from page author/subject expert. :I am Levent Bulut, the originator of the <nowiki>''</nowiki>Objective Projection<nowiki>''</nowiki> methodology described in this book (ORCID: 0009-0007-7500-2261, Wikidata: Q138048287). I want to address the AI-generated content concern directly and transparently. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On the content itself:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> The methodology, theoretical framework (the six-variable operator E(r) = projS(M, T, V, Δ, Ω, Ng), the Six Golden Rules, the Six-Layer Framework), and all original arguments are my own intellectual work, developed and published independently. This is documented through: :* 26 DOI-registered academic publications on Zenodo (search: "Levent Bulut Objective Projection") :* A peer-reviewed submission currently under review at <nowiki>''</nowiki>Digital Humanities Quarterly<nowiki>''</nowiki> :* Parallel Turkish-language Wikibook and Wikiversity pages on the same methodology :* An open-source SFT dataset on Hugging Face (leventbulut/objective-projection) :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>On AI assistance:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I used AI tools (Claude) for English translation polish and copy-editing from my Turkish source materials — the same way a non-native English-speaking academic would use a human translator or editor. The <nowiki>''</nowiki>ideas, structure, terminology, citations, and arguments<nowiki>''</nowiki> are entirely my own and pre-date the Wikibooks version, traceable through Zenodo DOI timestamps starting in 2025. :<nowiki>'''</nowiki>Proposed remedy instead of deletion:<nowiki>'''</nowiki> I am happy to: :# Add a clear AI-assistance disclosure to the book's preface, per Wikibooks transparency norms :# Add inline citations to the underlying DOI-registered publications for every major claim :# Link to the parallel Turkish version and academic record :This would address the <nowiki>''</nowiki>undisclosed<nowiki>''</nowiki> part of the concern (which is the actionable policy issue) while preserving content that is original academic work by an identifiable author with a published track record. Deletion of original scholarship because translation assistance was used would set a concerning precedent for non-native English contributors. :<nowiki>I request a few days to add the disclosure and citations before any deletion action. ~~~~</nowiki> [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 18:46, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::Administrative assistance needed: Automated filters blocking structural improvements and disclosures ::'''Request for Help''' — I am Levent Bulut, the author of this book. I have already provided my AI disclosure and academic credentials (ORCID, DOI list) here in this discussion. ::I am trying to update the book to comply with Wikibooks standards by: ::Adding a formal '''AI assistance disclosure''' at the top of the page. ::Restructuring the content into an '''instructional textbook format''' (adding Learning Objectives). ::Converting plain text formulas into '''LaTeX''' ( format). ::Updating references to include full academic '''DOI''' records. ::However, the automated filter is blocking all my attempts: ::If I try to replace the content with the improved version, it triggers the '''"large amount of content removal"''' filter. ::If I try to add specific academic links, it triggers the '''"automated link/spam"''' filter. ::I am essentially trapped by the filters while trying to improve the book and follow transparency norms. Could an administrator please either whitelist my account or manually apply the improved version of the text? I am ready to provide the full MediaWiki code here if requested. My intent is purely constructive and academic. [[Special:Contributions/&#126;2026-28847-60|&#126;2026-28847-60]] ([[User talk:&#126;2026-28847-60|talk]]) 19:15, 13 May 2026 (UTC) ::: Hi, @[[User:~2026-28847-60|~2026-28847-60]]. Your account was incorrectly locked by a steward. It is now currently unlocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:44, 15 May 2026 (UTC) :::: Pinging @[[User:Projection Architect|Projection Architect]], who was previously LeventBulut. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 15:51, 4 July 2026 (UTC) ::Please review [[Wikibooks:Artificial intelligence]]. It states unequivocally that {{tq|LLMs may not be used to generate or summarize material and ideas at Wikibooks}}, and that {{tq|translations made by LLMs are not allowed on Wikibooks}}. The fact that you did not disclose your usage of AI is part of the problem, but disclosing it does not make it allowable either. ::More broadly, based on what you've said above, the content of this book is a reflection of your personal theories on writing. This is essentially [[Wikibooks:Original research]] and is not permitted. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 22:36, 13 May 2026 (UTC) == [[Guide to Tor hidden services and elements of the Tor network]] == This book was created in 2014 with some odd history, but never really progressed beyond a preface and [[Guide to Tor hidden services and elements of the Tor network/Chapter 3: Darknet markets in theory and practice|a single subpage]]. As a result of [https://blog.torproject.org/v2-deprecation-timeline/ changes to the Tor network] made in 2020-2021, all of the .onion links in this book are dead; there's nothing usable left here. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 08:54, 4 July 2026 (UTC) == [[Earthinators]] == While no content has been added yet, the introduction and table of contents of this book suggest that it's intended to act as a position statement or manifesto for the group, not an educational text. This content would probably be more appropriate on the group's own wiki, not on Wikibooks. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 23:23, 10 July 2026 (UTC) b6jj1pc6blrynajyr16b63h0uw6qndk 0 5305 4654000 4647614 2026-07-11T13:39:19Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654000 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> ==Overview== [[Probability]] theory provides a mathematical model for the study of randomness and uncertainty. Many important decisions, whether from business, government, science, recreation or even one's personal life must be made with incomplete information or some degree of uncertainty. Hence, a formalized study of uncertain or random outcomes occupies an important role in modern society. In situations where one of any number of possible outcomes may occur, the mathematical model of probability theory offers methods for quantifying the likelihoods associated with those outcomes. Probability also provides tools which allow us to move beyond simply describing the information contained within a set of data (descriptive statistics) to actually inferring further information from that data (inferential statistics). Many of the early attempts to model likelihood arose from games of chance. For a brief history of probability see [[w:Probability#History|this]] Wikipedia article. Although probability theory is now a very formal branch of mathematics, the language of probability is often used informally in everyday speech. We express our beliefs about likelihoods of outcomes in situations involving uncertainty using intuition guided by our experiences and in some cases statistics. Consider the following examples: *Bill says "Don't buy the avocados here; about half the time, they're rotten". Bill is expressing his belief about the probability of an event — that an avocado will be rotten — based on his personal experience. *Lisa says "I am 95% certain the capital of Spain is Barcelona". Here, the belief Lisa is expressing is only a probability from her point of view, because only she does not know that the capital of Spain is Madrid (from our point of view, the probability is 100%). However, we can still view this as a subjective probability because it expresses a measure of uncertainty. It is as though Lisa is saying "in 95% of cases where I feel as sure as I do about this, I turn out to be right". *Susan says "There is a lower chance of being shot in Omaha than in Detroit". Susan is expressing a belief based (presumably) on statistics. *Dr. Smith says to Christina, "There is a 75% chance that you will live." Dr. Smith is basing this off of his research. *Nicolas says "It will probably rain tomorrow." In this case the likelihood that it will rain is expressed in vague terms and is subjective, but implies that the speaker believes it is greater than <math>\frac12</math> (or 50%). Subjective probabilities have been extensively studied, especially with regards to gambling and securities markets. While this type of probability is important, it is not the subject of this book. A good reference is "Degrees of Belief" By Steven Vick (2002). Notice that in the previous examples the likelihood of any particular outcome is expressed as a percentage (between 0% and 100%), as is common in everyday language. However, probabilities in formal probability theory are always expressed as real numbers in the interval <math>[0,1]</math> (e.g. a probability of .25 may be expressed as 25%, or a probability of <math>\frac{1}{\pi}</math> may be expressed as approximately 31.83%). Other differences exist between common expressions of probabilities and formal probability theory. For example, a probability of 0% is typically taken to mean that the event to which that probability is assigned is impossible. However, in probability theory (usually in cases where there are infinitely many possible outcomes) an event ascribed a probability of zero may actually occur. In some situations, it is certain that such an event will occur (e.g. in selecting a real number between 0 and 1, the probability of selecting any given number is zero, but it is certain that one such number will be selected). Another way to express the probability of an outcome is by its ''odds'': the ratio of the probability of "success" (event occurs) to the probability of "failure" (event does not occur). In gambling odds are expressed as the ratio of the [[w:Graded_stakes_race|stakes]] risked by each participant in a wager. For instance: a [[w:Bookmaker|bookmaker]] offering odds of 3 to 1 "against" a horse will pay a [[w:Gambler|punter]] three times their stake (if the horse wins). In fact, the bookmaker (ignoring factors such as his potential need to "lay off" bets which are exposing him to the possibility of an unacceptable overall loss) is announcing that he thinks the horse has a <math>\frac14</math> chance of winning. If we express odds as "chance of winning": "chance of not winning", then 3 to 1 against would be represented as <math>1:3=\frac14:\frac34</math> or <math>\frac13</math> . So an event with a probability of <math>\frac14</math> or 25% has odds of 33%. This disparity is even more clear where an event has a probability of 50% (e.g., the odds of a coin showing heads is 50%:50% = 1:1 or <math>\frac{1}{2}</math>). ==Types of probability== As mentioned earlier, probability can be expressed informally in a variety of different ways, but even formal definitions and approaches vary. The most general and rigorous approach is known as axiomatic probability theory, which will be the focus of later chapters. Here we briefly discuss a few other approaches, their uses and limitations. All of these approaches rely in one way or another on the concept of an ''experiment''. Recall that probability provides means to study randomness and uncertainty. An '''experiment''' is any action or process whose outcome is subject to uncertainty or randomness. Here the term experiment is used in a wider sense than its usual connotation with controlled laboratory situations. Further clarification on experiments will be given later, but for now the following examples of experiments will suffice: *observing whether or not a commercial product is defective. *tossing a coin one or more times or selecting a card from a card deck. *conducting a survey. *measuring the wind speed or rainfall in a particular area. Assuming that an experiment can be repeated under identical conditions, then each repetition of an experiment is called a ''trial''. ===Basic Concepts=== There are two standard approaches to conceptually interpreting probabilities: the relative frequency approach and the subjective belief (or confidence approach). In the Frequency Theory of Probability, probability is the limit of the relative frequency with which certain outcomes occur in repeated trials (note that the outcome of any single trial cannot depend on the outcome of other trials). The relative frequency approach requires that experiments be random and that all possible outcomes be known before execution of the experiment. The probability of any set of outcomes is expressed as the relative frequency with which those outcomes will occur among many repeated trials. Physical probabilities fall within the category of objective or frequency probabilities, and are associated with random physical systems such as roulette wheels, rolling dice and radioactive atoms. In such systems, a given outcome (such as a die yielding a six) tends to occur at a persistent rate, or 'relative frequency', in a long run of trials. Physical probabilities either explain, or are invoked to explain these stable frequencies. Relative frequency probabilities are always expressed as a figure between 0% (the outcome essentially never happens) and 100% (the outcome essentially always happens), or similarly as a figure between 0 and 1. According to the Frequency Theory of Probability, saying that "the probability that A occurs is p%" means that if you repeat the experiment many times under essentially identical conditions, the percentage of time for which A occurs will converge to p. For example, a 50% chance that a coin lands "heads up" means that if you toss the coin over and over again, then the ratio of times the coin lands heads to the total number of tosses approaches a limiting value of 50% as the number of tosses grows. Notice that the outcome of one toss never depends on another toss, and that the ratio of heads to total number of tosses is always between 0% and 100%. In the Subjective Theory of Probability, probability measures the speaker's "degree of belief" that a set of outcomes will result, on a scale of 0% (complete disbelief that the event will happen) to 100% (certainty that the event will happen). According to the Subjective Theory, saying that "the probability that A occurs is <math>\frac23</math> " means that I believe that A will happen twice as strongly as I believe that A will not happen. The Subjective Theory is particularly useful in assigning meaning to the probability of outcomes that in principle can occur only once. For example, how might one assign meaning to the following statement: "there is a 25% chance of an earthquake on the San Andreas fault with magnitude 8 or larger before 2050"? It would be very hard to qualify this measure in terms of relative frequency. One way to represent an individual's degree of belief in a statement, given available evidence, is with the Bayesian approach. Evidential probability, also called Bayesian probability, can be assigned to any statement whatsoever, even when no random process is involved. On most accounts evidential probabilities are considered degrees of belief, defined in terms of dispositions to gamble at certain odds. The primary evidential interpretations include the classical interpretation, the subjective interpretation, the epistemic or inductive interpretation, and the logical interpretation. The next several sections discuss the principal theories within the relative frequency approach to probability. ===Classical theory of probability=== The classical approach to probability expresses probability as a ratio of the number of favorable outcomes in a series of successive trials to the number of total possible outcomes. Note the immediate implication that the number of total possible outcomes be known. Furthermore, all possible outcomes are assumed to be equally probably and no two possible outcomes can both result from the same trial. Here, the term "favorable" is not subjective, but rather indicates that an outcome belongs to a group of outcomes of interest. This group of outcomes is called an ''event'', which will be formalized with the introduction of axiomatic probability theory. {| WIDTH="75%" | style="background-color: #F3F3FF; border: solid 1px #D6D6FF; padding: 1em; margin: auto;" valign=top |- |<div style="text-align: center;"><big>Classical definition of probability</big></div> |- |If the number of outcomes belonging to an event <math>E</math> is <math>N_E</math> , and the total number of outcomes is <math>N</math> , then the ''probability'' of event <math>E</math> is defined as <math>p_E=\frac{N_E}{N}</math> . |} For example, a standard deck of cards (without jokers) has 52 cards. If we randomly draw a card from the deck, we can think of each card as a possible outcome. Therefore, there are 52 total outcomes. We can now look at various events and calculate their probabilities: *Out of the 52 cards, there are 13 clubs. Therefore, if the event of interest is drawing a club, there are 13 favorable outcomes, and the probability of this event is <math>\frac{13}{52}=\frac14</math> . *There are 4 kings (one of each suit). The probability of drawing a king is <math>\frac{4}{52}=\frac{1}{13}</math> . *What is the probability of drawing a king OR a club? This example is slightly more complicated. We cannot simply add together the number of outcomes for each event separately (<math>4+13=17</math>) as this inadvertently counts one of the outcomes twice (the king of clubs). The correct answer is <math>\frac{16}{52}</math> from <math>\frac{13}{52}+\frac{4}{52}-\frac{1}{52}</math> where this is essentially <math>p(\text{club})+p(\text{king})-p(\text{king of clubs})</math> . Classical probability suffers from a serious limitation. The definition of probability implicitly defines all outcomes to be equiprobable. While this might be useful for drawing cards, rolling dice, or pulling balls from urns, it offers no method for dealing with outcomes with unequal probabilities. This limitation can even lead to mistaken statements about probabilities. An often given example goes like this: :I could be hit by a meteor tomorrow. There are two possible outcomes: I will be hit, or I will not be hit. Therefore, the probability I will be hit by a meteor tomorrow is <math>\frac12=50%</math> . Of course, the problem here is not with the classical theory, merely the attempted application of the theory to a situation to which it is not well adapted. This limitation does not, however, mean that the classical theory of probability is useless. At many points in the development of the axiomatic approach to probability, classical theory is an important guiding factor. ===Empirical or Statistical Probability or Frequency of occurrence=== This approach to probability is well-suited to a wide range of scientific disciplines. It is based on the idea that the underlying probability of an event can be measured by repeated trials. {| WIDTH="75%" | style="background-color: #F3F3FF; border: solid 1px #D6D6FF; padding: 1em; margin: auto;" valign=top |- |<div style="text-align: center;"><big>Empirical or Statistical Probability as a measure of frequency</big></div> |- |Let <math>n_A</math> be the number of times event <math>A</math> occurs after <math>n</math> trials. We define the ''probability'' of event <math>A</math> as <math>p_A=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{n_A}{n}</math> |} It is of course impossible to conduct an infinite number of trials. However, it usually suffices to conduct a large number of trials, where the standard of large depends on the probability being measured and how accurate a measurement we need. A note on this definition of probability: How do we know the sequence <math>\frac{n_A}{n}</math> in the limit will converge to the same result every time, or that it will converge at all? The unfortunate answer is that we don't. To see this, consider an experiment consisting of flipping a coin an infinite number of times. We are interested in the probability of heads coming up. Imagine the result is the following sequence: :''HTHHTTHHHHTTTTHHHHHHHHTTTTTTTTHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT''... with each run of <math>k</math> heads and <math>k</math> tails being followed by another run twice as long. For this example, the sequence <math>\frac{n_A}{n}</math> oscillates between roughly <math>\frac13</math> and <math>\frac23</math> and doesn't converge. We might expect such sequences to be unlikely, and we would be right. It will be shown later that the probability of such a run is 0, as is a sequence that converges to anything other than the underlying probability of the event. However, such examples make it clear that the limit in the definition above does not express convergence in the more familiar sense, but rather some kind of convergence in probability. The problem of formulating exactly what this means belongs to axiomatic probability theory. ===Axiomatic probability theory=== Although axiomatic probability theory is often frightening to beginners, it is the most general approach to probability and has been employed in tackling some of the more difficult problems in probability. It begins with a set of axioms which, although not immediately intuitive, are guided by the more familiar classical probability theory. These axioms are discussed in the (as yet unwritten) following chapter. ==About This Book== This book is going to discuss the topic of '''mathematical probability''' using [[Calculus]] and [[Linear Algebra]]. Readers of this book should have a good understanding of both those topics before attempting to read and understand this book completely. <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} jc3u3n7dusa7usnfm20eq7iq2hlcu0f 0 5533 4654026 4647853 2026-07-11T15:56:00Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654026 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Denest}} {| border="2" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #FF8080; border:#FF0000; margin: auto;" | '''Olá! Bem-vindo ao wikilivro sobre língua portuguesa. Aqui você aprenderá a falar português.''' |- | align="center" | <small>Translation: ''Hello! Welcome to the Portuguese language wikibook! Here you will learn to speak Portuguese''</small> |} <br/> <div style="text-align: center;"> <big>'''[[Portuguese/Contents|<big>Ir à página principal</big><br/>(Go to the main page)]]'''</big> </div> <br/> {| border="0" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="center" |- ! colspan="4" | Países e regiões onde o português é a língua oficial<br/><small>(Countries and regions where Portuguese is the official language)</small> |- align="center" | width="25%" | [[Image:Flag of Angola.svg|80px|Flag of Angola]] | width="25%" | [[Image:Flag of Brazil.svg|80px|Flag of Brazil]] | width="25%" | [[Image:Flag of Cape Verde.svg|80px|Flag of Cabo Verde]] | width="25%" | [[Image:Flag of India.svg|80px|Flag of Goa]] |- align="center" | Angola<br/><small>([[w:Angola|Angola]])</small> | Brasil<br/><small>([[w:Brazil|Brazil]])</small> | Cabo Verde<br/><small>([[w:Cape Verde|Cape Verde]])</small> | Goa<br/><small>([[w:Goa|Goa]])</small> |- align="center" | [[Image:Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg|80px|Flag of Guinea Bissau]] | [[Image:Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg|80px|Flag of Equatorial Guinea]] | [[Image:Flag of Macau.svg|80px|Flag of Macao]] | [[Image:Flag of Mozambique.svg|80px|Flag of Moçambique]] |- align="center" | Guiné-Bissau<br/><small>([[w:Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]])</small> | Guiné Equatorial<br/><small>([[w:Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]])</small> | Macau<br/><small>([[w:Macao|Macao]])</small> | Moçambique<br/><small>([[w:Mozambique|Mozambique]])</small> |- align="center" | [[Image:Flag of Portugal.svg|80px|Flag of Portugal]] | [[Image:Flag of São Tomé and Príncipe.svg|80px|Flag of São Tomé and Príncipe]] | [[Image:Flag of East Timor.svg|80px|Flag of Timor-Leste]] | |- align="center" | Portugal<br/><small>([[w:Portugal|Portugal]])</small> | São Tomé e Príncipe<br/><small>([[w:Sao Tome and Principe|Sao Tome and Principe]])</small> | Timor-Leste<br/><small>([[w:East Timor|East Timor]])</small> | |- ! colspan="5" | Organizações internacionais em que o português é língua oficial<br/><small>(International organizations in which Portuguese is an official language)</small> |- align="center" | width="20%" | | width="20%" | | width="20%" | | width="20%" | | width="20%" | | |- align="center" | CPLP<br/><small>([[w:CPLP|CPLP]])</small> | Mercosul<br/><small>([[w:Mercosur|Mercosur]])</small> | União Africana<br/><small>([[w:African Union|African Union]])</small> | União Europeia<br/><small>([[w:European Union|European Union]])</small> | União de Nações Sul-Americanas <br/><small>([[w:UNASUR|UNASUR]])</small> | |} <br/> {{Category 1}} {{Shelves|Portuguese language}} {{alphabetical|P}} {{status|25%}} [[de:Portugiesisch]] [[es:Portugués]] [[fr:Portugais]] [[he:פורטוגזית ברזילאית]] [[nl:Portugees]] [[pl:Portugalski]] [[pt:Português]] [[ro:Portugheză]] [[ru:Португальский язык]] [[zh:葡萄牙语]] 92bdiiqb0po1z3lonb3godi5qrvtikm 2 5891 4654168 4595195 2026-07-12T02:46:21Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. (via JWB) 4654168 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center"><br> <div size="font-size: 250%">Q</div><b>uandu ellu canta lu cuccu Muta pèlu lu singhjari E la gallina faci l'ovu Senza mancu nidicà lu.</b> <br><br> [[Image:Nightdays.png|300px|center]] <br><br> ==About Me== <small>I'm a [[Wikibooks:Administrators|sysop]] on [[wikibooks]] and [http://meta.wikipedia.org/ meta], and a bureaucrat for [http://mi.wikipedia.org/ Maori]. Alexander Douglas Plank [http://www.AlexPlank.com Alexander Plank] </small> ==Web Sites== Here are some sites of interest. ===Asperger's Syndrome=== WrongPlanet.net- [http://www.wrongplanet.net/ Asperger's Syndrome] - I run WrongPlanet.net.<br /> [http://www.AutismPlanet.com Autism Planet] - An aggregator of Autism Blogs ===Television=== [http://www.tvWiki.tv tvWiki.tv - The Television Wiki]<br /> [http://www.officeTalk.org The Office Discussion Forum] (OfficeTalk.org) __NOEDITSECTION__ __NOTOC__ hfpl1hc6rjyd27kqopame031iuxgqv8 4654170 4654168 2026-07-12T02:50:31Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Fix. 4654170 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center"><br> <span style="font-size: 250%">Q</span><b>uandu ellu canta lu cuccu Muta pèlu lu singhjari E la gallina faci l'ovu Senza mancu nidicà lu.</b> <br><br> [[Image:Nightdays.png|300px|center]] <br><br> ==About Me== <small>I'm a [[Wikibooks:Administrators|sysop]] on [[wikibooks]] and [http://meta.wikipedia.org/ meta], and a bureaucrat for [http://mi.wikipedia.org/ Maori]. Alexander Douglas Plank [http://www.AlexPlank.com Alexander Plank] </small> ==Web Sites== Here are some sites of interest. ===Asperger's Syndrome=== WrongPlanet.net- [http://www.wrongplanet.net/ Asperger's Syndrome] - I run WrongPlanet.net.<br /> [http://www.AutismPlanet.com Autism Planet] - An aggregator of Autism Blogs ===Television=== [http://www.tvWiki.tv tvWiki.tv - The Television Wiki]<br /> [http://www.officeTalk.org The Office Discussion Forum] (OfficeTalk.org) __NOEDITSECTION__ __NOTOC__ essq0dvfpvaqdm0b2nne35t4e6u42lj 2 10008 4654169 2878054 2026-07-12T02:48:37Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. (via JWB) 4654169 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center">''''''<pre> The Street by Octavio Paz A long and silent street. I walk in blackness and I stumble and fall and rise, and I walk blind, my feet stepping on silent stones and dry leaves. Someone behind me also stepping on stones, leaves: if I slow down, he slows: if I run, he runs. I turn: nobody. Everything dark and doorless. Turning and turning among these corners which lead forever to the street where I pursue a man who stumbles and rises and says when he sees be: nobody</pre></div> [[en:Octavio Paz|Octavio Paz]]'s poem '''''The Street''''' is thematically similar to the ideas present in ''Ellen Foster''. In this poem, the narrator describes a long and silent street that he is traversing at night. He adds that he stumbles and falls. In these two lines, the theme of being lost and lonely is very prevalent. This is similar to the feeling that Ellen has after her mother dies. In the next line, the narrator says that he gets back up. The idea that this presents can be equated to the theme of perseverance in Ellen Foster. Soon, the reader becomes aware that the narrator is running away from someone. Ellen spent a great deal of time hiding and running away from her father and his cronies. [[User:Perl/Ellen Foster/themes|<<]] | [[User:Perl/Ellen Foster/timeline|>>]] d6qhg1552vc5qv375125ur7si7ewh3b 2 15928 4654004 4644680 2026-07-11T14:01:44Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654004 wikitext text/x-wiki [[User:Panic2k4/Sandbox/RapidEdit|*]] - [[User:Panic2k4/Sandbox/Embedded C++|+]]- [[User:Panic2k4/Sandbox/ShareMemory|&]] - '''Tools:[http://tools.wikimedia.de/~dapete/catgraph/ Catgraph] - [[Special:Collection|Collections]] - [[Special:PrefixIndex|PrefixIndex]] - [http://tools.wmflabs.org/meta/crossactivity/ Cross Activity] - [http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikibooks/EN/Wikibooks_EN.htm Statistics per Wikibook]<br>[https://tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/adminstats/?project=enwikibooks Sysops' statistics & Yet Another Edit Counter]''' ---- {| cellspacing="3" |- valign="top" |width="75%" style="border: 1px solid #000000; background-color: #c0c0c0;| <div style="padding: .4em .9em .9em"> ;'''Wikibooks''': To me a Wikibook is like a sand castle. Imagine it as constructing a sand castle on a communal sand box, participation is welcomed, but not required and as all people contribute some sand, there is plenty of sand for all, there is no need to fight over it or how the castle should be built, and when the castle is built, it still is only sand, it will be used again. What is important is that the sand will continue to be added and people come to build new and improved castles with it. ---- ;'''Like''': [[Subject:C++ programming language|Programming, C/C++]], All things SiFi (including literature), Japanese cinema portraying medieval times ([[w:Samurai cinema|Samurai cinema]], [[w:Zatoichi|Zatoichi]], etc.), very few TV Shows (Game of Thrones), [[Dogs]], Meerkat (Suricata suricatta), Dolphins... ---- ;'''Dislike''': War, organized religion, organized and professional sports, Reality TV, Microsoft (and most big or multinational corporations), Software patents, .Net (and VM languages in general), Pepsi (I avoid non-natural drinks in general but I really dislike it), Kiwi (as food), Cephalopods (as food, except fried or heavy grilled), Cats (as companion animal)... ---- ;'''Life Philosophy''': I consider myself a [[w:Tao|Tao]] [[w:Pantheism|Pantheist]], and believe in Buddhism interpretation of [[w:Karma|Karma]] in the sense that every action creates a reaction as in [[w:Chaos theory|chaos theory]]. ---- ;'''Social order''': My favorite social order is [[w:Anarchist communism|Anarcho Communism]]. ---- '''At this moment I'm mostly interested in C++, P2P, the ending of IP, fighting DRM and ...'''<br> {{small/top}} The Salticidid Portia [http://www.ontariosciencecentre.ca/scizone/question/default.asp?teaserIdEN=384 “Perilous Portia”], [http://lemonodor.com/archives/001409.html “...when we look into Portia's dark, bulging eyes, the lights are on, somebody's at home, and a lot more than an eight-legged automaton is staring back.”]<small><small>(can't find a decent link)</small></small> [[w:Epigenetics|Epigenetics]] and Human Genetics, regarding non-negative mutations [ [http://www.disaboomlive.com/Blogs/saydrah/archive/2009/04/03/super-toddler-liam-hoekstra-age-3-his-rare-genetic-condition-makes-him-uniquely-gifted.aspx Liam Hoekstra], [http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/beijing/swimming/2008-07-31-phelps_N.htm Michael Phelps], [[w:Brooke Greenberg|Brooke Greenberg]] ] Non-obvious Physics [ [[w:Zero-point energy|Zero-point energy]], [[w:Sonoluminescence|Sonoluminescence]], [[w:Emdrive|Emdrive]], thought and emotions effect on environment ("water memory", plants etc.) ] Lost Technologies/Historic Conundrums [ [[w:Terra preta|Terra preta]], [[w:Antikythera mechanism|Antikythera mechanism]], [[w:Baghdad Battery|Baghdad Battery]], [[w:Starlite|Starlite]] ] Sustainable Technologies [ [[w:Permaculture|Permaculture]] ] {{small/end}} ---- ;'''Wikimedia projects''' I'm registered on the main projects (except Wikipedia), but I rarely log onto other projects and don't particularly fallow what is happening in relation to Wikimedia software and other project's policies... ---- '''Other Cool Wikibooks projects'''<small><small> by order of subject relevance to me</small></small><br> <small>[[More C++ Idioms]] - [[Algorithm Implementation]] - [[Reverse Engineering]] - [[x86 Disassembly]] - [[Data Compression]] - [[Cryptography]] - [[Linux Applications Debugging Techniques]] - [[Data Structures]] - [[Colonizing Outer Space]] - [[Self Interest and Social Behavior]] - [[Space Transport and Engineering Methods]] - [[Python Programming]] - [[Getting Started as an Entrepreneur]] - [[Fundamentals of Transportation]] - [[Climate Change]] - [[Science Fiction Literature]] - [[Mythology]] - [[C Programming]] - [[Computer programming]] - [[Operations Research]] - [[Nanotechnology]] - [[Movie Making Manual]] - [[Rhetoric and Composition]] - [[Elements of Political Communication‎‎]] - [[Communication Theory]] - [[Basic Writing]] - [[Control Systems]] - [[Compiler Construction]] - [[The Voynich Manuscript]] - [[X86 Assembly]] - [[Practical Electronics]] - [[Signals and Systems]]- [[Java Programming]] - [[Windows Programming]] - [[The Cold War]] - [[Editing Wikitext]] - [[Learning the vi Editor]] - [[Lucid Dreaming]]</small> </div> |width="30%" style="border: 1px solid #000000; color: #000; background-color: #ffc0c0"| <div style="padding: .4em .9em .9em"> <h1>Me, Myself and I...</h1> <small> [http://www.bibsonomy.org/user/panic My WEB (Urls/Booksmarks) at BibSonomy]</small> <div style="text-align: center;">I have also customized Google Co-op to use my del.icio.us pages and other personal preferences to provide a more useful search results you can see it here [http://www.google.com/custom?hl=en&lr=&client=google-coop&cof=BGC%3A%23FFFFFF%3BT%3A%23000000%3BLC%3A%230000CC%3BVLC%3A%230000CC%3BALC%3A%230000CC%3BGALT%3A%23008000%3BGFNT%3A%23000000%3BGIMP%3A%23000000%3BDIV%3A%230000CC%3BLBGC%3A%23FFFFFF%3BAH%3Acenter%3BCX%3APanic%2527s%2520Pages%3B&q=&btnG=Search&cx=015397482836322967076%3A_zhaog5negg Panic's KB @ Google Co-op]</div> ---- <h2>What I know about...</h2> {| WIDTH="100%" | style="background-color: #ffc20f; border: solid 1px #ffeaa5; padding: 1em; margin: auto;" valign=top|'''Programming & Languages''' ASM (PIC, z80, MC68000-060 and others) BASIC (many tastes GWBasic - VB6) PASCAL (too many incarnations + DELPHI) Lisp UML [[w:Smalltalk|Smalltalk]] C/C++ (POSIX,WIN32,MFC,STL) Java (J2EE) ,Javascript, ASP and PHP HTML, XML, CSS P/SQL |} {| WIDTH="100%" | style="background-color: #f0ad00; border: solid 1px #ffeaa5; padding: 1em;" valign=top|'''Operating Systems''' Amiga OS, Be OS, UNIX & Linux and all flavors of Windows minus Windows CE and Vista. |}</div> <div style="padding: .4em .9em .9em"> '''Books I'm an author at Wikibooks'''<br> #[[C++ Programming]] #[[The World of Peer-to-Peer (P2P)|Peer-to-Peer (P2P)]] #[[Hypnosis]] #[[On spies and stratagems]] #[[Understanding Global Trade Policy]] #[[Remembering the Templars]] #[[Video Game Design]] '''Other books I will attempt to provide content at Wikibooks'''<br> [[FLTK]], [[When It Hits the Fan]], [[House Construction]], [[History of Computers]], [[Science Fiction Literature]], [[Dogs]] and any of the other ones on my favorite list... ---- <small>I will keep this lists here since they may have some useful to others than myself, and I would like to know other Wikibookians that have similar resources especially if they exclude any commercial interests around the lists.<br> [[User:Panic2k4/Books Read|SF & Fantasy Books I've read]]<br> [[User:Panic2k4/Podcasts and Audiobooks|Podcasts and Audiobooks I've listen to]]<br> [[User:Panic2k4/Videos|Technical or Cultural Videos I've seen and liked]]<br> [[User:Panic2k4/TV, movies and documentaries|TV shows, movies and documentaries]]</small> </div> | |- |colspan="2" width="100%" style="border: 1px solid #000000; color: #000; background-color: #c0ffc0"| = <small><small><small>Public Announcement Postings [[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Panic2k4/Archive Archive]]</small></small></small> = <div style="text-align: center;"> ---- </div> {{Userpage}} |} 7kjss6n6p1a2elqvwbiw33tbm9w1tlj 0 23135 4653988 4652633 2026-07-11T12:27:49Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653988 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} ==Introduction== The <code>stdio.h</code> header declares a broad assortment of functions that perform input and output to files and devices such as the console. It was one of the earliest headers to appear in the C library. It declares more functions than any other standard header and also requires more explanation because of the complex machinery that underlies the functions. The device-independent model of input and output has seen dramatic improvement over the years and has received little recognition for its success. FORTRAN II was touted as a machine-independent language in the 1960s, yet it was essentially impossible to move a FORTRAN program between architectures without some change. In FORTRAN II, you named the device you were talking to right in the FORTRAN statement in the middle of your FORTRAN code. So, you said <code>READ INPUT TAPE 5</code> on a tape-oriented IBM 7090 but <code>READ CARD</code> to read a card image on other machines. FORTRAN IV had more generic <code>READ</code> and <code>WRITE</code> statements, specifying a ''logical unit number'' (LUN) instead of the device name. The era of device-independent I/O had dawned. Peripheral devices such as printers still had fairly strong notions about what they were asked to do. And then, ''peripheral interchange'' utilities were invented to handle bizarre devices. When cathode-ray tubes came onto the scene, each manufacturer of consoles solved problems such as console cursor movement in an independent manner, causing further headaches. It was into this atmosphere that Unix was born. Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, the developers of Unix, deserve credit for packing any number of bright ideas into the operating system. Their approach to device independence was one of the brightest. The ANSI C <code><stdio.h></code> library is based on the original Unix file I/O primitives but casts a wider net to accommodate the least-common denominator across varied systems. ==Streams== Input and output, whether to or from physical devices such as terminals and tape drives, or whether to or from files supported on structured storage devices, are mapped into logical data streams, whose properties are more uniform than their various inputs and outputs. Two forms of mapping are supported: text streams and binary streams. A text stream consists of one or more lines. A line in a text stream consists of zero or more characters plus a terminating new-line character. (The only exception is that in some implementations the last line of a file does not require a terminating new-line character.) Unix adopted a standard internal format for all text streams. Each line of text is terminated by a new-line character. That's what any program expects when it reads text, and that's what any program produces when it writes text. (This is the most basic convention, and if it doesn't meet the needs of a text-oriented peripheral attached to a Unix machine, then the fix-up occurs out at the edges of the system. Nothing in between needs to change.) The string of characters that go into, or come out of a text stream may have to be modified to conform to specific conventions. This results in a possible difference between the data that go into a text stream and the data that come out. For instance, in some implementations when a space-character precedes a new-line character in the input, the space character gets removed out of the output. In general, when the data only consists of printable characters and control characters like horizontal tab and new-line, the input and output of a text stream are equal. Compared to a text stream, a binary stream is pretty straight forward. A binary stream is an ordered sequence of characters that can transparently record internal data. Data written to a binary stream shall always equal the data that gets read out under the same implementation. Binary streams, however, may have an implementation-defined number of null characters appended to the end of the stream. There are no further conventions which need to be considered. Nothing in Unix prevents the program from writing arbitrary 8-bit binary codes to any open file, or reading them back unchanged from an adequate repository. Thus, Unix obliterated the long-standing distinction between text streams and binary streams. == Standard streams == When a C program starts its execution the program automatically opens three standard streams named <code>stdin</code>, <code>stdout</code>, and <code>stderr</code>. These are attached for every C program. The first standard stream is used for input buffering and the other two are used for output. These streams are sequences of bytes. Consider the following program: <syntaxhighlight lang=c> /* An example program. */ int main() { int var; scanf ("%d", &var); /* use stdin for scanning an integer from keyboard. */ printf ("%d", var); /* use stdout for printing the integer that was just scanned in. */ return 0; } /* end program. */ </syntaxhighlight> By default <code>stdin</code> points to the keyboard and <code>stdout</code> and <code>stderr</code> point to the screen. It is possible under Unix and may be possible under other operating systems to redirect input from or output to a file or both. == Pointers to streams == {{Side note|side=right|<small>For historical reasons, the type of the C data structure that represents a stream is called <code>FILE</code> rather than <code>stream</code>.</small>}} The <code><stdio.h></code> header contains a definition for a type <code>FILE</code> (usually via a <code>typedef</code>) which is capable of processing all the information needed to exercise control over a stream, including its file position indicator, a pointer to the associated buffer (if any), an error indicator that records whether a read/write error has occurred, and an end-of-file indicator that records whether the end of the file has been reached. It is considered bad form to access the contents of <code>FILE</code> directly unless the programmer is writing an implementation of <code><stdio.h></code> and its contents. Better access to the contents of <code>FILE</code> is provided via the functions in <code><stdio.h></code>. It can be said that the <code>FILE</code> type is an early example of [[w:Object-oriented programming|object-oriented programming]]. ==Opening and closing Files== To open and close files, the <code><stdio.h></code> library has three functions: <code>fopen</code>, <code>freopen</code>, and <code>fclose</code>. ===Opening Files=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode); FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const char *mode, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> <code>fopen</code> and <code>freopen</code> opens the file whose name is in the string pointed to by <code>filename</code> and associates a stream with it. Both return a pointer to the object controlling the stream, or, if the open operation fails, a null pointer. The error and end-of-file indicators are cleared, and if the open operation fails error is set. <code>freopen</code> differs from <code>fopen</code> in that the file pointed to by <code>stream</code> is closed first when already open and any close errors are ignored. <code>mode</code> for both functions points to a string beginning with one of the following sequences (additional characters may follow the sequences): r open a text file for reading w truncate to zero length or create a text file for writing a append; open or create text file for writing at end-of-file rb open binary file for reading wb truncate to zero length or create a binary file for writing ab append; open or create binary file for writing at end-of-file r+ open text file for update (reading and writing) w+ truncate to zero length or create a text file for update a+ append; open or create text file for update r+b or rb+ open binary file for update (reading and writing) w+b or wb+ truncate to zero length or create a binary file for update a+b or ab+ append; open or create binary file for update Opening a file with read mode ('<code>r</code>' as the first character in the <code>mode</code> argument) fails if the file does not exist or cannot be read. Opening a file with append mode ('<code>a</code>' as the first character in the <code>mode</code> argument) causes all subsequent writes to the file to be forced to the then-current end-of-file, regardless of intervening calls to the <code>fseek</code> function. In some implementations, opening a binary file with append mode ('<code>b</code>' as the second or third character in the above list of <code>mode</code> arguments) may initially position the file position indicator for the stream beyond the last data written, because of null character padding. When a file is opened with update mode ('<code>+</code>' as the second or third character in the above list of <code>mode</code> argument values), both input and output may be performed on the associated stream. However, output may not be directly followed by input without an intervening call to the <code>fflush</code> function or to a file positioning function (<code>fseek</code>, <code>fsetpos</code>, or <code>rewind</code>), and input may not be directly followed by output without an intervening call to a file positioning function, unless the input operation encounters end-of-file. Opening (or creating) a text file with update mode may instead open (or create) a binary stream in some implementations. When opened, a stream is fully buffered if and only if it can be determined not to refer to an interactive device. ===Closing files=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fclose(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fclose</code> function causes the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> to be flushed and the associated file to be closed. Any unwritten buffered data for the stream are delivered to the host environment to be written to the file; any unread buffered data are discarded. The stream is disassociated from the file. If the associated buffer was automatically allocated, it is deallocated. The function returns zero if the stream was successfully closed or <code>EOF</code> if any errors were detected. == Stream buffering functions== ===The <code>fflush</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fflush(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> If <code>stream</code> points to an output stream or an update stream in which the most recent operation was not input, the <code>fflush</code> function causes any unwritten data for that stream to be deferred to the host environment to be written to the file. The behavior of fflush is undefined for input stream. If <code>stream</code> is a null pointer, the <code>fflush</code> function performs this flushing action on all streams for which the behavior is defined above. The <code>fflush</code> functions returns <code>EOF</code> if a write error occurs, otherwise zero. The reason for having a <code>fflush</code> function is because streams in C can have buffered input/output; that is, functions that write to a file actually write to a buffer inside the <code>FILE</code> structure. If the buffer is filled to capacity, the write functions will call <code>fflush</code> to actually "write" the data that is in the buffer to the file. Because <code>fflush</code> is only called every once in a while, calls to the operating system to do a raw write are minimized. ===The <code>setbuf</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void setbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf); </syntaxhighlight> Except that it returns no value, the <code>setbuf</code> function is equivalent to the <code>setvbuf</code> function invoked with the values <code>_IOFBF</code> for <code>mode</code> and <code>BUFSIZ</code> for <code>size</code>, or (if <code>buf</code> is a null pointer) with the value <code>_IONBF</code> for <code>mode</code>. ===The <code>setvbuf</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int setvbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf, int mode, size_t size); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>setvbuf</code> function may be used only after the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> has been associated with an open file and before any other operation is performed on the stream. The argument <code>mode</code> determines how the stream will be buffered, as follows: <code>_IOFBF</code> causes input/output to be fully buffered; <code>_IOLBF</code> causes input/output to be line buffered; <code>_IONBF</code> causes input/output to be unbuffered. If <code>buf</code> is not a null pointer, the array it points to may be used instead of a buffer associated by the <code>setvbuf</code> function. (The buffer must have a lifetime at least as great as the open stream, so the stream should be closed before a buffer that has automatic storage duration is deallocated upon block exit.) The argument <code>size</code> specifies the size of the array. The contents of the array at any time are indeterminate. The <code>setvbuf</code> function returns zero on success, or nonzero if an invalid value is given for <code>mode</code> or if the request cannot be honored. ==Functions that modify the file position indicator== The <code>stdio.h</code> library has five functions that affect the file position indicator besides those that do reading or writing: <code>fgetpos</code>, <code>fseek</code>, <code>fsetpos</code>, <code>ftell</code>, and <code>rewind</code>. The <code>fseek</code> and <code>ftell</code> functions are older than <code>fgetpos</code> and <code>fsetpos</code>. ===The <code>fgetpos</code> and <code>fsetpos</code> functions=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos); int fsetpos(FILE *stream, const fpos_t *pos); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fgetpos</code> function stores the current value of the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> in the object pointed to by <code>pos</code>. The value stored contains unspecified information usable by the <code>fsetpos</code> function for repositioning the stream to its position at the time of the call to the <code>fgetpos</code> function. If successful, the <code>fgetpos</code> function returns zero; on failure, the <code>fgetpos</code> function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-defined positive value in <code>errno</code>. The <code>fsetpos</code> function sets the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> according to the value of the object pointed to by <code>pos</code>, which shall be a value obtained from an earlier call to the <code>fgetpos</code> function on the same stream. A successful call to the <code>fsetpos</code> function clears the end-of-file indicator for the stream and undoes any effects of the <code>ungetc</code> function on the same stream. After an <code>fsetpos</code> call, the next operation on an update stream may be either input or output. If successful, the <code>fsetpos</code> function returns zero; on failure, the <code>fsetpos</code> function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-defined positive value in <code>errno</code>. ===The <code>fseek</code> and <code>ftell</code> functions=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence); long int ftell(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fseek</code> function sets the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. For a binary stream, the new position, measured in characters from the beginning of the file, is obtained by adding <code>offset</code> to the position specified by <code>whence</code>. Three macros in <code>stdio.h</code> called <code>SEEK_SET</code>, <code>SEEK_CUR</code>, and <code>SEEK_END</code> expand to unique values. If the position specified by <code>whence</code> is <code>SEEK_SET</code>, the specified position is the beginning of the file; if <code>whence</code> is <code>SEEK_END</code>, the specified position is the end of the file; and if <code>whence</code> is <code>SEEK_CUR</code>, the specified position is the current file position. A binary stream need not meaningfully support <code>fseek</code> calls with a <code>whence</code> value of <code>SEEK_END</code>. For a text stream, either <code>offset</code> shall be zero, or <code>offset</code> shall be a value returned by an earlier call to the <code>ftell</code> function on the same stream and <code>whence</code> shall be <code>SEEK_SET</code>. The <code>fseek</code> function returns nonzero only for a request that cannot be satisfied. The <code>ftell</code> function obtains the current value of the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. For a binary stream, the value is the number of characters from the beginning of the file; for a text stream, its file position indicator contains unspecified information, usable by the <code>fseek</code> function for returning the file position indicator for the stream to its position at the time of the <code>ftell</code> call; the difference between two such return values is not necessarily a meaningful measure of the number of characters written or read. If successful, the <code>ftell</code> function returns the current value of the file position indicator for the stream. On failure, the <code>ftell</code> function returns <code>-1L</code> and stores an implementation-defined positive value in <code>errno</code>. ===The <code>rewind</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void rewind(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>rewind</code> function sets the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> to the beginning of the file. It is equivalent to (void)fseek(stream, 0L, SEEK_SET) except that the error indicator for the stream is also cleared. ==Error handling functions== ===The <code>clearerr</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void clearerr(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>clearerr</code> function clears the end-of-file and error indicators for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. ===The <code>feof</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int feof(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>feof</code> function tests the end-of-file indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> and returns nonzero if and only if the end-of-file indicator is set for <code>stream</code>, otherwise it returns zero. ===The <code>ferror</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int ferror(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>ferror</code> function tests the error indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> and returns nonzero if and only if the error indicator is set for <code>stream</code>, otherwise it returns zero. ===The <code>perror</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void perror(const char *s); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>perror</code> function maps the error number in the integer expression <code>errno</code> to an error message. It writes a sequence of characters to the standard error stream thus: first, if <code>s</code> is not a null pointer and the character pointed to by <code>s</code> is not the null character, the string pointed to by <code>s</code> followed by a colon (<tt>:</tt>) and a space; then an appropriate error message string followed by a new-line character. The contents of the error message are the same as those returned by the <code>strerror</code> function with the argument <code>errno</code>, which are implementation-defined. ==Other operations on files== The <code>stdio.h</code> library has a variety of functions that do some operation on files besides reading and writing. ===The <code>remove</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int remove(const char *filename); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>remove</code> function causes the file whose name is the string pointed to by <code>filename</code> to be no longer accessible by that name. A subsequent attempt to open that file using that name will fail, unless it is created anew. If the file is open, the behavior of the <code>remove</code> function is implementation-defined. The <code>remove</code> function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzero if it fails. ===The <code>rename</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int rename(const char *old_filename, const char *new_filename); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>rename</code> function causes the file whose name is the string pointed to by <code>old_filename</code> to be henceforth known by the name given by the string pointed to by <code>new_filename</code>. The file named <code>old_filename</code> is no longer accessible by that name. If a file named by the string pointed to by <code>new_filename</code> exists prior to the call to the <code>rename</code> function, the behavior is implementation-defined. The <code>rename</code> function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzero if it fails, in which case if the file existed previously it is still known by its original name. ===The <code>tmpfile</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> FILE *tmpfile(void); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>tmpfile</code> function creates a temporary binary file that will automatically be removed when it is closed or at program termination. If the program terminates abnormally, whether an open temporary file is removed is implementation-defined. The file is opened for update with <code>"wb+"</code> mode. The <code>tmpfile</code> function returns a pointer to the stream of the file that it created. If the file cannot be created, the <code>tmpfile</code> function returns a null pointer. ===The <code>tmpnam</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> char *tmpnam(char *s); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>tmpnam</code> function generates a string that is a valid file name and that is not the name of an existing file. The <code>tmpnam</code> function generates a different string each time it is called, up to <code>TMP_MAX</code> times. (<code>TMP_MAX</code> is a macro defined in <code>stdio.h</code>.) If it is called more than <code>TMP_MAX</code> times, the behavior is implementation-defined. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the <code>tmpnam</code> function. If the argument is a null pointer, the <code>tmpnam</code> function leaves its result in an internal static object and returns a pointer to that object. Subsequent calls to the <code>tmpnam</code> function may modify the same object. If the argument is not a null pointer, it is assumed to point to an array of at least <code>L_tmpnam</code> characters (<code>L_tmpnam</code> is another macro in <code>stdio.h</code>); the <code>tmpnam</code> function writes its result in that array and returns the argument as its value. The value of the macro <code>TMP_MAX</code> must be at least 25. ==Reading from files== ===Character input functions=== ====The <code>fgetc</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fgetc(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fgetc</code> function obtains the next character (if present) as an <code>unsigned char</code> converted to an <code>int</code>, from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>, and advances the associated file position indicator for the stream (if defined). The <code>fgetc</code> function returns the next character from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. If the stream is at end-of-file or a read error occurs, <code>fgetc</code> returns <code>EOF</code> (<code>EOF</code> is a negative value defined in <code><stdio.h></code>, usually <code>(-1)</code>). The routines <code>feof</code> and <code>ferror</code> must be used to distinguish between end-of-file and error. If an error occurs, the global variable <code>errno</code> is set to indicate the error. ====The <code>fgets</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> char *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fgets</code> function reads at most one less than the number of characters specified by <code>n</code> from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> into the array pointed to by <code>s</code>. No additional characters are read after a new-line character (which is retained) or after end-of-file. A null character is written immediately after the last character read into the array. The <code>fgets</code> function returns <code>s</code> if successful. If end-of-file is encountered and no characters have been read into the array, the contents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned. If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents are indeterminate and a null pointer is returned. Warning: Different operating systems may use different character sequences to represent the end-of-line sequence. For example, some filesystems use the terminator <code>\r\n</code> in text files; <code>fgets</code> may read those lines, removing the <code>\n</code> but keeping the <code>\r</code> as the last character of <code>s</code>. This expurious character should be removed in the string <code>s</code> before the string is used for anything (unless the programmer doesn't care about it). Unixes typically use <code>\n</code> as its end-of-line sequence, MS-DOS and Windows uses <code>\r\n</code>, and Mac OSes used <code>\r</code> before OS X. Many compilers on operating systems other than Unix or Linux map newline sequences to <code>\n</code> on input for text files; check your compiler's documentation to discover what it does in this situation. <syntaxhighlight lang=c> /* An example program that reads from stdin and writes to stdout */ #include <stdio.h> #define BUFFER_SIZE 100 int main(void) { char buffer[BUFFER_SIZE]; /* a read buffer */ while( fgets (buffer, BUFFER_SIZE, stdin) != NULL) { printf("%s",buffer); } return 0; } /* end program. */ </syntaxhighlight> ====The <code>getc</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang=C> #include <stdio.h> int getc(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>getc</code> function is equivalent to <code>fgetc</code>, except that it may be implemented as a macro. If it is implemented as a macro, the <code>stream</code> argument may be evaluated more than once, so the argument should never be an expression with side effects (i.e. have an assignment, increment, or decrement operators, or be a function call). The <code>getc</code> function returns the next character from the input stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. If the stream is at end-of-file, the end-of-file indicator for the stream is set and <code>getc</code> returns <code>EOF</code> (<code>EOF</code> is a negative value defined in <code><stdio.h></code>, usually <code>(-1)</code>). If a read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and <code>getc</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>getchar</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> int getchar(void); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>getchar</code> function is equivalent to <code>getc</code> with the argument <code>stdin</code>. The <code>getchar</code> function returns the next character from the input stream pointed to by <code>stdin</code>. If <code>stdin</code> is at end-of-file, the end-of-file indicator for <code>stdin</code> is set and <code>getchar</code> returns <code>EOF</code> (<code>EOF</code> is a negative value defined in <code><stdio.h></code>, usually <code>(-1)</code>). If a read error occurs, the error indicator for <code>stdin</code> is set and <code>getchar</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>gets</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> char *gets(char *s); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>gets</code> function reads characters from the input stream pointed to by <code>stdin</code> into the array pointed to by <code>s</code> until an end-of-file is encountered or a new-line character is read. Any new-line character is discarded, and a null character is written immediately after the last character read into the array. The <code>gets</code> function returns <code>s</code> if successful. If the end-of-file is encountered and no characters have been read into the array, the contents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned. If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents are indeterminate and a null pointer is returned. This function and description is only included here for completeness. Most C programmers nowadays shy away from using <code>gets</code>, as there is no way for the function to know how big the buffer is that the programmer wants to read into. Commandment #5 of [[w:Henry Spencer | Henry Spencer]]'s ''The Ten Commandments for C Programmers (Annotated Edition)'' reads {{Quote |text=Thou shalt check the array bounds of all strings (indeed, all arrays), for surely where thou typest ''foo'' someone someday shall type ''supercalifragilisticexpialidocious''. }} It mentions <code>gets</code> in the annotation: {{Quote |text=As demonstrated by the deeds of the Great Worm, a consequence of this commandment is that robust production software should never make use of <code>gets()</code>, for it is truly a tool of the Devil. Thy interfaces should always inform thy servants of the bounds of thy arrays, and servants who spurn such advice or quietly fail to follow it should be dispatched forthwith to the Land Of Rm, where they can do no further harm to thee. }} Before the 2018 version of the C standard, the <code>gets</code> function was deprecated. It is hoped that programmers would use the <code>fgets</code> function instead. ====The <code>ungetc</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> int ungetc(int c, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>ungetc</code> function pushes the character specified by <code>c</code> (converted to an <code>unsigned char</code>) back onto the input stream pointed to by stream. The pushed-back characters will be returned by subsequent reads on that stream in the reverse order of their pushing. A successful intervening call (with the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>) to a file-positioning function (<code>fseek</code>, <code>fsetpos</code>, or <code>rewind</code>) discards any pushed-back characters for the stream. The external storage corresponding to the stream is unchanged. One character of pushback is guaranteed. If the <code>ungetc</code> function is called too many times on the same stream without an intervening read or file positioning operation on that stream, the operation may fail. If the value of <code>c</code> equals that of the macro <code>EOF</code>, the operation fails and the input stream is unchanged. A successful call to the <code>ungetc</code> function clears the end-of-file indicator for the stream. The value of the file position indicator for the stream after reading or discarding all pushed-back characters shall be the same as it was before the characters were pushed back. For a text stream, the value of its file-position indicator after a successful call to the <code>ungetc</code> function is unspecified until all pushed-back characters are read or discarded. For a binary stream, its file position indicator is decremented by each successful call to the <code>ungetc</code> function; if its value was zero before a call, it is indeterminate after the call. The <code>ungetc</code> function returns the character pushed back after conversion, or <code>EOF</code> if the operation fails. ===EOF pitfall=== A mistake when using <code>fgetc</code>, <code>getc</code>, or <code>getchar</code> is to assign the result to a variable of type <code>char</code> ''before'' comparing it to <code>EOF</code>. The following code fragments exhibit this mistake, and then show the correct approach (using type int): {| width="80%" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; ; margin: auto;" ! Mistake ! Correction |- | <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> char c; while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) putchar(c); </syntaxhighlight> | <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> int c; while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) putchar(c); </syntaxhighlight> |} Consider a system in which the type <code>char</code> is 8&nbsp;bits wide, representing 256&nbsp;different values. <code>getchar</code> may return any of the 256&nbsp;possible characters, and it also may return <code>EOF</code> to indicate [[end-of-file]], for a total of 257 different possible return values. When <code>getchar</code>'s result is assigned to a <code>char</code>, which can represent only 256 different values, there is necessarily some loss of information—when packing 257&nbsp;items into 256&nbsp;slots, there [[Pigeonhole principle|must be a collision]]. The <code>EOF</code> value, when converted to <code>char</code>, becomes indistinguishable from whichever one of the 256 characters shares its numerical value. If that character is found in the file, the above example may mistake it for an end-of-file indicator; or, just as bad, if type <code>char</code> is unsigned, then because <code>EOF</code> is negative, it can never be equal to any unsigned <code>char</code>, so the above example will not terminate at end-of-file. It will loop forever, repeatedly printing the character which results from converting <code>EOF</code> to <code>char</code>. However, this looping failure mode does not occur if the char definition is signed (C makes the signedness of the default char type implementation-dependent),<ref>C99 §6.2.5/15</ref> assuming the commonly used [[End-of-file|<code>EOF</code> value of -1]]. However, the fundamental issue remains that if the <code>EOF</code> value is defined outside of the range of the <code>char</code> type, when assigned to a <code>char</code> that value is sliced and will no longer match the full <code>EOF</code> value necessary to exit the loop. On the other hand, if <code>EOF</code> is within range of <code>char</code>, this guarantees a collision between <code>EOF</code> and a char value. Thus, regardless of how system types are defined, never use <code>char</code> types when testing against <code>EOF</code>. On systems where <code>int</code> and <code>char</code> are the same size (i.e., systems incompatible with minimally the POSIX and C99 standards), even the "good" example will suffer from the indistinguishability of <code>EOF</code> and some character's value. The proper way to handle this situation is to check <code>[[feof]]</code> and <code>[[ferror]]</code> after <code>getchar</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. If <code>feof</code> indicates that end-of-file has not been reached, and <code>ferror</code> indicates that no errors have occurred, then the <code>EOF</code> returned by <code>getchar</code> can be assumed to represent an actual character. These extra checks are rarely done, because most programmers assume that their code will never need to run on one of these "big <code>char</code>" systems. Another way is to use a compile-time assertion to make sure that <code>UINT_MAX > UCHAR_MAX</code>, which at least prevents a program with such an assumption from compiling in such a system. ===Direct input function: the <code>fread</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fread</code> function reads, into the array pointed to by <code>ptr</code>, up to <code>nmemb</code> elements whose size is specified by <code>size</code>, from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. The file position indicator for the stream (if defined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully read. If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicator for the stream is indeterminate. If a partial element is read, its value is indeterminate. The <code>fread</code> function returns the number of elements successfully read, which may be less than <code>nmemb</code> if a read error or end-of-file is encountered. If <code>size</code> or <code>nmemb</code> is zero, <code>fread</code> returns zero and the contents of the array and the state of the stream remain unchanged. ===Formatted input functions: the <code>scanf</code> family of functions=== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...); int scanf(const char *format, ...); int sscanf(const char *s, const char *format, ...); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fscanf</code> function reads input from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>, under control of the string pointed to by <code>format</code> that specifies the admissible sequences and how they are to be converted for assignment, using subsequent arguments as pointers to the objects to receive converted input. If there are insufficient arguments for the format, the behavior is undefined. If the format is exhausted while arguments remain, the excess arguments are evaluated (as always) but are otherwise ignored. The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and ending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero or more directives: one or more white-space characters; an ordinary multibyte character (neither <tt>%</tt> or a white-space character); or a conversion specification. Each conversion specification is introduced by the character <tt>%</tt>. After the <tt>%</tt>, the following appear in sequence: *An optional assignment-suppressing character <tt>*</tt>. *An optional nonzero decimal integer that specifies the maximum field width. *An optional <tt>h</tt>, <tt>l</tt> (ell) or <tt>L</tt> indicating the size of the receiving object. The conversion specifiers <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, and <tt>n</tt> shall be preceded by <tt>h</tt> if the corresponding argument is a pointer to <code>short int</code> rather than a pointer to <code>int</code>, or by <tt>l</tt> if it is a pointer to <code>long int</code>. Similarly, the conversion specifiers <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, and <tt>x</tt> shall be preceded by <tt>h</tt> if the corresponding argument is a pointer to <code>unsigned short int</code> rather than <code>unsigned int</code>, or by <tt>l</tt> if it is a pointer to <code>unsigned long int</code>. Finally, the conversion specifiers <tt>e</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, and <tt>g</tt> shall be preceded by <tt>l</tt> if the corresponding argument is a pointer to <code>double</code> rather than a pointer to <code>float</code>, or by <tt>L</tt> if it is a pointer to <code>long double</code>. If an <tt>h</tt>, <tt>l</tt>, or <tt>L</tt> appears with any other format specifier, the behavior is undefined. *A character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied. The valid conversion specifiers are described below. The <code>fscanf</code> function executes each directive of the format in turn. If a directive fails, as detailed below, the <code>fscanf</code> function returns. Failures are described as input failures (due to the unavailability of input characters) or matching failures (due to inappropriate input). A directive composed of white-space character(s) is executed by reading input up to the first non-white-space character (which remains unread) or until no more characters remain unread. A directive that is an ordinary multibyte character is executed by reading the next characters of the stream. If one of the characters differs from one comprising the directive, the directive fails, and the differing and subsequent characters remain unread. A directive that is a conversion specification defines a set of matching input sequences, as described below for each specifier. A conversion specification is executed in the following steps: Input white-space characters (as specified by the <code>isspace</code> function) are skipped, unless the specification includes a <tt>[</tt>, <tt>c</tt>, or <tt>n</tt> specifier. (The white-space characters are not counted against the specified field width.) An input item is read from the stream, unless the specification includes an <tt>n</tt> specifier. An input item is defined as the longest matching sequences of input characters, unless that exceeds a specified field width, in which case it is the initial subsequence of that length in the sequence. The first character, if any, after the input item remains unread. If the length of the input item is zero, the execution of the directive fails; this condition is a matching failure, unless an error prevented input from the stream, in which case it is an input failure. Except in the case of a <tt>%</tt> specifier, the input item (or, in the case of a <tt>%n</tt> directive, the count of input characters) is converted to a type appropriate to the conversion specifier. If the input item is not a matching sequence, the execution of the directive fails; this condition is a matching failure. Unless assignment suppression was indicated by a <tt>*</tt>, the result of the conversion is placed in the object pointed to by the first argument following the <code>format</code> argument that has not already received a conversion result. If this object does not have an appropriate type, or if the result of the conversion cannot be represented in the space provided, the behavior is undefined. The following conversion specifiers are valid: ; <tt>d</tt> : Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtol</code> function with the value 10 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer. ; <tt>i</tt> : Matches an optionally signed integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtol</code> function with the value 0 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer. ; <tt>o</tt> : Matches an optionally signed octal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtoul</code> function with the value 8 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer. ; <tt>u</tt> : Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtoul</code> function with the value 10 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer. ; <tt>x</tt> : Matches an optionally signed hexadecimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtoul</code> function with the value 16 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer. ; <tt>e</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>g</tt> : Matches an optionally signed floating-point number, whose format is the same as expected for the subject string of the <code>strtod</code> function. The corresponding argument will be a pointer to floating. ; <tt>s</tt> : Matches a sequence of non-white-space characters. (No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.) The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence and a terminating null character, which will be added automatically. ; <tt>[</tt> : Matches a nonempty sequence of characters (no special provisions are made for multibyte characters) from a set of expected characters (the <i>scanset</i>). The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence and a terminating null character, which will be added automatically. The conversion specifier includes all subsequent characters in the <code>format</code> string, up to and including the matching right bracket (<tt>]</tt>). The characters between the brackets (the <i>scanlist</i>) comprise the scanset, unless the character after the left bracket is a circumflex (<tt>^</tt>), in which case the scanset contains all the characters that do not appear in the scanlist between the circumflex and the right bracket. If the conversion specifier begins with <tt>[]</tt> or <tt>[^]</tt>, the right-bracket character is in the scanlist and the next right bracket character is the matching right bracket that ends the specification; otherwise, the first right bracket character is the one that ends the specification. If a <tt>-</tt> character is in the scanlist and is not the first, nor the second where the first character is a <tt>^</tt>, nor the last character, the behavior is implementation-defined. ; <tt>c</tt> : Matches a sequence of characters (no special provisions are made for multibyte characters) of the number specified by the field width (1 if no field width is present in the directive). The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence. No null character is added. ; <tt>p</tt> : Matches an implementation-defined set of sequences, which should be the same as the set of sequences that may be produced by the <tt>%p</tt> conversion of the <code>fprintf</code> function. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to <code>void</code>. The interpretation of the input then is implementation-defined. If the input item is a value converted earlier during the same program execution, the pointer that results shall compare equal to that value; otherwise the behavior of the <tt>%p</tt> conversion is undefined. ; <tt>n</tt> : No input is consumed. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer into which is to be written the number of characters read from the input stream so far by this call to the <code>fscanf</code> function. Execution of a <tt>%n</tt> directive does not increment the assignment count returned at the completion of execution of the <code>fscanf</code> function. ; <tt>%</tt> : Matches a single <tt>%</tt>; no conversion or assignment occurs. The complete conversion specification shall be <tt>%%</tt>. If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior is undefined. The conversion specifiers <tt>E</tt>, <tt>G</tt>, and <tt>X</tt> are also valid and behave the same as, respectively, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>x</tt>. If end-of-file is encountered during input, conversion is terminated. If end-of-file occurs before any characters matching the current directive have been read (other than leading white space, where permitted), execution of the current directive terminates with an input failure; otherwise, unless execution of the current directive is terminated with a matching failure, execution of the following directive (if any) is terminated with an input failure. If conversion terminates on a conflicting input character, the offending input character is left unread in the input stream. Trailing white space (including new-line characters) is left unread unless matched by a directive. The success of literal matches and suppressed assignments is not directly determinable other than via the <tt>%n</tt> directive. The <code>fscanf</code> function returns the value of the macro <code>EOF</code> if an input failure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the <code>fscanf</code> function returns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer than provided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure. The <code>scanf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fscanf</code> with the argument <code>stdin</code> interposed before the arguments to <code>scanf</code>. Its return value is similar to that of <code>fscanf</code>. The <code>sscanf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fscanf</code>, except that the argument <code>s</code> specifies a string from which the input is to be obtained, rather than from a stream. Reaching the end of the string is equivalent to encountering the end-of-file for the <code>fscanf</code> function. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. ==Writing to files== ===Character output functions=== ====The <code>fputc</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int fputc(int c, FILE *stream); The <code>fputc</code> function writes the character specified by <code>c</code> (converted to an <code>unsigned char</code>) to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> at the position indicated by the associated file position indicator (if defined), and advances the indicator appropriately. If the file cannot support positioning requests, or if the stream is opened with append mode, the character is appended to the output stream. The function returns the character written, unless a write error occurs, in which case the error indicator for the stream is set and <code>fputc</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>fputs</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream); The <code>fputs</code> function writes the string pointed to by <code>s</code> to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. The terminating null character is not written. The function returns <code>EOF</code> if a write error occurs, otherwise it returns a nonnegative value. ====The <code>putc</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int putc(int c, FILE *stream); The <code>putc</code> function is equivalent to <code>fputc</code>, except that if it is implemented as a macro, it may evaluate <code>stream</code> more than once, so the argument should never be an expression with side effects. The function returns the character written, unless a write error occurs, in which case the error indicator for the stream is set and the function returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>putchar</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int putchar(int c); The <code>putchar</code> function is equivalent to <code>putc</code> with the second argument <code>stdout</code>. It returns the character written, unless a write error occurs, in which case the error indicator for <code>stdout</code> is set and the function returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>puts</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int puts(const char *s); The <code>puts</code> function writes the string pointed to by <code>s</code> to the stream pointed to by <code>stdout</code>, and appends a new-line character to the output. The terminating null character is not written. The function returns <code>EOF</code> if a write error occurs; otherwise, it returns a nonnegative value. ===Direct output function: the <code>fwrite</code> function=== #include <stdio.h> size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream); The <code>fwrite</code> function writes, from the array pointed to by <code>ptr</code>, up to <code>nmemb</code> elements whose size is specified by <code>size</code> to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. The file position indicator for the stream (if defined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully written. If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicator for the stream is indeterminate. The function returns the number of elements successfully written, which will be less than <code>nmemb</code> only if a write error is encountered. ===Formatted output functions: the <code>printf</code> family of functions=== #include <stdarg.h> #include <stdio.h> int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...); int printf(const char *format, ...); int sprintf(char *s, const char *format, ...); int vfprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, va_list arg); int vprintf(const char *format, va_list arg); int vsprintf(char *s, const char *format, va_list arg); ''Note: Some length specifiers and format specifiers are new in C99. These may not be available in older compilers and versions of the stdio library, which adhere to the C89/C90 standard. Wherever possible, the new ones will be marked with (C99).'' The <code>fprintf</code> function writes output to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> under control of the string pointed to by <code>format</code> that specifies how subsequent arguments are converted for output. If there are insufficient arguments for the format, the behavior is undefined. If the format is exhausted while arguments remain, the excess arguments are evaluated (as always) but are otherwise ignored. The <code>fprintf </code> function returns when the end of the format string is encountered. The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and ending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero or more directives: ordinary multibyte characters (not <tt>%</tt>), which are copied unchanged to the output stream; and conversion specifications, each of which results in fetching zero or more subsequent arguments, converting them, if applicable, according to the corresponding conversion specifier, and then writing the result to the output stream. Each conversion specification is introduced by the character <tt>%</tt>. After the <tt>%</tt>, the following appear in sequence: * Zero or more flags (in any order) that modify the meaning of the conversion specification. * An optional minimum field width. If the converted value has fewer characters than the field width, it is padded with spaces (by default) on the left (or right, if the left adjustment flag, described later, has been given) to the field width. The field width takes the form of an asterisk <tt>*</tt> (described later) or a decimal integer. (Note that 0 is taken as a flag, not as the beginning of a field width.) *An optional precision that gives the minimum number of digits to appear for the <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, and <tt>X</tt> conversions, the number of digits to appear after the decimal-point character for <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, and <tt>F</tt> conversions, the maximum number of significant digits for the <tt>g</tt> and <tt>G</tt> conversions, or the maximum number of characters to be written from a string in <tt>s</tt> conversions. The precision takes the form of a period (<tt>.</tt>) followed either by an asterisk <tt>*</tt> (described later) or by an optional decimal integer; if only the period is specified, the precision is taken as zero. If a precision appears with any other conversion specifier, the behavior is undefined. Floating-point numbers are ''rounded'' to fit the precision; i.e. <tt>printf("%1.1f\n", 1.19);</tt> produces <tt>1.2</tt>. * An optional length modifier that specifies the size of the argument. * A conversion specifier character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied. As noted above, a field width, or precision, or both, may be indicated by an asterisk. In this case, an <code>int</code> argument supplies the field width or precision. The arguments specifying field width, or precision, or both, shall appear (in that order) before the argument (if any) to be converted. A negative field width argument is taken as a <tt>-</tt> flag followed by a positive field width. A negative precision argument is taken as if the precision were omitted. The flag characters and their meanings are: ; <tt>-</tt> : The result of the conversion is left-justified within the field. (It is right-justified if this flag is not specified.) ; <tt>+</tt> : The result of a signed conversion always begins with a plus or minus sign. (It begins with a sign only when a negative value is converted if this flag is not specified. The results of all floating conversions of a negative zero, and of negative values that round to zero, include a minus sign.) ; <i>space</i> : If the first character of a signed conversion is not a sign, or if a signed conversion results in no characters, a space is prefixed to the result. If the space and <tt>+</tt> flags both appear, the space flag is ignored. ; <tt>#</tt> : The result is converted to an "alternative form". For <tt>o</tt> conversion, it increases the precision, if and only if necessary, to force the first digit of the result to be a zero (if the value and precision are both 0, a single 0 is printed). For <tt>x</tt> (or <tt>X</tt>) conversion, a nonzero result has <tt>0x</tt> (or <tt>0X</tt>) prefixed to it. For <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>G</tt> conversions, the result always contains a decimal-point character, even if no digits follow it. (Normally, a decimal-point character appears in the result of these conversions only if a digit follows it.) For <tt>g</tt> and <tt>G</tt> conversions, trailing zeros are not removed from the result. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined. ; <tt>0</tt> : For <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, <tt>X</tt>, <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>G</tt> conversions, leading zeros (following any indication of sign or base) are used to pad to the field width; no space padding is performed. If the <tt>0</tt> and <tt>-</tt> flags both appear, the <tt>0</tt> flag is ignored. For <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, and <tt>X</tt> conversions, if a precision is specified, the <tt>0</tt> flag is ignored. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined. The length modifiers and their meanings are: ; <tt>hh</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>signed char</code> or <code>unsigned char</code> argument (the argument will have been promoted according to the integer promotions, but its value shall be converted to <code>signed char</code> or <code>unsigned char</code> before printing); or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>signed char</code> argument. ; <tt>h</tt> : Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>short int</code> or <code>unsigned short int</code> argument (the argument will have been promoted according to the integer promotions, but its value shall be converted to <code>short int</code> or <code>unsigned short int</code> before printing); or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>short int</code> argument. ; <tt>l</tt> (ell) : Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>long int</code> or <code>unsigned long int</code> argument; that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>long int</code> argument; (C99) that a following <tt>c</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>wint_t</code> argument; (C99) that a following <tt>s</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>wchar_t</code> argument; or has no effect on a following <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, or <tt>G</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>ll</tt> (ell-ell) : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>long long int</code> or <code>unsigned long long int</code> argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>long long int</code> argument. ; <tt>j</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to an <code>intmax_t</code> or <code>uintmax_t</code> argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to an <code>intmax_t</code> argument. ; <tt>z</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>size_t</code> or the corresponding signed integer type argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a signed integer type corresponding to <code>size_t</code> argument. ; <tt>t</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>ptrdiff_t</code> or the corresponding unsigned integer type argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>ptrdiff_t</code> argument. ; <tt>L</tt> : Specifies that a following <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, or <tt>G</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>long double</code> argument. If a length modifier appears with any conversion specifier other than as specified above, the behavior is undefined. The conversion specifiers and their meanings are: ; <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt> : The <code>int</code> argument is converted to signed decimal in the style <i>[</i><tt><b>−</b></tt><i>]dddd</i>. The precision specifies the minimum number of digits to appear; if the value being converted can be represented in fewer digits, it is expanded with leading zeros. The default precision is 1. The result of converting a zero value with a precision of zero is no characters. ; <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, <tt>X</tt> : The <code>unsigned int</code> argument is converted to unsigned octal (<tt>o</tt>), unsigned decimal (<tt>u</tt>), or unsigned hexadecimal notation (<tt>x</tt> or <tt>X</tt>) in the style <i>dddd</i>; the letters <tt><b>abcdef</b></tt> are used for <tt>x</tt> conversion and the letters <tt><b>ABCDEF</b></tt> for <tt>X</tt> conversion. The precision specifies the minimum number of digits to appear; if the value being converted can be represented in fewer digits, it is expanded with leading zeros. The default precision is 1. The result of converting a zero value with a precision of zero is no characters. ; <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt> : A <code>double</code> argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted to decimal notation in the style <i>[</i><tt>−</tt><i>]ddd</i><tt>.</tt><i>ddd</i>, where the number of digits after the decimal-point character is equal to the precision specification. If the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is zero and the <tt>#</tt> flag is not specified, no decimal-point character appears. If a decimal-point character appears, at least one digit appears before it. The value is rounded to the appropriate number of digits.<br>(C99) A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity is converted in one of the styles <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>inf</tt> or <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>infinity</tt> &mdash; which style is implementation-defined. A double argument representing a NaN is converted in one of the styles <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>nan</tt> or <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>nan(</tt><i>n-char-sequence</i><tt>)</tt> &mdash; which style, and the meaning of any <i>n-char-sequence</i>, is implementation-defined. The <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier produces <tt>INF</tt>, <tt>INFINITY</tt>, or <tt>NAN</tt> instead of <tt>inf</tt>, <tt>infinity</tt>, or <tt>nan</tt>, respectively. (When applied to infinite and NaN values, the <tt>-</tt>, <tt>+</tt>, and <i>space</i> flags have their usual meaning; the <tt>#</tt> and <tt>0</tt> flags have no effect.) ; <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt> : A <code>double</code> argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted in the style <i>[</i><tt>−</tt><i>]d</i><tt>.</tt><i>ddd</i><tt>e&plusmn;</tt><i>dd</i>, where there is one digit (which is nonzero if the argument is nonzero) before the decimal-point character and the number of digits after it is equal to the precision; if the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is zero and the <tt>#</tt> flag is not specified, no decimal-point character appears. The value is rounded to the appropriate number of digits. The <tt>E</tt> conversion specifier produces a number with <tt>E</tt> instead of <tt>e</tt> introducing the exponent. The exponent always contains at least two digits, and only as many more digits as necessary to represent the exponent. If the value is zero, the exponent is zero.<br>(C99) A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity or NaN is converted in the style of an <tt>f</tt> or <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>g</tt>, <tt>G</tt> : A <code>double</code> argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted in style <tt>f</tt> or <tt>e</tt> (or in style <tt>F</tt> or <tt>E</tt> in the case of a <tt>G</tt> conversion specifier), with the precision specifying the number of significant digits. If the precision is zero, it is taken as 1. The style used depends on the value converted; style <tt>e</tt> (or <tt>E</tt>) is used only if the exponent resulting from such a conversion is less than &ndash;4 or greater than or equal to the precision. Trailing zeros are removed from the fractional portion of the result unless the <tt>#</tt> flag is specified; a decimal-point character appears only if it is followed by a digit.<br>(C99) A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity or NaN is converted in the style of an <tt>f</tt> or <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt> : (C99) A double argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted in the style <i>[</i><tt>−</tt><i>]</i><tt>0x</tt><i>h</i><tt>.</tt><i>hhhh</i><tt>p&plusmn;</tt><i>d</i>, where there is one hexadecimal digit (which is nonzero if the argument is a normalized floating-point number and is otherwise unspecified) before the decimal-point character (Binary implementations can choose the hexadecimal digit to the left of the decimal-point character so that subsequent digits align to nibble [4-bit] boundaries.) and the number of hexadecimal digits after it is equal to the precision; if the precision is missing and <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is a power of 2, then the precision is sufficient for an exact representation of the value; if the precision is missing and <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is not a power of 2, then the precision is sufficient to distinguish (The precision <i>p</i> is sufficient to distinguish values of the source type if 16^{<i>p</i>&ndash;1} > <i>bⁿ</i> where <i>b</i> is <code>FLT_RADIX</code> and <i>n</i> is the number of base-<i>b</i> digits in the significand of the source type. A smaller <i>p</i> might suffice depending on the implementation's scheme for determining the digit to the left of the decimal-point character.) values of type <code>double</code>, except that trailing zeros may be omitted; if the precision is zero and the <tt>#</tt> flag is not specified, no decimal-point character appears. The letters <tt><b>abcdef</b></tt> are used for <tt>a</tt> conversion and the letters <tt><b>ABCDEF</b></tt> for <tt>A</tt> conversion. The <tt>A</tt> conversion specifier produces a number with <tt>X</tt> and <tt>P</tt> instead of <tt>x</tt> and <tt>p</tt>. The exponent always contains at least one digit, and only as many more digits as necessary to represent the decimal exponent of 2. If the value is zero, the exponent is zero.<br>A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity or NaN is converted in the style of an <tt>f</tt> or <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>c</tt> : If no <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the <code>int</code> argument is converted to an <code>unsigned char</code>, and the resulting character is written.<br>(C99) If an <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the <code>wint_t</code> argument is converted as if by an <tt>ls</tt> conversion specification with no precision and an argument that points to the initial element of a two-element array of <code>wchar_t</code>, the first element containing the <code>wint_t</code> argument to the <tt>lc</tt> conversion specification and the second a null wide character. ; <tt>s</tt> : If no <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the argument shall be a pointer to the initial element of an array of character type. (No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.) Characters from the array are written up to (but not including) the terminating null character. If the precision is specified, no more than that many characters are written. If the precision is not specified or is greater than the size of the array, the array shall contain a null character.<br>(C99) If an <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the argument shall be a pointer to the initial element of an array of <code>wchar_t</code> type. Wide characters from the array are converted to multibyte characters (each as if by a call to the <code>wcrtomb</code> function, with the conversion state described by an <code>mbstate_t</code> object initialized to zero before the first wide character is converted) up to and including a terminating null wide character. The resulting multibyte characters are written up to (but not including) the terminating null character (byte). If no precision is specified, the array shall contain a null wide character. If a precision is specified, no more than that many characters (bytes) are written (including shift sequences, if any), and the array shall contain a null wide character if, to equal the multibyte character sequence length given by the precision, the function would need to access a wide character one past the end of the array. In no case is a partial multibyte character written. (Redundant shift sequences may result if multibyte characters have a state-dependent encoding.) ; <tt>p</tt> : The argument shall be a pointer to <code>void</code>. The value of the pointer is converted to a sequence of printable characters, in an implementation-defined manner. ; <tt>n</tt> : The argument shall be a pointer to signed integer into which is written the number of characters written to the output stream so far by this call to <code>fprintf</code>. No argument is converted, but one is consumed. If the conversion specification includes any flags, a field width, or a precision, the behavior is undefined. ; <tt>%</tt> : A <tt>%</tt> character is written. No argument is converted. The complete conversion specification shall be <tt>%%</tt>. If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior is undefined. If any argument is not the correct type for the corresponding coversion specification, the behavior is undefined. In no case does a nonexistent or small field width cause truncation of a field; if the result of a conversion is wider than the field width, the field is expanded to contain the conversion result. For <tt>a</tt> and <tt>A</tt> conversions, if <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is a power of 2, the value is correctly rounded to a hexadecimal floating number with the given precision. It is recommended practice that if <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is not a power of 2, the result should be one of the two adjacent numbers in hexadecimal floating style with the given precision, with the extra stipulation that the error should have a correct sign for the current rounding direction. It is recommended practice that for <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>G</tt> conversions, if the number of significant decimal digits is at most <code>DECIMAL_DIG</code>, then the result should be correctly rounded. (For binary-to-decimal conversion, the result format's values are the numbers representable with the given format specifier. The number of significant digits is determined by the format specifier, and in the case of fixed-point conversion by the source value as well.) If the number of significant decimal digits is more than <code>DECIMAL_DIG</code> but the source value is exactly representable with <code>DECIMAL_DIG</code> digits, then the result should be an exact representation with trailing zeros. Otherwise, the source value is bounded by two adjacent decimal strings <i>L < U</i>, both having <tt>DECIMAL_DIG</tt> significant digits; the value of the resultant decimal string <i>D</i> should satisfy <i>L &le; D &le; U</i>, with the extra stipulation that the error should have a correct sign for the current rounding direction. The <code>fprintf</code> function returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output or encoding error occurred. The <code>printf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fprintf</code> with the argument <code>stdout</code> interposed before the arguments to <code>printf</code>. It returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output error occurred. The <code>sprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fprintf</code>, except that the argument <code>s</code> specifies an array into which the generated input is to be written, rather than to a stream. A null character is written at the end of the characters written; it is not counted as part of the returned sum. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. The function returns the number of characters written in the array, not counting the terminating null character. The <code>vfprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fprintf</code>, with the variable argument list replaced by <code>arg</code>, which shall have been initialized by the <code>va_start</code> macro (and possibly subsequent <code>va_arg</code> calls). The <code>vfprintf</code> function does not invoke the <code>va_end</code> macro. The function returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output error occurred. The <code>vprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>printf</code>, with the variable argument list replaced by <code>arg</code>, which shall have been initialized by the <code>va_start</code> macro (and possibly subsequent <code>va_arg</code> calls). The <code>vprintf</code> function does not invoke the <code>va_end</code> macro. The function returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output error occurred. The <code>vsprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>sprintf</code>, with the variable argument list replaced by <code>arg</code>, which shall have been initialized by the <code>va_start</code> macro (and possibly subsequent <code>va_arg</code> calls). The <code>vsprintf</code> function does not invoke the <code>va_end</code> macro. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. The function returns the number of characters written into the array, not counting the terminating null character. ==References== {{reflist}} {{Nav}} [[fr:Programmation C/Entrées/sorties]] [[pl:C/Czytanie i pisanie do plików]] g6rsy6etq4g1rz6vs0g0yrtipr6cdq8 4653990 4653988 2026-07-11T12:29:13Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/TenshiBot|TenshiBot]] ([[User talk:TenshiBot|talk]]) to last version by Alexey Vazhnov 4598713 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} ==Introduction== The <code>stdio.h</code> header declares a broad assortment of functions that perform input and output to files and devices such as the console. It was one of the earliest headers to appear in the C library. It declares more functions than any other standard header and also requires more explanation because of the complex machinery that underlies the functions. The device-independent model of input and output has seen dramatic improvement over the years and has received little recognition for its success. FORTRAN II was touted as a machine-independent language in the 1960s, yet it was essentially impossible to move a FORTRAN program between architectures without some change. In FORTRAN II, you named the device you were talking to right in the FORTRAN statement in the middle of your FORTRAN code. So, you said <code>READ INPUT TAPE 5</code> on a tape-oriented IBM 7090 but <code>READ CARD</code> to read a card image on other machines. FORTRAN IV had more generic <code>READ</code> and <code>WRITE</code> statements, specifying a ''logical unit number'' (LUN) instead of the device name. The era of device-independent I/O had dawned. Peripheral devices such as printers still had fairly strong notions about what they were asked to do. And then, ''peripheral interchange'' utilities were invented to handle bizarre devices. When cathode-ray tubes came onto the scene, each manufacturer of consoles solved problems such as console cursor movement in an independent manner, causing further headaches. It was into this atmosphere that Unix was born. Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, the developers of Unix, deserve credit for packing any number of bright ideas into the operating system. Their approach to device independence was one of the brightest. The ANSI C <code><stdio.h></code> library is based on the original Unix file I/O primitives but casts a wider net to accommodate the least-common denominator across varied systems. ==Streams== Input and output, whether to or from physical devices such as terminals and tape drives, or whether to or from files supported on structured storage devices, are mapped into logical data streams, whose properties are more uniform than their various inputs and outputs. Two forms of mapping are supported: text streams and binary streams. A text stream consists of one or more lines. A line in a text stream consists of zero or more characters plus a terminating new-line character. (The only exception is that in some implementations the last line of a file does not require a terminating new-line character.) Unix adopted a standard internal format for all text streams. Each line of text is terminated by a new-line character. That's what any program expects when it reads text, and that's what any program produces when it writes text. (This is the most basic convention, and if it doesn't meet the needs of a text-oriented peripheral attached to a Unix machine, then the fix-up occurs out at the edges of the system. Nothing in between needs to change.) The string of characters that go into, or come out of a text stream may have to be modified to conform to specific conventions. This results in a possible difference between the data that go into a text stream and the data that come out. For instance, in some implementations when a space-character precedes a new-line character in the input, the space character gets removed out of the output. In general, when the data only consists of printable characters and control characters like horizontal tab and new-line, the input and output of a text stream are equal. Compared to a text stream, a binary stream is pretty straight forward. A binary stream is an ordered sequence of characters that can transparently record internal data. Data written to a binary stream shall always equal the data that gets read out under the same implementation. Binary streams, however, may have an implementation-defined number of null characters appended to the end of the stream. There are no further conventions which need to be considered. Nothing in Unix prevents the program from writing arbitrary 8-bit binary codes to any open file, or reading them back unchanged from an adequate repository. Thus, Unix obliterated the long-standing distinction between text streams and binary streams. == Standard streams == When a C program starts its execution the program automatically opens three standard streams named <code>stdin</code>, <code>stdout</code>, and <code>stderr</code>. These are attached for every C program. The first standard stream is used for input buffering and the other two are used for output. These streams are sequences of bytes. Consider the following program: <syntaxhighlight lang=c> /* An example program. */ int main() { int var; scanf ("%d", &var); /* use stdin for scanning an integer from keyboard. */ printf ("%d", var); /* use stdout for printing the integer that was just scanned in. */ return 0; } /* end program. */ </syntaxhighlight> By default <code>stdin</code> points to the keyboard and <code>stdout</code> and <code>stderr</code> point to the screen. It is possible under Unix and may be possible under other operating systems to redirect input from or output to a file or both. == Pointers to streams == {{Side note|side=right|<small>For historical reasons, the type of the C data structure that represents a stream is called <code>FILE</code> rather than <code>stream</code>.</small>}} The <code><stdio.h></code> header contains a definition for a type <code>FILE</code> (usually via a <code>typedef</code>) which is capable of processing all the information needed to exercise control over a stream, including its file position indicator, a pointer to the associated buffer (if any), an error indicator that records whether a read/write error has occurred, and an end-of-file indicator that records whether the end of the file has been reached. It is considered bad form to access the contents of <code>FILE</code> directly unless the programmer is writing an implementation of <code><stdio.h></code> and its contents. Better access to the contents of <code>FILE</code> is provided via the functions in <code><stdio.h></code>. It can be said that the <code>FILE</code> type is an early example of [[w:Object-oriented programming|object-oriented programming]]. ==Opening and closing Files== To open and close files, the <code><stdio.h></code> library has three functions: <code>fopen</code>, <code>freopen</code>, and <code>fclose</code>. ===Opening Files=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> FILE *fopen(const char *filename, const char *mode); FILE *freopen(const char *filename, const char *mode, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> <code>fopen</code> and <code>freopen</code> opens the file whose name is in the string pointed to by <code>filename</code> and associates a stream with it. Both return a pointer to the object controlling the stream, or, if the open operation fails, a null pointer. The error and end-of-file indicators are cleared, and if the open operation fails error is set. <code>freopen</code> differs from <code>fopen</code> in that the file pointed to by <code>stream</code> is closed first when already open and any close errors are ignored. <code>mode</code> for both functions points to a string beginning with one of the following sequences (additional characters may follow the sequences): r open a text file for reading w truncate to zero length or create a text file for writing a append; open or create text file for writing at end-of-file rb open binary file for reading wb truncate to zero length or create a binary file for writing ab append; open or create binary file for writing at end-of-file r+ open text file for update (reading and writing) w+ truncate to zero length or create a text file for update a+ append; open or create text file for update r+b or rb+ open binary file for update (reading and writing) w+b or wb+ truncate to zero length or create a binary file for update a+b or ab+ append; open or create binary file for update Opening a file with read mode ('<code>r</code>' as the first character in the <code>mode</code> argument) fails if the file does not exist or cannot be read. Opening a file with append mode ('<code>a</code>' as the first character in the <code>mode</code> argument) causes all subsequent writes to the file to be forced to the then-current end-of-file, regardless of intervening calls to the <code>fseek</code> function. In some implementations, opening a binary file with append mode ('<code>b</code>' as the second or third character in the above list of <code>mode</code> arguments) may initially position the file position indicator for the stream beyond the last data written, because of null character padding. When a file is opened with update mode ('<code>+</code>' as the second or third character in the above list of <code>mode</code> argument values), both input and output may be performed on the associated stream. However, output may not be directly followed by input without an intervening call to the <code>fflush</code> function or to a file positioning function (<code>fseek</code>, <code>fsetpos</code>, or <code>rewind</code>), and input may not be directly followed by output without an intervening call to a file positioning function, unless the input operation encounters end-of-file. Opening (or creating) a text file with update mode may instead open (or create) a binary stream in some implementations. When opened, a stream is fully buffered if and only if it can be determined not to refer to an interactive device. ===Closing files=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fclose(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fclose</code> function causes the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> to be flushed and the associated file to be closed. Any unwritten buffered data for the stream are delivered to the host environment to be written to the file; any unread buffered data are discarded. The stream is disassociated from the file. If the associated buffer was automatically allocated, it is deallocated. The function returns zero if the stream was successfully closed or <code>EOF</code> if any errors were detected. == Stream buffering functions== ===The <code>fflush</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fflush(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> If <code>stream</code> points to an output stream or an update stream in which the most recent operation was not input, the <code>fflush</code> function causes any unwritten data for that stream to be deferred to the host environment to be written to the file. The behavior of fflush is undefined for input stream. If <code>stream</code> is a null pointer, the <code>fflush</code> function performs this flushing action on all streams for which the behavior is defined above. The <code>fflush</code> functions returns <code>EOF</code> if a write error occurs, otherwise zero. The reason for having a <code>fflush</code> function is because streams in C can have buffered input/output; that is, functions that write to a file actually write to a buffer inside the <code>FILE</code> structure. If the buffer is filled to capacity, the write functions will call <code>fflush</code> to actually "write" the data that is in the buffer to the file. Because <code>fflush</code> is only called every once in a while, calls to the operating system to do a raw write are minimized. ===The <code>setbuf</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void setbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf); </syntaxhighlight> Except that it returns no value, the <code>setbuf</code> function is equivalent to the <code>setvbuf</code> function invoked with the values <code>_IOFBF</code> for <code>mode</code> and <code>BUFSIZ</code> for <code>size</code>, or (if <code>buf</code> is a null pointer) with the value <code>_IONBF</code> for <code>mode</code>. ===The <code>setvbuf</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int setvbuf(FILE *stream, char *buf, int mode, size_t size); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>setvbuf</code> function may be used only after the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> has been associated with an open file and before any other operation is performed on the stream. The argument <code>mode</code> determines how the stream will be buffered, as follows: <code>_IOFBF</code> causes input/output to be fully buffered; <code>_IOLBF</code> causes input/output to be line buffered; <code>_IONBF</code> causes input/output to be unbuffered. If <code>buf</code> is not a null pointer, the array it points to may be used instead of a buffer associated by the <code>setvbuf</code> function. (The buffer must have a lifetime at least as great as the open stream, so the stream should be closed before a buffer that has automatic storage duration is deallocated upon block exit.) The argument <code>size</code> specifies the size of the array. The contents of the array at any time are indeterminate. The <code>setvbuf</code> function returns zero on success, or nonzero if an invalid value is given for <code>mode</code> or if the request cannot be honored. ==Functions that modify the file position indicator== The <code>stdio.h</code> library has five functions that affect the file position indicator besides those that do reading or writing: <code>fgetpos</code>, <code>fseek</code>, <code>fsetpos</code>, <code>ftell</code>, and <code>rewind</code>. The <code>fseek</code> and <code>ftell</code> functions are older than <code>fgetpos</code> and <code>fsetpos</code>. ===The <code>fgetpos</code> and <code>fsetpos</code> functions=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fgetpos(FILE *stream, fpos_t *pos); int fsetpos(FILE *stream, const fpos_t *pos); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fgetpos</code> function stores the current value of the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> in the object pointed to by <code>pos</code>. The value stored contains unspecified information usable by the <code>fsetpos</code> function for repositioning the stream to its position at the time of the call to the <code>fgetpos</code> function. If successful, the <code>fgetpos</code> function returns zero; on failure, the <code>fgetpos</code> function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-defined positive value in <code>errno</code>. The <code>fsetpos</code> function sets the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> according to the value of the object pointed to by <code>pos</code>, which shall be a value obtained from an earlier call to the <code>fgetpos</code> function on the same stream. A successful call to the <code>fsetpos</code> function clears the end-of-file indicator for the stream and undoes any effects of the <code>ungetc</code> function on the same stream. After an <code>fsetpos</code> call, the next operation on an update stream may be either input or output. If successful, the <code>fsetpos</code> function returns zero; on failure, the <code>fsetpos</code> function returns nonzero and stores an implementation-defined positive value in <code>errno</code>. ===The <code>fseek</code> and <code>ftell</code> functions=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fseek(FILE *stream, long int offset, int whence); long int ftell(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fseek</code> function sets the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. For a binary stream, the new position, measured in characters from the beginning of the file, is obtained by adding <code>offset</code> to the position specified by <code>whence</code>. Three macros in <code>stdio.h</code> called <code>SEEK_SET</code>, <code>SEEK_CUR</code>, and <code>SEEK_END</code> expand to unique values. If the position specified by <code>whence</code> is <code>SEEK_SET</code>, the specified position is the beginning of the file; if <code>whence</code> is <code>SEEK_END</code>, the specified position is the end of the file; and if <code>whence</code> is <code>SEEK_CUR</code>, the specified position is the current file position. A binary stream need not meaningfully support <code>fseek</code> calls with a <code>whence</code> value of <code>SEEK_END</code>. For a text stream, either <code>offset</code> shall be zero, or <code>offset</code> shall be a value returned by an earlier call to the <code>ftell</code> function on the same stream and <code>whence</code> shall be <code>SEEK_SET</code>. The <code>fseek</code> function returns nonzero only for a request that cannot be satisfied. The <code>ftell</code> function obtains the current value of the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. For a binary stream, the value is the number of characters from the beginning of the file; for a text stream, its file position indicator contains unspecified information, usable by the <code>fseek</code> function for returning the file position indicator for the stream to its position at the time of the <code>ftell</code> call; the difference between two such return values is not necessarily a meaningful measure of the number of characters written or read. If successful, the <code>ftell</code> function returns the current value of the file position indicator for the stream. On failure, the <code>ftell</code> function returns <code>-1L</code> and stores an implementation-defined positive value in <code>errno</code>. ===The <code>rewind</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void rewind(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>rewind</code> function sets the file position indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> to the beginning of the file. It is equivalent to (void)fseek(stream, 0L, SEEK_SET) except that the error indicator for the stream is also cleared. ==Error handling functions== ===The <code>clearerr</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void clearerr(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>clearerr</code> function clears the end-of-file and error indicators for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. ===The <code>feof</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int feof(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>feof</code> function tests the end-of-file indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> and returns nonzero if and only if the end-of-file indicator is set for <code>stream</code>, otherwise it returns zero. ===The <code>ferror</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int ferror(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>ferror</code> function tests the error indicator for the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> and returns nonzero if and only if the error indicator is set for <code>stream</code>, otherwise it returns zero. ===The <code>perror</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> void perror(const char *s); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>perror</code> function maps the error number in the integer expression <code>errno</code> to an error message. It writes a sequence of characters to the standard error stream thus: first, if <code>s</code> is not a null pointer and the character pointed to by <code>s</code> is not the null character, the string pointed to by <code>s</code> followed by a colon (<tt>:</tt>) and a space; then an appropriate error message string followed by a new-line character. The contents of the error message are the same as those returned by the <code>strerror</code> function with the argument <code>errno</code>, which are implementation-defined. ==Other operations on files== The <code>stdio.h</code> library has a variety of functions that do some operation on files besides reading and writing. ===The <code>remove</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int remove(const char *filename); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>remove</code> function causes the file whose name is the string pointed to by <code>filename</code> to be no longer accessible by that name. A subsequent attempt to open that file using that name will fail, unless it is created anew. If the file is open, the behavior of the <code>remove</code> function is implementation-defined. The <code>remove</code> function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzero if it fails. ===The <code>rename</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int rename(const char *old_filename, const char *new_filename); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>rename</code> function causes the file whose name is the string pointed to by <code>old_filename</code> to be henceforth known by the name given by the string pointed to by <code>new_filename</code>. The file named <code>old_filename</code> is no longer accessible by that name. If a file named by the string pointed to by <code>new_filename</code> exists prior to the call to the <code>rename</code> function, the behavior is implementation-defined. The <code>rename</code> function returns zero if the operation succeeds, nonzero if it fails, in which case if the file existed previously it is still known by its original name. ===The <code>tmpfile</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> FILE *tmpfile(void); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>tmpfile</code> function creates a temporary binary file that will automatically be removed when it is closed or at program termination. If the program terminates abnormally, whether an open temporary file is removed is implementation-defined. The file is opened for update with <code>"wb+"</code> mode. The <code>tmpfile</code> function returns a pointer to the stream of the file that it created. If the file cannot be created, the <code>tmpfile</code> function returns a null pointer. ===The <code>tmpnam</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> char *tmpnam(char *s); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>tmpnam</code> function generates a string that is a valid file name and that is not the name of an existing file. The <code>tmpnam</code> function generates a different string each time it is called, up to <code>TMP_MAX</code> times. (<code>TMP_MAX</code> is a macro defined in <code>stdio.h</code>.) If it is called more than <code>TMP_MAX</code> times, the behavior is implementation-defined. The implementation shall behave as if no library function calls the <code>tmpnam</code> function. If the argument is a null pointer, the <code>tmpnam</code> function leaves its result in an internal static object and returns a pointer to that object. Subsequent calls to the <code>tmpnam</code> function may modify the same object. If the argument is not a null pointer, it is assumed to point to an array of at least <code>L_tmpnam</code> characters (<code>L_tmpnam</code> is another macro in <code>stdio.h</code>); the <code>tmpnam</code> function writes its result in that array and returns the argument as its value. The value of the macro <code>TMP_MAX</code> must be at least 25. ==Reading from files== ===Character input functions=== ====The <code>fgetc</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang=c> #include <stdio.h> int fgetc(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fgetc</code> function obtains the next character (if present) as an <code>unsigned char</code> converted to an <code>int</code>, from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>, and advances the associated file position indicator for the stream (if defined). The <code>fgetc</code> function returns the next character from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. If the stream is at end-of-file or a read error occurs, <code>fgetc</code> returns <code>EOF</code> (<code>EOF</code> is a negative value defined in <code><stdio.h></code>, usually <code>(-1)</code>). The routines <code>feof</code> and <code>ferror</code> must be used to distinguish between end-of-file and error. If an error occurs, the global variable <code>errno</code> is set to indicate the error. ====The <code>fgets</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> char *fgets(char *s, int n, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fgets</code> function reads at most one less than the number of characters specified by <code>n</code> from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> into the array pointed to by <code>s</code>. No additional characters are read after a new-line character (which is retained) or after end-of-file. A null character is written immediately after the last character read into the array. The <code>fgets</code> function returns <code>s</code> if successful. If end-of-file is encountered and no characters have been read into the array, the contents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned. If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents are indeterminate and a null pointer is returned. Warning: Different operating systems may use different character sequences to represent the end-of-line sequence. For example, some filesystems use the terminator <code>\r\n</code> in text files; <code>fgets</code> may read those lines, removing the <code>\n</code> but keeping the <code>\r</code> as the last character of <code>s</code>. This expurious character should be removed in the string <code>s</code> before the string is used for anything (unless the programmer doesn't care about it). Unixes typically use <code>\n</code> as its end-of-line sequence, MS-DOS and Windows uses <code>\r\n</code>, and Mac OSes used <code>\r</code> before OS X. Many compilers on operating systems other than Unix or Linux map newline sequences to <code>\n</code> on input for text files; check your compiler's documentation to discover what it does in this situation. <syntaxhighlight lang=c> /* An example program that reads from stdin and writes to stdout */ #include <stdio.h> #define BUFFER_SIZE 100 int main(void) { char buffer[BUFFER_SIZE]; /* a read buffer */ while( fgets (buffer, BUFFER_SIZE, stdin) != NULL) { printf("%s",buffer); } return 0; } /* end program. */ </syntaxhighlight> ====The <code>getc</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang=C> #include <stdio.h> int getc(FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>getc</code> function is equivalent to <code>fgetc</code>, except that it may be implemented as a macro. If it is implemented as a macro, the <code>stream</code> argument may be evaluated more than once, so the argument should never be an expression with side effects (i.e. have an assignment, increment, or decrement operators, or be a function call). The <code>getc</code> function returns the next character from the input stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. If the stream is at end-of-file, the end-of-file indicator for the stream is set and <code>getc</code> returns <code>EOF</code> (<code>EOF</code> is a negative value defined in <code><stdio.h></code>, usually <code>(-1)</code>). If a read error occurs, the error indicator for the stream is set and <code>getc</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>getchar</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> int getchar(void); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>getchar</code> function is equivalent to <code>getc</code> with the argument <code>stdin</code>. The <code>getchar</code> function returns the next character from the input stream pointed to by <code>stdin</code>. If <code>stdin</code> is at end-of-file, the end-of-file indicator for <code>stdin</code> is set and <code>getchar</code> returns <code>EOF</code> (<code>EOF</code> is a negative value defined in <code><stdio.h></code>, usually <code>(-1)</code>). If a read error occurs, the error indicator for <code>stdin</code> is set and <code>getchar</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>gets</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> char *gets(char *s); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>gets</code> function reads characters from the input stream pointed to by <code>stdin</code> into the array pointed to by <code>s</code> until an end-of-file is encountered or a new-line character is read. Any new-line character is discarded, and a null character is written immediately after the last character read into the array. The <code>gets</code> function returns <code>s</code> if successful. If the end-of-file is encountered and no characters have been read into the array, the contents of the array remain unchanged and a null pointer is returned. If a read error occurs during the operation, the array contents are indeterminate and a null pointer is returned. This function and description is only included here for completeness. Most C programmers nowadays shy away from using <code>gets</code>, as there is no way for the function to know how big the buffer is that the programmer wants to read into. Commandment #5 of [[w:Henry Spencer | Henry Spencer]]'s ''The Ten Commandments for C Programmers (Annotated Edition)'' reads {{Quote |text=Thou shalt check the array bounds of all strings (indeed, all arrays), for surely where thou typest ''foo'' someone someday shall type ''supercalifragilisticexpialidocious''. }} It mentions <code>gets</code> in the annotation: {{Quote |text=As demonstrated by the deeds of the Great Worm, a consequence of this commandment is that robust production software should never make use of <code>gets()</code>, for it is truly a tool of the Devil. Thy interfaces should always inform thy servants of the bounds of thy arrays, and servants who spurn such advice or quietly fail to follow it should be dispatched forthwith to the Land Of Rm, where they can do no further harm to thee. }} Before the 2018 version of the C standard, the <code>gets</code> function was deprecated. It is hoped that programmers would use the <code>fgets</code> function instead. ====The <code>ungetc</code> function==== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> int ungetc(int c, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>ungetc</code> function pushes the character specified by <code>c</code> (converted to an <code>unsigned char</code>) back onto the input stream pointed to by stream. The pushed-back characters will be returned by subsequent reads on that stream in the reverse order of their pushing. A successful intervening call (with the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>) to a file-positioning function (<code>fseek</code>, <code>fsetpos</code>, or <code>rewind</code>) discards any pushed-back characters for the stream. The external storage corresponding to the stream is unchanged. One character of pushback is guaranteed. If the <code>ungetc</code> function is called too many times on the same stream without an intervening read or file positioning operation on that stream, the operation may fail. If the value of <code>c</code> equals that of the macro <code>EOF</code>, the operation fails and the input stream is unchanged. A successful call to the <code>ungetc</code> function clears the end-of-file indicator for the stream. The value of the file position indicator for the stream after reading or discarding all pushed-back characters shall be the same as it was before the characters were pushed back. For a text stream, the value of its file-position indicator after a successful call to the <code>ungetc</code> function is unspecified until all pushed-back characters are read or discarded. For a binary stream, its file position indicator is decremented by each successful call to the <code>ungetc</code> function; if its value was zero before a call, it is indeterminate after the call. The <code>ungetc</code> function returns the character pushed back after conversion, or <code>EOF</code> if the operation fails. ===EOF pitfall=== A mistake when using <code>fgetc</code>, <code>getc</code>, or <code>getchar</code> is to assign the result to a variable of type <code>char</code> ''before'' comparing it to <code>EOF</code>. The following code fragments exhibit this mistake, and then show the correct approach (using type int): <center> {| width="80%" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; " ! Mistake ! Correction |- | <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> char c; while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) putchar(c); </syntaxhighlight> | <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> int c; while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) putchar(c); </syntaxhighlight> |} </center> Consider a system in which the type <code>char</code> is 8&nbsp;bits wide, representing 256&nbsp;different values. <code>getchar</code> may return any of the 256&nbsp;possible characters, and it also may return <code>EOF</code> to indicate [[end-of-file]], for a total of 257 different possible return values. When <code>getchar</code>'s result is assigned to a <code>char</code>, which can represent only 256 different values, there is necessarily some loss of information—when packing 257&nbsp;items into 256&nbsp;slots, there [[Pigeonhole principle|must be a collision]]. The <code>EOF</code> value, when converted to <code>char</code>, becomes indistinguishable from whichever one of the 256 characters shares its numerical value. If that character is found in the file, the above example may mistake it for an end-of-file indicator; or, just as bad, if type <code>char</code> is unsigned, then because <code>EOF</code> is negative, it can never be equal to any unsigned <code>char</code>, so the above example will not terminate at end-of-file. It will loop forever, repeatedly printing the character which results from converting <code>EOF</code> to <code>char</code>. However, this looping failure mode does not occur if the char definition is signed (C makes the signedness of the default char type implementation-dependent),<ref>C99 §6.2.5/15</ref> assuming the commonly used [[End-of-file|<code>EOF</code> value of -1]]. However, the fundamental issue remains that if the <code>EOF</code> value is defined outside of the range of the <code>char</code> type, when assigned to a <code>char</code> that value is sliced and will no longer match the full <code>EOF</code> value necessary to exit the loop. On the other hand, if <code>EOF</code> is within range of <code>char</code>, this guarantees a collision between <code>EOF</code> and a char value. Thus, regardless of how system types are defined, never use <code>char</code> types when testing against <code>EOF</code>. On systems where <code>int</code> and <code>char</code> are the same size (i.e., systems incompatible with minimally the POSIX and C99 standards), even the "good" example will suffer from the indistinguishability of <code>EOF</code> and some character's value. The proper way to handle this situation is to check <code>[[feof]]</code> and <code>[[ferror]]</code> after <code>getchar</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. If <code>feof</code> indicates that end-of-file has not been reached, and <code>ferror</code> indicates that no errors have occurred, then the <code>EOF</code> returned by <code>getchar</code> can be assumed to represent an actual character. These extra checks are rarely done, because most programmers assume that their code will never need to run on one of these "big <code>char</code>" systems. Another way is to use a compile-time assertion to make sure that <code>UINT_MAX > UCHAR_MAX</code>, which at least prevents a program with such an assumption from compiling in such a system. ===Direct input function: the <code>fread</code> function=== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fread</code> function reads, into the array pointed to by <code>ptr</code>, up to <code>nmemb</code> elements whose size is specified by <code>size</code>, from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. The file position indicator for the stream (if defined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully read. If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicator for the stream is indeterminate. If a partial element is read, its value is indeterminate. The <code>fread</code> function returns the number of elements successfully read, which may be less than <code>nmemb</code> if a read error or end-of-file is encountered. If <code>size</code> or <code>nmemb</code> is zero, <code>fread</code> returns zero and the contents of the array and the state of the stream remain unchanged. ===Formatted input functions: the <code>scanf</code> family of functions=== <syntaxhighlight lang="C"> #include <stdio.h> int fscanf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...); int scanf(const char *format, ...); int sscanf(const char *s, const char *format, ...); </syntaxhighlight> The <code>fscanf</code> function reads input from the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>, under control of the string pointed to by <code>format</code> that specifies the admissible sequences and how they are to be converted for assignment, using subsequent arguments as pointers to the objects to receive converted input. If there are insufficient arguments for the format, the behavior is undefined. If the format is exhausted while arguments remain, the excess arguments are evaluated (as always) but are otherwise ignored. The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and ending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero or more directives: one or more white-space characters; an ordinary multibyte character (neither <tt>%</tt> or a white-space character); or a conversion specification. Each conversion specification is introduced by the character <tt>%</tt>. After the <tt>%</tt>, the following appear in sequence: *An optional assignment-suppressing character <tt>*</tt>. *An optional nonzero decimal integer that specifies the maximum field width. *An optional <tt>h</tt>, <tt>l</tt> (ell) or <tt>L</tt> indicating the size of the receiving object. The conversion specifiers <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, and <tt>n</tt> shall be preceded by <tt>h</tt> if the corresponding argument is a pointer to <code>short int</code> rather than a pointer to <code>int</code>, or by <tt>l</tt> if it is a pointer to <code>long int</code>. Similarly, the conversion specifiers <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, and <tt>x</tt> shall be preceded by <tt>h</tt> if the corresponding argument is a pointer to <code>unsigned short int</code> rather than <code>unsigned int</code>, or by <tt>l</tt> if it is a pointer to <code>unsigned long int</code>. Finally, the conversion specifiers <tt>e</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, and <tt>g</tt> shall be preceded by <tt>l</tt> if the corresponding argument is a pointer to <code>double</code> rather than a pointer to <code>float</code>, or by <tt>L</tt> if it is a pointer to <code>long double</code>. If an <tt>h</tt>, <tt>l</tt>, or <tt>L</tt> appears with any other format specifier, the behavior is undefined. *A character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied. The valid conversion specifiers are described below. The <code>fscanf</code> function executes each directive of the format in turn. If a directive fails, as detailed below, the <code>fscanf</code> function returns. Failures are described as input failures (due to the unavailability of input characters) or matching failures (due to inappropriate input). A directive composed of white-space character(s) is executed by reading input up to the first non-white-space character (which remains unread) or until no more characters remain unread. A directive that is an ordinary multibyte character is executed by reading the next characters of the stream. If one of the characters differs from one comprising the directive, the directive fails, and the differing and subsequent characters remain unread. A directive that is a conversion specification defines a set of matching input sequences, as described below for each specifier. A conversion specification is executed in the following steps: Input white-space characters (as specified by the <code>isspace</code> function) are skipped, unless the specification includes a <tt>[</tt>, <tt>c</tt>, or <tt>n</tt> specifier. (The white-space characters are not counted against the specified field width.) An input item is read from the stream, unless the specification includes an <tt>n</tt> specifier. An input item is defined as the longest matching sequences of input characters, unless that exceeds a specified field width, in which case it is the initial subsequence of that length in the sequence. The first character, if any, after the input item remains unread. If the length of the input item is zero, the execution of the directive fails; this condition is a matching failure, unless an error prevented input from the stream, in which case it is an input failure. Except in the case of a <tt>%</tt> specifier, the input item (or, in the case of a <tt>%n</tt> directive, the count of input characters) is converted to a type appropriate to the conversion specifier. If the input item is not a matching sequence, the execution of the directive fails; this condition is a matching failure. Unless assignment suppression was indicated by a <tt>*</tt>, the result of the conversion is placed in the object pointed to by the first argument following the <code>format</code> argument that has not already received a conversion result. If this object does not have an appropriate type, or if the result of the conversion cannot be represented in the space provided, the behavior is undefined. The following conversion specifiers are valid: ; <tt>d</tt> : Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtol</code> function with the value 10 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer. ; <tt>i</tt> : Matches an optionally signed integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtol</code> function with the value 0 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer. ; <tt>o</tt> : Matches an optionally signed octal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtoul</code> function with the value 8 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer. ; <tt>u</tt> : Matches an optionally signed decimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtoul</code> function with the value 10 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer. ; <tt>x</tt> : Matches an optionally signed hexadecimal integer, whose format is the same as expected for the subject sequence of the <code>strtoul</code> function with the value 16 for the <code>base</code> argument. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to unsigned integer. ; <tt>e</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>g</tt> : Matches an optionally signed floating-point number, whose format is the same as expected for the subject string of the <code>strtod</code> function. The corresponding argument will be a pointer to floating. ; <tt>s</tt> : Matches a sequence of non-white-space characters. (No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.) The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence and a terminating null character, which will be added automatically. ; <tt>[</tt> : Matches a nonempty sequence of characters (no special provisions are made for multibyte characters) from a set of expected characters (the <i>scanset</i>). The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence and a terminating null character, which will be added automatically. The conversion specifier includes all subsequent characters in the <code>format</code> string, up to and including the matching right bracket (<tt>]</tt>). The characters between the brackets (the <i>scanlist</i>) comprise the scanset, unless the character after the left bracket is a circumflex (<tt>^</tt>), in which case the scanset contains all the characters that do not appear in the scanlist between the circumflex and the right bracket. If the conversion specifier begins with <tt>[]</tt> or <tt>[^]</tt>, the right-bracket character is in the scanlist and the next right bracket character is the matching right bracket that ends the specification; otherwise, the first right bracket character is the one that ends the specification. If a <tt>-</tt> character is in the scanlist and is not the first, nor the second where the first character is a <tt>^</tt>, nor the last character, the behavior is implementation-defined. ; <tt>c</tt> : Matches a sequence of characters (no special provisions are made for multibyte characters) of the number specified by the field width (1 if no field width is present in the directive). The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to the initial character of an array large enough to accept the sequence. No null character is added. ; <tt>p</tt> : Matches an implementation-defined set of sequences, which should be the same as the set of sequences that may be produced by the <tt>%p</tt> conversion of the <code>fprintf</code> function. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to <code>void</code>. The interpretation of the input then is implementation-defined. If the input item is a value converted earlier during the same program execution, the pointer that results shall compare equal to that value; otherwise the behavior of the <tt>%p</tt> conversion is undefined. ; <tt>n</tt> : No input is consumed. The corresponding argument shall be a pointer to integer into which is to be written the number of characters read from the input stream so far by this call to the <code>fscanf</code> function. Execution of a <tt>%n</tt> directive does not increment the assignment count returned at the completion of execution of the <code>fscanf</code> function. ; <tt>%</tt> : Matches a single <tt>%</tt>; no conversion or assignment occurs. The complete conversion specification shall be <tt>%%</tt>. If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior is undefined. The conversion specifiers <tt>E</tt>, <tt>G</tt>, and <tt>X</tt> are also valid and behave the same as, respectively, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>x</tt>. If end-of-file is encountered during input, conversion is terminated. If end-of-file occurs before any characters matching the current directive have been read (other than leading white space, where permitted), execution of the current directive terminates with an input failure; otherwise, unless execution of the current directive is terminated with a matching failure, execution of the following directive (if any) is terminated with an input failure. If conversion terminates on a conflicting input character, the offending input character is left unread in the input stream. Trailing white space (including new-line characters) is left unread unless matched by a directive. The success of literal matches and suppressed assignments is not directly determinable other than via the <tt>%n</tt> directive. The <code>fscanf</code> function returns the value of the macro <code>EOF</code> if an input failure occurs before any conversion. Otherwise, the <code>fscanf</code> function returns the number of input items assigned, which can be fewer than provided for, or even zero, in the event of an early matching failure. The <code>scanf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fscanf</code> with the argument <code>stdin</code> interposed before the arguments to <code>scanf</code>. Its return value is similar to that of <code>fscanf</code>. The <code>sscanf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fscanf</code>, except that the argument <code>s</code> specifies a string from which the input is to be obtained, rather than from a stream. Reaching the end of the string is equivalent to encountering the end-of-file for the <code>fscanf</code> function. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. ==Writing to files== ===Character output functions=== ====The <code>fputc</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int fputc(int c, FILE *stream); The <code>fputc</code> function writes the character specified by <code>c</code> (converted to an <code>unsigned char</code>) to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> at the position indicated by the associated file position indicator (if defined), and advances the indicator appropriately. If the file cannot support positioning requests, or if the stream is opened with append mode, the character is appended to the output stream. The function returns the character written, unless a write error occurs, in which case the error indicator for the stream is set and <code>fputc</code> returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>fputs</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int fputs(const char *s, FILE *stream); The <code>fputs</code> function writes the string pointed to by <code>s</code> to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. The terminating null character is not written. The function returns <code>EOF</code> if a write error occurs, otherwise it returns a nonnegative value. ====The <code>putc</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int putc(int c, FILE *stream); The <code>putc</code> function is equivalent to <code>fputc</code>, except that if it is implemented as a macro, it may evaluate <code>stream</code> more than once, so the argument should never be an expression with side effects. The function returns the character written, unless a write error occurs, in which case the error indicator for the stream is set and the function returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>putchar</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int putchar(int c); The <code>putchar</code> function is equivalent to <code>putc</code> with the second argument <code>stdout</code>. It returns the character written, unless a write error occurs, in which case the error indicator for <code>stdout</code> is set and the function returns <code>EOF</code>. ====The <code>puts</code> function==== #include <stdio.h> int puts(const char *s); The <code>puts</code> function writes the string pointed to by <code>s</code> to the stream pointed to by <code>stdout</code>, and appends a new-line character to the output. The terminating null character is not written. The function returns <code>EOF</code> if a write error occurs; otherwise, it returns a nonnegative value. ===Direct output function: the <code>fwrite</code> function=== #include <stdio.h> size_t fwrite(const void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb, FILE *stream); The <code>fwrite</code> function writes, from the array pointed to by <code>ptr</code>, up to <code>nmemb</code> elements whose size is specified by <code>size</code> to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code>. The file position indicator for the stream (if defined) is advanced by the number of characters successfully written. If an error occurs, the resulting value of the file position indicator for the stream is indeterminate. The function returns the number of elements successfully written, which will be less than <code>nmemb</code> only if a write error is encountered. ===Formatted output functions: the <code>printf</code> family of functions=== #include <stdarg.h> #include <stdio.h> int fprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, ...); int printf(const char *format, ...); int sprintf(char *s, const char *format, ...); int vfprintf(FILE *stream, const char *format, va_list arg); int vprintf(const char *format, va_list arg); int vsprintf(char *s, const char *format, va_list arg); ''Note: Some length specifiers and format specifiers are new in C99. These may not be available in older compilers and versions of the stdio library, which adhere to the C89/C90 standard. Wherever possible, the new ones will be marked with (C99).'' The <code>fprintf</code> function writes output to the stream pointed to by <code>stream</code> under control of the string pointed to by <code>format</code> that specifies how subsequent arguments are converted for output. If there are insufficient arguments for the format, the behavior is undefined. If the format is exhausted while arguments remain, the excess arguments are evaluated (as always) but are otherwise ignored. The <code>fprintf </code> function returns when the end of the format string is encountered. The format shall be a multibyte character sequence, beginning and ending in its initial shift state. The format is composed of zero or more directives: ordinary multibyte characters (not <tt>%</tt>), which are copied unchanged to the output stream; and conversion specifications, each of which results in fetching zero or more subsequent arguments, converting them, if applicable, according to the corresponding conversion specifier, and then writing the result to the output stream. Each conversion specification is introduced by the character <tt>%</tt>. After the <tt>%</tt>, the following appear in sequence: * Zero or more flags (in any order) that modify the meaning of the conversion specification. * An optional minimum field width. If the converted value has fewer characters than the field width, it is padded with spaces (by default) on the left (or right, if the left adjustment flag, described later, has been given) to the field width. The field width takes the form of an asterisk <tt>*</tt> (described later) or a decimal integer. (Note that 0 is taken as a flag, not as the beginning of a field width.) *An optional precision that gives the minimum number of digits to appear for the <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, and <tt>X</tt> conversions, the number of digits to appear after the decimal-point character for <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, and <tt>F</tt> conversions, the maximum number of significant digits for the <tt>g</tt> and <tt>G</tt> conversions, or the maximum number of characters to be written from a string in <tt>s</tt> conversions. The precision takes the form of a period (<tt>.</tt>) followed either by an asterisk <tt>*</tt> (described later) or by an optional decimal integer; if only the period is specified, the precision is taken as zero. If a precision appears with any other conversion specifier, the behavior is undefined. Floating-point numbers are ''rounded'' to fit the precision; i.e. <tt>printf("%1.1f\n", 1.19);</tt> produces <tt>1.2</tt>. * An optional length modifier that specifies the size of the argument. * A conversion specifier character that specifies the type of conversion to be applied. As noted above, a field width, or precision, or both, may be indicated by an asterisk. In this case, an <code>int</code> argument supplies the field width or precision. The arguments specifying field width, or precision, or both, shall appear (in that order) before the argument (if any) to be converted. A negative field width argument is taken as a <tt>-</tt> flag followed by a positive field width. A negative precision argument is taken as if the precision were omitted. The flag characters and their meanings are: ; <tt>-</tt> : The result of the conversion is left-justified within the field. (It is right-justified if this flag is not specified.) ; <tt>+</tt> : The result of a signed conversion always begins with a plus or minus sign. (It begins with a sign only when a negative value is converted if this flag is not specified. The results of all floating conversions of a negative zero, and of negative values that round to zero, include a minus sign.) ; <i>space</i> : If the first character of a signed conversion is not a sign, or if a signed conversion results in no characters, a space is prefixed to the result. If the space and <tt>+</tt> flags both appear, the space flag is ignored. ; <tt>#</tt> : The result is converted to an "alternative form". For <tt>o</tt> conversion, it increases the precision, if and only if necessary, to force the first digit of the result to be a zero (if the value and precision are both 0, a single 0 is printed). For <tt>x</tt> (or <tt>X</tt>) conversion, a nonzero result has <tt>0x</tt> (or <tt>0X</tt>) prefixed to it. For <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>G</tt> conversions, the result always contains a decimal-point character, even if no digits follow it. (Normally, a decimal-point character appears in the result of these conversions only if a digit follows it.) For <tt>g</tt> and <tt>G</tt> conversions, trailing zeros are not removed from the result. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined. ; <tt>0</tt> : For <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, <tt>X</tt>, <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>G</tt> conversions, leading zeros (following any indication of sign or base) are used to pad to the field width; no space padding is performed. If the <tt>0</tt> and <tt>-</tt> flags both appear, the <tt>0</tt> flag is ignored. For <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, and <tt>X</tt> conversions, if a precision is specified, the <tt>0</tt> flag is ignored. For other conversions, the behavior is undefined. The length modifiers and their meanings are: ; <tt>hh</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>signed char</code> or <code>unsigned char</code> argument (the argument will have been promoted according to the integer promotions, but its value shall be converted to <code>signed char</code> or <code>unsigned char</code> before printing); or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>signed char</code> argument. ; <tt>h</tt> : Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>short int</code> or <code>unsigned short int</code> argument (the argument will have been promoted according to the integer promotions, but its value shall be converted to <code>short int</code> or <code>unsigned short int</code> before printing); or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>short int</code> argument. ; <tt>l</tt> (ell) : Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>long int</code> or <code>unsigned long int</code> argument; that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>long int</code> argument; (C99) that a following <tt>c</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>wint_t</code> argument; (C99) that a following <tt>s</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>wchar_t</code> argument; or has no effect on a following <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, or <tt>G</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>ll</tt> (ell-ell) : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>long long int</code> or <code>unsigned long long int</code> argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>long long int</code> argument. ; <tt>j</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to an <code>intmax_t</code> or <code>uintmax_t</code> argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to an <code>intmax_t</code> argument. ; <tt>z</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>size_t</code> or the corresponding signed integer type argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a signed integer type corresponding to <code>size_t</code> argument. ; <tt>t</tt> : (C99) Specifies that a following <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt>, <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, or <tt>X</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>ptrdiff_t</code> or the corresponding unsigned integer type argument; or that a following <tt>n</tt> conversion specifier applies to a pointer to a <code>ptrdiff_t</code> argument. ; <tt>L</tt> : Specifies that a following <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt>, <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, or <tt>G</tt> conversion specifier applies to a <code>long double</code> argument. If a length modifier appears with any conversion specifier other than as specified above, the behavior is undefined. The conversion specifiers and their meanings are: ; <tt>d</tt>, <tt>i</tt> : The <code>int</code> argument is converted to signed decimal in the style <i>[</i><tt><b>−</b></tt><i>]dddd</i>. The precision specifies the minimum number of digits to appear; if the value being converted can be represented in fewer digits, it is expanded with leading zeros. The default precision is 1. The result of converting a zero value with a precision of zero is no characters. ; <tt>o</tt>, <tt>u</tt>, <tt>x</tt>, <tt>X</tt> : The <code>unsigned int</code> argument is converted to unsigned octal (<tt>o</tt>), unsigned decimal (<tt>u</tt>), or unsigned hexadecimal notation (<tt>x</tt> or <tt>X</tt>) in the style <i>dddd</i>; the letters <tt><b>abcdef</b></tt> are used for <tt>x</tt> conversion and the letters <tt><b>ABCDEF</b></tt> for <tt>X</tt> conversion. The precision specifies the minimum number of digits to appear; if the value being converted can be represented in fewer digits, it is expanded with leading zeros. The default precision is 1. The result of converting a zero value with a precision of zero is no characters. ; <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt> : A <code>double</code> argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted to decimal notation in the style <i>[</i><tt>−</tt><i>]ddd</i><tt>.</tt><i>ddd</i>, where the number of digits after the decimal-point character is equal to the precision specification. If the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is zero and the <tt>#</tt> flag is not specified, no decimal-point character appears. If a decimal-point character appears, at least one digit appears before it. The value is rounded to the appropriate number of digits.<br>(C99) A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity is converted in one of the styles <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>inf</tt> or <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>infinity</tt> &mdash; which style is implementation-defined. A double argument representing a NaN is converted in one of the styles <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>nan</tt> or <i>[</i><tt>-</tt><i>]</i><tt>nan(</tt><i>n-char-sequence</i><tt>)</tt> &mdash; which style, and the meaning of any <i>n-char-sequence</i>, is implementation-defined. The <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier produces <tt>INF</tt>, <tt>INFINITY</tt>, or <tt>NAN</tt> instead of <tt>inf</tt>, <tt>infinity</tt>, or <tt>nan</tt>, respectively. (When applied to infinite and NaN values, the <tt>-</tt>, <tt>+</tt>, and <i>space</i> flags have their usual meaning; the <tt>#</tt> and <tt>0</tt> flags have no effect.) ; <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt> : A <code>double</code> argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted in the style <i>[</i><tt>−</tt><i>]d</i><tt>.</tt><i>ddd</i><tt>e&plusmn;</tt><i>dd</i>, where there is one digit (which is nonzero if the argument is nonzero) before the decimal-point character and the number of digits after it is equal to the precision; if the precision is missing, it is taken as 6; if the precision is zero and the <tt>#</tt> flag is not specified, no decimal-point character appears. The value is rounded to the appropriate number of digits. The <tt>E</tt> conversion specifier produces a number with <tt>E</tt> instead of <tt>e</tt> introducing the exponent. The exponent always contains at least two digits, and only as many more digits as necessary to represent the exponent. If the value is zero, the exponent is zero.<br>(C99) A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity or NaN is converted in the style of an <tt>f</tt> or <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>g</tt>, <tt>G</tt> : A <code>double</code> argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted in style <tt>f</tt> or <tt>e</tt> (or in style <tt>F</tt> or <tt>E</tt> in the case of a <tt>G</tt> conversion specifier), with the precision specifying the number of significant digits. If the precision is zero, it is taken as 1. The style used depends on the value converted; style <tt>e</tt> (or <tt>E</tt>) is used only if the exponent resulting from such a conversion is less than &ndash;4 or greater than or equal to the precision. Trailing zeros are removed from the fractional portion of the result unless the <tt>#</tt> flag is specified; a decimal-point character appears only if it is followed by a digit.<br>(C99) A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity or NaN is converted in the style of an <tt>f</tt> or <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>a</tt>, <tt>A</tt> : (C99) A double argument representing a (finite) floating-point number is converted in the style <i>[</i><tt>−</tt><i>]</i><tt>0x</tt><i>h</i><tt>.</tt><i>hhhh</i><tt>p&plusmn;</tt><i>d</i>, where there is one hexadecimal digit (which is nonzero if the argument is a normalized floating-point number and is otherwise unspecified) before the decimal-point character (Binary implementations can choose the hexadecimal digit to the left of the decimal-point character so that subsequent digits align to nibble [4-bit] boundaries.) and the number of hexadecimal digits after it is equal to the precision; if the precision is missing and <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is a power of 2, then the precision is sufficient for an exact representation of the value; if the precision is missing and <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is not a power of 2, then the precision is sufficient to distinguish (The precision <i>p</i> is sufficient to distinguish values of the source type if 16^{<i>p</i>&ndash;1} > <i>bⁿ</i> where <i>b</i> is <code>FLT_RADIX</code> and <i>n</i> is the number of base-<i>b</i> digits in the significand of the source type. A smaller <i>p</i> might suffice depending on the implementation's scheme for determining the digit to the left of the decimal-point character.) values of type <code>double</code>, except that trailing zeros may be omitted; if the precision is zero and the <tt>#</tt> flag is not specified, no decimal-point character appears. The letters <tt><b>abcdef</b></tt> are used for <tt>a</tt> conversion and the letters <tt><b>ABCDEF</b></tt> for <tt>A</tt> conversion. The <tt>A</tt> conversion specifier produces a number with <tt>X</tt> and <tt>P</tt> instead of <tt>x</tt> and <tt>p</tt>. The exponent always contains at least one digit, and only as many more digits as necessary to represent the decimal exponent of 2. If the value is zero, the exponent is zero.<br>A <code>double</code> argument representing an infinity or NaN is converted in the style of an <tt>f</tt> or <tt>F</tt> conversion specifier. ; <tt>c</tt> : If no <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the <code>int</code> argument is converted to an <code>unsigned char</code>, and the resulting character is written.<br>(C99) If an <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the <code>wint_t</code> argument is converted as if by an <tt>ls</tt> conversion specification with no precision and an argument that points to the initial element of a two-element array of <code>wchar_t</code>, the first element containing the <code>wint_t</code> argument to the <tt>lc</tt> conversion specification and the second a null wide character. ; <tt>s</tt> : If no <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the argument shall be a pointer to the initial element of an array of character type. (No special provisions are made for multibyte characters.) Characters from the array are written up to (but not including) the terminating null character. If the precision is specified, no more than that many characters are written. If the precision is not specified or is greater than the size of the array, the array shall contain a null character.<br>(C99) If an <tt>l</tt> length modifier is present, the argument shall be a pointer to the initial element of an array of <code>wchar_t</code> type. Wide characters from the array are converted to multibyte characters (each as if by a call to the <code>wcrtomb</code> function, with the conversion state described by an <code>mbstate_t</code> object initialized to zero before the first wide character is converted) up to and including a terminating null wide character. The resulting multibyte characters are written up to (but not including) the terminating null character (byte). If no precision is specified, the array shall contain a null wide character. If a precision is specified, no more than that many characters (bytes) are written (including shift sequences, if any), and the array shall contain a null wide character if, to equal the multibyte character sequence length given by the precision, the function would need to access a wide character one past the end of the array. In no case is a partial multibyte character written. (Redundant shift sequences may result if multibyte characters have a state-dependent encoding.) ; <tt>p</tt> : The argument shall be a pointer to <code>void</code>. The value of the pointer is converted to a sequence of printable characters, in an implementation-defined manner. ; <tt>n</tt> : The argument shall be a pointer to signed integer into which is written the number of characters written to the output stream so far by this call to <code>fprintf</code>. No argument is converted, but one is consumed. If the conversion specification includes any flags, a field width, or a precision, the behavior is undefined. ; <tt>%</tt> : A <tt>%</tt> character is written. No argument is converted. The complete conversion specification shall be <tt>%%</tt>. If a conversion specification is invalid, the behavior is undefined. If any argument is not the correct type for the corresponding coversion specification, the behavior is undefined. In no case does a nonexistent or small field width cause truncation of a field; if the result of a conversion is wider than the field width, the field is expanded to contain the conversion result. For <tt>a</tt> and <tt>A</tt> conversions, if <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is a power of 2, the value is correctly rounded to a hexadecimal floating number with the given precision. It is recommended practice that if <code>FLT_RADIX</code> is not a power of 2, the result should be one of the two adjacent numbers in hexadecimal floating style with the given precision, with the extra stipulation that the error should have a correct sign for the current rounding direction. It is recommended practice that for <tt>e</tt>, <tt>E</tt>, <tt>f</tt>, <tt>F</tt>, <tt>g</tt>, and <tt>G</tt> conversions, if the number of significant decimal digits is at most <code>DECIMAL_DIG</code>, then the result should be correctly rounded. (For binary-to-decimal conversion, the result format's values are the numbers representable with the given format specifier. The number of significant digits is determined by the format specifier, and in the case of fixed-point conversion by the source value as well.) If the number of significant decimal digits is more than <code>DECIMAL_DIG</code> but the source value is exactly representable with <code>DECIMAL_DIG</code> digits, then the result should be an exact representation with trailing zeros. Otherwise, the source value is bounded by two adjacent decimal strings <i>L < U</i>, both having <tt>DECIMAL_DIG</tt> significant digits; the value of the resultant decimal string <i>D</i> should satisfy <i>L &le; D &le; U</i>, with the extra stipulation that the error should have a correct sign for the current rounding direction. The <code>fprintf</code> function returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output or encoding error occurred. The <code>printf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fprintf</code> with the argument <code>stdout</code> interposed before the arguments to <code>printf</code>. It returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output error occurred. The <code>sprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fprintf</code>, except that the argument <code>s</code> specifies an array into which the generated input is to be written, rather than to a stream. A null character is written at the end of the characters written; it is not counted as part of the returned sum. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. The function returns the number of characters written in the array, not counting the terminating null character. The <code>vfprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>fprintf</code>, with the variable argument list replaced by <code>arg</code>, which shall have been initialized by the <code>va_start</code> macro (and possibly subsequent <code>va_arg</code> calls). The <code>vfprintf</code> function does not invoke the <code>va_end</code> macro. The function returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output error occurred. The <code>vprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>printf</code>, with the variable argument list replaced by <code>arg</code>, which shall have been initialized by the <code>va_start</code> macro (and possibly subsequent <code>va_arg</code> calls). The <code>vprintf</code> function does not invoke the <code>va_end</code> macro. The function returns the number of characters transmitted, or a negative value if an output error occurred. The <code>vsprintf</code> function is equivalent to <code>sprintf</code>, with the variable argument list replaced by <code>arg</code>, which shall have been initialized by the <code>va_start</code> macro (and possibly subsequent <code>va_arg</code> calls). The <code>vsprintf</code> function does not invoke the <code>va_end</code> macro. If copying takes place between objects that overlap, the behavior is undefined. The function returns the number of characters written into the array, not counting the terminating null character. ==References== {{reflist}} {{Nav}} [[fr:Programmation C/Entrées/sorties]] [[pl:C/Czytanie i pisanie do plików]] 6t4ghs1pzngm5wf3aahkvgrdwtolky7 2 35986 4654166 2856759 2026-07-12T02:38:39Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. (via JWB) 4654166 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center"><br><div style="align: center; width: 60%; padding: 1em; border: solid 2px gold; background-color: black;"> '''<span style="color:white">R E T I R E D</span>'''</div><br></div> <div style="text-align: center">'''This user is no longer active on Wikimedia.'''</div> m59einennvc13bzeshvzmzji018hx9l 4654171 4654166 2026-07-12T02:58:21Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Fix. 4654171 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; width: 60%; margin: auto; padding: 1em; border: solid 2px gold; background-color: black;"> '''<span style="color: white;">R E T I R E D</span>'''<br/></div> <div style="text-align: center">'''This user is no longer active on Wikimedia.'''</div> g7akdlk0axf0rwnkp3pdsbz8flv3i2o 3 35988 4654172 2910199 2026-07-12T02:58:43Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Fixing deprecated tags. 4654172 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; width: 60%; margin: auto; padding: 1em; border: solid 2px gold; background-color: black;"> '''<span style="color: white;">R E T I R E D</span>'''<br/></div> <div style="text-align: center">'''This user is no longer active on Wikimedia.'''</div> [[Image:Grace Light & Peace.jpg|thumb|center|265px]] == Your account will be renamed == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"> Hello, The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Single User Login finalisation announcement|the announcement]] for more information. Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Essjay. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Essjay~enwikibooks that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can [[Special:GlobalRenameRequest|pick out a different name]]. Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in. Sorry for the inconvenience. Yours,<br />[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan Peterzell]]<br />Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation </div> 23:11, 17 March 2015 (UTC) <!-- SUL finalisation notification --> == Renamed == <div class="plainlinks mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr”> This account has been renamed as part of [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Single User Login finalisation announcement|single-user login finalisation]]. If you own this account you can [[{{#special:userlogin}}|log in using your previous username and password]] for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: [[{{#special:GlobalRenameRequest}}]]. -- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) </div> 04:56, 19 April 2015 (UTC) <!-- SUL post-rename notification --> a408saj9sy16radz23gez0jj3j8nz88 2 46322 4654002 282214 2026-07-11T13:58:47Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654002 wikitext text/x-wiki {|style="width: 95%; margin: auto;" |style="background-color: #cccccc; border: 2px solid black; padding: 6px;"| This page is a proposed revision by [[User:Kernigh]] of [[WB:WIN]] not-a-dictionary section. See [[Wikibooks talk:What is Wikibooks]] for details. --[[User:Kernigh|Kernigh]] 05:29, 30 October 2005 (UTC) |} {{warning|If there is opposition at [[wikt:Wiktionary:Thesaurus considerations]] then I would reject this policy change. --[[User:Kernigh|Kernigh]] 05:29, 30 October 2005 (UTC)}} ---- === Wikibooks is not a dictionary === Although a [[wikt:dictionary|dictionary]] is a book, the needs of a general-purpose dictionary is better served at our sister project, [[wikt:Main Page|Wiktionary]]. Also: #'''Wikibooks is not a [[wikt:thesaurus|thesaurus]].''' There is a thesaurus project at [[wikt:Wiktionary:WikiSaurus|Wiktionary:WikiSaurus]]. Books that only give lists of synonyms or slang can be deleted from Wikibooks. #'''Exception:''' Wikibooks does allow and encourage projects that require supplemental dictionaries or thesauri, such as a [[wikt:glossary|glossary]]. For example, a mathematical textbook might need a glossary of math terms; a foreign language textbook might include an English-to-foreign and foreign-to-English dictionary. For these dictionaries and thesauri to remain, they must be [[wikt:secondary|secondary]] and [[wikt:auxiliary|auxiliary]] to a main text. 37zcvbulet8qesg7q914nczdb2b8ztt 1 48608 4653996 4644046 2026-07-11T13:26:21Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653996 wikitext text/x-wiki {{WikiProject Unix/Project}} * {{todolink|Guide to Unix|todo-list of Guide to Unix}} === Origins === I had maintained this list at [[User:Kernigh]], but I am moving it here. I have been contributing to [[Guide to UNIX]] from early October to middle November. It has grown to 34 modules partly because I merged several Wikibooks modules together to form this book. These were: *[http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Guide_to_UNIX&oldid=200060 Guide to UNIX (30 July 2005 revision)] * [[BSD]], a small stub * [[Linux]], mostly a list of other Wikibooks and external links * [[File Compression]], a module abandoned by [[Linux Guide]] * possibly [[Linux commands]] Note that [[Linux]] no longer redirects to [[Guide to UNIX/Linux]]; it now points to [[Wikibooks:Computing bookshelf]]. You can look at [http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Guide_to_UNIX/Linux&oldid=238901 Linux (22 September 2005 revision)] to see that page before I changed it. --[[User:Kernigh|Kernigh]] 04:19, 14 November 2005 (UTC) === Redirects === I moved several of the [[Guide to UNIX]] chapters. For reference, here is a list of redirects which I created because of page renames. In many cases, this is the only page to link to the redirects. --[[User:Kernigh|Kernigh]] 04:19, 14 November 2005 (UTC) * [[BSD]] * [[BSD bookshelf]] * [[File Compression]] (see [[Talk:Linux Guide]]) * moved to Explanations tree ** [[Guide to UNIX/Becoming Root]] ** [[Guide to UNIX/Connecting to Remote Unix]] ** [[Guide to UNIX/Environment]] ** [[Guide to UNIX/Filesystems and Swap]] ** [[Guide to UNIX/Finding Additional Help]] ** [[Guide to UNIX/Installing Packages]] ** [[Guide to UNIX/Shell Prompt]] * changed to slash convention ** [[Guide to UNIX commands]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Devices]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: File analysing]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: File system utilities]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: File viewing]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Finding files]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Getting Help]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Kernel commands]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Multi-user commands]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Process management]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Self information]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: System Information]] ** [[Guide to UNIX files]] * merged into one page ** [[Guide to UNIX/Commands/Information]] ** [[Guide to UNIX/Commands/Utilities]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Information]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Misc]] ** [[Guide to UNIX commands: Utilities]] == comparison between Unix, Unix, and non-Unix == ''comparison between '''Unix, Unix''', and non-Unix'' does not really make sense.<br> What is meant by that? ''comparison between Unix, Linux & BSD, and non-Unix'' or ''comparison between Unix, Unix-like, and non-Unix''? --[[User:Dietmar Lettau|Dietmar Lettau]] 03:33, 16 November 2007 (UTC) ==Guide to Unix Navigation Template== I propose changing the current template to the one that I made: <div class="noprint" style="background-color: LightYellow; border:solid PowderBlue 2px; margin: 1px;"> {|style="width: 100%; background-color: LightYellow; margin: auto;" |style="width: 20%; text-align: left;"| <tt style="background-color: #ffff95;">$_</tt> |style="width: 60%; text-align: center; border:solid PowderBlue 1px; margin: 1px;"| ''[[Guide to Unix|Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing]]'' |style="width: 20%; text-align: right; font-size: 5pt;"| <span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Guide_to_UNIX:toc&action=edit Edit template]</span> |} </center> <div class="NavFrame" style="padding: 0; border-style: none;"> <div class="NavFrame" style="border-style: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="background: LightYellow; text-align: left; text-style: normal;"> <br></div><div class="NavContent" style="display: none;"> <blockquote> <div align="center" style="background-color: LightYellow; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 9pt;">'''General''':</span> [[Guide to Unix/Introduction|Introduction]] | [[Guide to Unix/Explanations|Explanations]] | [[Guide to Unix/Why Unix-like|Why Unix-like]]<br> <span style="font-size: 9pt;">'''Platforms''':</span> [[Guide to Unix/Linux|Linux]] | [[Guide to Unix/BSD|BSD]]<br> <span style="font-size: 9pt;">'''Quick Reference''':</span> [[Guide to Unix/Commands|Commands]] | [[Guide to Unix/Environment Variables|Environment Variables]] | [[Guide to Unix/Files|Files]] | [[Guide to Unix/GNU Free Documentation License|License]] </div> </blockquote> </div></div></div></div> :Or with out the javascript: <div class="noprint" style="background-color: LightYellow; border:solid PowderBlue 2px; margin: 1px;"> <center> {|style="width: 100%; background-color: LightYellow;" |style="width: 20%; text-align: left;"| <tt style="background-color: #ffff95;">$_</tt> |style="width: 60%; text-align: center; border:solid PowderBlue 1px; margin: 1px;"| ''[[Guide to Unix|Wikibooks Guide to Unix Computing]]'' |style="width: 20%; text-align: right; font-size: 5pt;"| <span class="plainlinks">[http://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Guide_to_UNIX:toc&action=edit Edit template]</span> |} <blockquote> <div align="center" style="background-color: LightYellow; text-align: left;"> <span style="font-size: 9pt;">'''General''':</span> [[Guide to Unix/Introduction|Introduction]] | [[Guide to Unix/Explanations|Explanations]] | [[Guide to Unix/Why Unix-like|Why Unix-like]]<br> <span style="font-size: 9pt;">'''Platforms''':</span> [[Guide to Unix/Linux|Linux]] | [[Guide to Unix/BSD|BSD]]<br> <span style="font-size: 9pt;">'''Quick Reference''':</span> [[Guide to Unix/Commands|Commands]] | [[Guide to Unix/Environment Variables|Environment Variables]] | [[Guide to Unix/Files|Files]] | [[Guide to Unix/GNU Free Documentation License|License]] </div> </blockquote> </div> --[[User:CFeyecare|<span style="font-family: Kristen ITC; font-size: medium;.5" color: crimson;">''''' CFeyecare '''''</span>]]<span style="color = "black"">^{'''''[[User talk:CFeyecare| Talk!]]'''''}</span>[[User:CFeyecare/templates/signature-tracker| ]] 01:25, 16 November 2008 (UTC) j957hxi1t3n123zodax7qdkxn8f47nx 0 55807 4654126 4445987 2026-07-11T19:22:40Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654126 wikitext text/x-wiki {{GeneralChemTOC|prev=Covalent bonds|next=Molecular Shape}} == Review on structure == Atoms are particles composed of 3 subatomic particles. The protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and the electrons orbit this nucleus. These electrons can leave the atom and this is important to note especially for metals. The energy required to remove an electron is referred to as ionization energy and is very low for metals and so metals tend to lose their outermost (valence) electrons whenever possible. The attractive force between electrons and the nucleus is referred to as the electrostatic force of attraction. This electrostatic force is very strong and is capable of holding large structures together. == Overview == Metallic bonds occur among metal atoms. Whereas ionic bonds join metals to non-metals, ''metallic bonding joins a bulk of metal atoms''. A sheet of aluminium foil and a copper wire are both places where you can see metallic bonding in action. [[Image:Electrona in crystallo fluentia.svg|thumb|The "sea of electrons" is free to flow about the crystal of positive metal ions.]] When metallic bonds form, the s and p electrons '''delocalize'''. Instead of orbiting their atoms, they form a "sea of electrons" surrounding the positive metal ions. The electrons are free to move throughout the resulting network. The electrostatic force of attraction between this "sea of electrons" and the positive ions acts as a form of "glue" holding together the metallic structure. == Properties == The delocalized nature of the electrons explains a number of unique characteristics of metals: {| cellspacing="10px" cellpadding="10px" border="0" | ''Metals are good conductors of electricity'' | The sea of electrons is free to flow, allowing electrical currents. |- |''Metals are good conductors of heat'' |As heat energy is defined by the motion of particles, the sea of electrons provides an excellent medium for this kinetic energy to be transferred. |- | ''Metals are ductile (able to draw into wires)<br>and malleable (able to be hammered into thin sheets)'' | As the metal is deformed, local bonds are broken but quickly reformed in a new position. |- | ''Metals are gray and shiny'' | Photons (particles of light) cannot penetrate the metal, so they bounce off the sea of electrons. |- | ''Gold is yellow and copper is reddish-brown'' | There is actually an upper limit to the frequency that is reflected. It is too high to be visible in most metals, but not gold and copper. |- | ''Metals have very high melting and boiling points'' | Metallic bonding is very strong, so the atoms are reluctant to break apart into a liquid or gas. |} == Reactivity and solubility == Nearly all metals are near completely insoluble in most solvents whether organic or inorganic. This is because the bonds between metals are exceedingly strong and solvents cannot dissolve the metal. However, if the metal undergoes a reaction and forms an [[General Chemistry/Ionic bonding|ionic compound]] it can dissolve. Metals react when an electronegative substance attracts the electrons in the sea of electrons and the structure collapses without the force holding it together. Metals almost always form ionic compounds however on occasion they can participate in a form of covalent bonding. These compounds however, do not share any of the properties of metallic bonding. Furthermore, it is important to distinguish between a compound of a metal and an alloy. == Alloys == Metallic bonds can occur between different elements. A mixture of two or more metals is called an '''alloy'''. This is what differentiates alloys and compounds containing metals, as alloys are only mixtures. Depending on the size of the atoms being mixed, there are two different kinds of alloys that can form: <gallery class="center"> Image:AlloySubstitutional.png|Substitutional alloy Image:AlloyInterstitial.png|Interstitial alloy </gallery> It is also worth note that substitutional/interstitial alloys can exist when there are more than 2 metals are involved in the formation of an alloy. The resulting mixture will have a combination of the properties of both metals involved. Interstitial alloys tend to be (with exceptions) stronger than their component metals. This is because the particles of varying size tend to prevent the various layers in a metal from sliding over each other smoothly. An example of this would be the difference between bronze and its components copper and tin. Copper on its own is a softer metal unfit for use as a weapon, while bronze was widely used during the Bronze Age for swords and armour. Alloys can also have various other benefits such as corrosion resistance, torsional strength, and much more. {{BookCat}} 0ays32yfwxgp2irudtjbi9eicacrj92 0 57611 4654101 4428086 2026-07-11T19:19:56Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654101 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DSP Page}} == The Bilinear Transform == The '''Bilinear transform''' is a mathematical relationship which can be used to convert the transfer function of a particular filter in the complex Laplace domain into the z-domain, and vice-versa. The resulting filter will have the same characteristics of the original filter, but can be implemented using different techniques. The Laplace Domain is better suited for designing analog filter components, while the [[Digital Signal Processing/Z Transform|Z-Transform]] is better suited for designing digital filter components. The bilinear transform is the result of a numerical integration of the analog transfer function into the digital domain. We can define the bilinear transform as: :<math>s = \frac{2(1-z^{-1})}{T(1+z^{-1})}</math> The bilinear transform can be used to produce a piecewise constant magnitude response that approximates the magnitude response of an equivalent analog filter. The bilinear transform does not faithfully reproduce the analog filters phase response, however. As example, the phase response for the bilinear equivalent to an analog system is shown next, using a sampling frequency of 40 rad/sec. Compare the phase responses in the plot, realizing the limit is Ws/2=20 rad/s - the clear divergence is evident. :<math>y1/u1 = \frac{s^5 + 11.21 s^4 + 116.2 s^3 + 372.6 s^2 + 561.6 s + 363.5 }{s^7 + 26.49 s^6 + 340.5 s^5 + 2462 s^4 + 1.043e+04 s^3 + 2.336e+04 s^2 + 1.905e+04 s + 4982}</math> * num = [1 11.21 116.242 372.601 561.589 363.528 ]; * den= [1 26.489 340.47 2461.61 10433.1 23363.9 19049. 4981.82 ]; * C=tf(num,den); % GNU Octave command * D=c2d(C,2*pi/40,'bi'); % A/D via Octave :<math>y1/u1 = \frac{0.002524 z^7 - 0.00226 z^6 - 0.003061 z^5 + 0.004265 z^4 - 0.001063 z^3 - 0.001333 z^2 + 0.001663 z - 0.0006096}{z^7 - 3.545 z^6 + 5.43 z^5 - 4.798 z^4 + 2.702 z^3 - 0.9835 z^2 + 0.2186 z - 0.02319}</math> Note that two zeros have been added so that zero and pole counts match. <gallery class="center">Phase_discrep.jpg|Phase discrep approaching Ws/2 </gallery> == W Domain == The bilinear transform is a one-to-one mapping, that is that a unique point in one domain will be transformed into a unique point in the other domain. However, the transformation is not a linear transformation, and is not an exact equivalency between Laplace and Z domains. If a digital filter is designed and transformed into an analog filter, the resulting poles and zeros are not located on the s-plane, but instead on the w-plane that has similar properties, but with a nonlinear correspondence. In the bilinear transform, the positive imaginary axis in the s-domain is transformed into the upper-half unit circle in the z-domain. Likewise, the negative imaginary axis in the s-domain is transformed into the lower-half unit circle in the z-domain. This mapping is highly nonlinear, however, resulting in a phenomena known as "frequency warping". == Prewarping == Frequency warping follows a known pattern, and there is a known relationship between the warped frequency and the known frequency. We can use a technique called '''prewarping''' to account for the nonlinearity, and produce a more faithful mapping. :<math>\omega_p = \frac{2}{T}\tan\left(\frac{\omega T}{2}\right)</math> The ''p'' subscript denotes the prewarped version of the same frequency. Note that in the limit <math>T \to 0</math>, the continuous solution is <math>\omega_p \to\omega </math>. == Phase == The bilinear transform does not maintain phase characteristics of the analog filter, and there is no way to correct the phase response to match. == Filter Design Steps == When designing a digital filter using an analog approximation and the bilinear transform, we follow these steps: #Prewarp the cutoff frequencies #Design the necessary analog filter #Apply the bilinear transform to the transfer function #Normalize the resultant transfer function to be monotonic and have a unity passband gain (0dB). Alternatively, if we have an '''inverse bilinear transform''', we can follow these steps: #Use the inverse bilinear transform on the filter specifications in the digital domain to produce equivalent specifications in the analog domain. #Construct the analog filter transfer functions to meet those specifications. #Use the bilinear transform to convert the resultant analog filter into a digital filter. == The Inverse Bilinear Transform == The inverse bilinear transform can be specified as such: :<math>z = \frac{1 + \frac{s} {2*f_s} } {1 - \frac{s} {2*f_s} }</math> Where <math>f_s</math> is the sample rate <math>(f_s = \frac{1}{T})</math> This can also be written as: :<math>z^{-1} = \frac{ 1-\frac{T*s}{2} } { 1+\frac{T*s}{2} }</math> which very much resembles the Bilinear Transform. 7vkx700x8nbtsbksrwms0c8dw3xndml 0 73477 4654012 4652371 2026-07-11T15:01:23Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654012 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {| |- | align="left" |[[Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Comprehension|Previous Chapter]]|| width="100%" align="center"|[[Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience|Overview]]|| align="right"|[[Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience/Situation Models and Inferencing|Next Chapter]] |} </noinclude> == Introduction == What is happening inside my head when I listen to a sentence? How do I process written words? This chapter will take a closer look on brain processes concerned with language comprehension. Dealing with natural language understanding, we distinguish between the neuroscientific and the psycholinguistic approach. As text understanding spreads through the broad field of cognitive psychology, linguistics, and neurosciences, our main focus will lay on the intersection of two latter, which is known as neurolinguistics. Different brain areas need to be examined in order to find out how words and sentences are being processed. For long time scientist were restricted to draw conclusions from certain brain lesions to the functions of corresponding brain areas. During the last 40 years techniques for brain imaging and ERP-measurement have been established which allow for a more accurate identification of brain parts involved in language processing. Scientific studies on these phenomena are generally divided into research on auditory and visual language comprehension; we will discuss both. Not to forget is that it is not enough to examine English: To understand language processing in general, we have to look at non-Indo-European and other language systems like sign language. But first of all we will be concerned with a rough localization of language in the brain. == Lateralization of language == Although functional lateralization studies and analyses find individual differences in personality or cognitive style don't favor one hemisphere or the other, some brain functions occur in one or the other side of the brain. Language tends to be on the left and attention on the right (Nielson, Zielinski, Ferguson, Lainhart & Anderson, [http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0071275 2013]). There is a lot of evidence that each brain hemisphere has its own distinct functions in language comprehension. Most often, the right hemisphere is referred to as the non-dominant hemisphere and the left is seen as the dominant hemisphere. This distinction is called lateralization (from the Latin word lateral, meaning sidewise) and reason for it first was raised by experiments with split-brain patients. Following a top-down approach we will then discuss the right hemisphere which might have the mayor role in higher level comprehension, but is not quite well understood. Much research has been done on the left hemisphere and we will discuss why it might be dominant before the following sections discuss the fairly well understood fundamental processing of language in this hemisphere of the brain. === Functional asymmetry === ''' Anatomical differences between left and right hemisphere ''' Initially we will consider the most apparent part of a differentiation between left and right hemisphere: Their differences in shape and structure. As visible to the naked eye there exists a clear asymmetry between the two halves of the human brain: The right hemisphere typically has a bigger, wider and farther extended frontal region than the left hemisphere, whereas the left hemisphere is bigger, wider and extends farther in it’s occipital region (M. T. Banich,"Neuropsychology", ch.3, pg.92). Significantly larger on the left side in most human brains is a certain part of the temporal lobe’s surface, which is called the planum temporale. It is localized near Wernicke’s area and other auditory association areas, wherefore we can already speculate that the left hemisphere might be stronger involved in processes of language and speech treatment. In fact such a left laterality of language functions is evident in 97% of the population (D. Purves, "Neuroscience", ch.26, pg.649). But actually the percentage of human brains, in which a "left-dominance" of the planum temporale is traceable, is only 67% (D. Purves, "Neuroscience", ch.26, pg.648). Which other factors play aunsolved yet. ''' Evidence for functional asymmetry from "split brain" patients ''' In hard cases of epilepsy a rarely performed but popular surgical method to reduce the frequency of epileptic seizures is the so-called corpus callosotomy. Here a radical cut through the connecting "communication bridge" between right and left hemisphere, the corpus callosum, is done; the result is a "split-brain". For patients whose corpus callosum is cut, the risk of accidental physical injury is mitigated, but the side-effect is striking: Due to this eradicative transection of left and right half of the brain these two are not longer able to communicate adequately. This situation provides the opportunity to study differentiation of functionality between the hemispheres. First experiments with split-brain patients were performed by Roger Sperry and his colleagues at the California Institute of Technology in 1960 and 1970 (D. Purves, "Neuroscience", ch.26, pg.646). They lead researchers to sweeping conclusions about laterality of speech and the organization of the human brain in general. {| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 style="background:#99CCCC; margin: auto;" | '''A digression on the laterality of the visual system''' |- | [[Image:Gray722.png|thumbnail|Visual system]]A visual stimulus, located within the left visual field, projects onto the nasal (inner) part of the left eye’s retina and onto the temporal (outer) part of the right eye’s retina. Images on the temporal retinal region are processed in the visual cortex of the same side of the brain (ipsilateral), whereas nasal retinal information is mapped onto the opposite half of the brain (contralateral). The stimulus within the left visual field will completely arrive in the right visual cortex to be processed and worked up. In "healthy" brains this information furthermore attains the left hemisphere via the corpus callosum and can be integrated there. In split-brain patients this current of signals is interrupted; the stimulus remains "invisible" for the left hemisphere. |} [[Image:SplitBrainExperiments.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Split Brain Experiments]]The experiment we consider now is based on the laterality of the visual system: What is seen in the left half of the visual field will be processed in the right hemisphere and vice versa. Aware of this principle a test operator presents the picture of an object to one half of the visual field while the participant is instructed to name the seen object, and to blindly pick it out of an amount of concrete objects with the contralateral hand. It can be shown that a picture, for example the drawing of a die, which has only been presented to the left hemisphere, can be named by the participant ("I saw a die"), but is not selectable with the right hand (no idea which object to choose from the table). Contrarily the participant is unable to name the die, if it was recognized in the right hemisphere, but easily picks it out of the heap of objects on the table with the help of the left hand. These outcomes are clear evidence of the human brain’s functional asymmetry. The left hemisphere seems to dominate functions of speech and language processing, but is unable to handle spatial tasks like vision-independent object recognition. The right hemisphere seems to dominate spatial functions, but is unable to process words and meaning independently. In a second experiment evidence arose that a split-brain patient can only follow a written command (like "get up now!"), if it is presented to the left hemisphere. The right hemisphere can only "understand" pictorial instructions. The following table (D. Purves, "Neuroscience", ch.26, pg.647) gives a rough distinction of functions: {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 style="margin: auto;" | '''Left Hemisphere''' | '''Right Hemisphere''' |- | * analysis of right visual field * language processing ** writing ** speech | * analysis of left visual field * spatial tasks * visuospatial tasks * object and face recognition |} First it is important to keep in mind that these distinctions comprise only functional dominances, no exclusive competences. In cases of unilateral brain damage, often one half of the brain takes over tasks of the other one. Furthermore it should be mentioned that this experiment works only for stimuli presented for less than a second. This is because not only the corpus callosum, but as well some subcortical commissures serve for interhemispheric transfer. In general both can simultaneously contribute to performance, since they use complement roles in processing. {| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 style="background:#99CCCC; margin: auto;" | '''A digression on handedness''' |- | An important issue, when exploring the different brain organization, is handedness, which is the tendency to use the left or the right hand to perform activities. Throughout history, left-handers, which only comprise about 10% of the population, have often been considered being something abnormal. They were said to be evil, stubborn, defiant and were, even until the mid-20th century, forced to write with their right hand. One most commonly accepted idea, as to how handedness affects the hemispheres, is the brain hemisphere division of labour. Since both speaking and handiwork require fine motor skills, the presumption here is that it would be more efficient to have one brain hemisphere do both, rather than having it divided up. Since in most people, the left side of the brain controls speaking, right-handedness predominates. The theory also predicts that left-handed people have a reversed brain division of labour. In right handers, verbal processing is mostly done in the left hemisphere, whereas visuospatial processing is mostly done in the opposite hemisphere. Therefore, 95% of speech output is controlled by the left brain hemisphere, whereas only 5% of individuals control speech output in their right hemisphere. Left-handers, on the other hand, have a heterogeneous brain organization. Their brain hemisphere is either organized in the same way as right handers, the opposite way, or even such that both hemispheres are used for verbal processing. But usually, in 70% of the cases, speech is controlled by the left-hemisphere, 15% by the right and 15% by either hemisphere. When the average is taken across all types of left-handedness, it appears that left-handers are less lateralized. After, for example, damage occurs to the left hemisphere, it follows that there is a visuospatial deficit, which is usually more severe in left-handers than in right-handers. Dissimilarities may derive, in part, from differences in brain morphology, which concludes from asymmetries in the planum temporale. Still, it can be assumed that left-handers have less division of labour between their two hemispheres than right-handers do and are more likely to lack neuroanatomical asymmetries. There have been many theories as to find out why people are left-handed and what its consequences may be. Some people say that left-handers have a shorter life span or higher accident rates or autoimmune disorders. According to the theory of Geschwind and Galaburda, there is a relation to sex hormones, the immune system, and profiles of cognitive abilities that determine, whether a person is left-handed or not. Concludingly, many genetic models have been proposed, yet the causes and consequences still remain a mystery (M.T.Banich, "Neuropsychology", ch.3, pg. 119). |} === The right hemisphere === ''' The role of the right hemisphere in text comprehension ''' The experiments with "split-brain" patients and evidence that will be discussed soon suggest that the right hemisphere is usually not (but in some cases, e.g. 15% of left handed people) dominant in language comprehension. What is most often ascribed to the right hemisphere is cognitive functioning. When damage is done to this part of the brain or when temporal regions of the right hemisphere are removed, this can lead to cognitive-communication problems, such as impaired memory, attention problems, and poor reasoning (L. Cherney, 2001). Investigations lead to the conclusion that the right hemisphere processes information in a gestalt and holistic fashion, with a special emphasis on spatial relationships. Here, an advantage arises for differentiating two distinct faces because it examines things in a global manner and it also reacts to lower spatial, and also auditory, frequency. The former point can be undermined with the fact that the right hemisphere is capable of reading most concrete words and can make simple grammatical comparisons (M. T. Banich,“Neuropsychology“, ch.3, pg.97). But in order to function in such a way, there must be some sort of communication between the brain halves. ''' Prosody - the sound envelope around words ''' Consider how different the simple statement "She did it again" could be interpreted in the following context taken from Banich: LYNN: Alice is way into this mountain-biking thing. After breaking her arm, you'd think she'd be a little more cautious. But then yesterday, she went out and rode Captain Jack's. That trail is gnarly - narrow with lots of tree roots and rocks. And last night, I heard that she took a bad tumble on her way down. SARA: ''She did it again'' Does Sara say that with rising pitch or emphatically and with falling intonation? In the first case she would ask whether Alice has injured herself again. In the other case she asserts something she knows or imagines: That Alice managed to hurt herself a second time. Obviously the sound envelope around words - prosody - does matter. Reason to belief that recognition of prosodic patterns appears in the right hemisphere arises when you take into account patients that have damage to an anterior region of the right hemisphere. They suffer from '''aprosodic''' speech, that is, their utterances are all at the same pitch. They might sound like a robot from the 80ties. There is another phenomena appearing from brain damage: '''dysprosodic''' speech. In that case the patient speaks with disordered intonation. This is not due to a right hemisphere lesion, but arises when damage to the left hemisphere is suffered. The explanation is that the left hemisphere gives ill-timed prosodic cues to the right hemisphere, thus proper intonation is affected. ''' Beyond words: Inference from a neurological point of view ''' On the word level, the current studies are mostly consistent with each other and with findings from brain lesion studies. But when it comes to the more complex understanding of whole sentences, texts and storylines, the findings are split. According to E. C. Ferstl’s review “The Neuroanatomy of Text Comprehension. What’s the story so far?” (2004), there is evidence for and against right hemisphere regions playing the key role in pragmatics and text comprehension. On the current state of knowledge, we cannot exactly say how and where cognitive functions like building situation models and inferencing work together with “pure” language processes. As this chapter is concerned with the neurology of language, it should be remarked that patients with right hemisphere damage have difficulties with inferencing. Take into account the following sentence: ''With mosquitoes, gnats, and grasshoppers flying all about, she came across a small black bug that was being used to eavesdrop on her conversation.'' You might have to reinterpret the sentence until you realize that "small black bug" does not refer to an animal but rather to a spy device. People with damage in the right hemisphere have problems to do so. They have difficulty to follow the thread of a story and to make inferences about what has been said. Furthermore they have a hard time understanding non-literal aspects of sentences like metaphors, so they might be really horrified when they hear that someone was "Crying her eyes out". The reader is referred to the next chapter for a detailed discussion of [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience/Situation_Models_and_Inferencing Situation Models] === The left hemisphere === ''' Further evidence for left hemisphere dominance: The Wada technique ''' Before concerning concrete functionality of the left hemisphere, further evidence for the dominance of the left hemisphere is provided. Of relevance is the so-called Wada technique, allowing testing which hemisphere is responsible for speech output and usually being used in epilepsy patients during surgery. It is not a brain imaging technique, but simulates a brain lesion. One of the hemispheres is anesthetized by injecting a barbiturate (sodium amobarbital) in one of the patient’s carotid arteries. Then he is asked to name a number of items on cards. When he is not able to do that, despite the fact that he could do it an hour earlier, the concerned hemisphere is said to be the one responsible for speech output. This test must be done twice, for there is a chance that the patient produces speech bilaterally. The probability for that is not very high, in fact, according to Rasmussen & Milner 1997a (as referred to in Banich, p.&nbsp;293) it occurs only in 15% of the left-handers and none of the right-handers. (It is still unclear where these differences in left-handers’ brains come from.) That means that in most people, only one hemisphere “produces” speech output – and in 96% of right-handers and 70% of left-handers, it is the left one. The findings of the brain lesion studies about asymmetry were confirmed here: Normally (in healthy right-handers), the left hemisphere controls speech output. ''' Explanations of left hemisphere dominance ''' Two theories why the left hemisphere might have special language capacities are still discussed. The first states that dominance of the left hemisphere is due to a specialization for '''precise temporal control of oral and manual articulators'''. Here the main argument is that gestures related to a story line are most often made with the right and therefore by the left hemisphere controlled hand whilst other hand movements appear equally often with both hands. The other theory says that the left hemisphere is dominant because it is specialized for '''linguistic processing''' and is due to a single patient - a speaker of American Sign Language with a left hemisphere lesion. He could neither produce nor comprehend ASL, but could still communicate by using gestures in non-linguistic domains. ''' How innate is the organisational structure of the brain? ''' Not only cases of left-handers but also brain imaging techniques have shown examples of bilateral language processing: According to ERP studies (by Bellugi et al. 1994 and Neville et al. 1993 as cited in E. Dabrowska, "Language, Mind an Brain" 2004, p.&nbsp;57), people with the Williams’ syndrome (WS) also have no dominant hemisphere for language. WS patients have a lot of physical and mental disorders, but show, compared to their other (poor) cognitive abilities, very good linguistic skills. And these skills do not rely on one dominant hemisphere, but both of them contribute equally. So, whilst the majority of the population has a dominant left hemisphere for language processing there are a variety of exceptions to that dominance. That there are different “organisation possibilities” in individual brains Dabrowska (p.&nbsp;57) suggests that the organisational structure in the brain could be less innate and fixed as it is commonly thought. == Auditory Language Processing == This section will explain where and how language is processed. To avoid intersections with visual processes we will firstly concentrate on spoken language. Scientists have developed three approaches of conceiving information about this issue. The first two approaches are based upon brain lesions, namely aphasia, whereas the recent approach relies on results of on modern brain-image techniques. === Neurological Perspective === The Neurological Perspective describes which pathways language follows in order to be comprehended. Scientists revealed that there are concrete areas inside the brain where concrete tasks of language processing are taking place. The most known areas are the Broca and the Wernicke Area. ''' Broca’s aphasia ''' [[Image:Brain - Broca's and Wernicke's area Diagram.svg|thumbnail|Broca's and Wernicke's area]] One of the most well-known aphasias is Broca’s aphasia that causes patients to be unable to speak fluently. Moreover they have a great difficulty producing words. Comprehension, however, is relatively intact in those patients. Because these symptoms do not result from motoric problems of the vocal musculature, a region in the brain that is responsible for linguistic output must be lesioned. Broca discovered that the brain region causing fluent speech is responsible for linguistic output, must be located ventrally in the frontal lobe, anterior to the motor strip. Recent research suggested that Broca`s aphasia results also from subcortical tissue and white matter and not only cortical tissue. {|border=1 cellspacing=0 style="margin: auto;" ! Example of spontaneous Speech - Task: What do you see on this picture? |- |„O, yea. Det‘s a boy an‘ girl... an‘ ... a ... car ... house... light po‘ (pole). Dog an‘ a ... boat. ‚N det‘s a ... mm ... a ... coffee, an‘ reading. Det‘s a ... mm ... a ... det‘s a boy ... fishin‘.“ (Adapted from „Principles of Neuroscience“ 4th edition, 2000, p 1178) |} ''' Wernicke‘s aphasia ''' Another very famous aphasia, known as Wernicke`s aphasia, causes opposite syndromes. Patients suffering from Wernicke`s aphasia usually speak very fluently, words are pronounced correctly, but they are combined senselessly – “word salad” is the way it is most often described. Understanding what patients of Wernicke`s aphasia say is especially difficult, because they use paraphasias (substitution of a word in verbal paraphasia, of word with similar meaning in semantic paraphasia, and of a phoneme in phonemic paraphasia) and neologisms. With Wernicke`s aphasia the comprehension of simple sentences is a very difficult task. Moreover their ability to process auditory language input and also written language is impaired. With some knowledge about the brainstructure and their tasks one is able to conclude that the area that causes Wernicke`s aphasia, is situated at the joint of temporal, parietal and occipital regions, near Heschl`s gyrus (primary auditory area), because all the areas receiving and interpreting sensory information (posterior cortex), and those connecting the sensory information to meaning (parietal lobe) are likely to be involved. {|border=1 cellspacing=0 style="margin: auto;" ! Example of spontaneous Speech - Task: What do you see on this picture? |- |„Ah, yes, it‘s ah ... several things. It‘s a girl ... uncurl ... on a boat. A dog ... ‘S is another dog ... uh-oh ... long‘s ... on a boat. The lady, it‘s a young lady. An‘ a man a They were eatin‘. ‘S be place there. This ... a tree! A boat. No, this is a ... It‘s a house. Over in here ... a cake. An‘ it‘s, it‘s a lot of water. Ah, all right. I think I mentioned about that boat. I noticed a boat being there. I did mention that before ... Several things down, different things down ... a bat ... a cake ... you have a ...“ (adapted from „Principles of Neuroscience“ 4th edition, 2000, p 1178) |} ''' Conduction aphasia ''' Wernicke supposed that an aphasia between Broca‘s area and Wernicke‘s area, namely conduction aphasia, would lead to severe problems to repeat just heard sentences rather than having problems with the comprehension and production of speech. Indeed patients suffering from this kind of aphasia show an inability to reproduce sentences since they often make phonemic paraphasias, may substitute or leave out words, or might say nothing. Investigations determined that the "connection cable", namely the arcuate fasciculus between Wernicke‘s and Broca‘s area is almost invariably damaged in case of a conduction aphasia. That is why conduction aphasia is also regarded as a disconnection syndrome (the behavioural dysfunction because of a damage to the connection of two connected brain regions). {|border=1 cellspacing=0 style="margin: auto;" ! Example of the repetition of the sentence „The pastry-cook was elated“: |- |„The baker-er was /vaskerin/ ... uh ...“ (adapted from „Principles of Neuroscience“ 4th edition, 2000, p 1178) |} ''' Transcortical motor aphasia and global aphasia ''' Transcortical motor aphasia, another brain lesion caused by a connection disruption, is very similar to Broca`s aphasia, with the difference that the ability to repeat is kept. In fact people with a transcortical motor aphasia often suffer from echolalia, the need to repeat what they just heard. Usually patients` brain is damaged outside Broca`s area, sometimes more anterior and sometimes more superior. Individuals with transcortical sensory aphasia have similar symptoms as those suffering from Wernicke`s aphasia, except that they show signs of echolalia. Lesions in great parts of the left hemisphere lead to global aphasia, and thus to an inability of both comprehending and producing language, because not only Broca`s or Wenicke`s area is damaged. (Barnich, 1997, pp.&nbsp;276–282) <center> {| border=5 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=7 | '''Type of Aphasia''' | '''Spontaneous Speech''' | '''Paraphasia''' | '''Comprehension''' | '''Repetition''' | '''Naming''' |- | * Broca`s * Wernicke`s * Conduction * Transcortical motor * Transcortical sensory * Global | * Nonfluent * Fluent * Fluent * Nonfluent * Fluent * Nonfluent | *Uncommon *Common (verbal) *Common (literal) *Uncommon *Common *Variable | *Good *Poor *Good *Good *Poor *Poor | *Poor *Poor *Poor *Good (echolalia) *Good (echolalia) *Poor | *Poor *Poor *Poor *Poor *Poor *Poor |} <small>Overview of the effects of aphasia from the neurological perspective</small> </center> (Adapted from Benson, 1985,p.&nbsp;32 as cited in Barnich, 1997, p.&nbsp;287) === Psychological Perspective === Since the 1960‘s psychologists and psycholinguists tried to resolve how language is organised and represented inside the brain. Patients with aphasias gave good evidence for location and discrimination of the three main parts of language comprehension and production, namely phonology, syntax and semantics. ''' Phonology ''' Phonology deals with the processing of meaningful parts of speech resulting from the mere sound. More over there exists a differentiation between a phonemic representation of a speech sound which are the smallest units of sounds that leads to different meanings (e.g. the /b/ and /p/ in bet and pat) and phonetic representation. The latter means that a speech sound may be produced in a different manner at different situations. For instance the /p/ in pill sounds different than the /p/ in spill since the former /p/ is aspirated and the latter is not. Examining which parts are responsible for phonetic representation, patients with Broca`s or Wernicke`s aphasia can be compared. As the speech characteristic for patients with Broca`s aphasia is non-fluent, i.e. they have problems producing the correct phonetic and phonemic representation of a sound, and people with Wernicke`s aphasia do not show any problems speaking fluently, but also have problems producing the right phoneme. This indicates that Broca`s area is mainly involved in phonological production and also, that phonemic and phonetic representation do not take place in the same part of the brain. Scientists examined on a more precise level the speech production, on the level of the distinctive features of phonemes, to see in which features patients with aphasia made mistakes. A distinctive feature describes the different manners and places of articulation. /t/ (like in touch) and /s/ (like in such) for example are created at the same place but produced in different manner. /t/ and /d/ are created at the same place and in the same manner but they differ in voicing. Results show that in fluent as well as in non-fluent aphasia patients usually mix up only one distinctive feature, not two. In general it can be said that errors connected to the place of articulation are more common than those linked to voicing. Interestingly some aphasia patients are well aware of the different features of two phonemes, yet they are unable to produce the right sound. This suggests that though patients have great difficulty pronouncing words correctly, their comprehension of words is still quite good. This is characteristic for patients with Broca`s aphasia, while those with Wernicke`s aphasia show contrary symptoms: they are able to pronounce words correctly, but cannot understand what the words mean. That is why they often utter phonologically correct words (neologisms) that are not real words with a meaning. ''' Syntax ''' Syntax describes the rules of how words must be arranged to result in meaningful sentences. Humans in general usually know the syntax of their mother tongue and thus slip their tongue if a word happens to be out of order in a sentence. People with aphasia, however, often have problems with parsing of sentences, not only with respect to the production of language but also with respect to comprehension of sentences. Patients showing an inability of comprehension and production of sentences usually have some kind of anterior aphasia, also called agrammatical aphasia. This can be revealed in tests with sentences. These patients cannot distinguish between active and passive voice easily if both agent and object could play an active part. For example patients do not see a difference between “The boy chased the girl” and “The boy was chased by the girl”, but they do understand both “The boy saw the apple” and “The apple was seen by the boy”, because they can seek help of semantics and do not have to rely on syntax alone. Patients with posterior aphasia, like for example Wernicke`s aphasia, do not show these symptoms, as their speech is fluent. Comprehension by mere syntactic means would be possible as well, but the semantic aspect must be considered as well. This will be discussed in the next part. ''' Semantics ''' Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. It has been shown that patients suffering from posterior aphasia have severe problems understanding simple texts, although their knowledge of syntax is intact. The semantic shortcoming is often examined by a Token Test, a test in which patients have to point to objects referred to in simple sentences. As might have been guessed, people with anterior aphasia have no problems with semantics, yet they might not be able to understand longer sentences because the knowledge of syntax then is involved as well. <center> {| border=5 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=7 | | '''anterior Aphasia (e.g. Broca)''' | '''posterior Aphasia (e.g. Wernicke)''' |- | '''Phonology''' | phonetic and phonemic representation affected | phonemic representation affected |- | '''Syntax''' | affected | no effect |- | '''Syntax''' | no effect | affected |} <small>Overview of the effects of aphasia from the psychological perspective</small> </center> In general studies with lesioned people have shown that anterior areas are needed for speech output and posterior regions for speech comprehension. As mentioned above anterior regions are also more important for syntactic processing, while posterior regions are involved in semantic processing. But such a strict division of the parts of the brain and their responsibilities is not possible, because posterior regions must be important for more than just sentence comprehension, as patients with lesions in this area can neither comprehend nor produce any speech. (Barnich, 1997, pp.&nbsp;283–293) === Evidence from Advanced Neuroscience Methods === Measuring the functions of both normal and damaged brains has been possible since the 1970s, when the first brain imaging techniques were developed. With them, we are able to “watch the brain working” while the subject is e.g. listening to a joke. These methods (further described in chapter 4) show whether the earlier findings are correct and precise. Generally, imaging shows that certain functional brain regions are much smaller than estimated in brain lesion studies, and that their boundaries are more distinct (cf. Banich p.&nbsp;294). The exact location varies individually, therefore bringing the results of many brain lesion studies together caused too big estimated functional regions before. For example, stimulating brain tissue electrically (during epilepsy surgery) and observing the outcome (e.g. errors in naming tasks) led to a much better knowledge where language processing areas are located. PET studies (Fiez & Petersen, 1993, as cited in Banich, p.&nbsp;295) have shown that in fact both anterior and posterior regions were activated in language comprehension and processing, but with different strengths – in agreement with the lesion studies. The more active speech production is required in experiments, the more frontal is the main activation: For example, when the presented words must be repeated. Another result (Raichle et al. 1994, as referred to in Banich, p.&nbsp;295) was that the familiarity of the stimuli plays a big role. When the subjects were presented well-known stimuli sets in well-known experimental tasks and had to repeat them, anterior regions were activated. Those regions were known to cause conduction aphasia when damaged. But when the words were new ones, and/or the subjects never had to do a task like this before, the activation was recorded more posterior. That means, when you repeat an unexpected word, the heaviest working brain tissue is about somewhere under your upper left earlap, but when you knew this word that would be the next to repeat before, it is a bit nearer to your left eye. == Visual Language Processing == The processing of written language is performed when we are reading or writing and is thought to happen in a distinct neural processing unit than auditory language processing. Reading and writing respectively rely on vision whereas spoken language is first mediated by the auditory system. Language systems responsible for written language processing have to interact with a sensory system different from the one involved in spoken language processing. Visual language processing in general begins when the visual forms of letters (“c” or “C” or “c”) are mapped onto abstract letter identities. These are then mapped onto a word form and the corresponding semantic representation (the “meaning” of the word, i.e. the concept behind it). Observations of patients that lost a language ability due to a brain damage led to different disease patterns that indicated a difference between perception (reading) and production (writing) of visual language just like it is found in non-visual language processing. Alexic patients possess the ability to write while not being able to read whereas patients with agraphia are able to read but cannot write. Though alexia and agraphia often occur together as a result of damage to the angular gyrus, there were patients found having alexia without agraphia (e.g. Greenblatt 1973, as cited in M. T. Banich, “Neuropsychology“, p.&nbsp;296) or having agraphia without alexia (e.g. Hécaen & Kremin, 1976, as cited in M. T. Banich, “Neuropsychology“, p.&nbsp;296). This is a double dissociation that suggests separate neural control systems for reading and writing. Since double dissociations are also found in phonological and surface dyslexia, experimental results support the theory that language production and perception respectively are subdivided into separate neural circuits. The two route model shows how these two neural circuits are believed to provide pathways from written words to thoughts and from thoughts to written words. === Two routes model === [[Image:1_1_twoRouteModelInReading.JPG|thumb|395px|1.1. Each route derives the meaning of a word or the word of a meaning in a different way]]In essence, the two routes model contains two routes. Each of them derives the meaning of a word or the word of a meaning in a different way, depending on how familiar we are with the word. Using the '''phonological route''' means having an intermediate step between perceiving and comprehending of written language. This intermediate step takes places when we are making use of grapheme-to-phoneme rules. Grapheme-to-phoneme rules are a way of determining the phonological representation for a given grapheme. A grapheme is the smallest written unit of a word (e.g. “sh” in “shore”) that represents a phoneme. A phoneme on the other hand is the smallest phonological unit of a word distinguishing it from another word that otherwise sounds the same (e.g. “bat” and “cat”). People learning to read or are encountering new words often use the phonological route to arrive at a meaning representation. They construct phonemes for each grapheme and then combine the individual phonemes to a sound pattern that is associated with a certain meaning (see 1.1). The '''direct route''' is supposed to work without an intermediate phonological representation, so that print is directly associated with word-meaning. A situation in which the direct route has to be taken is when reading an irregular word like “colonel”. Application of grapheme-to-phoneme rules would lead to an incorrect phonological representation. According to Taft (1982, as referred to in M. T. Banich,“Neuropsychology“, p.&nbsp;297) and others the direct route is supposed to be faster than the phonological route since it does not make use of a “phonological detour” and is therefore said to be used for known words ( see 1.1). However, this is just one point of view and others, like Chastain (1987, as referred to in M. T. Banich, “Neuropsychology“, p.&nbsp;297), postulate a reliance on the phonological route even in skilled readers. === The processing of written language in reading === [[Image:1_2_TwoRouteModelIrregularWords.JPG|left|thumb|353px|1.2. Regularity effects are common in cases of surface alexia]]Several kinds of alexia could be differentiated, often depending on whether the phonological or the direct route was impaired. Patients with brain lesions participated in experiments where they had to read out words and non-words as well as irregular words. Reading of non-words for example requires access to the phonological route since there cannot be a “stored” meaning or a sound representation for this combination of letters. Patients with a lesion in temporal structures of the left hemisphere (the exact location varies) suffer from so called '''surface alexia'''. They show the following characteristic symptoms that suggest a strong reliance on the phonological route: Very common are regularity effects, that is a mispronunciation of words in which the spelling is irregular like "colonel" or "yacht" (see 1.2). These words are pronounced according to grapheme-to-phoneme rules, although high-frequency irregularly spelled words may be preserved in some cases, the pronunciation according to the phonological route is just wrong. Furthermore, the would-be pronunciation of a word is reflected in reading-comprehension errors. When asked to describe the meaning of the word “bear”, people suffering from surface alexia would answer something like “a beverage” because the resulting sound pattern of “bear” was the same for these people as that for “beer”. This characteristic goes along with a tendency to confuse homophones (words that sound the same but are spelled differently and have different meanings associated). However, these people are still able to read non-words with a regular spelling since they can apply grapheme-to-phoneme rules to them. [[Image:1_3_TwoRouteModelNonWords.JPG|right|thumb|353px|1.3. Patients with phonological alexia have to rely on the direct route]]In contrast, '''phonological alexia''' is characterised by a disruption in the phonological route due to lesions in more posterior temporal structures of the left hemisphere. Patients can read familiar regular and irregular words by making use of stored information about the meaning associated with that particular visual form (so there is no regularity effect like in surface alexia). However, they are unable to process unknown words or non-words, since they have to rely on the direct route (see 1.3). Word class effects and morphological errors are common, too. Nouns, for example, are read better than function words and sometimes even better than verbs. Affixes which do not change the grammatical class or meaning of a word (inflectional affixes) are often substituted (e.g. “farmer” instead of “farming”). Furthermore, concrete words are read with a lower error rate than abstract ones like “freedom” (concreteness effect). '''Deep Alexia''' shares many symptomatic features with phonological alexia such as an inability to read out non-words. Just as in phonological alexia, patients make mistakes on word inflections as well as function words and show visually based errors on abstract words (“desire” → “desert”). In addition to that, people with deep alexia misread words as different words with a strongly related meaning (“woods” instead of “forest”), a phenomenon referred to as semantic paralexia. Coltheart (as referred to in the “Handbook of Neurolinguistics”, ch.41-3, p.&nbsp;563) postulates that reading in deep dyslexia is mediated by the right hemisphere. He suggests that when large lesions affecting language abilities other than reading prevent access to the left hemisphere, the right-hemispheric language store is used. Lexical entries stored there are accessed and used as input to left-hemisphere output systems. [[Image:Overview_alexia.JPG|center|thumb|622px|Overview alexia]] === The processing of written language in spelling === [[Image:1_4_TwoRoutesModelWritig.JPG|thumb|365px|The phonological route is supposed to make use of phoneme-to-grapheme rules while the direct route links thought to writing without an intermediary phonetic representation]]Just like in reading, two separate routes –a phonological and a direct route- are thought to exist. The phonological route is supposed to make use of phoneme-to-grapheme rules while the direct route links thought to writing without an intermediary phonetic representation (see 1.4). It should be noted here that there is a difference between phoneme-to-grapheme rules (used for spelling) and grapheme-to-phoneme rules in that one is not simply the reverse of the other. In case of the grapheme “k” the most common phoneme for it is /k/. The most common grapheme for the phoneme /k/, however, is “c”. Phonological agraphia is caused by a lesion in the left supramarginal gyrus, which is located in the parietal lobe above the posterior section of the Sylvian fissure (M. T. Banich, “Neuropsychology“, p.&nbsp;299). The ability to write regular and irregular words is preserved while the ability to write non-words is not. This, together with a poor retrieval of affixes (which are not stored lexically), indicates an inability to associate spoken words with their orthographic form via phoneme-to-grapheme rules. Patients rely on the direct route, which means that they use orthographic word-form representations that are stored in lexical memory. Lesions at the conjunction of the posterior parietal lobe and the parieto-occipital junction cause so called lexical agraphia that is sometimes also referred to as surface agraphia. As the name already indicates, it parallels surface alexia in that patients have difficulty to access lexical-orthographic representations of words. Lexical agraphia is characterised by a poor spelling of irregular words but good spelling for regular and non-words. When asked to spell irregular words, patients often commit regularization errors, so that the word is spelled phonologically correct (for example, “whisk” would be written as “wisque”). The BEST to CONNECT is to CAPITALISE the WORDS you WANT TO COMMUNICATE for readers to COMPREHEND. [[Image:Overview_agraphia.JPG|center|thumb|581px|Overview agraphia]] === Evidence from Advanced Neuroscience Methods === How can we find evidence for the theory of the two routes. Until now neuroscientific research is not able to ascertain that there are neural circuits representing a system like the one described above. The problem of finding evidence for visual language processing on two routes in contrast to one route ( as stated by e.g. from Seidenberg & McClelland as referred to in M. T. Banich,“Neuropsychology“, p.&nbsp;308) is that it is not clear what characteristic brain activation would indicate that it is either happening on two or one routes. To investigate whether there are one or two systems, neuroimaging studies examine correlations between the activations of the angular gyrus, which is thought to be a crucial brain area in written language processing and other brain regions. It was found out that during reading of non- words ( which would strongly engage the phonological route) the activation is mostly correlated with brain regions which are involved in phonological processing e.g. superior temporal regions (BA 22) and Boca’s area. During reading of normal words (which would strongly engage the direct route) the highest activation was found in occipital and ventral cortex. That at least can imply that there are two distinct routes. However, these are conclusions drawn from highest correlations which do not ensure this suggestion. What neuroimaging studies do ascertain is that the usage of a phonological and a direct route strongly overlap, which is rather unspectacular since it is quiet reasonable that fluent speaker mix both of the routes. Other studies additionally provide data in which the activated brain regions during reading of non-words and reading of normal words differ. ERP studies suggest that the left hemisphere possesses some sort mechanism which response to combinations of letters in a string, or to its orthography and / or to the phonological representation of the string. ERP waves differ, during early analysis of the visual form of the string, if the string represents a correct word or just pronounceable nonsense (Posner & McCandliss, 1993 as referred in M.T. Banich, „Neuropsychology“p.&nbsp;307-308). That indicates that this mechanism is sensitive to correct or incorrect words. The opposite hemisphere, the right hemisphere, is in contrast to the left hemisphere, not involved in abstract mapping of word meaning but is rather responsible for encoding word specific visual forms. ERP and PET studies provides evidence that the right hemisphere responds in a stronger manner than the left hemisphere to letter like strings. Moreover divided visual field studies reveal that the right hemisphere can better distinguish between different shapes of the same letter (e.g. in different handwritings) than the left hemisphere. The contribution of visual language processing on both hemispheres is that the right hemisphere first recognizes a written word as letter sequences, no matter how exactly they look like, then the language network in the left hemisphere builds up an abstract representation of the word, which is the comprehension of the word. == Other symbolic systems == Most neurolinguistic research is concerned with production and comprehension of English language, either written or spoken. However, looking at different language systems from a neuroscientific perspective can substantiate as well as differentiate acknowledged theories of language processing. The following section shows how neurological research of three symbolic systems, each different from English in some aspect, has made it possible to distinguish - at least to some extent - between brain regions that deal with the modality of the language (and therefore may vary from language to language, depending on whether the language in question is e.g. spoken or signed) from brain regions that seem to be necessary to language processing in general - regardless whether we are dealing with signed, spoken, or even musical language. === Kana and Kanji === Kana and Kanji are the two writing systems used parallel in the Japanese language. Since different approaches are used in them to represent words, studying Japanese patients with alexia is a great possibility to test the hypothesis about the existence of two different routes to meaning, explicated in the previous section. The English writing system is phonological – each grapheme in written English roughly represents one speech sound – a consonant or a vowel. There are, however, other possible approaches to writing down a spoken language. In syllabic systems like the Japanese kana, one grapheme stands for one syllable. If written English were syllabic, it could e.g. include a symbol for the syllable “nut”, appearing both in the words “donut” and “peanut”. Syllabic systems are sound-based – since the graphemes represent units of spoken words rather than meaning directly, an auditory representation of the word has to be created in order to arrive at the meaning. Therefore, reading of syllabic systems should require an intact phonological route. In addition to kana, Japanese also use a logographic writing system called kanji, in which one grapheme represents a whole word or a concept. Different from phonological and syllabic systems, logographic systems don’t comprise systematical relationships between visual forms and the way they’re pronounced – instead, visual form is directly associated with the pronunciation and meaning of the corresponding word. Reading kanji should therefore require the direct route to meaning to be intact. The hypothesis about the existence of two different routes to meaning has been confirmed by the fact that after brain damage, there can be a double dissociation between kana and kanji. Some Japanese patients can thus read kana but not kanji (surface alexia), whereas other can read kanji but not kana (phonological alexia). In addition, there is evidence that different brain regions of Japanese native speakers are active while reading kana and kanji, although like in the case of English native speakers, these regions also overlap. Since the distinction between direct and phonological route also makes sense in case of Japanese, it may be a general principle common to all written languages that reading them relies on two independent (at least partially) systems, both using different strategies to catch the meaning of a written word – either associating the visual form directly with the meaning (the direct route), or using the auditory representation as an intermediary between the visual form and the meaning of the word (the phonological route). {| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 style="margin: auto;" | [[Image:Japanese_hiragana_mu_mincho.png|thumbnail|The Japanese Kana sign for the syllable "mu"]] | [[Image:%E6%9B%B8.svg|thumbnail|The Japanese Kanji sign for the concept "Book", "writing", or "calligraphy]] |} === Sign Language === From a linguistic perspective, sign languages share many features of spoken languages – there are many regionally bounded sign languages, each with a distinct grammar and lexicon. Since at the same time, sign languages differ from spoken languages in the way the words are “uttered”, i.e. in the modality, neuroscientific research in them can yield valuable insights into the question whether there are general neural mechanisms dealing with language, regardless of its modality. '''Structure of SL''' Sign languages are phonological languages - every meaningful sign consists of several phonemes (phonemes used to be called cheremes (Greek χερι: hand) until their cognitive equivalence to phonemes in spoken languages was realized) that carry no meaning as such, but are nevertheless important to distinguish the meaning of the sign. One distinctive feature of SL phonemes is the place of articulation – one hand shape can have different meanings depending on whether it’s produced at the eye-, nose-, or chin-level. Other features determining the meaning of a sign are hand shape, palm orientation, movement, and non-manual markers (e.g. facial expressions). To express syntactic relationships, Sign Languages exploit the advantages of the visuo-spatial medium in which the signs are produced – the syntactic structure of sign languages therefore often differs from that of spoken languages. Two important features of most sign language's grammars (including American Sign Language (ASL), Deutsche Gebärdensprache (DGS) and several other major sign languages) are directionality and simultaneous encoding of elements of information: *Directionality The direction in which the sign is made often determines the subject and the object of a sentence. Nouns in SL can be 'linked' to a particular point in space, and later in the discourse they can be referred to by pointing to that same spot again (this is functionally related to pronouns in English). The object and the subject can then be switched by changing the direction in which the sign for a transitive verb is made. *Simultaneous encoding of elements of information The visual medium also makes it possible to encode several pieces of information simultaneously. Consider e.g. the sentence "The flight was long and I didn't enjoy it". In English, the information about the duration and unpleasantness of the flight have to be encoded sequentially by adding more words to the sentence. To enrich the utterance "The flight was long” with the information about the unpleasantness of the flight, another sentence (“I did not enjoy it") has to be added to the original one. So, in order to convey more information, the length of the original sentence must grow. In sign language, however, the increase of information in an utterance doesn’t necessarily increase the length of the utterance. To convey information about the unpleasantness of a long flight experienced in the past, one can just use the single sign for "flight" with the past tense marker, moved in a way that represents the attribute "long", combined with the facial expression of disaffection. Since all these features are signed simultaneously, no additional time is needed to utter "The flight was long" as compared to "The flight was long and I didn't enjoy it". '''Neurology of SL''' Since sentences in SL are encoded visually, and since its grammar is often based on visual rather than sequential relationships among different signs, it could be suggested that the processing of SL mainly depends on the right hemisphere, which is mainly concerned with the performance on visual and spatial tasks. However, there is evidence suggesting that processing of SL and spoken language might be equally dependant on the left hemisphere, i.e. that the same basic neural mechanism may be responsible for all language functioning, regardless of its modality (i.e. whether the language is spoken or signed). The importance of the left hemisphere in SL processing indicated e.g. by the fact that signers with a damaged right hemisphere may not be aphasiacs, whereas as in case of hearing subjects, lesions in the left hemisphere of signers can result in subtle linguistic difficulties (Gordon, 2003). Furthermore, studies of aphasic native signers have shown that damage to anterior portions of the left hemisphere (Broca’s area) result in a syndrome similar to Broca’s aphasia – the patients lose fluency of communication, they aren’t able to correctly use syntactic markers and inflect verbs, although the words they sign are semantically appropriate. In contrast, patients with damages to posterior portions of the superior temporal gyrus (Wernicke’s area) can still properly inflect verbs, set up and retrieve nouns from a discourse locus, but the sequences they sign have no meaning (Poizner, Klima & Bellugi, 1987). So, like in the case of spoken languages, anterior and posterior portions of the left hemisphere seem to be responsible for the syntax and semantics of the language respectively. Hence, it’s not essential for the "syntax processing mechanisms" of the brain whether the syntax is conveyed simultaneously through spatial markers or successively through word order and morphemes added to words - the same underlying mechanisms might be responsible for syntax in both cases. Further evidence for the same underlying mechanisms for spoken and signed languages comes from studies in which fMRI has been used to compare the language processing of: *1. congenitally deaf native signers of British Sign Language, *2. hearing native signers of BSL (usually hearing children of deaf parents) *3. hearing signers who have learned BSL after puberty *4. non-signing subjects Investigating language processing in these different groups allows making some distinctions between different factors influencing language organization in the brain - e.g. to what amount does deafness influences the organization of language in the brain as compared to just having SL as a first language(1 vs. 2), or to what amount does learning of SL as a first language differ from learning SL as native language(1,2 vs.3), or to what amount is language organized in speakers as compared to signers(1,2,3 vs.4). These studies have shown that typical areas in the left hemisphere are activated in both native English speakers given written stimuli and native signers given signs as stimuli. Moreover, there are also areas that are equally activated both in case of deaf subjects processing sign language and hearing subjects processing spoken language – a finding which suggests that these areas constitute the core language system regardless of the language modality(Gordon, 2003). Different from speakers, however, signers also show a strong activation of the right hemisphere. This is partly due to the necessity to process visuo-spatial information. Some of those areas, however (e.g. the angular gyrus) are only activated in native signers and not in hearing subjects that learned SL after puberty. This suggests that the way of learning sign languages (and languages in general) changes with time: Late learner's brains are unable to recruit certain brain regions specialized for processing this language (Newman et al., 1998).] We have seen that evidence from aphasias as well as from neuroimaging suggest the same underlying neural mechanisms to be responsible for sign and spoken languages. It ‘s natural to ask whether these neural mechanisms are even more general, i.e. whether they are able to process any type of symbolic system underlying some syntax and semantics. One example of this kind of more general symbolic system is music. ===Music=== Like language, music is a human universal involving some combinatorial principles that govern the organizing of discrete elements (tones) into structures (phrases) that convey some meaning – music is a symbolic system with a special kind of syntax and semantics. It’s therefore interesting to ask whether music and natural language share some neural mechanisms: whether processing of music is dependent on processing of language or the other way round, or whether the underlying mechanisms underlying them are completely separate. By investigating the neural mechanisms underlying music we might find out whether the neural processes behind language are unique to the domain of natural language, i.e. whether language is modular. Up to now, research in the neurobiology of music has yielded contradicting evidence regarding these questions. On the one hand, there is evidence that there is a double dissociation of language and music abilities. People suffering from amusia are unable to perceive harmony, to remember and to recognize even very simple melodies; at the same time they have no problems in comprehending or producing speech. There is even a case of a patient who developed amusia without aprosodia, i.e. although she couldn't recognize tone in musical sequences, she nevertheless could still make use of pitch, loudness, rate, or rhythm to convey meanings in spoken language (Pearce, 2005). This highly selective problem in processing music (amusia) can occur as a result of brain damage, or be inborn; in some cases it runs on families, suggesting a genetic component. The complement syndrome of amusia also exists – after suffering a brain damage in the left hemisphere, the Russian composer Shebalin lost his speech functions, but his musical abilities remained intact (Zatorre, McGill, 2005). On the other hand, neuroimaging data suggest that language and music have a common mechanism for processing syntactical structures. The P600 ERP`s in the Broca area, measured as a response to ungrammatical sentences, is also elicited in subjects listening to musical chord sequences lacking harmony (Patel, 2003) – the expectation of typical sequences in music could therefore be mediated by the same neural mechanisms as the expectation of grammatical sequences in language. A possible solution to this apparent contradiction is the dual system approach (Patel, 2003) according to which music and language share some procedural mechanisms (frontal brain areas) responsible for processing the general aspects of syntax, but in both cases these mechanisms operate on different representations (posterior brain areas) – notes in case of music and words in case of language. ==Outlook== Many questions are to be answered, for it is e.g. still unclear whether there is a distinct language module (that you could cut out without causing anything in other brain functions) or not. As Evely C. Ferstl points out in her review, the next step after exploring distinct small regions responsible for subtasks of language processing will be to find out how they work together and build up the language network. == References & Further Reading == {{Wikipedia| Neurolinguistics}} ''Books - english'' * Brigitte Stemmer, Harry A. Whitaker. Handbook of Neurolinguistics. Academic Press (1998). {{ISBN|0126660557}} * Marie T. Banich: Neuropsychology. The neural bases of mental function (1997). * Ewa Dąbrowska: Language, Mind and Brain. Edinburgh University press Ltd.(2004) * ''a review:'' Evelyn C. Ferstl, The functional neuroanatomy of text comprehension. What's the story so far?" from: Schmalhofer, F. & Perfetti, C. A. (Eds.), Higher Level Language Processes in the Brain:Inference and Comprehension Processes. Lawrence Erlbaum. (2004) ''Books - german'' * Müller,H.M.& Rickert,G. (Hrsg.): Neurokognition der Sprache. Stauffenberg Verlag (2003) * Poizner, Klima & Bellugi: What the hands reveal about the brain. MIT Press (1987) * N. Chomsky: Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press (1965). {{ISBN|0262530074}} * Neville & Bavelier: Variability in the effects of experience on the development of cerebral specializations: Insights from the study of deaf individuals. Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office (1998) * Newman et al.: Effects of Age of Acquisition on Cortical Organization for American Sign Language: an fMRI Study. NeuroImage, 7(4), part 2 (1998) ''Links - english'' * Robert A. Mason and Marcel Adam Just: [http://www.ccbi.cmu.edu/reprints/Mason_PsychSci2004-inferences.pdf How the Brain Processes Causal Inferences in Text] * Neal J. Pearlmutter and Aurora Alma Mendelsohn: [http://www.psych.neu.edu/faculty/n.pearlmutter/students/papers/parser.pdf Serial versus Parallel Sentence Comprehension] * [http://www.psychologie.uni-regensburg.de/Rutschmann/abstracts/cogsci2005.pdf Brain Processes of Relating a Statement to a Previously Read Text: Memory Resonance and Situational Constructions] * Clahsen, Harald: [http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/43/index.html Lexical Entries and Rules of Language: A Multidisciplinary Study of German Inflection.] * Cherney, Leora (2001): [http://www.asha.org/public/speech/disorders/right_brain.htm Right Hemisphere Brain Damage] *Grodzinsky, Yosef (2000): [http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/05/51/index.html The neurology of syntax: Language use without Broca's area.] * Müller, H.M. & Kutas, M. (1996). [http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/lili/projekte/neuroling/HMM/PDF-Dateien/1510.pdf What's in a name? Electrophysiological differences between spoken nouns, proper names and one's own name.] NeuroReport 8:221-225. * Müller, H. M., King, J. W. & Kutas, M. (1997). [http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/lili/projekte/neuroling/HMM/PDF-Dateien/1393.pdf Event-related potentials elicited by spoken relative clauses] Cognitive Brain Research 4:193-203. ''Links - german'' *University of Bielefeld: ** Müller, H. M., Weiss, S. & Rickheit, G. (1997). [http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/lili/projekte/neuroling/Neurolinguistics.html Experimentelle Neurolinguistik: Der Zusammenhang von Sprache und Gehirn] In: Bielefelder Linguistik (Hrsg.) Aisthesis-Verlag, pp.&nbsp;125–128. ** Müller, H.M. & Kutas, M. (1997). [http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/lili/projekte/neuroling/HMM/PDF-Dateien/1511.pdf Die Verarbeitung von Eigennamen und Gattungsbezeichnungen: Eine elektrophysiologische Studie.] In: G. Rickheit (Hrsg.). Studien zur Klinischen Linguistik - Methoden, Modelle, Intervention. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, pp.&nbsp;147–169. **Müller, H.M., King, J.W. & Kutas, M. (1998). [http://www.uni-bielefeld.de/lili/projekte/neuroling/HMM/PDF-Dateien/1394.pdf Elektrophysiologische Analyse der Verarbeitung natürlichsprachlicher Sätze mit unterschiedlicher Belastung des Arbeitsgedächtnisses.] Klinische Neurophysiologie 29: 321-330. * Michael Schecker (1998): [http://www.neurolabor.de/work1.htm Neuronale "Kodierung" zentraler Sprachverarbeitungsprozesse] --> Debates (only a criticism) === Organizational Issues === '''Group Members 2007''' * [mailto:dberndt@uos.de,phenk@uos.de,tgeishau@uos.de,bschledd@uos.de send eMail to all] ** dberndt ** phenk ** tgeishau ** bschledd '''Group Members 2006''' * [mailto:jbuergle@uos.de,maebert@uos.de,hknepper@uos.de,hnasir@uos.de,npraceju@uos.de,msumpf@uos.de send eMail to all] ** jbuergle ** maebert ** hknepper ** hnasir ** npraceju ** msumpf {{BookCat}} p49g4orjiv1qqd0qt5zfek72xpgrasa 0 74407 4653986 4567549 2026-07-11T12:01:56Z 一隻北極熊 3609960 "nig bait" does not make any sense at all 4653986 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction to Japanese History: Geography== Japan today is a modern democracy and economy comparable to the European and American model of politico-economics. A wealthy nation of more than 100 million people that is extensively involved in world wide commerce, it is now common to see Japanese tourists throughout the world and Japan itself now features as a popular destination for Western tourists. Japanese products from high-tech companies like Sony are to be found all over the world and have played their part in enriching society and culture – one only has to think of the once ubiquitous Walkman of the 1980s. This has not always been the case and throughout most of its history Japan practised an "isolationist" policy that allowed trade and contact with foreigners but restricted their movement and influence to small enclaves on the coast. Japan is located on an archipelago of mountainous, volcanic islands in the northwestern corner of the Pacific Ocean. Before the Spanish began sending ships between Mexico and the Philippines late in the 16th century there was almost no naval activity in the Pacific ocean that had the capacity to disturb Japan in any way. To the Japanese, the Pacific was a boundary of their world, not a route to somewhere else. They never had to give any thought to what might be on the other sides. To the south, there is an almost continuous chain of islands extending from Tanegashima, just off the southern end of Kyushu, down through and beyond the Ryukyu Islands all the way to Taiwan. There is no doubt that there has been movement of people up and down this chain and the people of the Ryukyu's have spoken a dialect of Japanese for a long time. However, the islands are simply too small to have ever become important. The Ryukyu Islands long had no official contact with Japan, but dealt rather with China for several centuries. They were taken under Japanese control in the 17th century to make sure that they did not fall into the hands of the Spanish or Portuguese, but were not incorporated into the Japanese state at that time, being a private possession of the Daimyo of Satsuma. To the north, Japan was bounded by the large island of Hokkaido. This also was never considered a part of Japan before the Russians appeared on the scene and the Japanese took steps to establish a presence there in order to keep them out. The native peoples of Hokkaido were neither numerous enough nor technologically advanced enough to cause the Japanese any concern. Japanese trade during its early history was mainly with Korea and China. The Japanese islands are laid out in such a way that from the Chinese point of view they are largely hidden behind Korea. It is about 500 miles across the East China Sea from Shanghai to Nagasaki. In early days that was an extremely dangerous voyage (shipbuilding technology being primitive) and communication was usually by way of Korea and the Shantung Peninsula, reducing the longest water crossing to 200 miles or so. Korea was a nervous country, being relatively small and living next to dangerous neighbors in China and Manchuria, and through much of its history it discouraged active contact. This policy applied to Japan as well. The periods of time during which Japan and Korea officially ignored each other are significantly longer than the ones during which they had frequent contact. Fishermen and others crossed all the time, of course, but without noticeable impact on higher culture. All of this makes Japan an unusual place. It really is different from any other place, even Korea and China, in architecture, clothing styles, food, literature, music and dance, social customs, weapons and armor, political habits, and religion. Despite modern business suits and McDonalds, it remains different today, as anyone who spends significant time there will quickly discover. About 75% of Japan is heavily forested mountain land that is thinly populated. Almost everyone lives in a restricted number of relatively flat lands close to the coast, all of which are separated from each other by mountains, which descend toward the sea in many places. Land transportation has always been difficult and until railroad lines began to be constructed, wheeled transport was not commonly used. Bulky goods were transported along the coast by boat or by foot. Generally, only soldiers rode horses. There were only a few places near cities where there were bridges over rivers. People waded shallow streams and ferried across deep rivers. There are three main islands and a large number of small ones. One ancient name for the country was "the 88 islands". The biggest island is Honshu (which means ''mainland''), the next in size is Kyushu (which means ''9 provinces''), and the third is Shikoku (which means ''4 provinces''). When the country was first politically unified, the government laid out a series of routes (it would be a stretch to call them roads) which, because of the mountainous terrain, established natural regions. It is good to become familiar with these because you will see these names all of the time. The Inland Sea (between Honshu and Shikoku) side of Honshu was called the Sanyodo (route on the sunny side of the mountains) and the Japan Sea route on the other side of Honshu was the Sanindo (the shady side). The mountains between these are particularly rough, so these really are almost different worlds. Honshu north and east of the ancient capital area (modern Kyoto, Osaka, and Nara) is wider, and so there were three routes, one on the Japan Sea coast, Hokurikudo (northern route), and two on the Pacific Ocean side of the main mountains, the Tokaido (eastern ocean route) and the Tosando (eastern mountain route), which meet each other north of Mt Fuji and near modern Tokyo. Other terms that are widely used are Tohoku (meaning northeast) for the far northeastern part of the country, Kanto (east of the barrier) for the large plain surrounding modern Tokyo, Kansai (west of the barrier) for the capital area, which is also called Kinai (''inner region'') or Kinki (''nearby region''). The area between the Kanto and the Kansai is often called Chubu (''middle part''). ==Administrative Units== There are three different schemes for dividing Japan into administrative units. In the late 7th and early 8th centuries, the government set up a system that created 66 provinces. A province was given a local government structure that included a governor who was assigned by the capital. Even after that system collapsed, the feudal regimes of the medieval period continued to use the province as a convenient geographical descriptor, and the system was not formally abolished until the 19th century. Then the government established a new system with different units known as prefectures. There are 47 prefectures, and their names and boundaries are unrelated to the former province system. In between, the Tokugawa Shogunate had its own system which was entirely different. It is hard to describe briefly because it was constantly changing with the ebb and flow of politics. The government directly ruled about 1/3 of the country, including all of the big cities. There was no formal division of this area into units. The rest of the country was assigned to quasi-feudal vassals as privately held domains (called ''han''). The larger ''han'' were directly administered by their owners who collected their own taxes and maintained their own military forces. The smaller ''han'' were run by the central government and the owner was entitled to a fixed annual revenue paid out of the government treasury. The biggest ''han'' were all located on the periphery of the country and might be as big as a prefecture. The government liked to keep the vassals who had ''han'' nervous and obedient. ''Han'' were constantly being resized. New ''han'' were abolished and established over the years. ''Han'' lords (''daimyo'') were frequently forced to give up one ''han'' and move to another on the other side of the country. It is therefore difficult to create a map of ''han''. It would require a large book of maps to show all of the changes in the system. There are good articles in Wikipedia on {{w|The Provinces of Japan}} and {{w|The Prefectures of Japan}}. There is also a {{w|List of Han}} that is self-described as incomplete. However, it includes the major ones. I strongly recommend that anyone who is interested in historical topics should buy a modern tourist guidebook to Japan as a source of good maps and geographical information, although everything will be shown and described in terms of the modern prefectures. A large proportion of the tourist highlights are things that have survived from earlier historical periods and these will be described and pictured. There is also a list of Prefectures on the page [[Japanese_History/Japan_Today#Administrative_divisions|"Japan Today"]]. ==Pronunciation== In the 19th century a system was devised for rendering Japanese syllabic script into our alphabet by a missionary named Hepburn. This became widely used and you will find it in many older books. There is a description in Wikipedia under {{w|Hepburn Romanization}}. It was replaced almost universally in the English speaking world by a new system that makes it particularly easy for English speaking people to pronounce Japanese, at the cost of leaving certain things out. This is confusingly called the "Modified Hepburn System," though it is very different from the original. I believe that it was mainly created by E.O. Reischauer, historian and once the US ambassador to Japan. There is a nearly identical system, which was officially adopted by the Japanese government. However, the Japanese do not romanize Japanese often, roman letters (''romaji'' in Japanese) being normally used only for foreign words and phrases, so you will see the American "modified Hepburn" system most frequently. All of the sounds in Japanese that are also in English and the spelling is regular. All consonants are the same. The letter "i" is pronounced as it would be in Italian or Spanish, which is to say like the "e" in me. The "e" is pronounced as in merry. The sound we mostly use "i" for is spelled "ai" in Japanese. The letter "o" is always the "o" in row (a boat), and the "u" is always like shoe. The letter "a" by itself is as in father. If you listen to Japanese pronunciation, you will hear same vowels pronounced two different ways. One variant is short or quick, and the other the sound is held much longer. Tokyo sounds more like To-o-kyo-o. Technically, one is supposed to indicate this by using a macron to produce "ō" and "ū" when they are lengthened, but this causes so much trouble in practice, that it is almost never done. The official Japanese system uses the circumflex accent ^ instead of the macron. That is about the only thing that is different. For those who know Japanese, it is relatively easy to know when to use long and when to use short vowels. That is because this issue came into the language with the adoption of many Chinese loanwords. There are a lot more sounds in Chinese than in Japanese. The word that the Japanese represent as "chu" with a long "uu," for example, is pronounced as "jung" in modern Chinese. The Japanese could not handle the "ng" sound and the long "u" is the result. The Japanese actually spell this out in their syllabary, writing the equivalent of "Toukyou" or "chuu". The original Hepburn notation captured this distinction. This article is only referring to systems intended for English speakers. There are many others in the world and they are designed with the spelling conventions of a different language in mind. ==Writing== In Chapter 9 of the first volume of the <i>Cambridge History of Japan</i> Edwin Cranston observes that the modern Japanese have what is probably the most complicated writing system in the world. Fortunately, it is not really necessary to know anything about it in order to explore Japanese history. There is an article on it in Wikipedia, and a wikibook (for learners) at [[Japanese]]. The main complicating factor is that in nearly all cases Chinese characters are used for the very large number of Chinese loan words in Japanese. These are pronounced according to Japanese renderings of the original Chinese. Nearly every character also has one or more additional readings which are native Japanese words, and characters are routinely used in normal writing with these readings also. Since Japanese is an inflected language (one in which words are changed to reflect differences in grammatical usage) and Chinese characters don't inflect, an inflected word is written using a Chinese character to establish the main meaning and then the inflected ending is spelled out using Japanese-developed characters that represent one of 51 different syllables. There are two independent versions of this "syllabary", one with "curvy" characters (hiragana) and one with angular ones (katakana). The first is used most commonly, these days, with the second used in ways similar to the ways we use bold-face or italic characters, or for spelling foreign words. Both can therefore be used in the same block of text. Often foreign words are converted to sounds that the Japanese can say and are spelled out using katakana, but it is also not uncommon to simply plug in the original roman letters. One block of text can therefore use four different writing systems. Complicated indeed, you don't need to know this but it is good to understand the difficulties the translator faces. ==Dates== Both Korea and Japan adopted the Chinese calendar system and retained it until they switched to the western system in recent times. The Chinese system was a complex one that was a mixture of lunar and solar elements. There are good articles on this in Wikipedia, including details of both the Chinese and Japanese variants. The everyday calendar was a lunar one which would inevitably fall out of synchronization with the solar calendar. This was handled by making adjustments on the same general principle as our "leap year". An extra month was added whenever necessary to prevent new year's day from deviating too much from its "home position" in the solar calendar. This is because the lunar month was set at 30 days, which means 360 days to the year. An extra month was not added every year, and the rules for deciding when to do it are the main difference between the Chinese and Japanese versions of the system. Most people will be aware that the Chinese lunar new year occurs later than our modern new year, and that it occurs on different dates from year to year. There are names for the months in Japanese but they are not used in official documents, even today. It is simply first month, second month, and so on. It is possible to convert dates from the lunar calendar to the modern calendar, but it would be a lot of trouble and no one bothers. If you see a date in historical writing that says 15th day of the 3rd month, it will be a lunar calendar date and it will probably not fall in March. After the Japanese changed to the modern calendar, authors will usually write March 15th (though the Japanese still say 3rd month). The exact date is not really so important unless you want to organize a celebration of the thousandth anniversary of some famous event. A more serious matter for the reader of history is counting years. The Romans dated everything by the names of the two consuls for the year. You would need to have a complete list (one was on display in the Forum) in order to arrange things in their proper order. The Chinese were not quite as bad, but almost. They very early developed the custom of proclaiming an auspicious "reign title," something like "perfect harmony" and then dating things in terms of that. If "perfect harmony" then suffered some catastrophe, like a dangerous rebellion, the court might very well decide to change its luck by coming up with a new name. This could happen at any time during the year. So, the 14th day of the 5th month of the 6th year of "perfect harmony" could be followed by the 15th day of the 5th month of the first year of "glorious dawn." Later on, the historians would clean things up by retroactively using "glorious dawn" for the whole year, but the government offices would still be full of files containing documents with the now imaginary 6th year of "perfect harmony" written all over them. And, as in the Roman case, you need to have a list of all the reign names to keep track. This system was started by the Han dynasty in 163 BC. Every dynasty used its own titles (often recycling names already used one or more times). Taking only important dynasties, there are just under 400 of them. Initially the Korean kingdoms simply used the Chinese titles, but they soon enough started inventing their own, as did the Japanese. This is where the January problem comes in. In Japan the first year of Kansei "lenient government" corresponds approximately to 1789. If I write Kansei first year, first month, first day, that is a purely Japanese date. If I try to make things clearer by saying 1789, first month, first day, you might now be thinking something very different. What I will do in my essays is use 1789 most of the time because it should not be necessary for a reader to have a list of all of the year names. However, this will be a lunar date and the first day of the year would not be January first, but sometime in the spring. If I should have some reason to use more precise dates, then I will say Kansei 1 (1789). Should it ever come up, there is a program on the Web called "nengocalc". "Nengo" is the name for a reign title. Nengocalc permits you to reliably convert back and forth from traditional dates to modern dates. The Japanese still use reign titles, by the way, but they now follow the convention started by the Chinese in the Ming dynasty where each emperor uses only one. If I have counted correctly the official Japanese total is now 247, including a period in the 14th century when there were rival emperors using different titles simultaneously. There were also "unofficial" titles used at various times in the past. The reign title associated with the current emperor is Heisei. Heisei 1 was 1989. After his death the emperor will be known as "the Heisei Emperor." The reigning emperor is always referred to as Tenno Heika, "his majesty the emperor." Only foreigners would ever call him Emperor Akihito. ==Names== Japanese, Korean, and Chinese names are always written family name first. Writers in English frequently reverse them, but this opens the way to confusion and I prefer to keep the proper order at all times. Mao is the family name and Tse-tung the personal name. In China the Ch'in dynasty began a convention that continued down to the end of the dynastic system whereby an emperor was given a reign name that had no relation to the name he had borne previously to his enthronement. This name was usually awarded only after his death, and it was often descriptive. For example, the most militaristic of the Han emperors is named Han Wu-ti, meaning "the martial emperor of the Han dynasty." A milder mannered Han emperor was Wen-ti, the scholarly or cultured emperor. For the Ming and Ch'ing dynasties the emperor's posthumous name was the same as the reign title used when he was alive. That has also become the rule in Japan but applies only to the last four emperors, the Meiji Emperor, the Taisho Emperor, the Showa Emperor, and the reigning Heisei Emperor. Prior to that each emperor was given a posthumous name separately from the system of reign titles. This custom was started late in the 8th century but all earlier emperors were given reign names at that point and historians routinely use them because they are short and simple and at no time is it considered proper to identify the living emperor by using his ordinary name. <noinclude>{{Japanese HistoryTOC}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 9jywat3x8ophh0qers4rkxdm0cmdx9i 2 80181 4654028 3364291 2026-07-11T16:10:27Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654028 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifeq:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}|User:Whiteknight|{{ #ifexpr: {{CURRENTDOW}} = 0 or {{CURRENTDOW}} = 6 | <div class="PrettyTextBox" style="clear: both; width: 100%;"><div style="text-align: center;">I am away for the weekend. I should be back home, and planted firmly in front of wikibooks again by sunday night or monday. I will not be checking my messages '''or my email''' until I return. --'''Whiteknight'''</div></div> | }} | This template cannot be used outside of [[User:Whiteknight|Whiteknight]]'s user space.}} g31c3lc5wi3iq7npu00xn9caz9le9yc 0 86988 4653992 4601911 2026-07-11T13:05:48Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653992 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Human Physiology|The gastrointestinal system|The endocrine system}} ==The Community and Nutrition Programs== [[image:Harvard_food_pyramid.png‎|400px|thumb|left|Harvard's Food Pyramid]] Connections between nutrition and health have probably been generally understood by people for a long time. For example, around 400 BC Hippocrates said, "Let food be your medicine and medicine be your food.". Understanding the physiological needs of our biology helps us understand why food has such an impact on overall health. In this chapter we introduce nutrition by examining how cells use different nutrients and then discuss disease conditions that are tied to nutritional problems. Note however that nutrition impacts out biologic processes more than at a mere cellular level, alone our diverse genetic characteristics prevents any overgeneralization but then the multitude of fauna that share our bodies and divergent characteristics of human ecology and how it affects our biological chemical processes is of equal importance. ==Nutrition and Health in the Community== The nutritional status of people in our communities is a concern not only for quality of life, but also for economics (treating illness costs far more than preventing it). Various public health agencies are striving to prevent nutritional deficiencies and improve overall health. In the U.S., the government supplies a variety of resources such as state assistance, WIC (Women Infant and Child), and so forth. In addition, there have been many government agencies and voluntary health and scientific associations, such as the American Heart Association, that focus on life style and dietary factors that prevent chronic and life-threatening diseases. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) developed dietary guidelines in 1977 that were compiled and displayed as the food guide pyramid. The food guide pyramid was revised as "My Pyramid," but this new chart is confusing to most people. Harvard School of Public Health developed an alternative healthy eating pyramid (shown at left) based on long-term nutritional studies. This pyramid differs from the old USDA pyramid in several key aspects: for example, exercise is at the bottom to remind us of its important role in our health. Also, not all carbohydrates are at the bottom (white bread, white rice, and potatoes are now at the top with sugars), and not all oils are at the top (plant oils are at the bottom). Other resource, such as the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) have helped people become more aware of nutritional needs, yet obesity and chronic health problems continue to rise. ==Nutritional Requirements== Our bodies have both caloric and nutritional needs. Living tissue is kept alive by the expenditure of energy in ATP molecules, which energy came from the break down of food molecules. Caloric need refers to the energy needed each day to carry out the varied chemical reactions in each cell. When looking at a nutritional label, we can easily see how many Calories are in a serving. These Calories (big "C") are actually kilocalories (1000 calories). Technically, a calorie (little "c") is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 mL of water by 1 °C. How many Calories a person needs daily varies greatly by age, sex, height, and physical activity levels. If the amount of energy taken in exceeds the amount of energy used, then the excess energy is stored as adipose tissue (fat), regardless of the source of the energy. In addition to daily energy needs, there are nutritional needs to prevent the body from losing its own fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Such molecules are continuously broken down, and must be replaced regularly. Essential amino acids and essential fatty acids are particularly important building blocks in replacing these molecules. Vitamins and minerals are not used as energy, but are essential in tissue and enzyme structure or reactions. ==Carbohydrates== ;Macronutrient :An energy-yielding nutrient. Macronutrients are those nutrients that together provide the vast majority of metabolic energy to an organism. The three main macronutrients are carbohydrates, proteins, and fat. ;Micronutrients :Microminerals or trace elements, are dietary minerals needed by the human body in very small quantities (generally less than 100mg/day) as opposed to macrominerals which are required in larger quantities. '''Functions''' :'''Glucose''' it is the most easily used by the body. It is a simple carbohydrate that circulates in the blood and is the main source of energy for the muscles, central nervous system, and brain (the brain can also use ketone bodies). '''Carbohydrates''' are made of organic compounds carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There are three sizes of carbohydrate and they are distinguished by a classification of two that is, ''simple carbohydrates'' (mono saccharides and disaccharides) and ''complex carbohydrates'' (polysaccharides). Polysaccharides are the most abundant carbohydrate in the body along with glycogen. The break down of polysaccharides goes as follows: Polysaccharides are digested into monosaccharides including glucose which goes into the intestinal epithelium and into the bloodstream. The molecules of glucose are taken by glucose transporters and delivered into the cells of the body. While glucose is in the cells it can be oxidized for energy or provide substrates to other metabolic reactions or of course into glycogen for storage. :'''A.''' <u>Monosaccharides</u> = Single carbohydrate unit such as, Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose. :'''B.''' <u>Disaccharides</u> = Two single carbohydrates bound together such as, Sucrose, Maltose, and Lactose. :'''C.''' <u>Polysaccharides</u> = Have many units of monosaccharides joined together such as, Starch and Fiber. '''Fiber''' Fiber is carbohydrates that cannot be digested. It is in all eatable plants such as fruits vegetables, grains and Legumes. There are many ways of categorizing fiber types. First, from the foods they come from such as grains, which is called cereal fiber. Second, if they are soluble fiber or insoluble fiber. Soluble fiber partially dissolves in water and insoluble fiber does not. Adults need about 21-38 grams of fiber a day. Children ages 1 and up need 19 grams a day. On average Americans eat only 15 grams a day. Fiber helps reduce the chances of having the following conditions: colon cancer, heart disease, type 2 diabetes, diverticular disease, and constipation. '''Glycemic Index''' Glycemic Index is a new way of classifying carbohydrates. It measures how fast and how far blood sugar will rise after consuming carbohydrates. Foods that are considered to have a high glycemic index are converted almost immediately to blood sugar which causes it to rise rapidly. Foods that are considered to have a low glycemic index are digested slower causing a slower rise in blood sugar. Examples of high glycemic index foods are potatoes, white rice, white flour, anything refined, anything with a lot of sugar which includes high fructose corn syrup. Examples of low glycemic index foods are whole grains (brown rice, 100% whole wheat bread, whole grain pasta, high fiber cereals), high fiber fruits and vegetables, and many legumes. According to the Harvard School of Public Health, "The most comprehensive list of the glycemic index of foods was published in the July, 2002, issue of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. A searchable database maintained by the University of Sydney is available online." ==Proteins== '''Functions''' :'''Protein''' forms hormones, enzymes, and antibodies. It is part of fluid and electrolyte regulation, the buffering effect for pH, and transporter of nutrients. A good example of a protein is the oxygen carrying hemoglobin found in red blood cells. '''Proteins''' are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, an inorganic molecule, the thing that clearly distinguishes them from the other macronutrients. '''A.''' <u>Amino acids</u> are the building blocks of proteins. '''B.''' <u>Polypeptide</u> are a group of amino acids bonded together 10-100 or more. The body requires amino acids to produce new body protein (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance) that are lost in the urine. Proteins are relatively large molecules made of amino acids joined together in chains by peptide bonds. Amino acids are the basic structural building units of proteins. They form short polymer chains called peptides or longer poly-peptides which in turn form structures called proteins. The process of protein synthesis is controlled by an mRNA template. In this process tRNA transfers amino acids to the mRNA to form protein chains. There are twenty standard amino acids used by cells in making proteins. Vertebrates, including humans, are able to synthesize 11 of these amino acids from other molecules. The remaining nine amino acids cannot be synthesized by our cells, and are termed "'essential amino acids'". These essential amino acids must be obtained from foods. The '''9 Essential Amino Acids''' have the following names: '''H'''istidine, '''I'''soleucine, '''L'''eucine, '''L'''ysine, '''M'''ethionine, '''P'''henylalanine, '''T'''hreonine, '''T'''ryptophan, '''V'''aline You can remember these with this saying “Hey It's Like Lovely Material; Please Touch The Velvet”. The '''11 Non-essential Amino Acids''' are as follows: '''A'''lanine, '''A'''rginine, '''A'''spartic acid, '''C'''ysteine, '''C'''ystine, '''G'''lutamic acid, '''G'''lutamine, '''G'''lycine, '''P'''roline, '''S'''erine, '''T'''yrosine How about this memory device, "Almost Always Aunt Cindy Can Get Great Gum Popping Sounds Together" (This section needs to be corrected. Cystine is not one of the 20 common amino acids. It should be replaced by asparagine which is missing from the list. Also histidine is not essential for adults while cysteine, tyrosine, histidine, and arginine are required for infants and growing children. Some amino acids are also essential for specific subpopulations, e.g., tyrosine for individuals with PKU.) ===The 20 Amino Acids and What They Do!=== {| class="wikitable" |- align="center" ! Amino Acid ! colspan="2" | Abbrev. ! Remarks |- ! Alanine | A | Ala | Very abundant, very versatile. More stiff than glycine, but small enough to pose only small steric limits for the protein conformation. It behaves fairly neutrally, can be located in both hydrophilic regions on the protein outside and the hydrophobic areas inside. |- ! Cysteine | C | Cys | The sulfur atom binds readily to heavy metal ions. Under oxidizing conditions, two cysteines can join together in a disulfide bond to form the amino acid cystine. When cystines are part of a protein, insulin for example, this stabilizes tertiary structure and makes the protein more resistant to denaturation; disulphide bridges are therefore common in proteins that have to function in harsh environments including digestive enzymes (e.g., pepsin and chymotrypsin) and structural proteins (e.g., keratin). Disulphides are also found in peptides too small to hold a stable shape on their own (e.g., insulin). |- ! Aspartic acid | D | Asp | Behaves similarly to glutamic acid. Carries a hydrophilic acidic group with strong negative charge. Usually is located on the outer surface of the protein, making it water-soluble. Binds to positively-charged molecules and ions, often used in enzymes to fix the metal ion. When located inside of the protein, aspartate and glutamate are usually paired with arginine and lysine. |- ! Glutamate | E | Glu | Behaves similar to aspartic acid. Has longer, slightly more flexible side chain. Also serves as an excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. |- ! Phenylalanine | F | Phe | Essential for humans. Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan contain large rigid aromatic group on the side chain. These are the biggest amino acids. Like isoleucine, leucine and valine, these are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards the interior of the folded protein molecule. |- ! Glycine | G | Gly | Because of the two hydrogen atoms at the α carbon, glycine is not optically active. It is the smallest amino acid, rotates easily, adds flexibility to the protein chain. It is able to fit into the tightest spaces, e.g., the triple helix of collagen. As too much flexibility is usually not desired, as a structural component it is less common than alanine. |- ! Histidine | H | His | In even slightly acidic conditions protonation of the nitrogen occurs, changing the properties of histidine and the polypeptide as a whole. It is used by many proteins as a regulatory mechanism, changing the conformation and behavior of the polypeptide in acidic regions such as the late endosome or lysosome, enforcing conformation change in enzymes. However only a few histidines are needed for this, so it is comparatively scarce. |- ! Isoleucine | I | Ile | Essential for humans. Isoleucine, leucine and valine have large aliphatic hydrophobic side chains. Their molecules are rigid, and their mutual hydrophobic interactions are important for the correct folding of proteins, as these chains tend to be located inside of the protein molecule. |- ! Lysine | K | Lys | Essential for humans. Behaves similarly to arginine. Contains a long flexible side-chain with a positively-charged end. The flexibility of the chain makes lysine and arginine suitable for binding to molecules with many negative charges on their surfaces. E.g., DNA-binding proteins have their active regions rich with arginine and lysine. The strong charge makes these two amino acids prone to be located on the outer hydrophilic surfaces of the proteins; when they are found inside, they are usually paired with a corresponding negatively-charged amino acid, e.g., aspartate or glutamate. |- ! Leucine | L | Leu | Essential for humans. Behaves similar to isoleucine and valine. See isoleucine. |- ! Methionine | M | Met | Essential for humans. Always the first amino acid to be incorporated into a protein; sometimes removed after translation. Like cysteine, contains sulfur, but with a methyl group instead of hydrogen. This methyl group can be activated, and is used in many reactions where a new carbon atom is being added to another molecule. |- ! Asparagine | N | Asn | Similar to aspartic acid. Asn contains an amide group where Asp has a carboxyl. |- ! Proline | P | Pro | Contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group, which forces the CO-NH amide sequence into a fixed conformation. Can disrupt protein folding structures like α helix or β sheet, forcing the desired kink in the protein chain. Common in collagen, where it often undergoes a post-translational modification to hydroxyproline. Uncommon elsewhere. |- ! Glutamine | Q | Gln | Similar to glutamic acid. Gln contains an amide group where Glu has a carboxyl. Used in proteins and as a storage for ammonia. |- ! Arginine | R | Arg | Functionally similar to lysine. |- ! Serine | S | Ser | Serine and threonine have a short group ended with a hydroxyl group. Its hydrogen is easy to remove, so serine and threonine often act as hydrogen donors in enzymes. Both are very hydrophilic, therefore the outer regions of soluble proteins tend to be rich with them. |- ! Threonine | T | Thr | Essential for humans. Behaves similarly to serine. |- ! Valine | V | Val | Essential for humans. Behaves similarly to isoleucine and leucine. See isoleucine. |- ! Tryptophan | W | Trp | Essential for humans. Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tyrosine (see phenylalanine). Precursor of serotonin. |- ! Tyrosine | Y | Tyr | Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tryptophan (see phenylalanine). Precursor of melanin, epinephrine, and thyroid hormones. |} Dietary proteins fall into two categories: complete proteins and incomplete proteins. Complete proteins include ample amounts of all essential amino acids. Examples of foods that will include these great complete proteins are meat, fish, poultry, cheese, eggs, and milk. Incomplete proteins contain some but not all of the essential amino acids required by the human body. Examples of incomplete proteins include legumes, rice, and leafy green vegetables. Someone who chooses a vegan lifestyle must be careful to combine various plant proteins to obtain all the essential amino acids on a daily basis, but it can be accomplished. Ingested proteins are broken down into amino acids during digestion. They are then absorbed by the villi of the small intestine and enter the blood stream. Our cells use these amino acids to assemble new proteins that are used as enzymes, cell receptors, hormones, and structural features. Each protein has its own unique amino acid sequence that is specified by the nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding that protein (see [[Human Physiology/Genetics and inheritance|Genetics and Inheritance]]). If we are deficient in even a single amino acid, then our cells cannot make the proteins they require. ==Lipids== ;Macronutrient :Provides 9 Kcalories per gram; it is an energy-yielding nutrient. '''Functions''' are stored energy (adipose tissue), organ protection, temperature regulator, insulation such as myelin that covers nerve cells, lipid membrane around cells, and emulsifiers to keep fats dispersed in body fluids. '''Lipids''' are made of organic molecules carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Fats consist of glycerol fatty acids joined by an ester bond. *'''A.''' <u>Triglycerides</u> - composed of three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule. *'''B.''' <u>Saturated fatty acid</u> - fatty acid with carbon chains fully saturated with hydrogen. *'''C.''' <u>Monounsaturated fatty acid</u> - fatty acid that has a carbon chain with one unsaturated double bond. *'''D.''' <u>Polyunsaturated fatty acid</u> - fatty acid that has two or more double bonds on the carbon chain. '''Essential fatty acids''' part of the polyunsaturated fatty acids *'''E.''' <u>Linoleic acid</u> an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid, its first double bond is at the 6th carbon and this is why it can be called Omega 6. *'''F.''' <u>Linolenic acid</u> an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid, its first double bond is at the 3rd carbon and this is why it can be called Omega 3, and is the main member of the omega-3 family. *'''G.''' <u>Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) </u>, may be derived inefficiently from linolenic acid and is the main fatty acid found in fish, also called omega 3. *'''H.'''<u> Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)</u>, is an omega 3 fatty acid, is synthesized in body from alph-linolenic acid, and is present in fish. DHA is present in retina and brain. ;Nonessential *'''I.'''<u> Sterols</u> serve a vital function in the body, are produced by the body, and are not essential nutrients. This structure of a lipid is cholesterol which is a waxy substance that doesn't look like a triglyceride. It doesn't have a glycerol backbone or fatty acids, but because it is impermeable in water, it is a lipid. *'''J.'''<u> CIS- Trans Fatty acids</u> hydrogenation makes monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids go from a state of their original form that is ''cis'' to a ''trans'' form. Addition of hydrogen ions will cause vegetable oil to harden. Additionally, they may stimulate cholesterol synthesis, and are potentially carcinogenic. '''Absorption process of triglycerides.''' This is the fat that your body deals with most of the time. They are absorbed with the transport of chylomicrons into the lymphatic system which in turn will pour into the blood stream at the thoracic duct. Once it enters the blood stream, the chylomicrons take the triglycerides into the cells. The triglycerides that are on the outer part of the chylomicrons are broken down by lipoprotein lipase. Lipoprotein lipase can be found on the walls of capillaries. It is this enzyme that will break it into fatty acids and monoglycerides. The fatty acids are taken by the body's cells while the monoglycerides are taken to the liver to be processed. Medium chain triglycerides (MCTs) bypass chylomicron lipoprotein function allowing the body to quickly utilize them for energy. Due to their shorter chain length, MCTs possess 8.3kcal as opposed to the 9kcal content of long chain triglycerides. MCT consumption due to the immediate utilization by the body also results in the rapid formation of ketones and less ability to be stored as adipose tissue. '''More Info on Lipids:''' *1. Lipids are structural components found in every cell of the human body. That is, they form the lipid bilayer found in individual cells. They also serve as the myelin sheath found in neurons. *2. Lipids provide us with energy. Most of that energy is in the form of triacylglycerols. *3. Both lipids and lipid derivatives serve as vitamins and hormones. *4. Lipophilic bile acids aid in lipid solubility. '''Recommendations for Fat Intake:''' Although there are different types of fat the effect on health and disease, the basic message is simple: leave out the bad fats and replace them with good fats. Try to limit saturated fats in your diet, and try to eliminate trans fats from partially hydrogenated oils.Replace saturated and trans fats with polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fats. As of January 1, 2006, trans fat must be listed on food labels. More and more "trans-fat" free products are becoming available. Keep in mind, though, that according to the FDA, a product claiming to have zero trans fat can actually contain up to a half gram. You may still want to scan the ingredient list for "partially hydrogenated vegetable oil" and "vegetable shortening," and look for an alternative product without those words. ==Vitamins and Minerals== [[Image:La Boqueria.JPG|thumb|300px|Fruits and vegetables are often a good source of vitamins.]] We all need micronutrients in small quantities to sustain health. Micronutrients include dietary minerals and vitamins. While all minerals and vitamins can be obtained through food, many people do not consume enough to meet their micronutrient needs and instead may take a supplement. Microminerals or trace elements include at least iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese, selenium, zinc, and molybdenum. They are dietary minerals needed by the human body in very small quantities (generally less than 100mg/day) as opposed to macrominerals which are required in larger quantities. (Note that the use of the term "mineral" here is distinct from the usage in the geological sciences.) ===Vitamins=== Vitamins are organic compounds that are essential for our body to function properly. Most vitamins are obtained from what you consume, because the body is unable to manufacture most of the essential vitamins that you need to survive. Here are types of vitamins and their roles: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Vitamin ! Food Sources ! Functions ! Problems When Deficient ! Problems With Taking Too Much |- | align="left" | A (retinol) | Ingested in a precursor form. Found in animal sources such as milk and eggs. Also found in carrots and spinach (contain pro vitamin A carotenoids). | Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin. It helps cells differentiate, also lowering your risk of getting cancer. Vitamin A helps to keep vision healthy. It is required during pregnancy. Vitamin A also influences the function and development of sperm, ovaries and placenta and is a vital component of the reproductive process. | Night blindness, impaired growth of bones and teeth |Headache, dizziness, nausea, hair loss, abnormal development of fetus |- | align="left" | B1 (thiamine) | Found in wheat germ, whole wheat, peas, beans, enriched flour, fish, peanuts and meats. | Vitamin B1 is a water-soluble vitamin that the body requires to break down carbohydrates, fat and protein. The body needs vitamin b in order to make adenine triphosphate (ATP). Vitamin B1 is also essential for the proper functioning of nerve cells. | Beriberi, muscular weakness, enlarged heart |Can interfere with the absorption of other vitamins |- | align="left" | B2 (riboflavin) | Found in milk cheese, leafy green vegetables, liver, soybeans yeast and almonds. Exposure to light destroys riboflavin. | Vitamin B2 is a water-soluble vitamin that helps the body process amino acids and fats. Activated vitamin B6 and folic acid helps convert carbohydrates to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Sometimes vitamin B2 can act as an antioxidant. | Dermatitis, blurred vision, growth failure |Unknown |- | align="left" | B3 (niacin) | Found in beets, brewer's yeast, beef liver, beef kidney, pork, turkey, chicken, veal, fish, salmon, swordfish, tuna, sunflower seeds, and peanuts. | Vitamin B3 is required for cell respiration and helps release the energy in carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It helps with proper circulation and healthy skin, functioning of the nervous system, and normal secretion of bile and stomach fluids. It is used in the synthesis of sex hormones, treating schizophrenia and other mental illnesses, and as a memory-enhancer. | Pellagra, diarrhea, mental disorders |High blood sugar and uric acid, vasodilation |- | align="left" | C (ascorbic acid) | Found in citrus fruits such as oranges, grapefruit and lemon. | Vitamin C is an essential water-soluble vitamin. It is needed to make collagen. Vitamin C also aids in the formation of liver bile which helps to detoxify alcohol and other substances. Evidence indicates that vitamin C levels in the eye decrease with age and this may be a cause of cataracts. Vitamin C has been reported to reduce activity of the enzyme, aldose reductase, which helps protect people with diabetes. It may also protect the body against accumulation or retention of the toxic mineral, lead. | Scurvy, delayed wound healing, infections |Gout, kidney stones, diarrhea, decreased copper |- | align="left" | D | Produced by the human body during exposure to the ultraviolet rays of the sun. | Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that helps maintain blood levels of calcium. Vitamin D is necessary for healthy bones and teeth. Vitamin D plays a role in immunity and blood cell formation and also helps cells differentiate this lowers your chance of getting cancer. | Lack of Vitamin D results in rickets for children and osteomalacia for adults. |Calcification of soft tissue, diarrhea, possible renal damage |- | align="left" | E | Found in vegetable oils, nuts, and green leafy vegetables. Fortified cereals are also an important source of vitamin E in the United States. | Vitamin E is an antioxidant that protects cell membranes and other fat-soluble parts of the body, such as LDL cholesterol (the “bad” cholesterol), from damage. | Unknown |Diarrhea, nausea, headaches, fatigue, muscle weakness |- | align="left" | K | Found in kale, collard greens, spinach, mustard greens, turnip greens and Brussels sprouts. Also found vegetable oils such as soybean, canola, cottonseed, and olive. Additionally, the normal flora of the large intestine produce vitamin K, which our body is able to absorb and use | Vitamin K by helping transport Ca, vitamin K is necessary for proper bone growth and blood coagulation. | Easy bruising and bleeding |Can interfere with anticoagulant medication |- | align="left" | Folic acid | Found in many vegetables including, broccoli, peas, asparagus, spinach, green leafy types. Also found in fresh fruit, liver and yeast. | Coenzyme needed for production of hemoglobin and formation of DNA. | Megaloblastic anemia, spina bifida |May mask B12 deficiency |- | align="left" | B12 | Found in meat, fish, eggs and milk but not in vegetables. | Vitamin B12 is needed to make red blood cells. Supplements can help some types of anemia. | Pernicious anemia |Unknown |- | align="left" | B6 (pyridoxine) | Found in cereals, yeast, liver, and fish. | Vitamin B6 is a coenzyme in amino acid synthesis. | Rare to be deficient, convulsions, vomiting, seborrhea, muscular weakness |Insomnia, neuropathy |} ;<u>Folic acid and cancer prevention</u> Women of childbearing age are often encouraged to take a folic acid supplement to help reduce the risk of certain birth defects. Research cited by the Harvard School of Public Health shows that folic acid may have even more benefits, and not just for the developing fetus. Their study shows that people who get more than the recommended amount of folic acid due to diet or supplements can actually lower the risk of developing colon or breast cancer. Since alcohol blocks the absorption of folic acid and inactivates circulating folate, this can be especially important to those who drink alcohol frequently (more than one drink per day). The current recommended intake for folic acid is 400 micrograms per day. There are many excellent sources of folic acid, including prepared breakfast cereals, beans, and fortified grains. So if you would like to reduce your risk of colon or breast cancer, be sure to get more than 400 micrograms per day! <u>'''Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K'''</u> With fat soluble vitamins you need the presence of fat in your diet to absorb them, this is because the bile will not be secreted to help with emulsification and therefore the fat vitamins will not be broken down for absorption. Fat soluble vitamins are stored in organs such as the liver, spleen, and other fatty tissues in the body. Because of this, excessive amounts of fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate in the body resulting in toxicity, but this rarely comes from excessive dietary intake but rather from improper use of vitamin supplements. The other, water-soluble vitamins, do not build up to toxic levels because they are regularly excreted in the urine. ===Minerals=== Minerals are atoms of certain chemical elements that are essential for body processes. Minerals are ''inorganic'', meaning that they do not contain the element carbon. They are either produced by our body, or we obtain them by eating certain foods that contain them. They are ions found in blood plasma and cell cytoplasm, such as sodium, potassium, and chloride. In addition, minerals represent much of the chemical composition of bones (calcium, phosphorus, oxygen). They also contribute to nerve and muscle activity (sodium, potassium, calcium). Minerals serve several many other functions as well. There are 21 minerals considered essential for our bodies. Nine of the essential minerals in the body account for less than .01% of your body weight. Because of the small amount of these minerals that our body needs, we call them ''trace minerals''. The 12 most important minerals and their functions are listed below: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Mineral ! Source ! Use in the body |- | align="left" | Calcium (Ca) | Calcium can be found in dairy products, dark green vegetables and legumes. | It contributes to bone and teeth formation. In addition, calcium also contributes to nerve and muscle action, and blood clotting. |- | align="left" |Chloride (Cl) | Chloride is mainly found in table salt. | It plays a role in the acid-base balance, stomach acid formation, and body water balance. |- | align="left" |Copper (Cu) | Copper can be found in seafood, nuts, and legumes. |It participates in the synthesis of hemoglobin and melanin. |- |align=''left''|Fluorine (F) |Fluorine is evident in fluoridated water, tea, and seafood. |It accounts for the maintenance of teeth, and perhaps the maintenance of bone as well. |- |align=’’left’’|Iodine (I) |Iodine is a component in iodized salt, marine fish and shellfish. |Although a very small amount is needed for our body, according to some, iodine still plays a role in our body's function. It can also be found in seaweed. It is needed for the thyroid hormone. |- |align=’’left’’|Iron (Fe) |Iron can be found in green leafy vegetables, whole grains foods, legumes, meats, and eggs. |It is needed for composition of hemoglobin, myoglobin, and certain enzymes. |- |align=’’left’’|Magnesium (Mg) |Magnesium is found in whole grains foods, and in green leafy vegetables. |It is the coenzyme found in several enzymes. |- |align=’’left’’|Phosphorus (P) |Phosphorus can be found in meat, poultry, and whole grain foods. |It serves as components of bones, teeth, phospholipids, ATP, and nucleic acids. |- |align=’’left’’|Potassium (K) |Potassium is widespread in the diet, especially in meats and grains. |It deals with muscle and nerve function, and also is a major component of intracellular fluid. |- |align=’’left’’|Sodium (Na) |Sodium is found in table salt, is a major component of water and also widespread in the diet. |It participates in the functioning of muscles and nerves. |- |align’’left’’|Sulfur (S) |Sulfur is found in meat and dairy products. |It is a component of many proteins. |- |align=’’left’’|Zinc (Zn) |Zinc is found in whole grain foods, meats, and seafood. |It is a component of many enzymes. |} === SUGGESTIVE DOSE INTERACTION INDICATION === '''Vitamin A''' Beta Carotene Males: 5,000 I.U per day. Females: 4,000 I.U per day. TDR: 15,000 I.U per day. Take one tablet daily. Antibiotics, laxatives, and some cholesterol lowering drugs interfere with A’s absorption. Consult a physician if the following occur: Cystic fibrosis, diabetes, intestinal disorders, thyroid disorders, kidney, liver, and /or pancreatic disease. Deficiency symptoms include night blindness, dry skin, impaired growth, defective teeth and gums, dry inflamed eyes, diarrhea, and respiratory infection. Depleting factors include caffeine, alcohol, mineral oil, excess iron, and tobacco. Prolonged doses (greater than 25,000 I.U) may lead to bone and joint pain, hyperostosis, hair loss and anorexia. Anti-infective, antioxidant, essential for function of retina, possible co-factor in enzyme systems, normal development and health of skin, teeth, bones, vision, hair, tolerance to sunlight/normal night vision, tissue growth, protein digestion, liver, immune system, eyes, and reproductive system. Important for integrity of the epithelial tissue. '''Vitamin B1''' Thiamine RDA: 1.0mg – 1.4mg per day. ODR: 25mg – 50mg per day. TDR: 100mg per day. Take one tablet daily. Avoid when liver or kidney disease is present. Antibiotics, sulfa drugs and oral contraceptives may decrease levels. May cause excessive muscle relaxation in presence of some anesthetics. Deficiency symptoms include edema, enlarged liver, muscular atrophy, heart enlargement, and Beriberi. Disorder of the peripheral nervous system, loss of appetite, gastric distress, insomnia, mental confusion, depression, fatigue, and nausea. Numbness of limbs, irritability and stress on nervous system. Depleting factors include stress, tobacco, fever, caffeine, alcohol, antibiotics, and surgery. Aids in carbohydrate metabolism, promotes normal cell growth, enhances circulation, restores deficiencies caused from over consumption of alcohol, prolonged diarrhea, or an over active thyroid. Essential for healthy nervous system, muscle tone, normal digestion, and energy. Stabilizes appetite, nervous system, heart and muscle. '''Vitamin B2''' Riboflavin RDA: 1.0mg – 1.7mg per day. ODR: 25mg – 50mg per day. TDR: 50mg per day. Take one tablet daily. Avoid if kidney disease is present. May decrease the efficiency of methotrexate. Oral contraceptives and tiring exercise increases the need of B2. Anti-depressants, phenothiazines decrease effectiveness. Deficiency symptoms include mouth disorders, ariboflavinosis, insomnia, itching, scaling of skin, slow mental responses, retarded growth, weakness, dizziness, sore tongue, digestive disturbances, dermatitis, nervous instability, and burning eyes. Depleting factors include alcohol, tobacco, sugar, caffeine, and copper toxicity. Dosages of 50mg per day have caused retinal damage in experimental animals. Maintains integrity of mucous membranes, aids in metabolism of certain foods, necessary for red blood cell formation, antibody production, and cellular respiration. Assists in skin, hair, vision and nails. Builds and maintains body tissue. '''Vitamin B3''' Niacin RDA: 13mg-9mg per day. ODR: 100mg-250mg per day. TDR: 250mg-1,000mg per day. Take one tablet daily. Decreases the effects of anti-diabetics and chenodiol. Lowers blood pressure when used with mecamylamne, beta-adrenergic blockers and pargyline. Flushing is normal and will decrease with time. Liver toxicity is possible at 2-3 grams. Deficiency symptoms include pellagra, dermatitis, and loss of memory, irritability, anger and depression. Depleting factors include stress, infection, antibiotics, sugar, caffeine, alcohol and excess water. Reduces cholesterol and triglycerides. Aids in energy production, amino acid metabolism and converts fats into eicosanoids. Regulates synthesis of sex hormones, growth and health. Maintains normal function of the skin, tongue and nervous system. '''Vitamin B5''' Pantothenic Acid Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include muscle cramps, dermatitis, abdominal pain, insomnia, fatigue, stress, hypoglycemia, arthritis, eczema, kidney troubles, premature aging and infections. Depleting factors include caffeine, alcohol, stress, antibiotics, and insecticide. Metabolism of protein, fats and carbohydrates. Aids in premature aging and wrinkles. Synthesis of cholesterol fatty acids and steroids. Aids growth. Maintenance of healthy skin, nerves and digestive tract. '''Vitamin B6''' Pyridoxine RDA: 2mg per day. ODR: 50mg-100mg per day. TDR: 200mg-500mg per day. Take one tablet daily. Diuretics and cortisone drugs block absorption. In large doses, breaks down phenytoin. Interferes with the efficacy of levodopa. Depleted with use of cycloserine ethionamide, hydralazine, isoniazid and immuno-suppressants. Deficiency symptoms include depression, insomnia, nervousness, muscle spasms, possible convulsions, mental confusion, water retention, irritability, low blood sugar, and loss of hair. Depleting factors include x-rays, caffeine, tobacco, alcohol and birth control pills. Promotes the change of tryptophan to serotonin, essential for the metabolic process of fats, proteins and carbohydrates. Regulates water retention and secretion. Mixture of RNA/DNA. Balance of sodium and potassium. Critical for diets rich in protein. Important for proper functioning of the immune system and hormone balance (regulates females). '''Vitamin B12''' Cyanocobalamin RDA: 3mcg per day. ODR: 50-100mcg per day TDR: 1,000mcg per day. Take one tablet daily. Low incidence of toxicity with dosages of up to 850mcg per day. Deficiency symptoms include harmful anemia, sub-acute shared degeneration of the spinal cord, lethargy, weakness, muscle soreness, mental, nervous and digestive disorders, poor reflexes, speaking difficulty, nerve degeneration, depression and enlarged liver. Depleting factors include laxatives, caffeine, tobacco and alcohol. Important role in energy production, immune, central nervous system functions in folic acid metabolism. Stops the buildup of homocysteine in blood. Assists with fat and carbohydrate metabolism, promotes formation of red blood cells. Aids with fatigue, general weakness, mood swings, loss of appetite and with the production of DNA/RNA, Crucial for the use of iron. '''Vitamin B15''' Pangamic Acid, Calcium Pangamate (Calcium Salt) Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include glandular and nervous disorders and diminished oxidation of cells. Promotes cell respiration and glucose oxidation, promotes protein, fat and sugar metabolism. Treats high cholesterol levels, impaired circulation and premature aging. '''Vitamin C''' RDA: 60mg per day. ODR: 500mg per day. TDR: 1,000+mg per day. Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include frequent or prolonged infections, fatigue, joint pain, bleeding gums, scurvy, hemorrhages, poor resistance to infection, anemia, colds, and allergies, shortness of breath, bruising, and gout. Depleting factors include mercury, stress, high fever, cortisone, tobacco, aspirin, air pollution, D.D.T, sulfonamides, and excess water. Decreases anti-cholinergic effectiveness. Combined with sulfa drugs may lead to kidney stones. Aids in utilization of carbohydrates, strengthens blood vessels, synthesis fats and proteins. Aids in production of interferon. Boosts resistance to infection, promotes normal teeth, bones, blood vessels, formation of collagen and connective tissue. For muscles and bones, detoxifies nicotine, mobilizes iron in blood, stimulates growth, and iron assimilation. Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol) RDA: 7.5mcg-10mcg per day. ODR: 200 IU per day. TDR: 400 IU-600 IU per day. Take one tablet daily. Increased risk of hypercalcemia when used with diuretics and thiazide, irregular heartbeats when used with digitalis. Reduces effectiveness of calcitonin in hypercalcemia treatment. Deficiency symptoms include bone diseases, rickets, osteomalacia, softening of bones, poor growth, porous and brittle bones, teeth and gum problems, lack of resilience in skin and tissue, and colds. Mineral oil is the only depleting factor. Controls absorption of phosphorous and calcium in small intestine. Promotes health development of bones, and teeth. Necessary for thyroid function. Used in treatment of herpes zoster and herpes simplex, cystic fibrosis, arthritis, normal use of calcium and phosphorous for strong bones and teeth, calcium absorption, maintains stable nervous system and normal heart action, aids sleep by helping absorb calcium, and blood clotting. '''Vitamin E''' (Alpha-tocopherol) RDA: 8 IU-10 IU per day. ODR: 200 IU-400 IU per day. TDR: 500 IU-1000 IU per day. Take one tablet daily. High doses deplete Vitamin A stores in the body. High doses over a long time may alter metabolism of thyroid and pituitary hormones. Use caution in presence of diabetes and rheumatic heart disease. Anticoagulants and Vitamin E together may result in spontaneous or hidden bleeding. Deficiency symptoms include fragility of the red blood cells, liver and kidney disease, gastrointestinal problems, muscular wasting, enlarged prostate, sterility, impotence, dry dull hair, fat deposits in muscles (especially in the heart), atherosclerosis, varicose veins, hypertension, lethargy, lack of mental alertness, infertility, and neuromuscular impairment. Depleting factors include rancid fat, mineral oil, chlorine, birth control pills and air pollution. Antioxidant, aids in formation of red blood cells, lowers LDL’s, helps eliminate triglycerides, increases HDL’s , assists in preventing blood clots Useful in premenstrual syndrome and fibrocystic disease of the breast. Increases the body’s ability to utilize oxygen, Protects Vitamin A from damage in the body, protects unsaturated fats from abnormal breakdown, extends the life of red blood cells and promotes cell respiration, reported to be the “anti-aging” vitamin, helps minimize scarring and aids in the healing of wounds, retards blood clotting, and keeps the youthful elasticity in tissues. '''Vitamin H''' Biotin RDA: not established ODR: 100mg-150mg per day. TDR: advised by practitioner. Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include fatigue, depression, and inflammation of mucous membranes, baldness, mental health, muscle pain, mild skin disorders, and lack of energy, poor appetite, extreme exhaustion, and dry gray skin. Depleting factors include alcohol, raw egg white, caffeine, and antibiotics. Assists in utilization of B-complex vitamins. Helps in metabolism of carbohydrates and amino acids and the formation of fatty acids. Maintains reproductive and nervous systems, and promotes growth. '''Bioflavonoids<br>(Vitamin P)''' Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include the tendency to bleed and bruise easily, and bleeding gums. Depleting factors include colds and surgery. Capillary fragility, allergies, nosebleeds, inflammations, strengthens collagen and connective tissues. Helps strengthen capillaries; helps prevent colds and influenza, asthma, regulation of menstrual flow, and rheumatoid arthritis. Choline Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include fatty deposits in the liver, high blood pressure, and cirrhosis of the liver. Depleting factors include sugar, caffeine, alcohol, and insecticide. Recommended for people taking niacin or nicotinic acid. Prevents fat buildup in the liver. Essential for health of liver, kidneys, and healthy nerves. '''Folic Acid''' RDA: 400mcg per day. ODR: 400mcg per day. TDR: 800mcg per day. Do not take in combination with phenytoin or pyrimethamine. Folic acid is depleted in presence of analgesics, anti-convulsants, chloramphenicol, cortisone, oral contraceptives, quinine, sulfa drugs, and trimethoprim. Deficiency symptoms include hemolytic and megaloblastic anemia. Weakness, mood disorders, insomnia, diarrhea, confusion, retarded growth, anemia, mental deterioration, gastro intestinal disorders, birth defects, B12 deficiency, gray hair, and a low pain to tolerance. Possibly related to forms of depression and psychosis. Depleting factors include stress, caffeine, alcohol, and streptomycin. Promotes normal red blood cell formation. Maintains health of intestinal tract, formation of white blood cells. Regulates embryonic and fetal development. Used in treating anemia developed from liver disease, pregnancy, and use of oral contraceptives. Acts as co-enzyme in formation of red blood cells, and nucleic acid. Breakdown and utilization of protein, aids in performance of the liver. Mental and emotional health. '''Inositol''' Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include constipation, eczema, hair loss, high blood cholesterol, and eye problems. Depleting factors include caffeine, sulfonamide, and excess water. Promotes the body’s production of lecithin, aids in the metabolism of fats and helps to reduce blood cholesterol. Growth of hair, vital organs, bone marrow and eye membranes. ''' Para Amino Benzoic Acid (PABA)''' Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include fatigue, depression, nervousness, irritability, constipation, graying hair, digestive problems, eczema, sunburn, and lack of pigment. Depleting factors include sulfonamides, caffeine, and alcohol. Co-enzyme in breakdown and utilization of proteins and formation of red blood cells. Acts as sunscreen. Skin health, hair pigmentation. Stimulates intestinal bacteria and the production of folic acid. '''MINERAL CHART''' MINERAL INTERACTION INDICATION '''Calcium''' Suggested Dose: RDA: 800mg-1000mg per day. ODR: 800mg-1500mg per day. Needs acidic medium for absorption. Take two tablets daily. Avoid if kidney stones, chronic constipation, colitis, intestinal bleeding, stomach disorders or irregular heart beat is present. Use with digitalis or ephedrine preparations may cause heartbeat indiscretion. Decreases absorption of tetracycline. Deficiency symptoms include osteomalacia, joint pains, rickets, insomnia, hypertension, osteoporosis, bone diseases, tetany, heart problems, excessive bleeding, poor development and brittleness of teeth and bones, muscle and menstrual cramps. Depleting factors include aspirin, corticosteroid, and drugs. Stimulates bone loss if combined with large doses of Vitamin A. Vital for proper functioning of the nervous muscular and skeletal systems. Necessary for blood coagulation, retain acid balance and maintaining the permeability of membranes. Keeps muscle strength, elasticity and tone, needed for strong bones and teeth, blood clotting process, metabolism of Vitamin D, and the use of Iron. '''Chlorine''' Excess chlorine destroys Vitamin E and Intestinal flora. Deficiency symptoms include hair and tooth loss, poor muscle contractions and impaired digestion. Chlorine (an amine) is an ancestor to an ester called acetylcholine which is needed for the transmission of nerve impulses at synapses and myoneural junctions. Suggested for people taking niacin or nicotinic acid for high serum cholesterol and triglycerides due to reduction of chlorine and lecithin. Liver disease, tardive dyskinesia, hormone and lecithin production. Regulates acid/alkali balance in the blood and maintains fluid pressure in cell membranes, stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid, stimulates liver, helping it clear toxic waste, aids in keeping joints and tendons in tone and helps to distribute hormones. '''Chromium''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: 50mcg-200mcg per day. ODR: 200mcg-400mcg per day. TDR: 400mcg-1000mcg per day. Take one tablet daily. Chromium should be used only under care of a physician when diabetes is at hand due to the change in the insulin requirements. Deficiency symptoms include anxiety, glucose intolerance, and chance of arteriosclerosis, poor metabolism of amino acids, retarded growth, mental and emotional disorder, hypoglycemia, weakness and fatigue. The depleting factor is air pollution. Metabolizes glucose, aids in regulation of blood sugar, vital in synthesis of cholesterol, fats and protein. Stimulates enzymes involved in metabolism of glucose. Increases the effect of insulin and synthesis of protein. '''Cobalt''' Deficiency symptoms include vegetarians vulnerable to deficiency, pernicious anemia, slow rate of growth, and nervous disorders. There are no depleting factors. Vital part of B12 activates a number of enzymes required for functioning and maintenance of red blood cells and body cells in general. '''Copper''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: 2mg-3mg per day. Avoid in the presence of hepatolenticular degeneration. Absorption is decreased in the presence of Vitamin C. Deficiency symptoms include general weakness, impaired respiration, lower collagen and lower white blood cell formation, retarded growth, skin ores, pernicious anemia, and respiratory problems. There are no depleting factors. Aids in the formation of bone hemoglobin, and red blood cells. Needed for integrity of joints and nerves. Necessary for formation of elastin. Aids with production of enzymes needed for respiration, protein metabolism, healing process, hair and skin pigment, oxidation of Vitamin C and iron absorption. '''Fluorine''' Deficiency symptoms include poor teeth development, gum disorders, osteoporosis and loss of hearing. Depleting factors include excess fluorine which may destroy the enzyme Phosphates. Affects vitamin metabolism and brain tissues, aluminum salts and insoluble calcium. Aids in tissue, skeleton and teeth, supports deposition of calcium by strengthening bones and teeth. '''Iodine''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: 150mcg-200mcg per day. ODR: 100mcg-150mcg per day. TDR: 3mg per day. Works with lithium carbonate to make oddly low thyroid activity. Deficiency symptoms include mental retardation, apathy, deafness, dry hair, delayed growth, obesity, slowed mental reaction, sluggish metabolism, irritability, cold extremities, sexual development in children and Goiters in adults. Depleting factors include raw foods such as nuts and cabbage which may interfere with the use of iodine in thyroid hormone production. Maintains health of the thyroid gland, helps to metabolized excess fats. Treats angina pectoris, arteriosclerosis, helps with the growth and development of hair, skin, nails, teeth, speech, mentality and the oxidation of fat protein, and encourages the rate of metabolism. '''Iron''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: 18mg per day for men, 30mg per day for pregnant females. ODR/TDR: Toxicity of overdoses of ferrous sulfate indicates appropriate amounts in RDA. Avoid in the presence of hepatitis hemolytic anemia. Excessive dosages can cause bloody diarrhea, heart irregularities, weakness, and shortness of breath. Supplementation with iron combined with the intake of alcohol can cause organ damage. Deficiency symptoms include fatigue, pale skin, irritability, general malaise, difficulty swallowing, weakness, brittle nails, general lethargy, constipation iron-deficiency, and breathing difficulty. Depleting factors include coffee, tea, bleeding, excess Phosphorous, diarrhea, stress, lack of hydrochloric acid, antacids, and aspirins. Vital to hemoglobin, myoglobin formation, aids in tissue respiration as well as cellular oxygenation. Aids nutrition of epithelial tissues. Needed for proper assimilation of B Vitamins, increases resistance to stress and disease. '''Magnesium''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: 300mg-400mg per day. ODR: 400mg-1000mg per day. TDR: 1,000mg per day. Reduces absorption of ketoconazole. May slow excretion (urinary) of mecamylamine. Reduces absorption of tetracycline. Deficiency symptoms include cardiovascular problems, confusion, insomnia, irritability, rapid heartbeat, seizures or tetany, depression, tremors, muscle twitch, convulsions, kidney stones, tooth decay, exhaustion and soft bones. Depleting factors include alcohol, diuretic, high cholesterol, and corticosteroid drugs. Activates enzymes responsible for catalytic reactions between phosphate ions and adenosine triphosphate. Controls body temperature, prevents calcification of soft tissue, and synthesizes proteins. Assists in calcium and potassium uptake. Activates enzymes necessary for the metabolism of carbohydrates and amino acids, helps to regulate acid/alkaline balance in the body, bone growth, teeth enamel, used for proper function of nerves, memory, muscles, liver and glands. '''Manganese''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: not established ODR/TDR: calculated in relation to zinc intake. 35mg per day of Manganese when taken with 100mg of zinc. Excess amounts lead to poor iron absorption. The following deplete manganese: calcium supplementation, oral contraceptives, and magnesium. Deficiency symptoms in children are an abnormal rate of development and growth, high blood sugar, ataxia, glandular disorders, muscular in coordination, poor growth, convulsion, loss of hearing, dizziness and paralysis. Depleting factors include excess phosphorous, calcium and antibiotics. Antioxidant, assists with managing blood glucose levels, helps to lower triglycerides, strengthens arterial tissues, and stabilizes LDL’s. Vital part of glucosamine, therefore useful in treatment of arthritis. Helps to maintain sex hormone, protein, fat and carbohydrate productions. Formation of blood cells, activates numerous enzymes, bones and tissue growth, synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. '''Molybdenum''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: not established. ODR: 200mcg per day. TDR: 200mcg-1000mcg per day. Use with caution in presence of gout. Copper levels decline with excessive molybdenum intake. Deficiency symptoms include impotence, anemia, digestive disorders and tooth decay. Depleting factors are food refining and processing. Aids in eliminating aldehydes. Promotes normal cell growth. Generates energy, assists with production of hemoglobin. Aids in mobilization of iron from the liver. Vital for oxidation of fats. '''Nickel''' Deficiency symptoms include cirrhosis of liver, kidney failure, excessive sweating, aggravates anemia, and intestinal malabsorption. Depleting factors include tobacco, alcohol and stress. May be a factor in hormone, lipid and membrane metabolism activator of some enzymes, and is involved in glucose metabolism. '''Phosphorous''' Deficiency symptoms include bone diseases and weakness, gum and tooth diseases, nervous disorders, under or overweight, stunted growth, and irregular bleeding. Depleting factors include antacids, alcohol, aspirin, corticosteroid drugs and diuretics. Used in combination with calcium for the building of bones and teeth, repair of cells, growth maintenance, teeth and bones, skeletal growth, carbohydrates, kidney functioning, fat, protein metabolism, muscle contractions and nerve activity. '''Potassium''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: not established. ODR: 50mg per day. TDR: available only by prescription. Overdose may result in irregular heartbeat, partial paralysis, coma and convulsions. Combination of ameliorate can cause serious rise in blood pressure. Heart irregularities may occur in presence of digitalis or calcium. Intestinal disorders in the presence of belladonna and atropine. Deficiency symptoms include hypokalemia, vomiting, perspiration, severe cardiac problems, nervous disorders, insomnia, and general weakness. Depleting factors include diuretics, caffeine, stress, diarrhea, alcohol, excess salt, high cholesterol, aspirin, sugar, and corticosteroid drugs. An electrolyte responsible for acid/base balance. Promotes regular heartbeat, normal muscle contraction, regulates water balance, essential for proper muscle function, helps regulate water/fluid balance, stimulates kidney to remove body waste, cell metabolism, heart rhythm, growth, protein and glucose absorption. '''Selenium''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: not established. ODR: 200mcg. TDR: 400mcg. Take one tablet daily. Side effects may include nausea, vomiting and hair loss. Deficiency symptoms include cardiomyopathy, myocardial death, premature aging, infertility, insomnia, and arteriosclerosis. Depleting factor is mercury poisoning. Antioxidant, especially when used with Vitamin E. Strengthens immune system, promotes normal growth and development. Major studies in cancer treatment. Preserves elasticity of tissue, normal body growth and hair growth, production of prostaglandin substances that effect blood pressure, fertility, and metabolism. '''Silicon''' Depleting factor is Atherosclerosis. Aids in the connective tissues, bones and blood. Sodium Deficiency symptoms include weight loss, alkalosis, nausea, muscle cramps, excess thirst, edema high blood pressure insomnia and irritability. Depleting factor is excessive perspiration. Aids in water balance, osmotic pressure, blood and lymph health, nerves, muscle contractions, and acid/alkaline balance. '''Zinc''' Suggestive Dose: RDA: 15mg-25mg per day. ODR: 15mg-25mg per day. TDR: 100mg per day temporarily. Take one tablet daily. Deficiency symptoms include loss of taste and smell, alopecia, glossitis, stomachitis, paronychia, sterility, enlarged liver or spleen, decreased size of testicles, dwarfism, baldness, stretch marks in the skin, retarded growth, prolonged healing of wounds, sterility, prostate problems. Depleting factors include lack of phosphorous, excess calcium, alcohol, cadmium, corticosteroid drugs, oral contraceptives, and diuretics. Antioxidant, aids in wound and burn healing, supports normal fetal growth and development, helps synthesize DNA and RNA, promotes normal cellular functioning, strengthens immune system, aids in regulating blood sugar. Used in treatment of prostate disorders. Topical application for wounds and skin irritations. Proper growth and function of reproductive organs, carbohydrates, digestive and phosphorous metabolism, needed to break down alcohol, phosphorous and protein metabolism, and component of insulin. ==Nutritional Disorders== Body Mass Index became popular during the early 1980s as obesity started to become a discernible issue in prosperous Western society. BMI provided a simple numeric measure of a person's "fatness" or "thinness", allowing health professionals to discuss the problems of over- and under-weight more objectively with their patients. However, BMI has become controversial because many people, including physicians, have come to rely on its apparent numerical "authority" for medical diagnosis – but that has never been the BMI's purpose. It is meant to be used as a simple means of classifying sedentary (physically inactive) individuals with an average body composition.[1] For these individuals, the current value settings are as follows: a BMI of 18.5 to 25 may indicate optimal weight; a BMI lower than 18.5 suggests the person is underweight while a number above 25 may indicate the person is overweight; a BMI below 15 may indicate the person has an eating disorder; a number above 30 suggests the person is obese (over 40, morbidly obese). In physiology, the term “weight” is used interchangeably with “mass”. For a given body shape and given density, the BMI will be proportional to weight e.g. if all body weight increase by 50%, the BMI increases by 50%. BMI is defined as the individual's body weight divided by the square of their height. The formulas universally used in medicine produce a unit of measure that is not dimensionless; it has units of kg/m2. Body mass index may be accurately calculated using any of the formulas below. {| class="wikitable" | style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center; margin: auto;" | SI units | US units | UK mixed units |- | <math>\mathrm{BMI} = \frac{\mathit{weight} \ \mathrm{(kg)}}{\mathit{height}^2 (\mathrm{m^2})}</math> | <math>\mathrm{BMI} = 703\cdot \frac{\mathit{weight} \ (\mathrm{lb})}{\mathit{height}^2 \ (\mathrm{in^2})}</math> | <math>\mathrm{BMI} = 6.35\cdot \frac{\mathit{weight} \ (\mathrm{stone})}{\mathit{height}^2 \ (\mathrm{m^2})}</math> |} {| class="wikitable" |- ! BMI ! Weight Status |- | Below 18.5 | Underweight |- | 18.5 - 24.9 | Normal |- | 25.0 - 29.9 | Overweight |- | 30.0 and Above | Obese |- |} [[Image:Bronskvinnorna, Marianne Lindberg De Geer.jpg|right|thumb|Either way can be a disorder.]] The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of 1994 indicates that 59% of American men and 49% of women have BMIs over 25. Extreme obesity — a BMI of 40 or more — was found in 2% of the men and 4% of the women. There are differing opinions on the threshold for being underweight in females, doctors quote anything from 18.5 to 20 as being the lowest weight, the most frequently stated being 19. A BMI nearing 15 is usually used as an indicator for starvation and the health risks involved, with a BMI <17.5 being one of the criteria for the diagnosis of anorexia nervosa. '''Anorexia nervosa:''' is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes an eating disorder characterized by low body weight and body image distortion with an obsessive fear of gaining weight. Individuals with anorexia often control body weight by voluntary starvation, purging, vomiting, excessive exercise, or other weight control measures, such as diet pills or diuretic drugs. It primarily affects young adolescent girls in the Western world and has one of the highest mortality rates of any psychiatric condition, with approximately 10% of people diagnosed with the condition eventually dying due to related factors.[1] Anorexia nervosa is a complex condition, involving psychological, neurobiological, and sociological components.[2] '''Bulimia nervosa:''' commonly known as bulimia, is generally considered a psychological condition in which the subject engages in recurrent binge eating followed by an intentional purging. This purging is done in order to compensate for the excessive intake of the food and to prevent weight gain. Purging typically takes the form of vomiting; inappropriate use of laxatives, enemas, diuretics or other medication, and excessive physical exercise. ==Metabolism== '''Absorptive and post absorptive stage of metabolism''' The body has two phases to its metabolic cycle. The first is known as the absorptive stage. This stage happens 3-4 hours after a typical meal. During this phase nutrients are absorbed by the body. In other words this is the stage where energy is stored into macromolecules. During the post-absorptive stage the nutrients are not being absorbed instead this is the stage where it is being mobilized. '''Insulin''' The changes in the body that occur between the absorptive and post-absorptive stages are triggered by the changes in the plasma concentration of insulin. Insulin encourages the synthesis of energy storage molecules. When plasma glucose levels in the bloodstream increase during the absorptive stage, insulin is secreted from the pancreas. When the plasma glucose levels decrease, the post-absorptive phase begins. Insulin acts on several different tissues in the body and influences almost every major aspect of energy metabolism. Insulin supports and promotes all aspects of the absorptive phase by helping store energy in all tissues. It also inhibits the reactions of the post-absorptive phase. Insulin also affects the transport of nutrients across the membrane of ALL body cells except for those located in the liver and CNS. Insulin also has a part in growth where it needs to be present in the blood stream in order for the hormones to effect normally. '''Epinephrine and sympathetic nervous activity on metabolism''' The sympathetic system and epinephrine suppress insulin and stimulate glucagon secretion. This effects the post absorptive phase by making metabolic adjustments. During the post absorptive phase, plasma glucose levels decrease and cause an increase of glycogen secretion. It also acts directly on glucose receptors in the CNS. This causes a rise in epinephrine secretion by the adrenal medulla. The rise in epinephrine creates a cascade event where the body sends signals to all the tissues (except skeletal muscles) to switch to the post absorptive phase. ==Diabetes== '''Diabetes Mellitus''' Diabetes is essentially any condition which is characterized by an increase in urine production and secretion. The Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary defines it as the following... "A disorder of carbohydrate metabolism, usually occurring in genetically predisposed individuals, characterized by inadequate production or utilization of insulin and resulting in excessive amounts of glucose in the blood and urine, excessive thirst, weight loss, and in some cases progressive destruction of small blood vessels leading to such complications as infections and gangrene of the limbs or blindness." In other words, when food is put into the body you get high levels of glucose in your blood stream thus resulting in the release of Insulin to take up and metabolize this glucose. It also stimulates the liver to store the glucose as glycogen, thus resulting in the storage of nutrients and the lowering of glucose levels in the blood. On the flip side you have Glucagon which helps in the breakdown of the stored nutrients when you need them, thus having the opposite effect of Insulin. People who are unable to produce insulin on their own, or are lacking/have damaged their insulin receptors develop what is known as "Diabetes Mellitus." There are two types of Diabetes Mellitus: Type I, aka, Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM), and Type II, aka, Non-Insulin Diabetes Mellitus (NIDDM). Type I diabetes is believed to be an autoimmune disease which has been present since birth or has been brought on by exposure to a virus which causes insulin production by the pancreas to be impaired. This usually results in a person having to receive insulin from an external source. Without this external administration, the body would turn to the metabolism of fat, which leads to the build up of Ketones in the blood, which leads to blood acidosis and could result in a coma or possible death. The onset of Type I diabetes is most commonly seen under the age of 25. Although Type II Diabetes is like Type I in many ways, it's onset is usually the result of poor lifestyle choices, particularly eating a diet high in sugars and fats while getting little or no physical exercise. Following this routine will quickly lead to damaging or the shutting down of your insulin receptors completely, thus resulting in the lack of glucose storage and the expulsion of essential nutrients from the body via urination. Just like with Type I Diabetes, Type II can have detrimental effects on the body including blindness, kidney disease, atherosclerosis, and again, even lead to the loss of extremities due to gangrene. Doctors have projected that upwards of seven million Americans may have diabetes, yet many may not know it. If you or someone you know has been suffering from such things as: frequent urination, especially at night; unusual hunger and/or thirst; unexplained weight gain or loss; blurred vision; sores that don't heal; or excessive fatigue then it is highly recommended that you have your fasting blood glucose level checked by a physician. Maintaining an active lifestyle and making sound nutritional choices may greatly extend your life by protecting you from the ills of diabetes. ==Calories, Exercise, and Weight== '''Energy Balance and Body Weight''' Energy is measured in units called calories. A calorie is the amount of energy that is needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by one degree Celsius. Because a calorie is such a small amount, scientists use a larger unit to measure intake, called a ''kilocalorie''. A kilocalorie is also referred to often as a capital "C" ''Calorie'', and is equal to 1000 calories. When we "count" calories, we are actually counting the big Calories. The old saying, "you are what you eat" is very much true. According to scientists, the average adult consumes 900,000 calories per year. Most people tend to take in more calories than their body needs. An intake of 120 extra calories a day, or around 5% excess in calories, yields an annual increase of 12 extra pounds of body weight. The more developed countries tend to consume more calories than others because of the increasing availability and dieting habits of eating refined foods with little nutrition in them and lots of saturated fat. In our society, there is a huge emphasis put on a person's image and how thin they are, and less emphasis put on what's most important--the nutrition our body receives. While our body do need calories every day to keep us going, we need to watch the amount of calories we consume in order to maintain good health and proper body weight. Our Caloric intake is linked directly to our health status. Being ''overweight'' is generally defined as being 15-20% above ideal body weight, while ''obesity'' is defined as being more than 20% above it. People who weigh 10% less than ideal are considered ''underweight''. This is less common in the more developed countries. In less developed countries such as South Africa, being underweight is quite common because they lack the nutrition to maintain good health. '''How do we gain weight?''' When we consume more calories than our body can burn in a day, the excess energy is stored in specialized cells as fat. It is also important to know that the three classes of nutrients have different Caloric contents. Carbohydrates and proteins contain only four Calories per gram, while fat contains about nine. Because of this, it is essential that we watch our amount of fat intake. If we continuously feed our body more calories than is needed, our body will produce more fat cells, to store the excess energy. This contributes to gaining weight. It is more difficult for chronically overweight persons to lose weight than normal-weight persons. This is because they are constantly fighting the body's own weight-control system, which responds as if the excess weight were normal. Our body is capable of measuring how much we intake, and maintaining our weight. When an overweight person goes on a diet, and consumes less calories, their body will respond as if they are starving, and try to save energy where it can to make up for the decrease in received calories. [[Image:Marines_do_pushups.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Exercise is a great way to maintain healthy body weight.]] '''Maintaining a healthy body weight''' To maintain a stable body weight, our consumption of calories needs to be equal to the amount of calories we use in a day. You can determine your daily energy needs by determining your ''basal metabolic rate (BMR)''. Your BMR is the energy your body needs to perform essential activities. Some examples of essential activities are breathing, and maintaining organ function. Your metabolic rate can be influenced by your age, gender, muscular activity, body surface area and environmental temperature. '''Physical Activity: An efficient way to use calories''' Although the BMR stays about the same, we can dramatically change the amount of calories we burn in a day by participating in physical activity. It is important to note that heavier people do more work per hour than normal-weight people, for the same level of activity. We must spend about 3,500 Calories to lose one pound of fat. The best approach to weight loss, recommended by nutritionists, is to reduce the Caloric intake by a small amount each day while gradually increasing your amount of physical activity. '''BMR: Determining how many calories we need''' There are several factors that influence the BMR. Each person's body has different needs. BMR needs vary with gender and body composition. Muscle tissue consumes more energy than fat tissue. Typically, males need more calories than females, because they generally have more muscle tissue. Males use up calories faster than women. BMR also varies with your age as well. As we age, our body needs less and less calories. In addition, some health conditions can contribute to our needed calories. Health conditions such as fever, infections, and hyperthyroidism are examples of health conditions that increase your BMR. Our stress level effects our needed calorie intake as well. So does our increase or decrease in consumption, and our rate of metabolism, which varies with individual genetics. '''Calculating Your BMR''' Here are the steps to determining your BMR, or, the amount of energy your body needs to perform essential activities: 1. First calculate your weight into kilograms. This is obtained by dividing the number of pounds by 2.2. 2. For Males: multiply your weight in kilograms by 1.0. For Females: multiply your weight in kilograms by 0.9. 3. This number approximates the number of Calories you consumer per hour. Now multiply this number by 24 to estimate how many Calories you need per day to support basic metabolic functions. 4. The end result is your personal basal metabolic rate! '''Exercise''' Living a healthy, well-balanced life involves good nutrition and adequate exercise. They work hand in hand. * There are many benefits to exercising. ** Your chances of living longer increases. ** You decrease your chances of getting diseases such as: *** Heart disease or problems with circulation *** Many types of cancer *** Type 2 diabetes *** Arthritis *** Osteoporosis *** Depression *** Anxiety *** Controls weight * The costs of being physically active far outweigh the medical costs for those who are not physically active. * Cardiovascular Exercise ** Thirty minutes a day of moderate intensity exercise or physical activity has been shown to make noticeable increases in breathing and heart rate. ** METs (metabolic equivalents) are the amount of energy it takes while at rest (1 calorie per every 2.2 pounds of body weight per hour). Moderate intensity activities can get you to burn energy 3-6 times more depending upon the activity. ** Walking is ideal for everyone. ** The MET scale chart on the Harvard School of Public Health web site is interesting. * Feeling what’s right ** A study suggests that those with disabilities, who are older, or who are out of shape get the same benefit from 30 minutes of lower intensity exercise as those who are younger and more fit do from more intense activity. * Beyond the heart ** There are other areas that benefit from different types of exercise such as strength training. These types of exercises help balance, muscle strength, and overall function. *** Resistance or strength training can possibly decrease the loss of lean muscle tissue and even replace some already lost. **** It can also decrease fat mass and increase resting metabolic rate. **** It is effective in fighting osteoporosis. **** It also helps maintain functional tasks in older populations. *** Flexibility training or stretching exercises increases range of motion, decrease soreness, and injury. ==Glossary== ;Amino acids: The building blocks of protein in the body. There are nine essential amino acids that are not manufactured by the body and must come from the diet. ;Anabolism: Refers the cumulative metabolic intracellular, molecular processes by which every cell repairs itself and grows.(synthesizing). ;Anorexia: A common eating disorder characterized by an abnormal loss of the appetite for food ;antioxidants: Compounds that protect against cell damage inflicted by molecules called oxygen-free radicals, which are a major cause of disease and aging. ;Bulimia Nervosa: Eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by an intentional purging. ;Catabolism: The opposite of Anabolism. The metabolic process that breaks down molecules into smaller units. It is made up of degradative chemical reactions in the living cell. ;Cirrhosis of the liver: An irreversible advanced scarring of the liver as a result of chronic inflammation of the liver. Can be caused by alcoholism or obesity. ;Complete Proteins: Proteins that contain ample amounts of all of the essential amino acids ;Deamination: When an amino acid group breaks off an amino acid that makes a molecule of ammonia and ketoacid. ;Diverticulosis: A diet low in dietary fiber increases the risk, this is the pouches called diverticula formation on the outer portion of the large intestine. ;Gastric Bypass Surgery: An operation where a small gastric pouch is created and the remainder of the stomach bypassed ;Incomplete Proteins: Proteins that contain some but not all of all of the essential amino acids required by the body ;Ipecac: A drug used to induce vomiting ;Kwashiorkor: A childhood form of malnutrition caused by general lack of protein or deficiency in one or more amino acids. Appearance of a person with this is a swollen belly due to inadequate production of albumin, which causes the blood to have a lower osmotic pressure, resulting in more fluids escaping from the plasma. ;Marasmus: malnutrition cause by a lack of kilocalorie intake. Appearance of a person with this is a skeletal one. ;Malnutrition: An imbalanced nutrient and or energy intake. ;Obesity: A condition in which the natural energy reserve in fatty tissue increased to a point where it is thought to be a risk factor for certain health conditions or increased mortality ;Peptide: Two or more amino acids linked together by a bond called a peptide bond. ;Polypeptide: A string of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. A protein is an example of a polypeptide. ;Starvation: A severe reduction in vitamin, nutrient, and energy intake, and is the most extreme form of malnutrition ==Health Information Online== {{Human_Physiology/ReviewQuestions}} ==References== *Van De Graaff (2002) ''Human Anatomy 6th ed.'' McGraw-Hill Higher Education *Windmaier, P.W. Raff, H. Strang, T.S. (2004) ''Vander, Sherman, & Luciano's Human Physiology, the Mechanisms of Body Function 9th ed.'' Mcgraw-Hill *Starr & McMillan (2001) '' Human Biology 6th ed.'' Thomson-Brooks/cole. *Spurlock, Morgan (2004) ''Super Size Me'' Hart Sharp Video *Sylvia S. Mader (2006) ''Human Biology 9th ed.'' McGraw-Hill Higher Education *''Anatomy & Physiology Revealed'' (2007) McGraw-Hill Higher Education *Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary 2nd ed. (2001) Random House Ali, E. et. al. The All in One Guide to Natural Remedies and Supplements. AGES Publication. (1999). embclj2cl19ji4729ii6655q5kc5a9b 110 95442 4654036 4367588 2026-07-11T18:01:05Z Koavf 16549 Passed 4654036 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- '''This page is for the [[Wikijunior]] ''The Elements'' project.''' --> __NOTOC__ == About the book == [[File:The Elements.jpg|right|267px]]'''Welcome to [[Wikijunior]] The Elements.''' The target age of this title is 8–12 years old. Section titles will include elements children may have heard of or are particularly interesting. The print version will focus only on answering a specific series of questions about the elements plus an explanation of what an element is. There will be an introduction and a glossary. Other articles of general interest about the Elements as a group may also be included. When working on this project, remember that it is aimed at children. Being understood is just as important as being accurate. Authors should concentrate on the most important concepts rather than getting wrapped up in every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler language would work. Or in other words, write as you would when you were a child. If you have made contributions to this Wikibook and would like to have formal credit for being an author, please add your name to [[Wikijunior:The Elements/Authors|the list of authors]]. {{clr}} {{featured book}} {| style="width:100%;" | style="width:50%; background-color:#ffffec; border:1px solid #faf9b2; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em;" | == Special Pages == *[[/Frontpage/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Periodic Table/|The Periodic Table]] {{stage short|75%|}} **[[/Elements/|List of the Elements]] {{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Introduction/]] {{stage short|75%|}} *[[/Introduction to The Elements/]] {{stage short|75%}} *[[/Glossary/|Glossary of basic terms]] {{stage short|75%|}} === Matter === *[[/Matter Is The Stuff Around You/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/States Of Matter/]] {{stage short|50%|}} **[[/Solids/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Liquids/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Gases/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Plasma/]] {{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Solutions/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Mixtures/]] {{stage short|100%|}} === Atom === *[[/Overview/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Structure/]] {{stage short|50%|}} === Molecules === *[[/What's a molecule?/]]{{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Bonding/|Forming Bonds]]{{stage short|50%|}} === List of chemical elements === * [[/Aluminum/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Antimony/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Argon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Arsenic/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Barium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Beryllium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Bismuth/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Boron/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Bromine/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Carbon/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Calcium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Cerium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Cesium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Chlorine/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Cobalt/]] {{stage short|25%}} * [[/Copper/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Einsteinium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Fluorine/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Francium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Gallium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Gold/]] {{stage short|100%|}} * [[/Helium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Hydrogen/]] {{stage short|100%|}} * [[/Iodine/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Iron/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Krypton/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Lead/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Lithium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Mercury/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Magnesium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Manganese/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Neodymium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Neon/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Neptunium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Nickel/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Nitrogen/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Oganesson/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Oxygen/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Phosphorus/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Platinum/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Plutonium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Polonium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Potassium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Promethium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Rare Elements/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Radium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Radon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Rubidium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Scandium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Silicon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Silver/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Sodium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Strange Element/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Strontium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Sulfur/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Tellurium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Thallium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Tin/]] {{stage short|25%}} * [[/Titanium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Tungsten/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Uranium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Vanadium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Zinc/]] {{stage short|50%|}} | style="width:50%; background-color:#eeffee; border:1px solid #99ff99; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em; vertical-align:top;" | {{Print version|/Printable version/}} {{clear}} == Contributing == *[[/Authors/]] *[[/Contributing/]] === Create or Request a Page === You are encouraged to create a page on an interesting or useful element. If you would like to do so, please read the [[/Contributing/]] page. === Stub Template === Please use the [[/Stub Template|Stub Template]] when creating a new article. === Sources of Additional Information === {{sisterlinks|Elements}} |} {| style="width:100%" | style="width:33%; vertical-align:top;" | <!-- Except for the first article, add a request alphabetically in the format: * [[/Graphene/]] --> {| style="background-color:inherit; width: 100%" |style="vertical-align:top" | | {{Wikijunior Article of the Month}} |} |} {{Shelves|Wikijunior Discovery and Innovation}} {{Alphabetical|E}} {{status|25%}} [[de:Wikijunior Die Elemente]] [[fr:Wikijunior:Les éléments]] [[es:Wikichicos/Los Elementos]] ofwc2b1tkqs6ujwxm4s3qkakh339n2z 4654056 4654036 2026-07-11T18:52:28Z Koavf 16549 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Koavf|Koavf]] ([[User talk:Koavf|talk]]) to last version by Xania 4367588 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- '''This page is for the [[Wikijunior]] ''The Elements'' project.''' --> __NOTOC__ == About the book == [[File:The Elements.jpg|right|267px]]'''Welcome to [[Wikijunior]] The Elements.''' The target age of this title is 8–12 years old. Section titles will include elements children may have heard of or are particularly interesting. The print version will focus only on answering a specific series of questions about the elements plus an explanation of what an element is. There will be an introduction and a glossary. Other articles of general interest about the Elements as a group may also be included. When working on this project, remember that it is aimed at children. Being understood is just as important as being accurate. Authors should concentrate on the most important concepts rather than getting wrapped up in every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler language would work. Or in other words, write as you would when you were a child. If you have made contributions to this Wikibook and would like to have formal credit for being an author, please add your name to [[Wikijunior:The Elements/Authors|the list of authors]]. {{clr}} {{featured book candidate}} {| style="width:100%;" | style="width:50%; background-color:#ffffec; border:1px solid #faf9b2; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em;" | == Special Pages == *[[/Frontpage/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Periodic Table/|The Periodic Table]] {{stage short|75%|}} **[[/Elements/|List of the Elements]] {{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Introduction/]] {{stage short|75%|}} *[[/Introduction to The Elements/]] {{stage short|75%}} *[[/Glossary/|Glossary of basic terms]] {{stage short|75%|}} === Matter === *[[/Matter Is The Stuff Around You/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/States Of Matter/]] {{stage short|50%|}} **[[/Solids/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Liquids/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Gases/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Plasma/]] {{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Solutions/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Mixtures/]] {{stage short|100%|}} === Atom === *[[/Overview/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Structure/]] {{stage short|50%|}} === Molecules === *[[/What's a molecule?/]]{{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Bonding/|Forming Bonds]]{{stage short|50%|}} === List of chemical elements === * [[/Aluminum/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Antimony/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Argon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Arsenic/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Barium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Beryllium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Bismuth/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Boron/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Bromine/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Carbon/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Calcium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Cerium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Cesium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Chlorine/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Cobalt/]] {{stage short|25%}} * [[/Copper/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Einsteinium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Fluorine/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Francium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Gallium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Gold/]] {{stage short|100%|}} * [[/Helium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Hydrogen/]] {{stage short|100%|}} * [[/Iodine/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Iron/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Krypton/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Lead/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Lithium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Mercury/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Magnesium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Manganese/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Neodymium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Neon/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Neptunium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Nickel/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Nitrogen/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Oganesson/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Oxygen/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Phosphorus/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Platinum/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Plutonium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Polonium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Potassium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Promethium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Rare Elements/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Radium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Radon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Rubidium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Scandium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Silicon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Silver/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Sodium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Strange Element/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Strontium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Sulfur/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Tellurium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Thallium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Tin/]] {{stage short|25%}} * [[/Titanium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Tungsten/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Uranium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Vanadium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Zinc/]] {{stage short|50%|}} | style="width:50%; background-color:#eeffee; border:1px solid #99ff99; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em; vertical-align:top;" | {{Print version|/Printable version/}} {{clear}} == Contributing == *[[/Authors/]] *[[/Contributing/]] === Create or Request a Page === You are encouraged to create a page on an interesting or useful element. If you would like to do so, please read the [[/Contributing/]] page. === Stub Template === Please use the [[/Stub Template|Stub Template]] when creating a new article. === Sources of Additional Information === {{sisterlinks|Elements}} |} {| style="width:100%" | style="width:33%; vertical-align:top;" | <!-- Except for the first article, add a request alphabetically in the format: * [[/Graphene/]] --> {| style="background-color:inherit; width: 100%" |style="vertical-align:top" | | {{Wikijunior Article of the Month}} |} |} {{Shelves|Wikijunior Discovery and Innovation}} {{Alphabetical|E}} {{status|25%}} [[de:Wikijunior Die Elemente]] [[fr:Wikijunior:Les éléments]] [[es:Wikichicos/Los Elementos]] d44jxtgnp2r80q5t4bcx2elc5tqty43 4654061 4654056 2026-07-11T19:01:05Z Codename Noreste 3441010 There was no consensus to implement this as a featured book. 4654061 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- '''This page is for the [[Wikijunior]] ''The Elements'' project.''' --> __NOTOC__ == About the book == [[File:The Elements.jpg|right|267px]]'''Welcome to [[Wikijunior]] The Elements.''' The target age of this title is 8–12 years old. Section titles will include elements children may have heard of or are particularly interesting. The print version will focus only on answering a specific series of questions about the elements plus an explanation of what an element is. There will be an introduction and a glossary. Other articles of general interest about the Elements as a group may also be included. When working on this project, remember that it is aimed at children. Being understood is just as important as being accurate. Authors should concentrate on the most important concepts rather than getting wrapped up in every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler language would work. Or in other words, write as you would when you were a child. If you have made contributions to this Wikibook and would like to have formal credit for being an author, please add your name to [[Wikijunior:The Elements/Authors|the list of authors]]. {{clr}} {| style="width:100%;" | style="width:50%; background-color:#ffffec; border:1px solid #faf9b2; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em;" | == Special Pages == *[[/Frontpage/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Periodic Table/|The Periodic Table]] {{stage short|75%|}} **[[/Elements/|List of the Elements]] {{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Introduction/]] {{stage short|75%|}} *[[/Introduction to The Elements/]] {{stage short|75%}} *[[/Glossary/|Glossary of basic terms]] {{stage short|75%|}} === Matter === *[[/Matter Is The Stuff Around You/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/States Of Matter/]] {{stage short|50%|}} **[[/Solids/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Liquids/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Gases/]] {{stage short|100%|}} **[[/Plasma/]] {{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Solutions/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Mixtures/]] {{stage short|100%|}} === Atom === *[[/Overview/]] {{stage short|100%|}} *[[/Structure/]] {{stage short|50%|}} === Molecules === *[[/What's a molecule?/]]{{stage short|50%|}} *[[/Bonding/|Forming Bonds]]{{stage short|50%|}} === List of chemical elements === * [[/Aluminum/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Antimony/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Argon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Arsenic/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Barium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Beryllium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Bismuth/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Boron/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Bromine/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Carbon/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Calcium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Cerium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Cesium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Chlorine/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Cobalt/]] {{stage short|25%}} * [[/Copper/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Einsteinium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Fluorine/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Francium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Gallium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Gold/]] {{stage short|100%|}} * [[/Helium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Hydrogen/]] {{stage short|100%|}} * [[/Iodine/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Iron/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Krypton/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Lead/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Lithium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Mercury/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Magnesium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Manganese/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Neodymium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Neon/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Neptunium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Nickel/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Nitrogen/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Oganesson/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Oxygen/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Phosphorus/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Platinum/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Plutonium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Polonium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Potassium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Promethium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Rare Elements/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Radium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Radon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Rubidium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Scandium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Silicon/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Silver/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Sodium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Strange Element/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Strontium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Sulfur/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Tellurium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Thallium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Tin/]] {{stage short|25%}} * [[/Titanium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Tungsten/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Uranium/]] {{stage short|50%|}} * [[/Vanadium/]] {{stage short|25%|}} * [[/Zinc/]] {{stage short|50%|}} | style="width:50%; background-color:#eeffee; border:1px solid #99ff99; padding:1em; padding-top:0.5em; vertical-align:top;" | {{Print version|/Printable version/}} {{clear}} == Contributing == *[[/Authors/]] *[[/Contributing/]] === Create or Request a Page === You are encouraged to create a page on an interesting or useful element. If you would like to do so, please read the [[/Contributing/]] page. === Stub Template === Please use the [[/Stub Template|Stub Template]] when creating a new article. === Sources of Additional Information === {{sisterlinks|Elements}} |} {| style="width:100%" | style="width:33%; vertical-align:top;" | <!-- Except for the first article, add a request alphabetically in the format: * [[/Graphene/]] --> {| style="background-color:inherit; width: 100%" |style="vertical-align:top" | | {{Wikijunior Article of the Month}} |} |} {{Shelves|Wikijunior Discovery and Innovation}} {{Alphabetical|E}} {{status|25%}} [[de:Wikijunior Die Elemente]] [[fr:Wikijunior:Les éléments]] [[es:Wikichicos/Los Elementos]] 00eu4683ij3setpfbel5psu4zw09n4m 2 96422 4653995 4648616 2026-07-11T13:23:14Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653995 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ {{User:Mechton/Sand1}} {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%; border:2px #A3BFB1 solid;" |- | colspan="2" style="background:#CEF2E0; text-align:center; padding:2px; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid;" | <h2 style="text-align:center; margin:.5em; margin-top:.1em; border-bottom:0; font-weight:bold;">Overview </h2> |- | style="background:#F5FFFA; padding:0em;" valign="top" | <!--BEGINNING OF CONTENTS BOX --> {| width="100%" style="margin-bottom:0em; border-bottom: 0px solid #A3BFB1; background-color:#E6FFF2; margin: auto;" cellspacing=2 !colspan=3 style="text-align:center; font-size:150%; padding-top:.8em;"| '''Contents''' |- |style="width:33%; font-size:95%; vertical-align:top; text-align:left; padding-left:1em;"| [[Image:Books-aj.svg aj ashton 01.svg|32px|]] '''[[w:#Reference|Reference|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|27px|]] '''[[w:#Art and culture|Art and culture|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola_filesystems_www.png|25px|]] '''[[w:#Geography and places|Geography and places|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola apps package favorite.png|25px|]] '''[[w:#Health and fitness|Health and fitness|]]''' |style="width:33%; font-size:95%; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| [[Image:Nuvola apps kworldclock.png|27px|]] '''[[w:#History and events|History and events|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola apps edu mathematics-p.svg|24px|]] '''[[w:#Mathematics and abstractions|Mathematics and abstractions|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|26px|]] '''[[w:#Natural sciences and nature|Natural sciences and nature|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola apps kdmconfig.png|28px|]] '''[[w:#People and self|People and self|]]''' |style="width:33%;font-size:95%; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;"| [[Image:socrates_blue_version2.png|27px|]] '''[[w:#Philosophy and thinking|Philosophy and thinking|]]'''<br> [[Image:ReligiousSymbols.png|25px|]] '''[[w:#Religion and belief systems|Religion and belief systems|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola filesystems folder home.png|29px|]] '''[[w:#Social sciences and society|Social sciences and society|]]'''<br> [[Image:Nuvola apps display.png|24px|]] '''[[w:#Technology and applied sciences|Technology and applied sciences|]]'''<br> &nbsp;<br> |} <!--END OF CONTENTS BOX--> <!-- |- | valign="top" style="margin-top: 0; padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA; border-top: 1px solid #A3BFB1; " | An overview is ______________. This is an overview of Wikipedia. (not comprehensive and not complete)--> |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Books-aj.svg aj ashton 01.svg|30px|]] Reference</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main article: [[w:Reference work|Reference work]]'' '''''[[w:Reference work|Reference work]]s''''' : [[w:Almanac|Almanac]]&nbsp;• [[w:Atlas (cartography)|Atlas|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Citation index|Citation index]]&nbsp;• [[w:Concordance (publishing)|Concordance|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Database|Database]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dictionary|Dictionary]]&nbsp;• [[w:directory (databases)|Directory|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Encyclopedia|Encyclopedia]]&nbsp;• [[w:Gazetteer|Gazetteer]]&nbsp;• [[w:Glossary|Glossary]]&nbsp;• [[w:Handbook|Handbook]]&nbsp;• [[w:Journal|Journal]] ([[w:Online journal|Online journal]], [[w:Scientific journal|Scientific journal]])&nbsp;• [[w:Lexicon|Lexicon]]&nbsp;• [[w:Magazine|Magazine]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Mathematical table|Mathematical table]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Newsgroup|Newsgroup]]&nbsp;• [[w:Newspaper|Newspaper]]&nbsp;• [[w:Periodical index|Periodical index]]&nbsp;• [[w:Thesaurus|Thesaurus]]&nbsp;• [[w:Web directory|Web directory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Wikimedia|Wikimedia]]&nbsp;• [[w:Wikipedia|Wikipedia]]&nbsp;• ''[[w:Wikipedia:Reference pages|Wikipedia reference pages|]]'' '''''Further research tools and topics''''' : [[w:Academic discipline|Academic discipline]]&nbsp;• [[w:Archive|Archive]]&nbsp;• [[w:Basic English|Basic English]]&nbsp;• [[w:Book|Book]]&nbsp;• [[w:College|College]]&nbsp;• [[w:Curriculum|Curriculum]]&nbsp;• [[w:Government agency|Government agency]]&nbsp;• [[w:ilities|-ility|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Index|Index]]&nbsp;• [[w:Information|Information]]&nbsp;• [[w:IRC|IRC]]&nbsp;• [[w:IRC client|IRC client]]&nbsp;• [[w:-ism|-ism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Knowledge|Knowledge]]&nbsp;• [[w:Library|Library]]&nbsp;• [[w:Library classification|Library classification]]&nbsp;• [[w:News agency|News agency]]&nbsp;• [[w:News client|News client]]&nbsp;• [[w:Newswire|Newswire]]&nbsp;• [[w:-ography|-ography]]&nbsp;• [[w:ology|-ology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:wikt:Overview|Overview|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Periodic table|Periodic table]]&nbsp;• [[w:Quotation|Quotation]]&nbsp;• [[w:Research|Research]]&nbsp;• [[w:Search engine|Search engine]]&nbsp;• [[w:Study Skills|Study Skills]]&nbsp;• [[w:Subject|Subject]]&nbsp;• [[w:Table of contents|Table of contents]]&nbsp;• [[w:Topic|Topic]]&nbsp;• [[w:University|University]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola apps kcoloredit.png|30px|]] Art and culture</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles: [[w:Art|Art]] and [[w:Culture|Culture]]'' '''[[w:culture|Culture|]]'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Cultures of present-day nations and states|By country|]] &nbsp;• [[w:Celebrities|Celebrities]]&nbsp;• [[w:Classics|Classics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cooking|Cooking]]&nbsp;• [[w:Critical theory|Critical theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Language|Language]]&nbsp;• [[w:Literature|Literature]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cultural movement|Movements|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mythology|Mythology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Parapsychology|Parapsychology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy|Philosophy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Popular culture|Popular culture]]&nbsp;• [[w:Religion|Religion]]&nbsp;• [[w:Tradition|Traditions|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Tourism|Tourism]] : '''[[w:art|Art|]]''', <!--Keep this-->'''[[w:The Arts|The Arts]]''',<!--includes basic list of the arts, and unifies the format of this section with the other sections--> and '''[[w:entertainment|Entertainment|]]'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Festivals|Festivals]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hobby|Hobbies|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Humor|Humor]]&nbsp;• [[w:Literature|Literature]]&nbsp;• [[w:Museums|Museums]]&nbsp;• [[w:Parties|Parties]]&nbsp;• [[w:Poetry|Poetry]]&nbsp;• :: '''[[w:performing arts|Performing arts|]]'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:dance|Dance|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:film|Film|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:music|Music|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:opera|<span style="color= blue">Opera</span>|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:theater|Theatre|]] :: '''[[w:visual arts|Visual arts|]]'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:architecture|Architecture|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:craft|Crafts|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:design|<span style="color= blue">Design</span>|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:drawing|<span style="color= blue">Drawing</span>|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:film|Film|]] ([[w:Animation|Animation]])&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:painting|Painting|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:photography|Photography|]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:sculpture|Sculpture|]] ::'''''[[w:Games|Games]]''''' ''and'' '''''[[w:Toy|Toy]]s''''' :::''[[w:Board game|Board game]]''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Checkers|Checkers]]&nbsp;• [[w:Chess|Chess]]&nbsp;• [[w:Go (board game)|Go|]] :::''[[w:Card game|Card game]]''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Magic: The Gathering|Magic: The Gathering]]&nbsp;• [[w:Poker|Poker]] :::''[[w:Computer and video games|Computer and video games]]''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Animation|Animation]]&nbsp;• [[w:Final Fantasy|Final Fantasy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nintendo|Nintendo]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pokémon|Pokémon]]&nbsp;• [[w:RuneScape|RuneScape]]&nbsp;• [[w:StarCraft|StarCraft]]&nbsp;• [[w:Warcraft|Warcraft]] :::''[[w:Role-playing games|Role-playing games]]''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Dungeons & Dragons|Dungeons & Dragons]] ::'''[[w:Sports|Sports]]'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Association football|Association football (soccer)|]]&nbsp;• [[w:A-League|A-League]]&nbsp;• [[w:American football|American football]] ([[w:College football|College football]])&nbsp;• [[w:Baseball|Baseball]]&nbsp;• [[w:Basketball|Basketball]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cricket|Cricket]]&nbsp;• [[w:Golf|Golf]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ice hockey|Ice hockey]]&nbsp;• [[w:Olympics|Olympics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Racing|Racing]]([[w:Cycling|Cycling]], [[w:Formula One|Formula One]])&nbsp;• [[w:Rugby|Rugby]] ([[w:Rugby League|Rugby League]]&nbsp;• [[w:Rugby Union|Rugby Union]])&nbsp;• [[w:Swimming|Swimming]]&nbsp;• [[w:Tennis|Tennis]] : '''[[w:Mass media|Mass media]]'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Film|Film]]&nbsp;• [[w:Newspaper|Newspaper]]&nbsp;• [[w:Publications|Publications]]&nbsp;• [[w:Radio|Radio]]&nbsp;• [[w:Television|Television]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola_filesystems_www.png|30px|]] Geography and places</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles: [[w:Earth|Earth]], [[w:Geography|Geography]] and [[w:Place|Place]]'' '''Branches of [[w:Geography|Geography]]''' :'''[[w:Physical geography|Physical geography]]:'''&nbsp; [[w:Biogeography|Biogeography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Climatology|Climatology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Coastal geography|Coastal/Marine studies|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Environmental geography|Environmental geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Geodesy|Geodesy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Geomorphology|Geomorphology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hydrology|Hydrology]]&nbsp;• ([[w:Glaciology|Glaciology]], [[w:Oceanography|Oceanography]], [[w:Limnology|Limnology]])&nbsp;• [[w:Landscape ecology|Landscape ecology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Palaeogeography|Palaeogeography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pedology (soil study)|Pedology|]] :'''[[w:Human geography|Human geography]]:'''&nbsp; [[w:Behavioral geography|Behavioral geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Children's geographies|Children's geographies]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cultural region|Cultural geography|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Economic geography|Economic geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Environmental geography|Environmental geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Feminist geography|Feminist geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Development geography|Development geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Health geography|Health geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Historical geography|Historical geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Military geography|Military geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Political geography|Political geography]], including [[w:Geopolitics|Geopolitics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Population geography|Population geography]] or [[w:Demography|Demography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Regional geography|Regional geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Social geography|Social geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Strategic geography|Strategic geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Time geography|Time geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Tourism geography|Tourism geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Urban geography|Urban geography]] '''[[w:Landform|Geographical features (landforms)|]]''' : [[w:Headlands and bays|Bay|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Badlands|Badlands]]&nbsp;• [[w:Bluff|Bluff]]&nbsp;• [[w:Canyon|Canyon]]&nbsp;• [[w:Headlands and bays|Cape|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cave|Cave]]&nbsp;• [[w:Channel (geography)|Channel|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cliff|Cliff]]&nbsp;• [[w:Coast|Coast]]&nbsp;• [[w:Continent|Continent]]&nbsp;• [[w:Coral reef|Coral reef]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cove|Cove]]&nbsp;• [[w:Crater|Crater]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cuesta|Cuesta]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dale|Dale]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dell (landform)|Dell|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Delta|Delta]]&nbsp;• [[w:Desert|Desert]]&nbsp;• [[w:Escarpment|Escarpment]]&nbsp;• [[w:Estuary|Estuary]]&nbsp;• [[w:Fen|Fen]]&nbsp;• [[w:Fjord|Fjord]]&nbsp;• [[w:Foothills|Foothills]]&nbsp;• [[w:Forest|Forest]]&nbsp;• [[w:Geyser|Geyser]]&nbsp;• [[w:Glacier|Glacier]]&nbsp;• [[w:Glen|Glen]]&nbsp;• [[w:Gulf|Gulf]]&nbsp;• [[w:Gully|Gully]]&nbsp;• [[w:Grassland|Grassland]]&nbsp;• [[w:Gully|Gully]]&nbsp;• [[w:Highland|Highland]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hill|Hill]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hoodoo (geology)|Hoodoo]]&nbsp;• [[w:Inlet|Inlet]]&nbsp;• [[w:Island|Island]]&nbsp;• [[w:Knoll|Knoll]]&nbsp;• [[w:Lagoon|Lagoon]]&nbsp;• [[w:Lake|Lake]]&nbsp;• [[w:Landform|Landform]]&nbsp;• [[w:Marsh|Marsh]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mesa|Mesa]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mountain|Mountain]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mountain pass|Mountain pass]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mountain range|Mountain range]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ocean|Ocean]]&nbsp;• [[w:Plain|Plain]]&nbsp;• [[w:Plateau|Plateau]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pond|Pond]]&nbsp;• [[w:Prairie|Prairie]]&nbsp;• [[w:Peninsula|Peninsula]]&nbsp;• [[w:Reef|Reef]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ravine|Ravine]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ridge|Ridge]]&nbsp;• [[w:River|River]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sandbar|Sandbar]]&nbsp;• [[w:Savanna|Savanna]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sea|Sea]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sound (geography)|Sound|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Source (river or stream)|Source]]&nbsp;• [[w:Spring (hydrosphere)|Spring]]&nbsp;• [[w:Steppe|Steppe]]&nbsp;• [[w:Strait|Strait]]&nbsp;• [[w:Stream|Stream]]&nbsp; [[w:Swamp|Swamp]]&nbsp;• [[w:Tide pool|Tide pool]]&nbsp;• [[w:Tundra|Tundra]]&nbsp;• [[w:Vale|Vale]]&nbsp;• [[w:Valley|Valley]]&nbsp;• [[w:Vernal pool|Vernal pool]]&nbsp;• [[w:Volcano|Volcano]]&nbsp;• [[w:Waterfall|Waterfall]]&nbsp;• [[w:drainage basin|Watershed|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Waterway|Waterway]]&nbsp;• [[w:Wetland|Wetland]] '''The [[w:World|World]]''' : '''By [[w:hemisphere|hemisphere]]:'''&nbsp; [[w:New World|New World]]&nbsp;• [[w:Old World|Old World]]&nbsp;|&nbsp; [[w:Eastern world|Eastern world]]&nbsp;• [[w:Western world|Western world]]&nbsp;|&nbsp; [[w:Eastern Hemisphere|Eastern Hemisphere]]&nbsp;• [[w:Western Hemisphere|Western Hemisphere]]&nbsp;|&nbsp; [[w:Northern Hemisphere|Northern Hemisphere]]&nbsp;• [[w:Southern Hemisphere|Southern Hemisphere]] : '''By [[w:cultural region|cultural region]]:'''&nbsp; [[w:Arab world|Arab world]]&nbsp;• [[w:Chinese world|Chinese world]] : '''By ordinal classification:'''&nbsp; [[w:First World|First World]]&nbsp;• [[w:Second World|Second World]]&nbsp;• [[w:Third World|Third World]]&nbsp;• [[w:Fourth World|Fourth World]]&nbsp;• [[w:Fifth World|Fifth World]] : '''By [[w:economic development|economic development]]:'''&nbsp; [[w:Developed countries|Developed countries]]&nbsp;• [[w:Developing countries|Developing countries]]&nbsp;• [[w:Least Developed Countries|Least Developed Countries]] : '''By [[w:continent|continent]]:''' [[w:Africa|Africa]]&nbsp;• [[w:Antarctica|Antarctica]]&nbsp;• [[w:Australia|Australia]]&nbsp;• [[w:Eurasia|Eurasia]]&nbsp;• [[w:North America|North America]]&nbsp;• [[w:South America|South America]] :'''[[w:Country|Countries|]] of the World:''' {| width=100% cellspacing=10 cellpadding=10 style=text-align:center | [[Image:LocationAfrica.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:List of African countries|Countries|]] of [[w:Africa|Africa]] | [[Image:LocationAsia.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:List of Asian countries|Countries|]] of [[w:Asia|Asia]] | [[Image:LocationEurope.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:List of European countries|Countries|]] of [[w:Europe|Europe]] | [[Image:LocationNorthAmerica.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:List of North American countries|Countries|]] of [[w:North America|North America]] |- | [[Image:LocationOceania.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:List of Oceanian countries|Countries|]] of [[w:Oceania|Oceania]] | [[Image:LocationSouthAmerica.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:List of South American countries|Countries|]] of [[w:South America|South America]] | [[Image:LocationAntarctica.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:Antarctica|Antarctic|]] | [[Image:LocationArctic.png|120px|]]<br />[[w:Arctic|Arctic]] |} [[w:City|City]]&nbsp;• [[w:Climate|Climate]]&nbsp;• [[w:Continent|Continent]]&nbsp;• [[w:Country|Country]]&nbsp;• [[w:Demographics|Demographics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Landform|Landform]]&nbsp;• [[w:Map|Map]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ocean|Ocean]]&nbsp;• [[w:Park|Park]]&nbsp;• [[w:Subterranea|Subterranea]]&nbsp;• [[w:Town|Town]]&nbsp;• [[w:Village|Village]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola apps package favorite.png|30px|]] Health and fitness</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles: [[w:Health|Health]], [[w:Self-care|Self-care]], and [[w:Health science|Health science]]'' '''''[[w:Self-care|Self-care]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:General Fitness Training|General Fitness Training]]&nbsp;• [[w:Life extension|Life extension]]&nbsp;• [[w:Longevity|Longevity]]&nbsp;• [[w:Physical fitness|Physical fitness]] : '''''[[w:Nutrition|Nutrition]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Healthy diet|Healthy diet]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dietary supplement|Dietary supplement]]s ([[w:Amino acid|Amino acid]]s, [[w:Dietary mineral|Minerals|]], [[w:Nootropic|Nootropic]]s, [[w:Nutraceutical|Nutraceutical]]s, [[w:Vitamin|Vitamin]]s) : '''''[[w:Physical exercise|Physical exercise]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Stretching|Stretching]]&nbsp;• [[w:Warming up|Warming up]]&nbsp;• [[w:Training effect|Training effect]]&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Exercise intensity|Exercise intensity]] ::[[w:Aerobics|Aerobics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Calisthenics|Calisthenics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Circuit training|Circuit training]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cross training|Cross training]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cycling|Cycling]]&nbsp;• [[w:Exercise equipment|Exercise equipment]]&nbsp;• [[w:Exercise machine|Exercise machine]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Jump Rope#Jumping Rope as Exercise|Jumping rope|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Running|Running]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sport|Sport]]&nbsp;• [[w:Swimming|Swimming]]&nbsp;• [[w:Walking|Walking]]&nbsp;• [[w:Weight training|Weight training]]&nbsp;• [[w:Weight training exercises|Weight training exercises]] : '''''[[w:Hygiene|Hygiene]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Cleanliness|Cleanliness]]&nbsp;• [[w:Oral hygiene|Oral hygiene]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sleep hygiene|Sleep hygiene]] &nbsp;• [[w:Occupational hygiene|Occupational hygiene]] :: '''''[[w:Positive Mental Attitude|Positive mental attitude|]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Mental health|Mental health]]&nbsp;• [[w:Positive psychology|Positive psychology]] '''''[[w:Health science|Health science]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Nutrition|Nutrition]]&nbsp;• [[w:Optometry|Optometry]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pharmacy|Pharmacy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Physiotherapy|Physiotherapy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Public health|Public health]]&nbsp;• [[w:Speech-Language Pathology|Speech-Language Pathology]] : '''''[[w:Medicine|Medicine]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Midwifery|Midwifery]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nursing|Nursing]]&nbsp;• [[w:Veterinary medicine|Veterinary medicine]] :: '''''[[w:Dentistry|Dentistry]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Oral hygiene|Dental hygiene|]] and [[w:Epidemiology|Epidemiology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dental surgery|Dental surgery]]&nbsp;• [[w:Endodontics|Endodontics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Orthodontics|Orthodontics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Oral and maxillofacial surgery|Oral and maxillofacial surgery]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pedodontics|Pedodontics]] (Pediatric dentistry)&nbsp;• [[w:Periodontics|Periodontics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Prosthodontics|Prosthodontics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dental implant|Implantology|]] :: '''''[[w:Medicine|Human medicine|]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Cardiology|Cardiology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Endocrinology|Endocrinology]] and [[w:Diabetology|Diabetology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Epidemiology|Epidemiology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Forensics|Forensics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Geriatrics|Geriatrics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hematology|Hematology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Internal medicine|Internal medicine]]&nbsp;• [[w:Health science|Health science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nephrology|Nephrology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Neurology|Neurology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Neurosurgery|Neurosurgery]]&nbsp;• [[w:Orthopedic surgery|Orthopedic surgery]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pathology|Pathology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pediatrics|Pediatrics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Psychiatry|Psychiatry]] (see also: [[w:Anti-psychiatry|Anti-psychiatry]]*)&nbsp;• [[w:Rheumatology|Rheumatology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Surgery|Surgery]]&nbsp;• [[w:Urology|Urology]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola apps kworldclock.png|30px|]] History and events</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles: [[w:News|News]], [[w:History|History]], [[w:History of the World|History of the World]], and [[w:History of Earth|History of Earth]]'' '''''[[w:History by region|History by region]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash;[[w:Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egypt]]&nbsp;• [[w:Babylonia|Babylonia]]&nbsp;• [[w:Classics|Classics]] ([[w:Ancient Greece|Ancient Greece]], [[w:Ancient Rome|Ancient Rome]]) &nbsp;• [[w:History of China|Ancient China|]] : '''''[[w:History by continent|History by continent]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:History of Africa|Africa|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of the Americas|The Americas|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of Antarctica|Antartica|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of Asia|Asia|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of Australia|Australia|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of Eurasia|Eurasia|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of Europe|Europe|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of North America|North America|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of Oceania|Oceania|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of South America|South America|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of South Asia|South Asia|]] : '''''[[w:History by country|History by country]]''''' '''''[[w:List of time periods#Human historical periods|History by period|]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:Historiography|Historiography]]&nbsp;• [[w:List of themed timelines|Timelines|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ancient History|Ancient History]]&nbsp;• [[w:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]] &nbsp;• [[w:Renaissance|Renaissance]] &nbsp;• [[w:Modern history|Modern history]] &nbsp;• [[w:Future history|Future history]] : '''''The Ages of history'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Stone Age|Stone Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Copper Age|Copper Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Bronze Age|Bronze Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Iron Age|Iron Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Axial Age|Axial Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dark Age|Dark Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Middle Ages|Middle Ages]]&nbsp;• [[w:Viking Age|Viking Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Age of Discovery|Age of Discovery]]&nbsp;• [[w:Age of Enlightenment|Age of Enlightenment]]&nbsp;• [[w:Industrial Age|Industrial Age]] &nbsp;• [[w:Information Age|Information Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Space Age|Space Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Digital Age|Digital Age]]&nbsp;&nbsp; ''(See also the [[w:List of time periods|List of time periods]])''. '''''History by subject''''' : '''''[[w:Cultural history|Cultural history]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:History of banking|Banking|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of money|Money|]] :: '''''[[w:History of art|History of art]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:History of dance|Dance|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of film|Film|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of music|Music|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of painting|Painting|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of theatre|Theatre|]] :: '''''[[w:History of sport|History of sport]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:History of American football|American football|]] &nbsp;• [[w:History of baseball|Baseball|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of billiards|Billiards|]] &nbsp;• [[w:History of cricket|Cricket|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of football|Football|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of skiing|Skiing|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of swimming|Swimming|]] : '''''[[w:History of mathematics|History of mathematics]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:History of Calculus|Calculus|]] : '''''[[w:History of philosophy|History of philosophy]]''''' '''&ndash;''' ''[[w:Ancient philosophy|Ancient|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Medieval philosophy|Medieval|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Modern philosophy|Modern|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Contemporary philosophy|Contemporary|]]'' :: [[w:History of logic|History of logic]] &nbsp;• [[w:History of Western philosophy|History of Western philosophy]] : '''''[[w:History of science|History of science]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:Theories and sociology of the history of science|Theories/sociology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Historiography of science|Historiography|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of pseudoscience|Pseudoscience|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of scientific method|Scientific method|]] ::'''''[[w:History of natural science|History of the natural sciences|]]''''' &ndash; [[w:History of astronomy|Astronomy|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of biology|Biology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of chemistry|Chemistry|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of ecology|Ecology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of geography|Geography|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of physics|Physics|]] ::'''''[[w:History of the social sciences|History of the social sciences]]''''' &ndash; [[w:History of anthropology|Anthropology|]] &nbsp;• [[w:History of economic thought|Economics|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of education|Education|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of geography|Geography|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Historiography|History|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of linguistics|Linguistics|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of political science|Political science|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of psychology|Psychology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of sociology|Sociology|]] ::'''''History of science by era''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:History of science in early cultures|In early cultures|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of science in Classical Antiquity|In Classical Antiquity|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of science in the Middle Ages|In the Middle Ages|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of science in the Renaissance|In the Renaissance|]] &nbsp;• [[w:Scientific revolution|Scientific Revolution|]] : '''''[[w:History of technology|History of technology]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:History of agriculture|Agriculture|]] & [[w:History of agricultural science|agricultural science|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Architectural history|Architecture|]] &nbsp;• [[w:History of Biotechnology|Biotechnology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of chemical engineering|Chemical engineering|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of communication|Communication|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of computer science|Computer science|]] ([[w:History of computing|Computing|]], [[w:History of software engineering|Software engineering|]])&nbsp;• [[w:History of electrical engineering|Electrical engineering|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Timeline of invention|Invention|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of materials science|Materials science|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of measurement|Measurement|]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of medicine|Medicine|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Military technology|Military technology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Historic transport|Transport|]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola apps edu mathematics-p.svg|30px|]] Mathematics and abstractions</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles: [[w:Mathematics|Mathematics]] and [[w:Abstractions|Abstractions]]'' [[w:Algebra|Algebra]]&nbsp;• [[w:Arithmetic|Arithmetic]]&nbsp;• [[w:Calculus|Calculus]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cognitive science of mathematics|Cognitive science of mathematics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Equation|Equation]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Geometry|Geometry]]&nbsp;• [[w:Logic|Logic]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mathematical analysis|Mathematical analysis]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mathematics education|Mathematics education]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mathematical practice|Mathematical practice]]&nbsp;• [[w:Measurement|Measurement]]&nbsp;• [[w:Number|Number]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of mathematics|Philosophy of mathematics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pre-calculus|Pre-calculus]]&nbsp;• [[w:Probability|Probability]]&nbsp;• [[w:Proof|Proof]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Statistics|Statistics]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Theorem|Theorem]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Trigonometry|Trigonometry]] '''''[[w:Applied mathematics|Applied mathematics]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Actuarial science|Actuarial science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Approximation theory|Approximation theory]] and [[w:representation theory|representation theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Bioinformatics|Bioinformatics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Continuous modelling|Continuous modelling]]&nbsp;• [[w:Control theory|Control theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cryptography|Cryptography]] &nbsp;• [[w:Differential equations|Differential equations]] ([[w:Ordinary differential equation|ODE|]]s and [[w:Partial differential equation|PDE|]]s)&nbsp;• [[w:Financial mathematics|Financial mathematics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Graph theory|Graph theory]] (as applied to [[w:network theory|network analysis|]])&nbsp;• [[w:Information theory|Information theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Game theory|Game theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mathematical biology|Mathematical biology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mathematical economics|Mathematical economics]]&nbsp;• Mathematical methods of [[w:engineering|engineering]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mathematical physics|Mathematical physics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Matrix theory|Matrix theory]]&nbsp;• Nonlinear [[w:Optimization (mathematics)|optimization|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Numerical analysis|Numerical analysis]]/[[w:scientific computing|scientific computing]]&nbsp;• [[w:Operations research|Operations research]], including [[w:linear programming|linear programming]]&nbsp;• Parts of theoretical [[w:computer science|computer science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Probability|Probability]]&nbsp;• [[w:Statistics|Statistics]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola apps kalzium.png|30px|]] Natural sciences and nature</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | ''Main articles: [[w:Natural science|Natural science]] and [[w:Nature|Nature]]''&nbsp;&nbsp; ''See also [[w:Science|Science]] and [[w:Scientific method|Scientific method]]'' '''''[[w:Biology|Biology]]''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:Anatomy|Anatomy]] ([[w:Human anatomy|Human anatomy]])&nbsp;• [[w:Astrobiology|Astrobiology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Biochemistry|Biochemistry]]&nbsp;• [[w:Bioinformatics|Bioinformatics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Biological anthropology|Biological anthropology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Biophysics|Biophysics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Botany|Botany]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cell biology|Cell biology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Developmental biology|Developmental biology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ecology|Ecology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Evolutionary biology|Evolutionary biology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Genetics|Genetics]] ([[w:Molecular genetics|Molecular genetics]], [[w:Population genetics|Population genetics]])&nbsp;• [[w:Genomics|Genomics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Marine biology|Marine biology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Histology|Histology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Human biology|Human biology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Microbiology|Microbiology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Molecular biology|Molecular biology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Origin of life|Origin of life]]&nbsp;• [[w:Paleontology|Paleontology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Parasitology|Parasitology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pathology|Pathology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Physiology|Physiology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Alpha taxonomy|Taxonomy|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Zoology|Zoology]] ([[w:Ethology|Ethology]]) '''''[[w:Physical science|Physical science]]s''''' '''&ndash;''' [[w:Anthropology|Anthropology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Astronomy|Astronomy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Chemistry|Chemistry]]&nbsp;• [[w:Earth sciences|Earth sciences]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ecology|Ecology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Heuristic|Heuristic]]&nbsp;• [[w:History of science|History of science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Information science|Information science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Life extension|Life extension]]&nbsp;• [[w:Physics|Physics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Protoscience|Protoscience]]&nbsp;• [[w:Scientific method|Scientific method]]&nbsp;• [[w:Scientist|Scientist]]&nbsp;• [[w:Space|Space]]&nbsp;• [[w:Systems theory|Systems theory]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola apps kdmconfig.png|30px|]] People and self</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles: [[w:People|People]], [[w:Person|Person]], and [[w:Self|Self]]'' '''''[[w:Person|Person]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Biography|Biography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Gender|Gender]]&nbsp;• [[w:Genius|Genius]]&nbsp;• [[w:Leader|Leader]]&nbsp;• [[w:Polymath|Polymath]] '''''[[w:Self|Self]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Self (philosophy)|in philosophy|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self (psychology)|in psychology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self (sociology)|in sociology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Personal identity|Personal identity]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-actualization|Self-actualization]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]]&nbsp;• [[w:Autodidacticism|Self-education|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-concept|Self-concept]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self control|Self control]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self development|Self development]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self disclosure|Self disclosure]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-efficacy|Self-efficacy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-esteem|Self-esteem]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self harm|Self harm]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self help|Self help]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-identity|Self-identity]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self image|Self image]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self monitoring|Self monitoring]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-perception|Self-perception]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-realization|Self-realization]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self-regulated learning|Self-regulated learning]]&nbsp;• [[w:Self talk|Self talk]] :'''''[[w:Personal life|Personal life]]'''''&nbsp;• [[w:Career|Career]]&nbsp;• [[w:Education|Education]]&nbsp;• [[w:Employment|Employment]]&nbsp;• [[w:Everyday life|Everyday life]]&nbsp;• [[w:Family|Family]]&nbsp;• [[w:Friendship|Friendship]]&nbsp;• [[w:Goal (management)|Goal|]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Home|Home]]&nbsp;• [[w:Homemaking|Homemaking]]&nbsp;• [[w:Human condition|Human condition]]&nbsp;• [[w:Human ecology|Human ecology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Interpersonal relationship|Interpersonal relationship]]&nbsp;• [[w:Intimate relationship|Intimate relationship]]&nbsp;• [[w:Life (disambiguation)|Life|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Lifestyle|Lifestyle]]&nbsp;• [[w:Lifeworld|Lifeworld]]&nbsp;• [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]&nbsp;• [[w:Meaning of life|Meaning of life]]&nbsp;• [[w:Occupation|Occupation]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pet|Pet]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Physical quality-of-life index|Physical quality-of-life index]]&nbsp;• [[w:Profession|Profession]]&nbsp;• [[w:Purpose|Purpose]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pursuit of happiness|Pursuit of happiness]]&nbsp;• [[w:Quality of life|Quality of life]]&nbsp;• [[w:Quality time|Quality time]]&nbsp;• [[w:Real life|Real life]]&nbsp;• [[w:Human sexual behavior|Sex life|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Work-life balance|Work-life balance]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:socrates_blue_version2.png|32px|]] Philosophy and thinking</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles: [[w:Philosophy|Philosophy]] and [[w:Thought|Thought]]'' '''''[[w:Philosophy|Philosophy]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Being|Being]]&nbsp;• [[w:Common sense|Common sense]]&nbsp;• [[w:Emergent philosophy|Emergent philosophy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Feminist philosophy|Feminist philosophy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Futurology|Futurology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Goodness and value theory|Goodness and value theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Happiness|Happiness]]&nbsp;• [[w:ism|ism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Meaning of life|Meaning of life]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mind|Mind]]&nbsp;• [[w:Rhetoric|Rhetoric]] : '''''By region'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Eastern philosophy|Eastern philosophy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Western philosophy|Western philosophy]] : '''''Branches of philosophy'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Aesthetics|Aesthetics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ethics|Ethics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Epistemology|Epistemology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Logic|Logic]]&nbsp;• [[w:Metaphysics|Metaphysics]] : '''''Subdisciplines of philosophy'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Philosophy of education|Education|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of Geography|Geography|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of history|History|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophical anthropology|Human nature|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of language|Language|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of law|Law|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy and literature|Literature|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of mathematics|Mathematics|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of mind|Mind|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Meta-philosophy|Philosophy|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of physics|Physics|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Political philosophy|Politics|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of psychology|Psychology|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of religion|Religion|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of science|Science|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of social science|Social science|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of technology|Technology|]] &nbsp;• [[w:Philosophy of war | War|]] : '''''Schools of philosophy'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Analytic philosophy|Analytic philosophy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Continental Philosophy|Continental Philosophy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Critical theory (Frankfurt School)|Critical theory|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Deconstruction|Deconstructivism|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Determinism|Determinism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dialectical materialism|Dialectical materialism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Empiricism|Empiricism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Existentialism|Existentialism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Gaia philosophy|Gaia philosophy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hegelianism|Hegelianism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hermeneutics|Hermeneutics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Humanism|Humanism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Idealism|Idealism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Logical positivism|Logical Positivism|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Materialism|Materialism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Neoplatonism|Neoplatonism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nihilism|Nihilism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ordinary language philosophy|Ordinary Language|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Phenomenology|Phenomenology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Platonism|Platonism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Positivism|Positivism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Postmodern philosophy|Postmodernism|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Poststructuralism|Poststructuralism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pragmatism|Pragmatism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pre-Socratic philosophy|Presocratic|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Rationalism|Rationalism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Reformational philosophy|Reformational|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Relativism|Relativism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Scholasticism|Scholasticism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Philosophical skepticism|Skepticism|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Stoicism|Stoicism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Structuralism|Structuralism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Transhumanism|Transhumanism]] &nbsp;• [[w:Utilitarianism|Utilitarianism]] '''''[[w:Thought|Thinking|]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Awareness|Awareness]]&nbsp;• [[w:Creativity|Creative processes|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Decision making|Decision making]]&nbsp;• [[w:Emotional intelligence|Emotional intelligence]]&nbsp;• [[w:Learning|Learning]]&nbsp;• [[w:Memory|Memory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Problem solving|Problem solving]]&nbsp;• [[w:Reason|Reason]]&nbsp;• [[w:Reasoning|Reasoning]]&nbsp;• [[w:Teaching|Teaching]] : '''''Qualities of thought'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Accuracy|Accuracy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cogency|Cogency]]&nbsp;• [[w:Effectiveness|Effectiveness]]&nbsp;• [[w:Efficacy|Efficacy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Efficiency|Efficiency]]&nbsp;• [[w:Frugality|Frugality]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ilities|Ilities]]&nbsp;• [[w:wikt:Prompt|Promptness|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Prudence|Prudence]]&nbsp;• [[w:Right|Right]]&nbsp;• [[w:Soundness|Soundness]]&nbsp;• [[w:Validity|Validity]]&nbsp;• [[w:Value theory|Value theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Wrong|Wrong]] : '''''Thinking errors'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Cognitive bias|Cognitive bias]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cognitive distortion|Cognitive distortion]]&nbsp;• [[w:Error|Error]]&nbsp;• [[w:Fallacy|Fallacy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Fallacies of definition|Fallacies of definition]]&nbsp;• [[w:Logical fallacy|Logical fallacy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Error|Mistake|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Rhetoric|Rhetoric]]&nbsp;• [[w:Target fixation|Target fixation]] : '''''Related'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Genius|Genius]]&nbsp;• [[w:High IQ society|High IQ society]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mensa|Mensa]] &nbsp;• [[w:Nootropic|Nootropic]]s ("smart drugs")&nbsp;• [[w:Philomath|Philomath]] &nbsp;• [[w:Polymath|Polymath]] |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:ReligiousSymbols.png|30px|]] Religion and belief systems</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main article: [[w:Religion|Religion]]''&nbsp; ''See also: [[w:Relationship between religion and science|Relationship between religion and science]]'' [[w:Allah|Allah]]&nbsp;• [[w:Belief|Belief]]&nbsp;• [[w:Biblical inspiration|Biblical inspiration]]&nbsp;• [[w:Buddha|Buddha]]&nbsp;• [[w:Confucious|Confucious]]&nbsp;• [[w:Deity|Deity]]&nbsp;• [[w:Demon|Demon]]&nbsp;• [[w:Devil|Devil]]&nbsp;• [[w:Exorcism|Exorcism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Heresy|Heresy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Inspiration|Inspiration]]&nbsp;• [[w:Faith|Faith]]&nbsp;• [[w:God|God]]&nbsp;• [[w:Jesus|Jesus]]&nbsp;• [[w:Holy Spirit|Holy Spirit]]&nbsp;• [[w:Morality|Morality]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mythology|Mythology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Occult|Occult]]&nbsp;• [[w:Prayer|Prayer]]&nbsp;• [[w:Prophecy|Prophecy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Revelation|Revelation]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ritual|Ritual]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sin|Sin]]&nbsp;• [[w:Supernatural|Supernatural]]&nbsp;• [[w:Virtue|Virtue]]&nbsp;• '''''Belief Systems'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Acosmism|Acosmism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Agnosticism|Agnosticism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Animism|Animism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Antitheism|Antitheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Atheism|Atheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Binitarianism|Binitarianism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Deism|Deism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Determinism|Determinism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Duotheism|Duotheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Esotericism|Esotericism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Eutheism and dystheism|Eutheism and dystheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Freethought|Freethought]]&nbsp;• [[w:Gnosticism|Gnosticism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Henotheism|Henotheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Humanism (life stance)|Humanism|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ignosticism|Ignosticism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Kathenotheism|Kathenotheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Monism|Monism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Monotheism|Monotheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Monolatrism|Monolatrism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mysticism|Mysticism]]&nbsp;• [[w:New Age|New Age]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nondualism|Nondualism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nontheism|Nontheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Omnitheism|Omnitheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pandeism|Pandeism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Panendeism|Panendeism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Panentheism|Panentheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Pantheism|Pantheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Polydeism|Polydeism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Polytheism|Polytheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Secular|Secular]]&nbsp;• [[w:Skepticism|Skepticism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Spiritualism|Spiritualism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Theism|Theism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Theopanism|Theopanism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Transcendentalism|Transcendentalism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Transtheism|Transtheism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Trinitarianism|Trinitarianism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Unitarianism|Unitarianism]] '''''[[w:Major religious groups|Major beliefs of the world|]]''''' &nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Antireligion|Antireligion]]&nbsp;• [[w:Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í Faith]]&nbsp;• [[w:Buddhism by country|Buddhism|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cao Dai|Cao Dai]]&nbsp;• [[w:Chinese folk religion|Chinese folk religion]]&nbsp;• [[w:Christianity|Christianity]]&nbsp;• [[w:Confucianism|Confucianism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Diasporic|Diasporic]]&nbsp;• [[w:Falun Gong|Falun Gong]]&nbsp;• [[w:Hinduism|Hinduism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Irreligious|Irreligious]]&nbsp;• [[w:Islam|Islam]]&nbsp;• [[w:Neopaganism|Neopaganism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Jainism|Jainism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Judaism|Judaism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Rastafari Movement|Rastafari|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Scientology|Scientology]]&nbsp; [[w:Sikhism|Sikhism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Spiritism|Spiritism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Shinto|Shinto]]&nbsp;• [[w:Taoism|Taoism]]&nbsp; [[w:Tenrikyo|Tenrikyo]]&nbsp;• [[w:Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]] ''See also: [[w:Criticism of religion|Criticism of religion]]'' |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola filesystems folder home.png|30px|]] Social sciences and society</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | :''Main articles: [[w:Social sciences|Social sciences]] and [[w:Society|Society]]''&nbsp; ''See also [[w:Science|Science]] and [[w:Scientific method|Scientific method]]'' '''''[[w:Social sciences|Social sciences]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Anthropology|Anthropology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Archaeology|Archaeology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cognitive science|Cognitive science]] ([[w:Unsolved problems in cognitive science|Unsolved problems in cognitive science]])&nbsp;• [[w:Communication studies|Communication studies]]&nbsp;• [[w:Critical theory|Critical theory]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cultural studies|Cultural studies]]&nbsp;• [[w:Development studies|Development studies]]&nbsp;• [[w:Economics|Economics]] ([[w:Unsolved problems in economics|Unsolved problems in economics]])&nbsp;• [[w:Education|Education]]&nbsp;• [[w:Geography|Geography]]&nbsp;• [[w:History|History]]&nbsp;• [[w:Linguistics|Linguistics]]&nbsp; ([[w:Unsolved problems in linguistics|Unsolved problems in linguistics]])&nbsp;• [[w:Law|Law]]&nbsp;• [[w:Political science|Political science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Social policy|Social policy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sociology|Sociology]]&nbsp;• '''''[[w:Society|Society]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Ethnic group|Ethnic group]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Group (sociology)|Group|]]&nbsp;• [[w:People|People]] :'''''[[w:Sociocultural evolution|Sociocultural evolution]]:'''''&nbsp; [[w:Hunter-gatherer|Hunter-gatherer]] [[w:band society|bands|]]&nbsp;→ [[w:Social rank|Social rank]]&nbsp;→ [[w:tribe|tribe]]s&nbsp;→ [[w:Social stratification|Social stratification]]&nbsp;→ [[w:chiefdom|chiefdom]]s&nbsp;→ [[w:Neolithic Revolution|Neolithic Revolution]]&nbsp;→ [[w:Civilization|Civilization]]: [[w:Agrarian society|Agrarian society]] ([[w:Pre-industrial society|Pre-industrial society]]): [[w:Agrarian|Agrarian]] [[w:village|village]]s&nbsp;→ [[w:Town|Town]]s&nbsp;→ [[w:City|Cities|]]&nbsp;→ [[w:City-state|City-state]]s&nbsp;→ [[w:Nation-state|Nation-state]]s&nbsp;→ [[w:Industrial Revolution|Industrial Revolution]]&nbsp;→ ([[w:Modernity|Modern|]]) [[w:Industrial society|Industrial society]]&nbsp;→ ([[w:Postmodernity|Postmodern|]]) [[w:Post-industrial society|Post-industrial society]]&nbsp;→ [[w:Informational Revolution|Informational Revolution]]&nbsp;→ [[w:Information society|Information society]]&nbsp;→ [[w:Digital Revolution|Digital Revolution]]&nbsp;→ [[w:Globalization|Globalization]]&nbsp;→ '''''[[w:World government|?|]]''''' : '''''[[w:Community|Community]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Structure and agency|Structure and agency]]&nbsp;• [[w:Socialization|Socialization]]&nbsp;• [[w:Sense of community|Sense of community]]&nbsp;• [[w:Communitarianism|Communitarianism]]&nbsp;• [[w:Social capital|Social capital]]&nbsp;• [[w:Community development|Community development]] :'''''[[w:Social network|Social network]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Communication|Communication]]&nbsp;• [[w:Social capital|Social capital]] :'''''[[w:Social organization|Social institution|]]s'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Organization|Organization]]&nbsp;• ::'''''[[w:Family|Family]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; ::'''''[[w:Religion|Religion]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; ''(see [[w:#Religion and spirituality|]] above)'' ::'''''[[w:Infrastructure|Infrastructure]]''''' :::'''Public infrastructure'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:highway|highway]]s&nbsp;• [[w:street|street]]s&nbsp;• [[w:road|road]]s&nbsp;• [[w:bridge|bridge]]s&nbsp;• [[w:public transport|mass transit|]]&nbsp;• [[w:airport|airport]]s and airways&nbsp;• [[w:water supply|water supply]] and[[w:water resources|water resources]]&nbsp;• [[w:wastewater|wastewater]] management&nbsp;• [[w:waste management|solid-waste treatment|]] and disposal&nbsp;• [[w:electric power|electric power]] :::'''Private infrastructure'''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Car|Car]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Home|Home]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Personal computer|Personal computer]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Personal property|Personal property]]&nbsp;• [[w:Real estate|Real estate]] :: '''''[[w:Economy|Economy]] and [[w:Business|Business]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Finance|Finance]]&nbsp;• [[w:Management|Management]]&nbsp;• [[w:Marketing|Marketing]]&nbsp;• ::'''''[[w:Education|Education]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; :: '''''[[w:Civil society|Civil society]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; :: '''''[[w:Government|Government]] and [[w:Political science|Politics|]]'''''&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Politics of present-day nations and states|Politics by country|]])&nbsp;• [[w:Criminal justice|Criminal justice]]&nbsp;• [[w:International relations|International relations]]&nbsp;• [[w:Law|Law]]&nbsp;• [[w:Public affairs|Public affairs]]&nbsp;• |- | colspan="2" height="5px" style="padding:0em 0em 0em .5em; background:#CEF2E0;text-align:left; border-top:1px #A3BFB1 solid; border-bottom:1px #A3BFB1 solid; " | <h3 style="border-bottom:0 ">[[Image:Nuvola apps display.png|30px|]] Technology and applied sciences</h3> |- | valign="top" style="padding: 1em 1.8em .5em 1.8em; background:#F5FFFA;" | : ''Main articles:'' [[w:Technology|Technology]] and [[w:Applied sciences|Applied sciences]] {| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="width:100%; border: 0; padding-bottom: 8px;" |- | style="width:50%; background:#F5FFFA; padding-top: 0; padding-left: 0em; padding-right:1.4em;" valign="top" | <!-- LEFT COLUMN --> [[w:Aerospace|Aerospace]]&nbsp;• [[w:Agriculture|Agriculture]], [[w:agricultural science|agricultural science]], & [[w:agronomy|agronomy]]&nbsp;• [[w:Architecture|Architecture]]&nbsp;• [[w:Artificial intelligence|Artificial intelligence]]&nbsp;• [[w:Automation|Automation]]&nbsp;• [[w:Automobile|Automobile]]&nbsp;• [[w:Big Science|Big Science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Biotechnology|Biotechnology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Cartography|Cartography]]&nbsp;• [[w:Chemical engineering|Chemical engineering]]&nbsp;• [[w:Communication|Communication]]&nbsp;• [[w:Computer science|Computer science]] ([[w:Computing|Computing]], [[w:Computer programming|Programming|]], [[w:Software engineering|Software engineering]],[[w:Unsolved problems in computer science|Unsolved problems in computer science]], [[w:Unsolved problems in software engineering|Unsolved problems in software engineering]])&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Construction|Construction]]&nbsp;• [[w:Dentistry|Dentistry]]&nbsp;• [[w:Design|Design]]&nbsp;• [[w:Education|Education]]&nbsp;• [[w:Electronics|Electronics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Energy development|Energy development]]&nbsp;• [[w:Energy storage|Energy storage]]&nbsp;• [[w:Engineering|Engineering]]&nbsp;• [[w:Ergonomics|Ergonomics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Family and consumer science|Family and consumer science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Firefighting|Firefighting]]&nbsp;• [[w:Forensics|Forensics]]&nbsp;• [[w:Forestry|Forestry]]&nbsp;• [[w:Free software|Free software]]&nbsp;• [[w:Health sciences|Health sciences]]&nbsp;• [[w:Health|Health]]&nbsp;• | style="width:50%; background:#F5FFFA; border-left:1px solid #A3BFB1; padding-top: 0em; padding-left:1.8em; padding-right:.8em;" valign="top" | <!-- RIGHT COLUMN --> [[w:Industry|Industry]]&nbsp;• [[w:Information science|Information science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Information technology|Information technology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Internet|Internet]]&nbsp;• [[w:Library and information science|Library and information science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Machine|Machines|]]&nbsp;• [[w:Management|Management]]&nbsp;• [[w:Manufacturing|Manufacturing]]&nbsp;• [[w:Marketing|Marketing]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mass communication|Mass communication]]&nbsp;• [[w:Medicine|Medicine]] ([[w:Unsolved problems in medicine|Unsolved problems in medicine]], [[w:Unsolved problems in neuroscience|Unsolved problems in neuroscience]])&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Military science|Military science]]&nbsp;• [[w:Military technology and equipment|Military technology and equipment]]&nbsp;• [[w:Mining|Mining]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nanotechnology|Nanotechnology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nuclear technology|Nuclear technology]]&nbsp;• [[w:Nutrition|Nutrition]]&nbsp;• <!--[[w:Optical technology|]]&nbsp;•--> [[w:Robotics|Robotics]]&nbsp;• <!--[[w:Sound-related technology|]]&nbsp;•--> [[w:Space exploration|Space exploration]]&nbsp;• [[w:Technology forecasting|Technology forecasting]]&nbsp;• [[w:Telecommunications|Telecommunications]]&nbsp;• [[w:Tool|Tool]]s&nbsp;• [[w:Transport|Transport]] ([[w:Transport by country|By country|]])&nbsp;&ndash; [[w:Vehicle|Vehicle]]s |} |} === See also === * [[w:Knowledge|Knowledge]] * [[w:Science|Science]] ** [[w:Fields of science|Fields of science]] {{User:Mechton/Sand2|#A3BFB1|#E6FFF2}} djukaw8rt682eevd0c2qh41f9djmhlw 0 96926 4654158 3658031 2026-07-12T00:09:33Z Sdkb 703011 add image 4654158 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Swingout at the BRUX.gif|thumb|A swingout<!-- This is probably Savoy style. If someone else is more confident, please adjust the caption and move to the appropriate section. -->]] The defining dance move of Lindy Hop is the ''swingout'' (a.k.a. Lindy turn or whip). Its variants are also used in jive, east coast swing and modern jive. The follow moves around the lead from open to closed position and back to open again, usually in eight counts. The key variations are the savoy swingout and the Hollywood whip. Dancers can change the style (arm work, footwork, or general movement and connection technique) or the whole move. Bits and pieces of different stylings and variations can be combined in the same swing out, though combinations may need finesse. == Introduction == The basic swing out begins with both partners facing each other in open position, with the lead's left hand holding the follow's right hand. There are many variations and personal styling options on how to do this move. The lead brings the follow in (starting to move in sometime during the first 3 beats of music), the lead and follow come together in a sort of closed position and the lead redirects the follow's momentum to send them back out. The basic swing out is very tight, and every element has a reason and there are no extraneous body motions. The connection between partners is critical to making the swingout work. There are, however, many ways to think about how this works, and the lead and follow need to adjust to each other to find a comfortable way to work together. The basic footwork pattern for both partners is ''step step tri-ple-step step step tri-ple-step.'' The follow matches the lead's footwork. All steps are weight changes. == Savoy swingout == In the Savoy swing out, the lead and follow can either have a feeling of circling around each other sharing a common center, or typically a more passing by each other with a rebound feeling in the middle of the move. Lead : Count 1-2: The lead may or may not choose to lead the follow in during the first two beats :: ''Feet:'' The lead rock-steps/back-replaces, or Ball-Change (or can Kick back) with their left foot, ending with their weight on their right. :: ''Body:'' Typically by the end of rock-step the lead has not moved. : Counts 3 and 4: Pass and Catch :: ''Arms:'' The lead may choose to wait until count 3 to lead the follow in, or they may have done so earlier :: ''Feet:'' The lead triple steps (left right left) either in place, or traveling forward. :: ''Body:'' The lead stays grounded as they catch their follow with their right arm on the follow's back and begins to redirect the follow's momentum : Count 5: Send the Follow Out :: ''Feet:'' The lead steps back onto their right foot. :: ''Body:'' The step moves the lead's whole body and the lead's right arm back, and continuing to redirect the follow's momentum. : Count 6 :: ''Feet:'' The lead steps left with their left foot. :: ''Arms:'' The lead is no longer holding on to the follow's back, and the lead may have even let go before the 5th count. : Counts 7 and 8: Sync Up :: ''Feet:'' The lead triple steps (right left right) in place or returning to where the lead started. :: ''Body:'' Return to face where the lead started and sync up for the next move. Follow : Count 1 -2 :: ''Feet:'' They step right-left, typically in a twisting fashion. Their feet underneath them, wherever the lead has led them to be (possibly in place). : Counts 3 and 4: Pass and Catch :: ''Feet:'' They triple step as they pass the lead, allowing the lead to rotate or redirect them as they choose. :: ''Body:'' They allow their momentum to continue through, thus giving the lead something to work with. :: ''Arms:'' They place their left arm on top of the lead's right arm : Count 5 :: ''Feet:'' They are lead forward, so they step forward with their left foot. : Count 6 :: ''Arms:'' As they're traveling away from the lead, they don't let their arm hyper-extend at the shoulder :: ''Body:'' Because of the arms, the follow has a moderate rotation. :: ''Feet:'' They continue to travel forward onto their right foot, this will likely be a somewhat sideways step*. : Counts 7 and 8: Sync Up :: ''Feet:'' They triple step (left right left) returning to where they started. :: ''Body:'' The follow returns to where they started (as far as the connection allows), and may choose to turn to face the lead, or may stay slightly more open allowing them some leeway to do the twists of another Swingout or other move. * Depending on when the follow is released by the lead, their direction on 5, 6, and 7 may change. If the lead releases the follow on 4, then they come straight out facing away from the lead. If they are released on 5 then they will have a sideways motion. If on 6, then they will come out of the swing out backwards -- facing the lead. == Hollywood whip == In the Hollywood whip, the follow moves in a straight line, called the slot, so the lead must move out of the follow's way sideways as they pass. The follow walks forward on count 1, turns on count 2, walks backward on counts 3 and 4, turns on count 5, and walks backward on counts 6, 7, and 8. The follow goes furthest back on count 3+. In a whip, the lead explicitly turns the follow around. The Hollywood whip resembles the West Coast swing whip. Lead : Count 1: Bring the follow in :: ''Feet:'' They step straight backwards onto their left foot. :: ''Body:'' Their whole body moves back, which moves their left arm back, pulling the follow forward. : Count 2 :: ''Feet:'' They step left with the right foot to let the follow pass. :: ''Arms:'' They push the follow's arm forward as the follow passes to turn the follow around, with their left arm. : Counts 3 and 4: Turn :: ''Feet:'' They triple step (left, right, left) to the side. The lead ends with feet side-by-side, shoulder width apart. :: ''Body:'' They turn to face the follow. They lean back to counterbalance the follow (who leans into the lead's arm) and momentum swings both around so they both face the opposite direction of where they started. The lead keeps their shoulders and torso square to their partner. :: ''Arms:'' They put their right hand on the middle of the follow's back or on the follow's shoulder blade. : Count 5: Send the Follow Out :: ''Feet:'' They put their right foot directly behind their left foot and put their weight on the foot. :: ''Body:'' The step moves their whole body and their right arm back, pulling the follow forward. :: ''Arms:'' The lead pulls the follow forwards with their right hand to return the follow to the start and lets go with the right hand. Push with both hands to turn follow around. : Count 6 :: ''Feet:'' They step left with their left foot. :: ''Arms:'' The lead pushes the follow back to where the follow started, with their left arm. : Counts 7 and 8: Sync Up :: ''Feet:'' They triple step (right left right) in place. :: ''Body:'' The lead returns to where they started and syncs up for the next move. Follow : Count 1 :: ''Feet:'' The follow is pulled forward, so they step forward with their right foot. : Count 2 :: ''Feet:'' They continue and step forward with their left foot. :: ''Body:'' Their torso turns around 180 degrees by being pushed. :: ''Arms:'' They raise their left arm, so the lead can reach their back. : Counts 3 and 4: Turn :: ''Feet:'' Their right foot should point between lead's legs, left weight shift behind right foot, then shift weight to the right foot again. This triple-step is called a coaster step. :: ''Body:'' The follow leans back into the lead's arm and momentum carries both around. During these two counts the follow keeps their shoulders and torso square to the lead's shoulders and torso. The follow turns around. :: ''Arms:'' They place their left arm on top of the lead's right arm and place their left hand on the inside of the lead's shoulder or biceps. : Count 5 :: ''Feet:'' The follow steps backwards with their left foot. :: ''Body:'' They are turned around with the arms. : Count 6 :: ''Feet:'' They continue and step backwards with their right foot. : Counts 7 and 8: Sync Up :: ''Feet:'' They triple step (left right left) in place, as far as lead's connection allows. :: ''Body:'' The follow returns to where they started and syncs up for the next move. == Stylings == Stylings are simple variations that are independent of the partner. Stylings can be done at any time by either partner in basic swing outs, though they may conflict with other swing out variations. Stylings on counts 1, 2, 6, 7, and 8 are easy, because dancers are separated in open position. Stylings on counts 3, 4, and 5 are difficult, because dancers come together in closed position, so stylings easily affect the partner. Lead : Counts 1 and 2 :: ''Feet:'' The lead can do rock step, kick back and hold, kick back kick back, kick ball change, or flea hops. :: ''Left Arm:'' In Savoy style, leading on count 3 and relaxing on counts 1-2 gives the follow room to play, though they can also do a var. on count 2. Pulling on 1 and 2 keeps the follow under control, which denies them room to play. In the Hollywood bring in, the follow is always under control. :: ''Right Arm:'' The lead can move their right arm up (over their shoulder), to the side, or down (Frankie swoosh); or keep it at their hip. : Counts 3 and 4 :: ''Feet:'' The lead may do a foot sweep back. : Counts 5 and 6 :: ''Feet:'' The leads may step straight back, which gives the clearest lead. The lead may step behind their other foot (hook step), which starts getting out of the follow's way. The lead may step forward and left, which shortens the distance that the follow must travel, but the lead must twist their body. :: ''Body:'' In Hollywood style, the lead may turn and lunge in the same direction as the follow to emphasize the body lead. THe lead faces behind where they were positioned. :: ''Head:'' The lead may either look over their right shoulder to where the follow will go, or look at the follow. In social dancing, the lead looks over their shoulder to make sure that no one has stepped in the follow's way and the follow has room to finish the move. If there is no room, the lead can safely stop the move. In performance, looking over the shoulder exaggerates the body lead. Watching the follow is more personal. : Counts 7 and 8 :: ''Feet:'' Lead can do kick backs and foot sweeps, crouch and touch the floor, sit on the floor and splay legs, jump and do splits, split slide. :: ''Hand:'' They can change hands on count 8. :: ''Body:'' They can turn toward the follow, turn 180 degrees away from the follow, or turn toward the audience. Body roll. Follow : Counts 1 and 2 :: ''Left Arm:'' THeir left arm can go up (over shoulder), to the side, down (Frankie sweep), or keep their hand at their hip. Wave. :: ''Body:'' If turned away, adjust to make the connection on count 3. :: ''Feet:'' Follows can do walk-walk, swivel-swivel, or kick-ball-change; or less frequently camel walks. : Counts 3 and 4 :: ''Feet:'' The follow may do a foot sweep back. :: ''Torso:'' The follow may sit with a vertical torso (called a pike), or sit with hips going back staying balanced on their own feet. The pike is very Hollywood. : Counts 5 and 6 :: ''Left Arm:'' The follow can wave their left arm or keep their hand at their hip. :: ''Feet:'' The follow can walk-walk or camel walks; or less frequently, swivel-swivel (but avoid body twist) or kick-ball-change. :: ''Head:'' The follow can turn their head to look where they will go on count 8, where they came from on count 4, at the audience, or at the lead. : Counts 7 and 8 :: ''Left Arm:'' The follow may wave their left arm or keep it at their hip. :: ''Body:'' The follow can turn toward the lead, 180 degrees away from the lead, or toward the audience. They may do a foot sweep, touch the floor, or do a body roll. :: ''Head:'' The follow can look at the lead, away from the lead, or toward the audience. In a performance, the follow may look to the audience and wink. :: ''Feet:'' Kicks. Kick aways. Split slide. Kick heels together. ''Footwork (Variations):'' The footwork can be altered significantly. When lead and follow style on counts 7, 8, 1, and 2, they may need to do two triple steps on counts 3, 4, 5, and 6. Leads and follows often extend the stylings over counts 7, 8, 1, and 2. Extended stylings (footwork) include ''Kick Together:'' The lead and follow can both do double front kicks on 7, 8, 1, and 2, while facing each other. Kick left, kick left, kick right, kick right. ''Kick Away:'' Kick-Step, Kick-Hold on 7-8, 1-2. first kick towards partner - then face away on the step. Second kick away from partner - turn towards partner on the hold. Can also be done with both kicks facing away from the partner. ''Other:'' Double foot sweep, scissors, kick ball changes, camel walks, fall off the log, and extreme fall off the log. == Variations == Variations require that the lead and follow cooperate. Some of these variations may be combined together in the same swingout. The variations are grouped (somewhat arbitrarily) into standard, change rotation, closed position, start, middle, end, side pass, and miscellaneous variations. The names of these variations are representative, but dancers from different cities use different names to refer to the same variation. === Standard Variations === Four main variations based on the arm leads are the basic, inside turn, outside turn, and apache turn. In these variations, the follow turns on the 6, 7, and 8 counts. The follow may turn on 5 and 6, before travelling, on counts 7 and 8, after travelling, or on count 5, 6, 7, and 8, while travelling. The quick stop and free spin are simple extensions of these variations. ''Basic:'' This is a basic Savoy swing out or basic Hollywood whip. ''Inside Turn:'' The follow does an inside turn on counts 5, 6, 7, and 8. Usually, the turn is signalled on 4, and performed on 6, 7, and 8. This could be extended to a double or triple turn. ''Outside Turn:'' The follow does an outside turn on counts 5, 6, 7, and 8. Usually the turn is signalled on 4, and performed on 7 and 8. This could be extended to a double or triple turn. ''Quick Stop:'' The follow does an outside turn, but holds on 7, with crossed legs. This variation is useful for hitting a break on count 7. This variation can be tweaked if the break occurs on count 6 or 8. This variation occurs in both social dancing and performance. This is also a useful way to get into the tandem Charleston position; the lead uses their right hand to pull the follow into the position on 7, 8 after the turn is complete. ''Apache Turn'' or ''Texas Tommy:'' This is an outside turn, but the lead switches hands behind the follow's back on count 6. The turn is signalled on 4. This can be extended by an overhead turn. This move can be used to change the lead to the right hand. ''Free Turn:'' A free spin looks almost the same as a Texas Tommy. The lead puts the follow's right arm behind the follow's back, but does not grab their wrist with the lead's right arm, they simply let go and let the follow spin on their own. === Change Rotation Variations === In these variations, the follow moves around the lead in counter-clockwise for part of the swing out. ''Reverse:'' The follow moves around the lead counter-clockwise. On counts 1, 2, 5, and 6, both lead and follow step slightly to their right. ''Half:'' The follow stays on the right side of the lead. Counts 1, 2, 3, and 4 are identical to a normal swing out and counts 5, 6, 7, and 8 are identical to a reverse swing out. (Aka, Swing Out Kate -- taught by Frankie Manning, SouthWest Lindy Fest 2004) ''Reverse Half:'' The follow stays on the left side of the lead. Counts 1, 2, 3, and 4 are identical to a reverse swing out and counts 5, 6, 7, and 8 are identical to a normal swing out. === Closed Position Variations === In these variations, the couple starts or ends in closed position. ====Swingout From Closed==== Swingout from closed, for example from Charleston to swing out. Charleston is mostly done in closed position. On counts 1 and 2, both do a normal rock step. On counts 3 and 4, the lead moves and turns 180 degrees to face the follow, using a triple step. The remaining counts are the same as a swing out. On counts 5 and 6, the lead uses their right arm to pull the follow forward and lets go, and the follow walks past. On counts 7 and 8, they both triple step and sync up for the next move. This variation is also known simply as the ''Swingout'', in scenes where the standard swingout is known as the ''Lindy Turn''. ====Circle To Closed==== From swing outs to charlestons, because the Charleston basic is done in closed position. The first four counts are the same as a swing out, but the right arm wraps around the follow further, perhaps to their hip. They remain in closed position and finish the move. The footwork is the same. This variation is also known as the '''Lindy Circle'''. === Start Variations === In these variations, the motion changes on counts 1, 2, 3, and 4. ''Syncopated:'' The follow may hold back on count 1 and come in fast on count 2. The lead may lead with a kick-ball-change so their body moves on count 2. The motion on counts 7, 8, and 1 is slow and in the same place, while the motion on counts 2, 3, 4, and 5 is fast, which increases contrast in the move. In slow music, the follow may hold on counts 1 and 2, jump on count 3, and so on. This variation is common in Hollywood style. ''From Closed:'' ''From Right Hand:'' ''First Turn:'' Inside turn on counts 2 and 3. This is sometimes led when the lead's right hand holds the follow's right hand. (or outside or apache) === Middle Variations === In these variations, the motion changes on counts 3, 4, 5, and 6. ''Layout:'' The follow jumps on 3, and lays out on 4, is pulled back up on 5. The follow jumps out with their legs several feet from the lead and holds on to the base's arms. The follow often initiates this variation. (K+C) ''Pike:'' The follow may sit or pike on count 4. The pike is most exaggerated when the partners use a double hand hold. The follow sometimes holds one foot out horizontal on count 4 for styling. ''Slide:'' This means that the follow hops on count 5, slides on count 6, and stands up on count 7. Slides are usually combined with a reverse swing out. This is usually for performance. ''Extend Middle:'' Partners can remain in closed position and continue to spin or trade sides for 2, 4, or any number of additional beats, before continuing with the move. === End Variations === The variations change the motion on counts 5, 6, 7, and 8. ''Follow Spin:'' Free spin left, free spin right, or over arm spin. ''Lead Spin:'' Free spin left, free spin right, or over arm spin. ''Both Spin:'' Both follow and lead spin on counts 7 and 8. ''Jump:'' Jump on count 5, like a cannonball. The follow often lands on their right leg and then pivots slowly into place for the next swing out. ''Arm Loops:'' Arms may move toward lead (such as putting the follow's hand on the lead's shoulder) or toward the follow (which brings the couple into closed position). ''Close:'' During counts 7 and 8, the lead may move into closed position by adjusting to the follow. (This is like a Groucho ending.) ''Extend End:'' Partners can freeze or hold the open position or spin on counts 7 and 8 for 2, 4, or any number of additional beats. (circle or whip). Afterwards, the lead may remain in open position or close. === Side Pass Variations === These variations seem like two side passes, because the couple does not close on counts 3, 4, and 5. ''Reverse with Spins (Rename):'' The lead leads a side pass (rock, step, spin to cuddle) to their left side, and they turn as the follow passes (4 counts). Then they pushes the follow back to where they started, on the lead's left side (4 counts). The lead can start by facing the follow or facing away from them. The follow may finish by walking forwards, sideways, or backwards. If they walk backwards, they may duck under the lead's arm. (Copy to side pass variation). ''Reverse with Spins 2:'' The lead leads a side pass (rock, step, J-lead free spin, close on 4) to their left side, and they turn as the follow passes (4 counts). Then the lead pushes the follow, steps to the right past the follow, turns and finishes (4 counts). ''Hip Spin:'' Lead follows arm past. As the follow passes, the lead grabs the follow's hip bone and pulls them straight backwards or backwards into a free spin. This can be extended with one or more hip grabs at the end. ''Right Hand to Hip Spin:'' Like a hip spin, but start with a right to right grip and do a turn during the first side pass. This ends with a hip spin or not. (Rethink) ''Something:'' Double turn. Turn during first side pass. Turn during second side pass. ''Titanic:'' Cross hand hold or pick up the second hand on count 2. Do a side pass to titanic position (4 counts). Do another side pass to return the follow to the start (4 counts). Titanic position is the follow leans forward with their hands to the side and behind them. The lead counterbalances the follow. ''Basket Whip:'' Double hand hold. The lead moves around the follow. This is often extended with one or more spins at the end. Multiple reverses. ''Hand on Hip:'' Put the follow's right hand on the lead's right hip, as the follow passes on count 3, and hold it there. The follow continues around and stops on the lead's left side, like a reverse cuddle. This variation often continues with side-by-side moves, like skating. Usually, the lead does not turn, but the lead can also turn with the follow. ''Hand Throw:'' Start with a right hand lead. Lead a 4 count side pass on lead's right side, throw follow's right hand from the lead's right hand to the lead's left hand, then lead another 4 count side pass on lead's left side. The lead does not turn. The follow may spin on either side pass. ''Thread the Needle:'' During the first side pass, the lead remains facing the same way. They may place the follow's hand on their shoulder and shrug it off so it slides down their right arm. On count 5, the lead bends their left elbow out to the side, so their left arm makes an opening, like a cup handle. They lead the follow's arm into this opening, then make the connection forearm-to-forearm. They may end with a free spin. === Miscellaneous Variations === ''Footwork:'' ''Simple:'' Both lead and follow do walk-walk on all counts, skip the triple steps and make each count a step. This is useful for music that is too fast for triple steps and for music with strong drum beats. This variation can be styled with crazy legs. On count 5, the lead will step back on the opposite foot from usual, which is fine. ''Hip Hop:'' Both partners jump on count 3 to the usual count 5 position, hold on count 4, pull through on count 5, (hold count 6). Leg styling for leads may be two large foot sweeps, the first on counts 5 and 6, the other on counts 7 and 8. ''Fast:'' Swing outs can be done in 6 counts. Lead on count 1, jump and close on count 2, back and swing on count 3, lead and open on count 4, jump on count 5, and end on count 6. In basic swing outs, counts 8 and 1 are slow can be omitted. The footwork need finessing. ''Slow:'' The swing out can be done in 10 counts or more. Hold back on count 1 and move slowly. ''Shoulder (Arm Pit):'' Start with a side pass and the follow keeps looking forward. The lead puts their right hand under the follow's right shoulder. They pull the follow back and the follow leans back. As the follow goes down, the lead steps over their body and then pulls them back up. This is often treated as an aerial. ''Neck Wrap:'' This is like the shoulder lift. (Expand) === Other Details === ''Movement:'' The lead may stay in place while the follow travels around them or the lead and follow may trade places, by both moving forward on counts 2, 3, 6, and 7. When the lead stays in place, the move looks more exaggerated, which is useful in performances and for slower music, but the follow must move farther and work harder. When the lead and follow trade places, the swing out fits in a smaller space, which helps in social dancing and with faster music. Leads can move themselves forward on either the first 4 counts, the last 4 counts, or all 8 counts, and the follow remains in place, which shifts the position toward the lead, but leaves everything else the same. ''Orientation:'' Dancers can change the orientation of the swing out by overturning (1+1/4 turn) or underturning (3/4 turn). In social dancing, this is useful to find space on a crowded floor. In performance, this is useful to present a specific angle to the audience or adjust to or from other moves. ''Mirror Image:'' The lead and follow do everything in mirror image (switch left and right). This is useful in performance. ''Speed:'' Dancers may move half as fast as the music, which is often done with exaggerated, clownish movements. This is common in performance and socially to very fast music. Dancers may move twice as fast as the music, which is common to very slow music. ''Start Count:'' Traditionally swing outs begin on count 1 of the music. But the swing out may actually start on any count, especially if it fits the music. For example, the couple may hold for 4 counts, do a swing out for 8 counts, and then hold for 4 counts. So, the swing out would begin on count 5. ''Switch Roles:'' Partners can sometimes switch roles, so that the one who typically leads is now following. This can be fun in both social and performance dancing. {{Subject|Swing Dancing}} lcbkv6em6w3d36jz5487rjs313hye55 0 97092 4654156 3658011 2026-07-12T00:06:18Z Sdkb 703011 Copy edit, update 4654156 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Dancing with different partners== Because swing is a social dance, one should seek to dance with as many different partners as possible, rather than focusing on a single partner. Even if a lead and follow came to the dance with each other, it is disfavoured for them to spend the entire night dancing only with each other. In the United States, it is typical to dance one song in a row with a partner. In Europe it is often considered rude to dance only once consecutively with a particular partner. == Asking for a dance == Although traditionally a lead asks a follow for a dance, followers are encouraged to do the same. The person may either accept or reject the dance request. If the person rejects the dance, whether they might not feel like dancing or are reserving a dance for someone else, or they might be tired or just shy, thank the person anyway and ask someone else to dance. It is considered rude to decline an offer for a dance and then dance the song with another person — unless you mention that you had the dance reserved and promise a later dance to the asker. When declining a dance, be polite but brief so that the asker has a chance to find another partner. To begin the dance, the lead may escort the follow onto the dance floor, with an arm behind the follow's back (though this is done less and less, and not at all in many scenes). == After the dance == A lead or follow should thank their partner for the dance and, if desired, ask for another. If there is a live band, they should also be applauded for their performance. Traditionally, the lead should then escort the follow back to their seat; however, this tradition is not widely followed for various reasons, to the point that escorting a follow off the dance floor might be seen as unusual in many dance venues. {{Subject|Swing Dancing}} kw9dpeegxcilvcnpdiw9egctjkavonx 0 99133 4654016 3587892 2026-07-11T15:05:25Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654016 wikitext text/x-wiki ==The Atom== The Greek Philosopher [[w:Democritus|Democritus]] believed that all matter was made up of small indivisible parts, which he called [[w:atom|atom]]s. The word atom comes from the Greek a, meaning not, or without, and tom, meaning to cut. Therefore, the word atom means: not cuttable. He theorised that if one cut a piece of cheese in half, then in half again, and again, and again, et cetera, one would be left with a piece too small to subdivide. This was his single atom. We now know that an atom is the smallest part of something that retains its identity, although the atom itself can be subdivided. In other words, once we begin to look inside the atom, we can no longer tell which element the atom is. The atom itself comprises a central [[w:nucleus|nucleus]], in which most of the mass is concentrated, with [[w:electron|electron]]s orbiting around the outside of this nucleus. This central nucleus consists of [[w:proton|proton]]s and [[w:neutron|neutron]]s. The properties of these three kinds of particle are given in the following table. {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin: auto;" ! Particle !! Relative Charge !! Relative Mass !Absolute Charge !Absolute Mass |- ! Proton | +1 || 1 |<math>1.60\times10^{-19}</math> |<math>1.67\times10^{-27}</math> |- ! Neutron | 0 || 1 |0 |<math>1.67\times10^{-27}</math> |- ! Electron | -1 || 0 (Negligible, or approximately <math>\frac{1}{1800}</math>) |<math>-1.60\times10^{-19}</math> |<math>9.11\times10^{-31}</math> |} In the neutral, or elemental atom there are equal numbers of protons and electrons. This causes the atom to have no overall charge. ==Atomic Number and Mass Number== There are two useful pieces of information that we can glean from the nucleus of an atom. The first is its atomic number. This allows us to identify which element an atom is. The atomic number, usually denoted by the letter Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is this which places an element in the periodic table. The second is the mass number. This is equal to the number of protons, plus the number of neutrons (remember that electrons have negligible mass). It is given the symbol A.The number of neutrons in an atom, therefore, is equal to the mass number (A), minus the atomic number (Z) ==Isotopes== Sometimes an atom's proton number will show that it is a particular element, and yet its mass number will be different to other atoms of that element. Atoms which have the same proton number, yet different mass numbers, are referred to as isotopes of the element. The difference in mass number is caused by the presence of extra, or fewer neutrons in the nucleus. Since the number of protons (and, therefore, of electrons) is the same, the chemical properties of these materials are the same as those of the standard element. The physical properties (melting/boiling point etc.) DO change. We usually refer to isotopes by the element name, followed by the mass number. For example, a carbon atom with a mass number of 12 (six protons, and six neutrons) is known as carbon-12. This is represented thus: <math>{}_6^{12}\!C</math> One of the most useful isotopes is carbon-14. This is the atom <math>{}_6^{14}\!C</math>. It is radioactive, and can be used to determine the age of organic material as old as 60,000 years! Other isotopes are used in medicine as tracers, to determine the location of any blockages in the body. ==Mass Spectroscopy== [[w:Mass Spectroscopy|Mass Spectroscopy]] is a technique used to determine the relative abundance of various isotopes within a sample. It can be broken down into four stages. 1. '''Vaporisation and Ionisation''' The sample to be analysed is introduced into a vacuum chamber. The sample is vaporised. This is essential if the following stages are to succeed. The vacuum is very important, since the electrons which are to be fired at the sample must have a "clear run", so to speak. If they were not in a vacuum they would collide with air molecules. The sample is now ionised. For this, an electron gun is used. This is, in essence, a device which fires high energy electrons into the sample. These electrons knock electrons in the sample out of orbit, ionising it. Particles in the sample are now positively charged, as shown below. <math>X_{(g)} \to X_{(g)}^+ + e_{(g)}^-</math> <math>He_{(g)} \to He_{(g)}^+ + e_{(g)}^-</math> These two equations show the first ionisation stage. It is possible, however, for an ion to become ionised by a second electron. This is unlikely, since the second ionisation is much higher than the first, and unlikely to be reached. This rare event is represented by this equation: <math>X_{(g)}^+ \to X_{(g)}^{2+} + e_{(g)}^-</math> 2. '''Acceleration''' Since opposite electrical charges attract, we can move the particles using an electric field. The particles are positively charged (electrons have been removed) so we use negatively charged electrical plates to accelerate the particles down the machine. 3. '''Deflection''' We now use an electromagnet to deflect the particles. As the particles accelerate through the magnetic field, they change direction. Particles with large mass-to-charge (m/z) ratios are deflected by small amounts, whereas particles with smaller mass-to-charge ratios are deflected by larger amounts. This separarates ions of different mass-to-charge ratios. 4. '''Detection''' The various species in the sample are now separated. The particles accelerate into a detector plate. Since they are charged, upon hitting the plate a small electrical current is produced. This current is recorded. The relative strength of the magnetic field at the time of detection can be used to calculate the m/z value of the ions detected. This allows us to determine the constituent ions of the sample. It is not possible, however, to distinguish between ions of the same m/z value, since they will be equally deflected! This page gives more information on mass spectroscopy: http://www.chemguide.co.uk/analysis/masspec/howitworks.html#top. ==Relative Masses== The following two definitions are required to be learnt for module one, although they may appear esoteric at first. ===Relative Atomic Mass (<math>A_r</math>)=== <math>A_r = \frac{\mbox{Mean Mass of One Atom} \times 12}{\mbox{Mass of One Atom of } {}_6^{12}\!C}</math> This can be calculated from the mass spectrum of a sample by multiplying each peak's m/z value by its relative abundance. This sum is then divided by the total relative abundance. This is shown below for the mass spectrum of boron, in which the two peaks represent <math>{}^{10}\!B</math> and <math>{}^{11}\!B</math> respectively. [[Image:Boron_Spectrum.png|200px|The mass spectrum of boron]] <math>\frac{(19.9 \times 10) + (80.1 \times 11)}{100} = 10.8</math> This can also be calculated from data in a table, as shown in this example for lead. {| align="left" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! m/z !! Relative Abundance |- | 204 || 1.55 |- | 206 || 23.6 |- | 207 || 22.6 |- | 208 || 52.3 |} (It is important to note here that the relative abundances add up to 100.05, NOT 100.) <math>\frac{(1.55 \times 204) + (23.6 \times 206) + (22.6 \times 207) + (52.3 \times 208)}{100.05} = 207.24</math> ===Relative Molecular Mass (<math>M_r</math>)=== <math>M_r = \frac{\mbox{Mean Mass of One Molecule} \times 12}{\mbox{Mass of One Atom of } {}_6^{12}\!C}</math> This can be calculated from a mass spectrum by taking the m/z value of the peak furthest to the right of the graph, as shown in this example for ammonia. ==Electronic Configuration== At GCSE level, electrons are presented as point like entities that orbit around the nucleus of the atom, with the first orbital being able to hold two electrons, the second eight, and the third eighteen. We now know that this is not strictly accurate, and at A level a more sophisticated model is required. We think of the electron orbitals as inhabiting a sub-level within a principal level. Each sub-level is capable of containing orbitals of a single shape referenced by the letters s,p,d and f. The sub levels themselves are commonly referred to by the letter of the orbital type which they can contain. Instead of saying the 3rd sub level of principal level 4 you would say the d sub level of level 4. In the table below you should be able to see that the third sub level (d) of principal level 3 can contain 5 orbitals of type d. As each orbital can contain up to 2 electrons this means that this sub level can contain 10 electrons. {| class="wikitable" align="left" style="text-align:center" ! Principal Level !! Sub-level !! Electrons |- !n=1 | → 1 type s orbital || 2 |- | colspan="2" style="color:red" | Maximum Electrons in level || style="color:red" | 2 |- !n=2 | → 1 type s orbital || 2 |- !&nbsp; | → 3 type p orbitals || 6 |- | colspan="2" style="color:red" | Maximum Electrons in level || style="color:red" | 8 |- !n=3 | → 1 type s orbital || 2 |- !&nbsp; | → 3 type p orbitals || 6 |- !&nbsp; | → 5 type d orbitals || 10 |- | colspan="2" style="color:red" | Maximum Electrons in level || style="color:red" | 18 |- !n=4 | → 1 type s orbital || 2 |- !&nbsp; | → 3 type p orbitals || 6 |- !&nbsp; | → 5 type d orbitals || 10 |- !&nbsp; | → 7 type f orbitals || 14 |- | colspan="2" style="color:red" | Maximum Electrons in level || style="color:red" | 32 |} As shown in the table, the maximum number of orbitals in each type of sub level is related to its type. An 's' sub level can contain only one orbital (2 electrons), a 'p' sub level con contain a maximum of 3 orbitals (6 electrons) ; a 'd' a maximum of 5 orbitals (10 electrons); and an 'f' a maximum of 7 (14 electrons). The capacity of each principal level is the sum of the capacities of its sub levels. You should be able to see that the capacities of the principal levels equate to the more simple GCSE model of electron shells. There are certain rules that it is necessary to know about the filling of these orbitals. # The orbitals are filled in the order of the table, from top to bottom. This is in ascending order of energy; that is to say, each successive energy level (lower down the table) has higher energy than the previous level. #Each orbital must be filled before electrons are put into the next orbital. An atom, for example, must '''always''' have two electrons in its 1s sub-energy level before any are placed into the 2s orbital. For AQA A level chemistry you are required to be able to fill energy level diagrams to level 4s. {{BookCat}} h4n4ujoe7a7wljvi9lgh8pso0y5zcnu 0 105200 4654142 4414967 2026-07-11T21:05:52Z Klmlk 3389130 Fix hyperlink to point to the Spanish section 4654142 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Alfonso X el Sabio y su corte.jpg|80px|left|Geometría]][[Image:Quijote-2.jpg|right|70px]] <div style="margin:0 85px; padding:1ex; background-color:#D5FD87; color:#069; border:1px solid #069; font-size:230%; text-align:center;">Lesson 2 &mdash; ¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?</div> [[Image:Aneto 01.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Pico Aneto, in the Pyrenees.]] __FORCETOC__ == Dialogue == : '''''Raúl''''': ¡Hola, Sofía! Me llamo Raúl. ¿Cuál es la fecha de hoy? : '''''Sofía''''': Hola, Raúl. Hoy es el diecisiete de octubre. : '''''Raúl''''': Muchas gracias. Mi cumpleaños es el viernes. : '''''Sofía''''': ¡Feliz cumpleaños! : '''''Raúl''''': Gracias. ¿Cuántos años tienes? : '''''Sofía''''': Tengo veinte años. : '''''Raúl''''': Vale. Adiós, Sofía. : '''''Sofía''''': ¡Hasta luego! [[Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?#Dialogue|Translation]] (wait until the end of the lesson). == The numbers == [[File:SpanishNumbers.ogg]] {| width=100% ! width=2% | !! width=10% | !! width=2% | !! width=15% | !! width=2% | !! width=15% | ! width=2% | !! width=15% | !! width=2% | !! width=15% | |- | 0. || [[wiktionary:cero#Spanish|Cero]] |- | 1. || [[wikt:uno#Spanish|Uno]] | 11. || [[wikt:once#Spanish|Once]] | 21. || [[wikt:veintiuno#Spanish|Veintiuno]] | 31. || Treinta y uno | 50. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Cincuenta]] | 600. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Seiscientos]] |- | 2. || [[wikt:dos#Spanish|Dos]] | 12. || [[wikt:doce#Spanish|Doce]] | 22. || [[wikt:veintidós#Spanish|Veintidós]] | 32. || Treinta y dos | 60. || [[wikt:Sesenta#Spanish|Sesenta]] | 700. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Setecientos]] |- | 3. || [[wikt:tres#Spanish|Tres]] | 13. || [[wikt:trece#Spanish|Trece]] | 23. || [[wikt:veintitrés#Spanish|Veintitrés]] | 33. || Treinta y tres | 70. || [[wikt:Setenta#Spanish|Setenta]] | 800. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Ochocientos]] |- | 4. || [[wikt:cuatro#Spanish|Cuatro]] | 14. || [[wikt:catorce#Spanish|Catorce]] | 24. || [[wikt:veinticuatro#Spanish|Veinticuatro]] | 34. || Treinta y cuatro | 80. || [[wikt:Ochenta#Spanish|Ochenta]] | 900. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Novecientos]] |- | 5. || [[wikt:cinco#Spanish|Cinco]] | 15. || [[wikt:quince#Spanish|Quince]] | 25. || [[wikt:veinticinco#Spanish|Veinticinco]] | 35. || Treinta y cinco | 90. || [[wikt:Noventa#Spanish|Noventa]] | 1,000. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Mil]] |- | 6. || [[wikt:seis#Spanish|Seis]] | 16. || [[wikt:dieciséis#Spanish|Dieciséis]] | 26. || [[wikt:veintiséis#Spanish|Veintiséis]] | 36. || Treinta y seis | 100. || [[wikt:Cien#Spanish|Cien]] | 2,000. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Dos mil]] |- | 7. || [[wikt:siete#Spanish|Siete]] | 17. || [[wikt:diecisiete#Spanish|Diecisiete]] | 27. || [[wikt:veintisiete#Spanish|Veintisiete]] | 37. || Treinta y siete | 200. || [[wikt:diez#Spanish|Doscientos]] | 10,000. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Diez mil]] | rowspan=4 | || rowspan=4 | |- | 8. || [[wikt:ocho#Spanish|Ocho]] | 18. || [[wikt:dieciocho#Spanish|Dieciocho]] | 28. || [[wikt:veintiocho#Spanish|Veintiocho]] | 38. || Treinta y ocho | 300. || [[wikt:veinte#Spanish|Trescientos]] | 100,000. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Cien mil]] |- | 9. || [[wikt:nueve#Spanish|Nueve]] | 19. || [[wikt:diecinueve#Spanish|Diecinueve]] | 29. || [[wikt:veintinueve#Spanish|Veintinueve]] | 39. || Treinta y nueve | 400. || [[wikt:treinta#Spanish|Cuatrocientos]] | 101,000. || [[wikt:cincuenta#Spanish|Ciento un mil]] |- | 10. || [[wikt:diez#Spanish|Diez]] | 20. || [[wikt:veinte#Spanish|Veinte]] | 30. || [[wikt:treinta#Spanish|Treinta]] | 40. || [[wikt:cuarenta#Spanish|Cuarenta]] | 500. || [[wikt:cuarenta#Spanish|Quinientos]] | 1,000,000. || [[wikt:millón#Spanish|Un millón]] |} ===Notes=== *To form the numbers from thirty to one hundred, you take the multiple of ten below it, then ''[[wikt:y#Spanish|y]]'', then its units value: "54" ''Cincuenta y cuatro'' Like, ''fifty and four'' "72" ''Setenta y dos'' Like, ''seventy and two'' "87" ''Ochenta y siete'' Like, ''eighty and seven'' *To say ''one hundred'' you say just ''cien'', never ''un cien''. To form the numbers from one hundred to two hundred, you turn ''cien'' into ''ciento'' before adding the rest of the number: "101" ''Ciento uno'' "128" ''Ciento veintiocho'' "150" ''Ciento cincuenta'' "199" ''Ciento noventa y nueve'' *For numbers between 200 and 900, use the plural "s" (''dosciento'''s''''', ''ochociento'''s'''''). Also beware of the usage of these numbers with feminine nouns like the old Spanish currency "peseta". You need to use the feminine agreement then: ''doscient'''as''' pesetas''. That agreement has to be observed even when it's in the middle of the number: ''doscient'''as''' veinticinco pesetas''. *When used before a masculine noun, ''uno'' becomes ''un''; before a feminine noun, ''una''. To preserve the stress on the last syllable, ''veintiuno'' acquires an acute accent when it becomes ''veintiún'' before a masculine noun. Note the same mechanism in operation when writing 16 (diez + seis) = ''dieciséis'' or 22 (veinte + dos) = ''veintidós''. * Spanish uses the long count style: 1,000,000,000 ''mil millones'' / ''un millardo'' (less common) 1,000,000,000,000 ''un billón'' 1,000,000,000,000,000 ''mil billones'' / ''un billardo'' (rare) 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 ''un trillón'' 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ''mil trillones'' / ''un trillardo'' (rare) 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ''un cuatrillón'' The rule of thumb is to count how many "millions" are in the digits: 1 (000 000) (000 000) (000 000) is ''un trillón'', because there are three ("tri") multiples of millions. * Longer numbers: 12,521,008,867,121,403,051 ''Doce trillones quinientos veintiún mil ocho billones ochocientos sesenta y siete mil ciento veintiún millones cuatrocientos tres mil cincuenta y uno'' 68,076,564,322,676,958,606 ''Sesenta y ocho trillones setenta y seis mil quinientos sesenta y cuatro billones trescientos veintidós mil seiscientos setenta y seis millones novecientos cincuenta y ocho mil seiscientos seis'' Note that the words ''millones'', ''billones'', ''trillones'' are written in plural, but ''mil'' (thousand) is always kept in singular, even when counting several thousands. However, if you need to refer to an amount in several thousands without specifying how many, you can use the plural ''miles'' (''He escrito miles de cartas'' = I've written thousands of letters). For this same purpose, you can use the synonym ''millares''. Similarly, there is the plural ''cientos'' (''He escrito cientos de cartas'' = I've written hundreds of letters). ''Centenas'' and ''centenares'' are less common synonyms for ''cientos''. All those synonyms have forms in singular (''Un millar de cartas'' = One thousand letters; ''Una centena'' / ''Un centenar de cartas'' = One hundred letters). These synonyms are not used for actually counting, though. There is also ''decena'', which means a group of ten. ===Examples=== * ''Tengo diecisiete gatos'' *: I have 17 cats. * ''Hay treinta y cinco aulas'' *: There are 35 classrooms. * ''Tengo noventa y seis primos.'' *: I have 96 cousins. * ''Hay once estudiantes en la clase de español.'' *: There are 11 students in the spanish class. *''¡Quiero un caramelo!'' *: I want a candy! *''¡Quiero uno!'' *: I want one! To declare the presence or existence of something (e.g. "there is," "there are"), Spanish uses ''hay'', which is a special conjugation of the verb ''haber'' (to have). Its past form ("there was," "there were") is ''hubo.'' Another form in the past (meaning roughly "there used to be") is ''había''. Its future form ("there will be") is ''habrá''. All these forms are invariable in singular and plural: ''Había un gato aquí'', ''Había dos gatos aquí''. Attempting to construct plural forms of them ("''habían''", "''habrán''") is a very common error and is severely frowned upon. [[Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?#The numbers|Go to the exercises]]. == How old are you? == To ask someone else's age in Spanish, use ''Cuántos años'', then one of the entries in the table below (''¿Cuántos años tienes?'' means "How old are you?", or more literally, "How many years do you have?") To say your age in Spanish, you use the irregular verb ''[[wikt:tener|tener]]'' (which means "to have"), then your age, then ''[[wikt:año|años]]'' (which means "years"). For example, ''Tengo trece años'' means "I have 13 years" or "I am 13 years old". {| {{User:Celestianpower/Spanish table|Verb|Tener|To have|2}} ! Inglés ! Español |- | I have | (Yo) Tengo |- | You (familiar, singular) have | (Tú) Tienes |- | He/She/You (formal, singular)/It has | (Él/Ella/Usted) Tiene |- | We have | (Nosotros) Tenemos |- | You (familar, plural) have | (Vosotros) Tenéis |- | They/You (formal, plural) have | (Ellos/Ellas/Ustedes) Tienen |} ; Note * "Tenéis" would only be used in Spain. In Latin America, one would use "Tienen" for both the second and third plural persons. ; Examples * ''Tengo veinte años'' *: I am 20 years old. * ''¿Cuántos años tienes?'' *: How old are you? * ''Tiene ochenta y siete años.'' *: He is 87 years old. * ''¿Cuántos años tienen?'' *: How old are they? [[Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?#How old are you?|Go to the exercises]]. == What's the date today? == To ask for the date in Spanish, you use ''¿Cuál es la fecha?'' or ''¿Qué día es hoy?'' <!-- The previous phrase given was the somewhat less common ''¿Qué fecha es hoy?'' --> (meaning "What is the date?", or "What day is today?"). In reply, you would say ''Hoy es [day of the week], [date of the month] de [month of the year]'' (For example, ''Hoy es martes veinticinco de mayo'' is "Today is Tuesday, the 25th of May"). {| | {| {{User:Celestianpower/Spanish table|Vocabulary|Los meses del año|The months of the year|2}} ! Inglés ! Español |- | January | enero |- | February | febrero |- | March | marzo |- | April | abril |- | May | mayo |- | June | junio |- | July | julio |- | August | agosto |- | September | septiembre |- | October | octubre |- | November | noviembre |- | December | diciembre |} | valign=top | {| {{User:Celestianpower/Spanish table|Vocabulary|Los días de la semana|The days of the week|2}} ! Inglés ! Español |- | Monday | lunes |- | Tuesday | martes |- | Wednesday | miércoles |- | Thursday | jueves |- | Friday | viernes |- | Saturday | sábado |- | Sunday | domingo |} |} ; Notes * Neither days of the week nor months of the year are capitalised, unless at the beginning of sentences. * On the first of the month, some Spanish speakers say ''primero'' [''First''] (''Hoy es domingo primero de enero''). * You may still find the spelling ''setiembre'' in books from the early 20th century. It emerged from the way some countries pronounce the consonants in it. This spelling is not standard usage and you should avoid using it. ; Examples * ''¿Qué fecha es hoy?'' (''¿A qué estamos?'' is used too.) *: What is the date? * ''Hoy es miércoles veintinueve de septiembre.'' *: Today is Wednesday, the 29th of September * ''Hoy es jueves quince de agosto.'' *: Today is Thursday, the 15th of August. * ''Hoy es sábado dos de enero.'' *: Today is Saturday, the 2nd of January. [[Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?#What's the date today?|Go to the exercises]]. == When's your birthday? == Although ''birthday'' translates as ''cumpleaños'', they do not imply the same exact meaning. In English, ''birthday'' literally refers to the day of your birth, so it is possible to wish happy birthday to a newborn. In Spanish, ''cumpleaños'' literally means "completing a year" and is only used for the day in subsequent years that matches the date on which you were born. Thus, you would never say "feliz cumpleaños" to a newborn, since he still hasn't "completed a year." {| {{User:Celestianpower/Spanish table|Vocabulary|Cumpleaños|Birthday|2}} ! Inglés ! Español |- | When is your birthday? | ¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños? |- | My birthday is | Mi cumpleaños es |- | On the first of May | El primero de mayo |- | On Wednesday | El miércoles |- | Happy birthday! | ¡Feliz cumpleaños! |} ; Examples * ''Mi cumpleaños es el once de julio.'' *: My birthday is on the 11th of July. * ''Mi cumpleaños es el ocho de diciembre.'' *: My birthday is on the 8th of December. * ''¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?'' *: When is your birthday? * ''Mi cumpleaños es el sábado.'' *: My birthday is on Saturday. [[Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?#When's your birthday?|Go to the exercises]]. == Summary == In this lesson, you have learned: * How to count from cero to one septillion (''cero; veintiocho; noventa; cien; un cuatrillón'') * The days of the week (''lunes; miércoles; viernes'') * The months of the year (''enero; abril; octubre; diciembre'') * How to say your age (''Tengo cuarenta años'') * How to ask the age of others (''¿Cuántos años tienes?'') * How to say today's date (''Hoy es jueves veintinueve de noviembre'') * How to say your birthday (''Mi cumpleaños es el primero de agosto''; ''mi cumpleaños es el martes'') * How to ask the birthday of others (''¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?'') You should now do the exercise related to each section ([[Spanish/Exercises/¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?|found here]]), and translate [[#Dialogue|the dialogue at the top]] before moving on to [[Spanish/Lessons/Introducción a la gramática|lesson 3]]... {{Spanish/Nav}} rjgn6kkxazp4cpq01gp3musyx4wrve7 4 106664 4654173 952410 2026-07-12T02:59:12Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. (via JWB) 4654173 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TextBox|<div style="text-align: center"><big>'''This arbitration case is over. Do not edit the contents of this page'''</big></div>}} I have agreed to take on this situation as an arbitrator for the moment, as there have been some rather serious "charges" put up against [[User:Panic2k4]] that have resulted in his account being blocked on several occasions. As outlined at [[User talk:Panic2k4]], I've set up the following process to attempt to resolve this situation. --[[User:Robert Horning|Rob Horning]] 20:35, 4 January 2007 (UTC) The follwing four steps will be filled in by alternatively those who are pushing for arbitration, and then by the defendant, in this case [[User:Panic2k4]]: #[[Wikibooks:Arbitration/Panic2k4 vs. SBJohnny/Plaintiff Charges]] #[[Wikibooks:Arbitration/Panic2k4 vs. SBJohnny/Defendant Reply]] #[[Wikibooks:Arbitration/Panic2k4 vs. SBJohnny/Plaintiff Rebuttal]] #[[Wikibooks:Arbitration/Panic2k4 vs. SBJohnny/Defendant Rebuttal]] These will each take place independently and once each step is completed, that page will be protected from editing and archived. Any attempt to jump ahead will result in that content being deleted, as will any attempt at trying to edit/reply within these pages to turn them into a massive argument. The whole point of doing this is to formalize the arbitration process and give people the opportunity to express their opinions without getting into the free-for-all typically found on most user talk pages. This is really intended to be much more like a legal brief, and it should be considered something like that in terms of format and style. There is no need for legal niceties or getting real technical, but make sure that very specific issues are presented both in the charges and rebuttal areas. After all this will be a final "verdict" on all of this: *[[Wikibooks:Arbitration/Panic2k4 vs. SBJohnny/Arbitrator Actions]] twdop2dn4z0fbmljyygxjywpbbhajvq 4 112405 4653998 4653972 2026-07-11T13:33:07Z Dirk Hünniger 343292 /* Images lost in Engineering Acoustics */ Reply 4653998 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == May 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 15px; padding-right: 15px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|75px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of May. Both sessions will focus on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''Saturday, 30 May 2026 at 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780153200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''Sunday, 31 May 2026 at 05:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780203600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Café participants are highly encouraged to read in advance [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sohom_Datta/annual_plan_guide at least this summary of the plan]. Optionally, Café participants are encouraged to read portions of the plan that interest them and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 ask questions or provide feedback on the Annual Plan talk page]. Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#May_2026_meetings_with_a_focus_on_Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 tables of timestamp conversions for both sessions], [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session,_and_is_extendible_for_an_additional_30_minutes_if_needed. the agenda], and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 19:44, 21 May 2026 (UTC) == Vote now in the 2026 U4C election == <section begin="announcement-content" /> Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:14, 27 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Discussion at WB:TECH == I started a discussion whether we should keep the FlaggedRevs comment box hidden at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Is this CSS code necessary?]], but I am notifying here due to a lack of participation over there. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:41, 30 May 2026 (UTC) == Template:Printable testing == Is there any way to use Template:Printable so that it creates a printable version of a ''different'' page? I've been wanting to see what it looks like without having to create a subpage. <span style="color:#FF0000">[[User:User97104|User]]</span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[User talk:User97104|97104]] </span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[Special:Contributions/User97104|(fixes)]]</span> 23:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:09, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Images lost in Engineering Acoustics == Hello, I just made an updated PDF version of the wiki book on Engineering Acoustics. During this processes I realized that 19 Images are missing. I left the respective chapters out of the PDF version. You can find the missing files by opening https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acoustics/Print_version in your web browser and search for the text File: . I am not sure why they were deleted. But possibly they were moved to Wikimedia Commons first and deleted after that. I could try to restore the from the 16 years old PDF version but I lack any authorship information so I think we need to redraw all of them. Furthermore I realized that some of the rest of the images in the wiki book have got a very poor resolution Yours 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} All media ([[:File: Acousticplanewave1.gif|A]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|B]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|C]][[:File: Acousticpressure1.gif|D]][[:File: Ra analogs.png|E]][[:File: Acoustic gen.png|F]][[:File: Enclosed Piston.png|G]][[:File: Equ1.jpg|H]][[:File: Equ3.gif|I]][[:File: Equ4.gif|K]][[:File: Comp.gif|L]][[:File: Example2holm1sol.JPG|M]][[:File: Exam2prob.JPG|N]][[:File: Exam2sol.JPG|O]][[:File: 1Dwave graph1.png|P]][[:File: String dwg.jpg|Q]][[:File: Equations1.jpg|R]][[:File: Equations2.jpg|S]]) except [[:File: Inductive law pass filter.jpg|Inductive law pass filter.jpg]] and [[:File: Open-twister.gif|Open-twister.gif]] were once deleted by [[User: Jguk|Jguk]] and [[User: Darklama|Darklame]] because after a grace period they still lacked copyright information. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:51, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ::Do we also need to delete the PDF then? It contains theses images. ::Yours [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 07:49, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} It depends on the images’ contents, whether they’re copyrightable. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 08:40, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::Well to me the look copyrightable. And further more its just the same images that were deleted from the wiki due to copyright issues [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 13:33, 11 July 2026 (UTC) == Citing WikiBooks? == Wikipedia has a page for Citing Wikipedia, but I haven't found one here, so I have a few questions: # How would I cite Wikibooks in an essay? # Do I need to cite sources on Wikibooks? If so, how? [[User:BlazeFlames|BlazeFlames]] ([[User talk:BlazeFlames|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BlazeFlames|contribs]]) 22:48, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :# This should give you a good method: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/how-to-cite-wikipedia/ :# Generally, no. We have [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|no policy that requires or prohibits citing sources]] and we have a [[Help:Editing#References|help page on how to do it]], with a [[Wikibooks:Templates/Sources|number of templates]] to standardize the process. There is definitely value in citing sources, so I don't want to discourage it. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 09:10, 19 June 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|BlazeFlames}} As you can see in [[Special: Version#mw-version-ext|Special: Version § Installed Extensions]] this MediaWiki has the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Extension: CiteThisPage|CiteThisPage extension]] installed. On the English‑language edition of Wikibooks you can navigate to [[Special: CiteThisPage/Typewriting|Special: CiteThisPage/…]] even though it is not listed in the [[MediaWiki: Sidebar]] (but it’s listed in [[Special: SpecialPages#mw-specialpagesgroup-pagetools|Special: SpecialPages]]). However, on {{abbr|WB|Wikibooks}} I would link via the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Help: Page ID|page ID]] rather than the page title; replace <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>title=Booktitle</syntaxhighlight> with <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>curid=123456</syntaxhighlight>. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 15:09, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unhide the FlaggedRevs comment box? == :''Reposted from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2026/April#Is this CSS code necessary?]] as the former link had no participation.'' I propose unhiding the FlaggedRevs comment box (via MediaWiki:Common.css) because it might be useful to add in a comment when reverting with the FlaggedRevs reversion, unlike rollback. It might also be useful in cases to add a comment on what the user edited when accepting a revision. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:17, 20 June 2026 (UTC) == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"> You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]])</bdi> 17:11, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:30, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> == A question about the user right move-subpages == Even though reviewers have the ability to move 100 pages per minute (per InitialiseSettings.php), they do not have <code>move-subpages</code>, which allows moving a book (with all its subpages) in one single action. Is this user right considered sensitive (hence it is restricted to administrators by default)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:23, 9 July 2026 (UTC) :I'm not 100% sure what the problem is as long as mass moving is limited to admins in the first place, as this can really cause problems (I recently encountered this mass-moving 100 out of c. 260 pages on a wiki). I support filing a ticket at [[:phab:]] to extend [[:mw:Manual:$wgMaximumMovedPages|$wgMaximumMovedPages]] to 1,000. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:33, 9 July 2026 (UTC) == Regarding local checkusers == Not to be negative here, but I am not sure what is the point of having local checkusers here, while by [[WB:GRP#Stewards|policy]] we explicitly allow stewards to perform CUs here. An example would be because MarcGarver, while a local CU and is sometimes pinged here, has an intermittent pattern of activity here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:15, 9 July 2026 (UTC) a5p5rcb5zochyrp9lt4fb6ldfidsegh 4653999 4653998 2026-07-11T13:33:29Z Dirk Hünniger 343292 /* Images lost in Engineering Acoustics */ 4653999 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == May 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 15px; padding-right: 15px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|75px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of May. Both sessions will focus on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''Saturday, 30 May 2026 at 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780153200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''Sunday, 31 May 2026 at 05:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780203600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Café participants are highly encouraged to read in advance [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sohom_Datta/annual_plan_guide at least this summary of the plan]. Optionally, Café participants are encouraged to read portions of the plan that interest them and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 ask questions or provide feedback on the Annual Plan talk page]. Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#May_2026_meetings_with_a_focus_on_Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 tables of timestamp conversions for both sessions], [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session,_and_is_extendible_for_an_additional_30_minutes_if_needed. the agenda], and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 19:44, 21 May 2026 (UTC) == Vote now in the 2026 U4C election == <section begin="announcement-content" /> Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:14, 27 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Discussion at WB:TECH == I started a discussion whether we should keep the FlaggedRevs comment box hidden at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Is this CSS code necessary?]], but I am notifying here due to a lack of participation over there. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:41, 30 May 2026 (UTC) == Template:Printable testing == Is there any way to use Template:Printable so that it creates a printable version of a ''different'' page? I've been wanting to see what it looks like without having to create a subpage. <span style="color:#FF0000">[[User:User97104|User]]</span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[User talk:User97104|97104]] </span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[Special:Contributions/User97104|(fixes)]]</span> 23:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:09, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Images lost in Engineering Acoustics == Hello, I just made an updated PDF version of the wiki book on Engineering Acoustics. During this processes I realized that 19 Images are missing. I left the respective chapters out of the PDF version. You can find the missing files by opening https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acoustics/Print_version in your web browser and search for the text File: . I am not sure why they were deleted. But possibly they were moved to Wikimedia Commons first and deleted after that. I could try to restore the from the 16 years old PDF version but I lack any authorship information so I think we need to redraw all of them. Furthermore I realized that some of the rest of the images in the wiki book have got a very poor resolution Yours 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} All media ([[:File: Acousticplanewave1.gif|A]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|B]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|C]][[:File: Acousticpressure1.gif|D]][[:File: Ra analogs.png|E]][[:File: Acoustic gen.png|F]][[:File: Enclosed Piston.png|G]][[:File: Equ1.jpg|H]][[:File: Equ3.gif|I]][[:File: Equ4.gif|K]][[:File: Comp.gif|L]][[:File: Example2holm1sol.JPG|M]][[:File: Exam2prob.JPG|N]][[:File: Exam2sol.JPG|O]][[:File: 1Dwave graph1.png|P]][[:File: String dwg.jpg|Q]][[:File: Equations1.jpg|R]][[:File: Equations2.jpg|S]]) except [[:File: Inductive law pass filter.jpg|Inductive law pass filter.jpg]] and [[:File: Open-twister.gif|Open-twister.gif]] were once deleted by [[User: Jguk|Jguk]] and [[User: Darklama|Darklame]] because after a grace period they still lacked copyright information. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:51, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ::Do we also need to delete the PDF then? It contains theses images. ::Yours [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 07:49, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} It depends on the images’ contents, whether they’re copyrightable. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 08:40, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] Well to me the look copyrightable. And further more its just the same images that were deleted from the wiki due to copyright issues [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 13:33, 11 July 2026 (UTC) == Citing WikiBooks? == Wikipedia has a page for Citing Wikipedia, but I haven't found one here, so I have a few questions: # How would I cite Wikibooks in an essay? # Do I need to cite sources on Wikibooks? If so, how? [[User:BlazeFlames|BlazeFlames]] ([[User talk:BlazeFlames|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BlazeFlames|contribs]]) 22:48, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :# This should give you a good method: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/how-to-cite-wikipedia/ :# Generally, no. We have [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|no policy that requires or prohibits citing sources]] and we have a [[Help:Editing#References|help page on how to do it]], with a [[Wikibooks:Templates/Sources|number of templates]] to standardize the process. There is definitely value in citing sources, so I don't want to discourage it. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 09:10, 19 June 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|BlazeFlames}} As you can see in [[Special: Version#mw-version-ext|Special: Version § Installed Extensions]] this MediaWiki has the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Extension: CiteThisPage|CiteThisPage extension]] installed. On the English‑language edition of Wikibooks you can navigate to [[Special: CiteThisPage/Typewriting|Special: CiteThisPage/…]] even though it is not listed in the [[MediaWiki: Sidebar]] (but it’s listed in [[Special: SpecialPages#mw-specialpagesgroup-pagetools|Special: SpecialPages]]). However, on {{abbr|WB|Wikibooks}} I would link via the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Help: Page ID|page ID]] rather than the page title; replace <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>title=Booktitle</syntaxhighlight> with <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>curid=123456</syntaxhighlight>. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 15:09, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unhide the FlaggedRevs comment box? == :''Reposted from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2026/April#Is this CSS code necessary?]] as the former link had no participation.'' I propose unhiding the FlaggedRevs comment box (via MediaWiki:Common.css) because it might be useful to add in a comment when reverting with the FlaggedRevs reversion, unlike rollback. It might also be useful in cases to add a comment on what the user edited when accepting a revision. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:17, 20 June 2026 (UTC) == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"> You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]])</bdi> 17:11, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:30, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> == A question about the user right move-subpages == Even though reviewers have the ability to move 100 pages per minute (per InitialiseSettings.php), they do not have <code>move-subpages</code>, which allows moving a book (with all its subpages) in one single action. Is this user right considered sensitive (hence it is restricted to administrators by default)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:23, 9 July 2026 (UTC) :I'm not 100% sure what the problem is as long as mass moving is limited to admins in the first place, as this can really cause problems (I recently encountered this mass-moving 100 out of c. 260 pages on a wiki). I support filing a ticket at [[:phab:]] to extend [[:mw:Manual:$wgMaximumMovedPages|$wgMaximumMovedPages]] to 1,000. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:33, 9 July 2026 (UTC) == Regarding local checkusers == Not to be negative here, but I am not sure what is the point of having local checkusers here, while by [[WB:GRP#Stewards|policy]] we explicitly allow stewards to perform CUs here. An example would be because MarcGarver, while a local CU and is sometimes pinged here, has an intermittent pattern of activity here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:15, 9 July 2026 (UTC) q8af3a5npq0ztd2ga1b1cj3ohoqpad8 4654006 4653999 2026-07-11T14:31:04Z Kai Burghardt 153973 /* Images lost in Engineering Acoustics */ comment 4654006 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == May 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 15px; padding-right: 15px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|75px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of May. Both sessions will focus on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''Saturday, 30 May 2026 at 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780153200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''Sunday, 31 May 2026 at 05:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780203600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Café participants are highly encouraged to read in advance [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sohom_Datta/annual_plan_guide at least this summary of the plan]. Optionally, Café participants are encouraged to read portions of the plan that interest them and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 ask questions or provide feedback on the Annual Plan talk page]. Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#May_2026_meetings_with_a_focus_on_Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 tables of timestamp conversions for both sessions], [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session,_and_is_extendible_for_an_additional_30_minutes_if_needed. the agenda], and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 19:44, 21 May 2026 (UTC) == Vote now in the 2026 U4C election == <section begin="announcement-content" /> Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:14, 27 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Discussion at WB:TECH == I started a discussion whether we should keep the FlaggedRevs comment box hidden at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Is this CSS code necessary?]], but I am notifying here due to a lack of participation over there. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:41, 30 May 2026 (UTC) == Template:Printable testing == Is there any way to use Template:Printable so that it creates a printable version of a ''different'' page? I've been wanting to see what it looks like without having to create a subpage. <span style="color:#FF0000">[[User:User97104|User]]</span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[User talk:User97104|97104]] </span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[Special:Contributions/User97104|(fixes)]]</span> 23:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:09, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Images lost in Engineering Acoustics == Hello, I just made an updated PDF version of the wiki book on Engineering Acoustics. During this processes I realized that 19 Images are missing. I left the respective chapters out of the PDF version. You can find the missing files by opening https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acoustics/Print_version in your web browser and search for the text File: . I am not sure why they were deleted. But possibly they were moved to Wikimedia Commons first and deleted after that. I could try to restore the from the 16 years old PDF version but I lack any authorship information so I think we need to redraw all of them. Furthermore I realized that some of the rest of the images in the wiki book have got a very poor resolution Yours 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} All media ([[:File: Acousticplanewave1.gif|A]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|B]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|C]][[:File: Acousticpressure1.gif|D]][[:File: Ra analogs.png|E]][[:File: Acoustic gen.png|F]][[:File: Enclosed Piston.png|G]][[:File: Equ1.jpg|H]][[:File: Equ3.gif|I]][[:File: Equ4.gif|K]][[:File: Comp.gif|L]][[:File: Example2holm1sol.JPG|M]][[:File: Exam2prob.JPG|N]][[:File: Exam2sol.JPG|O]][[:File: 1Dwave graph1.png|P]][[:File: String dwg.jpg|Q]][[:File: Equations1.jpg|R]][[:File: Equations2.jpg|S]]) except [[:File: Inductive law pass filter.jpg|Inductive law pass filter.jpg]] and [[:File: Open-twister.gif|Open-twister.gif]] were once deleted by [[User: Jguk|Jguk]] and [[User: Darklama|Darklame]] because after a grace period they still lacked copyright information. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:51, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ::Do we also need to delete the PDF then? It contains theses images. ::Yours [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 07:49, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} It depends on the images’ contents, whether they’re copyrightable. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 08:40, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] Well to me the look copyrightable. And further more its just the same images that were deleted from the wiki due to copyright issues [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 13:33, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} As far as I understand the issue was a formality. All files must bear license info, regardless whether they’re copyrightable or not. It is quite possible all deleted images don’t meet the threshold of originality, but still were deleted because of this formality. Images like [[:File: Equ1.jpg|File: Equ1.jpg]] ''presumably'' contain ''just'' some rasterized text formula and as such are not copyrightable. I have not had a look at them, so I can’t tell. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:30, 11 July 2026 (UTC) == Citing WikiBooks? == Wikipedia has a page for Citing Wikipedia, but I haven't found one here, so I have a few questions: # How would I cite Wikibooks in an essay? # Do I need to cite sources on Wikibooks? If so, how? [[User:BlazeFlames|BlazeFlames]] ([[User talk:BlazeFlames|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BlazeFlames|contribs]]) 22:48, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :# This should give you a good method: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/how-to-cite-wikipedia/ :# Generally, no. We have [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|no policy that requires or prohibits citing sources]] and we have a [[Help:Editing#References|help page on how to do it]], with a [[Wikibooks:Templates/Sources|number of templates]] to standardize the process. There is definitely value in citing sources, so I don't want to discourage it. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 09:10, 19 June 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|BlazeFlames}} As you can see in [[Special: Version#mw-version-ext|Special: Version § Installed Extensions]] this MediaWiki has the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Extension: CiteThisPage|CiteThisPage extension]] installed. On the English‑language edition of Wikibooks you can navigate to [[Special: CiteThisPage/Typewriting|Special: CiteThisPage/…]] even though it is not listed in the [[MediaWiki: Sidebar]] (but it’s listed in [[Special: SpecialPages#mw-specialpagesgroup-pagetools|Special: SpecialPages]]). However, on {{abbr|WB|Wikibooks}} I would link via the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Help: Page ID|page ID]] rather than the page title; replace <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>title=Booktitle</syntaxhighlight> with <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>curid=123456</syntaxhighlight>. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 15:09, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unhide the FlaggedRevs comment box? == :''Reposted from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2026/April#Is this CSS code necessary?]] as the former link had no participation.'' I propose unhiding the FlaggedRevs comment box (via MediaWiki:Common.css) because it might be useful to add in a comment when reverting with the FlaggedRevs reversion, unlike rollback. It might also be useful in cases to add a comment on what the user edited when accepting a revision. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:17, 20 June 2026 (UTC) == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"> You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]])</bdi> 17:11, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:30, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> == A question about the user right move-subpages == Even though reviewers have the ability to move 100 pages per minute (per InitialiseSettings.php), they do not have <code>move-subpages</code>, which allows moving a book (with all its subpages) in one single action. Is this user right considered sensitive (hence it is restricted to administrators by default)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:23, 9 July 2026 (UTC) :I'm not 100% sure what the problem is as long as mass moving is limited to admins in the first place, as this can really cause problems (I recently encountered this mass-moving 100 out of c. 260 pages on a wiki). I support filing a ticket at [[:phab:]] to extend [[:mw:Manual:$wgMaximumMovedPages|$wgMaximumMovedPages]] to 1,000. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:33, 9 July 2026 (UTC) == Regarding local checkusers == Not to be negative here, but I am not sure what is the point of having local checkusers here, while by [[WB:GRP#Stewards|policy]] we explicitly allow stewards to perform CUs here. An example would be because MarcGarver, while a local CU and is sometimes pinged here, has an intermittent pattern of activity here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:15, 9 July 2026 (UTC) eiiamol9cdnmx9ffn2yzhfl56n4dkkn 4654030 4654006 2026-07-11T17:25:32Z Dirk Hünniger 343292 /* Images lost in Engineering Acoustics */ Reply 4654030 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == May 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 15px; padding-right: 15px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|75px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of May. Both sessions will focus on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''Saturday, 30 May 2026 at 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780153200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''Sunday, 31 May 2026 at 05:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780203600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Café participants are highly encouraged to read in advance [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sohom_Datta/annual_plan_guide at least this summary of the plan]. Optionally, Café participants are encouraged to read portions of the plan that interest them and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 ask questions or provide feedback on the Annual Plan talk page]. Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#May_2026_meetings_with_a_focus_on_Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 tables of timestamp conversions for both sessions], [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session,_and_is_extendible_for_an_additional_30_minutes_if_needed. the agenda], and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 19:44, 21 May 2026 (UTC) == Vote now in the 2026 U4C election == <section begin="announcement-content" /> Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:14, 27 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Discussion at WB:TECH == I started a discussion whether we should keep the FlaggedRevs comment box hidden at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Is this CSS code necessary?]], but I am notifying here due to a lack of participation over there. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:41, 30 May 2026 (UTC) == Template:Printable testing == Is there any way to use Template:Printable so that it creates a printable version of a ''different'' page? I've been wanting to see what it looks like without having to create a subpage. <span style="color:#FF0000">[[User:User97104|User]]</span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[User talk:User97104|97104]] </span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[Special:Contributions/User97104|(fixes)]]</span> 23:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:09, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Images lost in Engineering Acoustics == Hello, I just made an updated PDF version of the wiki book on Engineering Acoustics. During this processes I realized that 19 Images are missing. I left the respective chapters out of the PDF version. You can find the missing files by opening https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acoustics/Print_version in your web browser and search for the text File: . I am not sure why they were deleted. But possibly they were moved to Wikimedia Commons first and deleted after that. I could try to restore the from the 16 years old PDF version but I lack any authorship information so I think we need to redraw all of them. Furthermore I realized that some of the rest of the images in the wiki book have got a very poor resolution Yours 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} All media ([[:File: Acousticplanewave1.gif|A]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|B]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|C]][[:File: Acousticpressure1.gif|D]][[:File: Ra analogs.png|E]][[:File: Acoustic gen.png|F]][[:File: Enclosed Piston.png|G]][[:File: Equ1.jpg|H]][[:File: Equ3.gif|I]][[:File: Equ4.gif|K]][[:File: Comp.gif|L]][[:File: Example2holm1sol.JPG|M]][[:File: Exam2prob.JPG|N]][[:File: Exam2sol.JPG|O]][[:File: 1Dwave graph1.png|P]][[:File: String dwg.jpg|Q]][[:File: Equations1.jpg|R]][[:File: Equations2.jpg|S]]) except [[:File: Inductive law pass filter.jpg|Inductive law pass filter.jpg]] and [[:File: Open-twister.gif|Open-twister.gif]] were once deleted by [[User: Jguk|Jguk]] and [[User: Darklama|Darklame]] because after a grace period they still lacked copyright information. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:51, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ::Do we also need to delete the PDF then? It contains theses images. ::Yours [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 07:49, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} It depends on the images’ contents, whether they’re copyrightable. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 08:40, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] Well to me the look copyrightable. And further more its just the same images that were deleted from the wiki due to copyright issues [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 13:33, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} As far as I understand the issue was a formality. All files must bear license info, regardless whether they’re copyrightable or not. It is quite possible all deleted images don’t meet the threshold of originality, but still were deleted because of this formality. Images like [[:File: Equ1.jpg|File: Equ1.jpg]] ''presumably'' contain ''just'' some rasterized text formula and as such are not copyrightable. I have not had a look at them, so I can’t tell. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:30, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::::If its just a formality and the images don't meet the threshold to be copyrightable we could just restore the deleted images from the PDF. But keeping the PDF and not restoring the images surely is a contradiction. Furthermore there are quite a lot of books with the same problem. [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 17:25, 11 July 2026 (UTC) == Citing WikiBooks? == Wikipedia has a page for Citing Wikipedia, but I haven't found one here, so I have a few questions: # How would I cite Wikibooks in an essay? # Do I need to cite sources on Wikibooks? If so, how? [[User:BlazeFlames|BlazeFlames]] ([[User talk:BlazeFlames|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BlazeFlames|contribs]]) 22:48, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :# This should give you a good method: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/how-to-cite-wikipedia/ :# Generally, no. We have [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|no policy that requires or prohibits citing sources]] and we have a [[Help:Editing#References|help page on how to do it]], with a [[Wikibooks:Templates/Sources|number of templates]] to standardize the process. There is definitely value in citing sources, so I don't want to discourage it. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 09:10, 19 June 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|BlazeFlames}} As you can see in [[Special: Version#mw-version-ext|Special: Version § Installed Extensions]] this MediaWiki has the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Extension: CiteThisPage|CiteThisPage extension]] installed. On the English‑language edition of Wikibooks you can navigate to [[Special: CiteThisPage/Typewriting|Special: CiteThisPage/…]] even though it is not listed in the [[MediaWiki: Sidebar]] (but it’s listed in [[Special: SpecialPages#mw-specialpagesgroup-pagetools|Special: SpecialPages]]). However, on {{abbr|WB|Wikibooks}} I would link via the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Help: Page ID|page ID]] rather than the page title; replace <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>title=Booktitle</syntaxhighlight> with <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>curid=123456</syntaxhighlight>. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 15:09, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unhide the FlaggedRevs comment box? == :''Reposted from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2026/April#Is this CSS code necessary?]] as the former link had no participation.'' I propose unhiding the FlaggedRevs comment box (via MediaWiki:Common.css) because it might be useful to add in a comment when reverting with the FlaggedRevs reversion, unlike rollback. It might also be useful in cases to add a comment on what the user edited when accepting a revision. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:17, 20 June 2026 (UTC) == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"> You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]])</bdi> 17:11, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:30, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> == A question about the user right move-subpages == Even though reviewers have the ability to move 100 pages per minute (per InitialiseSettings.php), they do not have <code>move-subpages</code>, which allows moving a book (with all its subpages) in one single action. Is this user right considered sensitive (hence it is restricted to administrators by default)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:23, 9 July 2026 (UTC) :I'm not 100% sure what the problem is as long as mass moving is limited to admins in the first place, as this can really cause problems (I recently encountered this mass-moving 100 out of c. 260 pages on a wiki). I support filing a ticket at [[:phab:]] to extend [[:mw:Manual:$wgMaximumMovedPages|$wgMaximumMovedPages]] to 1,000. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:33, 9 July 2026 (UTC) == Regarding local checkusers == Not to be negative here, but I am not sure what is the point of having local checkusers here, while by [[WB:GRP#Stewards|policy]] we explicitly allow stewards to perform CUs here. An example would be because MarcGarver, while a local CU and is sometimes pinged here, has an intermittent pattern of activity here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:15, 9 July 2026 (UTC) 6z239kx8rorcuvp9okg8vr327tcvyee 4654031 4654030 2026-07-11T17:25:58Z Dirk Hünniger 343292 /* Images lost in Engineering Acoustics */ 4654031 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == May 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 15px; padding-right: 15px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|75px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of May. Both sessions will focus on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 the 2026-2027 Wikimedia Foundation Annual Plan]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''Saturday, 30 May 2026 at 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780153200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''Sunday, 31 May 2026 at 05:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780203600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Café participants are highly encouraged to read in advance [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Sohom_Datta/annual_plan_guide at least this summary of the plan]. Optionally, Café participants are encouraged to read portions of the plan that interest them and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 ask questions or provide feedback on the Annual Plan talk page]. Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#May_2026_meetings_with_a_focus_on_Wikimedia_Foundation_Annual_Plan/2026-2027 tables of timestamp conversions for both sessions], [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#Agenda._This_will_be_an_approximately_1_hour_Caf%C3%A9_session,_and_is_extendible_for_an_additional_30_minutes_if_needed. the agenda], and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 19:44, 21 May 2026 (UTC) == Vote now in the 2026 U4C election == <section begin="announcement-content" /> Eligible voters are asked to participate in the 2026 [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee|Universal Code of Conduct Coordinating Committee]] election. More information–including an eligibility check, voting process information, candidate information, and a link to the vote–are available on Meta at the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Universal_Code_of_Conduct/Coordinating_Committee/Election/2026|2026 Election information page]]. The vote closes on 2 June 2026 at [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1780358400 00:00 UTC]. Please vote if your account is eligible. Results will be available by 14 June 2026. -- In cooperation with the U4C,<section end="announcement-content" /> [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] ([[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]]) 17:14, 27 May 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Discussion at WB:TECH == I started a discussion whether we should keep the FlaggedRevs comment box hidden at [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Technical Assistance#Is this CSS code necessary?]], but I am notifying here due to a lack of participation over there. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:41, 30 May 2026 (UTC) == Template:Printable testing == Is there any way to use Template:Printable so that it creates a printable version of a ''different'' page? I've been wanting to see what it looks like without having to create a subpage. <span style="color:#FF0000">[[User:User97104|User]]</span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[User talk:User97104|97104]] </span><span style="color:#FF0000">[[Special:Contributions/User97104|(fixes)]]</span> 23:59, 8 June 2026 (UTC) == June 2026 Wikimedia Café meetups regarding the English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities during the last weekend of June. Both sessions will focus on the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Editor_reflections English Wikipedia Editor Reflections project]. The featured guest in the Café will be [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Clovermoss User:Clovermoss]. Participants may attend either or both sessions. #'''27 June 2026 15:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782572400 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe #'''28 June 2026 03:00 UTC''' ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1782615600 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific Please see the Café page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">↠Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 04:09, 15 June 2026 (UTC) == Images lost in Engineering Acoustics == Hello, I just made an updated PDF version of the wiki book on Engineering Acoustics. During this processes I realized that 19 Images are missing. I left the respective chapters out of the PDF version. You can find the missing files by opening https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Engineering_Acoustics/Print_version in your web browser and search for the text File: . I am not sure why they were deleted. But possibly they were moved to Wikimedia Commons first and deleted after that. I could try to restore the from the 16 years old PDF version but I lack any authorship information so I think we need to redraw all of them. Furthermore I realized that some of the rest of the images in the wiki book have got a very poor resolution Yours 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 18:22, 18 June 2026 (UTC) : {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} All media ([[:File: Acousticplanewave1.gif|A]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|B]][[:File: Acousticcontrolsurface.gif|C]][[:File: Acousticpressure1.gif|D]][[:File: Ra analogs.png|E]][[:File: Acoustic gen.png|F]][[:File: Enclosed Piston.png|G]][[:File: Equ1.jpg|H]][[:File: Equ3.gif|I]][[:File: Equ4.gif|K]][[:File: Comp.gif|L]][[:File: Example2holm1sol.JPG|M]][[:File: Exam2prob.JPG|N]][[:File: Exam2sol.JPG|O]][[:File: 1Dwave graph1.png|P]][[:File: String dwg.jpg|Q]][[:File: Equations1.jpg|R]][[:File: Equations2.jpg|S]]) except [[:File: Inductive law pass filter.jpg|Inductive law pass filter.jpg]] and [[:File: Open-twister.gif|Open-twister.gif]] were once deleted by [[User: Jguk|Jguk]] and [[User: Darklama|Darklame]] because after a grace period they still lacked copyright information. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:51, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ::Do we also need to delete the PDF then? It contains theses images. ::Yours [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 07:49, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} It depends on the images’ contents, whether they’re copyrightable. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 08:40, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::@[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] Well to me the look copyrightable. And further more its just the same images that were deleted from the wiki due to copyright issues [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 13:33, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::::: {{re|Dirk Hünniger}} As far as I understand the issue was a formality. All files must bear license info, regardless whether they’re copyrightable or not. It is quite possible all deleted images don’t meet the threshold of originality, but still were deleted because of this formality. Images like [[:File: Equ1.jpg|File: Equ1.jpg]] ''presumably'' contain ''just'' some rasterized text formula and as such are not copyrightable. I have not had a look at them, so I can’t tell. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 14:30, 11 July 2026 (UTC) :::::: @[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] If its just a formality and the images don't meet the threshold to be copyrightable we could just restore the deleted images from the PDF. But keeping the PDF and not restoring the images surely is a contradiction. Furthermore there are quite a lot of books with the same problem. [[User:Dirk Hünniger|Dirk Hünniger]] ([[User talk:Dirk Hünniger|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dirk Hünniger|contribs]]) 17:25, 11 July 2026 (UTC) == Citing WikiBooks? == Wikipedia has a page for Citing Wikipedia, but I haven't found one here, so I have a few questions: # How would I cite Wikibooks in an essay? # Do I need to cite sources on Wikibooks? If so, how? [[User:BlazeFlames|BlazeFlames]] ([[User talk:BlazeFlames|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/BlazeFlames|contribs]]) 22:48, 18 June 2026 (UTC) :# This should give you a good method: https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/how-to-cite-wikipedia/ :# Generally, no. We have [[Wikibooks:Policies and guidelines|no policy that requires or prohibits citing sources]] and we have a [[Help:Editing#References|help page on how to do it]], with a [[Wikibooks:Templates/Sources|number of templates]] to standardize the process. There is definitely value in citing sources, so I don't want to discourage it. :―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 09:10, 19 June 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|BlazeFlames}} As you can see in [[Special: Version#mw-version-ext|Special: Version § Installed Extensions]] this MediaWiki has the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Extension: CiteThisPage|CiteThisPage extension]] installed. On the English‑language edition of Wikibooks you can navigate to [[Special: CiteThisPage/Typewriting|Special: CiteThisPage/…]] even though it is not listed in the [[MediaWiki: Sidebar]] (but it’s listed in [[Special: SpecialPages#mw-specialpagesgroup-pagetools|Special: SpecialPages]]). However, on {{abbr|WB|Wikibooks}} I would link via the [[mw: Special: MyLanguage/Help: Page ID|page ID]] rather than the page title; replace <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>title=Booktitle</syntaxhighlight> with <syntaxhighlight lang='text' inline>curid=123456</syntaxhighlight>. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 15:09, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unhide the FlaggedRevs comment box? == :''Reposted from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/2026/April#Is this CSS code necessary?]] as the former link had no participation.'' I propose unhiding the FlaggedRevs comment box (via MediaWiki:Common.css) because it might be useful to add in a comment when reverting with the FlaggedRevs reversion, unlike rollback. It might also be useful in cases to add a comment on what the user edited when accepting a revision. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:17, 20 June 2026 (UTC) == RFC about AI-generated content in Wikimedia Commons == <bdi lang="en" dir="ltr"> You are invited to participate in a [[c:Commons:Requests for comment/Policy update for AI content|request for comment on Wikimedia Commons about a policy update for AI content]]. This may affect files that are uploaded to Wikimedia Commons for use on this project. Thank you. [[m:User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] ([[m:User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]])</bdi> 17:11, 23 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Codename Noreste@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distribution_list/Global_message_delivery&oldid=30513860 --> == Deployment of Legal and Safety Contacts Link in the Footer of Your Wiki == <section begin="Message"/> '''Legal & Safety Contacts''' Hello community, the Wikimedia Foundation has provided a [[wmf:Special:MyLanguage/Legal:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contact Information|single legal and safety contact page]], to be linked in the footer of your wiki, to ensure access to accurate legal information. This is a regulatory requirement. We have already rolled out links to English, German, Italian, Spanish and other wikis and we will deploy to your wiki soon. [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Wikimedia_Foundation_Legal_and_Safety_Contacts_FAQ|Please read more on the project page]] and leave any comments in this thread or on the [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Talk:Wikimedia Foundation Legal and Safety Contacts FAQ|talk page]]. <section end="Message"/> -- [[User:Sannita (WMF)|User:Sannita (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Sannita (WMF)|talk]]) 13:30, 25 June 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Sannita (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Sannita_(WMF)/Mass_sending_test&oldid=30731267 --> == A question about the user right move-subpages == Even though reviewers have the ability to move 100 pages per minute (per InitialiseSettings.php), they do not have <code>move-subpages</code>, which allows moving a book (with all its subpages) in one single action. Is this user right considered sensitive (hence it is restricted to administrators by default)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 04:23, 9 July 2026 (UTC) :I'm not 100% sure what the problem is as long as mass moving is limited to admins in the first place, as this can really cause problems (I recently encountered this mass-moving 100 out of c. 260 pages on a wiki). I support filing a ticket at [[:phab:]] to extend [[:mw:Manual:$wgMaximumMovedPages|$wgMaximumMovedPages]] to 1,000. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:33, 9 July 2026 (UTC) == Regarding local checkusers == Not to be negative here, but I am not sure what is the point of having local checkusers here, while by [[WB:GRP#Stewards|policy]] we explicitly allow stewards to perform CUs here. An example would be because MarcGarver, while a local CU and is sometimes pinged here, has an intermittent pattern of activity here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:15, 9 July 2026 (UTC) n5z8dlpf7uqbdvfp9g9b2b95z57qzl5 0 113384 4654084 4461148 2026-07-11T19:16:35Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654084 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Structure== Ozone can be assigned two different Lewis structures, but neither one accurately represents the structure and bonding in the O₃ molecule. :[[Image:Ozone-resonance.png|center|400px|Canonical structures of ozone]] Spectroscopic data indicates both O−O bonds in ozone are equal in length and strength. The central oxygen atom is positively charged and the terminal oxygen atoms each carry partial negative charge. <gallery class="center"> Image:Ozone-1,3-dipole.svg Image:Ozone-3D-ball-stick.png Image:Ozone-3D-vdW.png Image:Ozone-elpot-3D-vdW.png </gallery> {{BookCat}} bnddbnl9lr6byg05cdrphxgrxi9gzlu 4 113843 4654033 4637901 2026-07-11T17:51:04Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Wikijunior:The Elements */ Closing. 4654033 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Discussion Rooms}} __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{TOC left}} {{Featured books/Nominations/Archives}}[[Category:Wikibooks]] The goal of this page is to feature those books which are considered among the best of what Wikibooks has to offer, in an effort to raise standards in content development. Criteria for judging books, and rules about discussions, can be found at [[Wikibooks:Good books|Wikibooks:Good&nbsp;books]]. When nominating a book for removal of featured book status, consider adding {{tl|featured&nbsp;book&nbsp;removal}} to the book and notifying the primary or active contributors, as they may be able to address your concerns about the content. {{clear}} =Nominations for Removal= == [[Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine]] == The primary author has stated this book is no longer up to date with standard practice. This fails the [[Wikibooks:Good books]] criteria 4. <blockquote>Accurate, comprehensive, and concise enough to effectively teach and learn from in its current state.</blockquote> Unlike their author, I'm not in favor of deleting the book, and would support its reinstatement as a featured book should someone update them. It's a very niche subject though, so I'm unsure if we'll find someone who specializes in it anytime soon. --[[User:Mbrickn|Mbrickn]] ([[User talk:Mbrickn|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mbrickn|contribs]]) 05:52, 12 November 2021 (UTC) :please I need the book it seems interesting, I love exploring and [[Special:Contributions/41.116.144.211|41.116.144.211]] ([[User talk:41.116.144.211|discuss]]) 01:03, 15 December 2024 (UTC) == [[Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 2.6]] == Hello Wikibooks folks, I am proposing de-featuring the Python 2 version of this book because [[Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3|the Python 3 version]] has featured status and [https://www.python.org/doc/sunset-python-2/ Python 2 has been end-of-life for several years]. Both the Python 2 and Python 3 versions of this book will rotate through the [[Main Page]]'s featured articles section, and I do not think the Python 2 version is appropriate to promote as a starting point for learning programming anymore. [[User:Huntertur|huntertur]] ([[User talk:Huntertur|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Huntertur|contribs]]) 01:46, 3 November 2025 (UTC) :I don't know wikibooks well enough for my thoughts to be any valuable for such discussions but I think if it works as said, it should be denominated [[User:DustDFG|DustDFG]] ([[User talk:DustDFG|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/DustDFG|contribs]]) 15:27, 4 November 2025 (UTC) :{{s}} - these are both essentially the same book, just forked into two versions for Python 2 and Python 3. Having both is fine, but we should only feature it once, under the current version. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 03:35, 5 January 2026 (UTC) =Nominations for Addition= ==[[Minecraft Speedrunning]]== The book is very well formatted, contains a lot of useful information, and despite game strategies being allowed for quite some time, and quite a few books being made, there are no any featured books in [[Shelf:Electronic games]]. Therefore I think that once we get to the point where some books are really good, like this book is, we should nominate them to serve as an example for others. -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 17:56, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :I think there are still many improvements to be made . ::'''KIV''' - Supposedly in this Wikibooks page [[Minecraft Speedrunning/Shipwrecks]], it is mentioned there are three chest but assuming that the locations is fixed, it should specify WHERE the chests are. Or better need to add pictures. These are my two cents. In my opinion KIV until the author address this for all pages. [[User:MrAlanKoh|MrAlanKoh]] ([[User talk:MrAlanKoh|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MrAlanKoh|contribs]]) 07:51, 31 July 2022 (UTC) ::The shipwreck issue has been resolved. Though this isn't a book im an expert at (never done a speedrun. I play slowly and just enjoy the ride). ^{[[User:L10nM4st3r|<span style="color:orange">L10nM4st3r</span>]]} / _{[[meta:User_talk:L10nM4st3r|<span tyle="color:#fed8b1">Roar at me</span>]]} 21:16, 7 August 2022 (UTC) :Therefore I think that once we get to the point where some books are really good, like this book is, we should nominate them to serve as an example for others. -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] From Middle English Wikipedia 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 17:56, 17 January 2022 (UTC)[<nowiki/>[[Wikibooks:Featured books/Nominations|reply]]] [[Special:Contributions/204.157.172.96|204.157.172.96]] ([[User talk:204.157.172.96|discuss]]) 19:35, 15 August 2023 (UTC) == [[Wikijunior:The Elements]] == {{closed|The formatting here appears to be a mess, but regardless, there is no consensus to implement this on the featured books. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 17:51, 11 July 2026 (UTC)}} :[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|15px]] '''Support''' - well laid out, good content, great narrative. The book "Wikijunior:The Elements" is suitable for this target group and has an appropriate and consistent definition. There is comprehensive information about the chemical elements and each chemical element has a chapter. This makes it a fairly thick book. It is up to date and also takes into account the new elements. It is accurate, comprehensive, and concise enough to effectively teach and learn from in its current state. Of course, further interesting information can be added to all elements. [[User:Wikiwau|Wikiwau]] ([[User talk:Wikiwau|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Wikiwau|contribs]]) 08:24, 24 July 2023 (UTC) Suggestion for the entry: Wikijunior: The Elements [[Image:The Elements.jpg|150px]] The target of [[Wikijunior:The Elements]] are children. The periodic table of the elements is a way of organizing all the known elements. The elements are grouped on the basis of their properties, it becomes easy to study and compare their properties. *{{oppose}}: some chapters have [[Wikijunior:The_Elements/Cesium#Where is it found?|empty sections]] and I have no idea why [[Wikijunior:The Elements/Strange Element|this poor explanation of neutrons]] is included here and presented as a "strange element". It's a poor explanation because it doesn't mention atoms at all, or protons, so leaves the reader thinking neutrons are just these ''things'' that exist ''somewhere.'' <s>Most, if not all the reference sections are empty.</s> <ins>''My apologies, many featured Wikijunior books do not have references, so this is common practice on Wikibooks.''</ins> Each chapter is extremely brief and sometimes, such as at [[Wikijunior:The Elements/Rare Elements]], the images are confusingly laid-out. Overall, this is not the kind of book that I think ought to be featured on the main page. [[User:Cremastra|Cremastra]] ([[User talk:Cremastra|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cremastra|contribs]]) 00:57, 27 June 2024 (UTC) :[[Wikibooks:Featured books/Nominations]]@[[User:Cremastra|Cremastra]] [[Special:Contributions/1.46.150.177|1.46.150.177]] ([[User talk:1.46.150.177|discuss]]) 21:50, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::@[[User:Wikiwau|Wikiwau]] [[Special:Contributions/1.46.150.177|1.46.150.177]] ([[User talk:1.46.150.177|discuss]]) 21:50, 7 February 2025 (UTC) ::Yes? [[User:Cremastra|Cremastra]] ([[User talk:Cremastra|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cremastra|contribs]]) 21:51, 7 February 2025 (UTC) {{end closed}} k9uudt4zbvb6q0js6z9427zk5005df7 4 113881 4654042 4529523 2026-07-11T18:06:06Z Koavf 16549 /* Wikijunior */ 4654042 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Wikibooks:Featured books/Nav}} This page contains {{tl|Goodbook}} templates for the featured books. These templates can be used on the main page to advertise these books. The templates can be edited here and included in other locations. <inputbox> type = create buttonlabel= Create default = Template:Goodbook/ preload = Template:Goodbook/Blank editintro = Template:Goodbook/Editintro break = no width = 40 </inputbox></noinclude> <!-- ADD LAST THREE PROMOTED BOOKS HERE (AS WELL AS TO SECTIONS BELOW) --> === New featured books === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Our latest|body= <table cellpadding="5"> <tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/OpenSSH|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Linear Algebra|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3|edit=1}} {{col-end}} </td></tr> </table> }} <!-- Humanities --> === Humanities === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Humanities]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/European History|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Guitar|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/New Zealand History|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{col-end}} </td></tr></table> }} <!-- Languages --> === Languages === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Languages]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Latin|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Miskito|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Spanish|edit=1}} {{col-end}} </td></tr></table> }} <!-- Social sciences --> === Social sciences === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Social sciences]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Applications of ICT in Libraries|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Blended Learning in K-12|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Communication Theory|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Consciousness Studies|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Elements of Political Communication|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/European History|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Introduction to Paleoanthropology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Introduction to Sociology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Learning Theories|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Lucid Dreaming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Managing Groups and Teams|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/New Zealand History|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Stuttering|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/UK Constitution and Government|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Zine Making|edit=1}} {{col-end}} <td><tr></table> }} <!-- Science, mathematics, and engineering --> === Science, mathematics, and engineering === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Science]], [[Department:Mathematics]], or [[Department:Engineering]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Acoustics|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Anatomy and Physiology of Animals|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Control Systems|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Engineering Acoustics|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/First Aid|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Formal Logic|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Fundamentals of Transportation|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/High School Mathematics Extensions|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Historical Geology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Human Physiology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Linear Algebra|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Physics Study Guide|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Proteomics|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Radiation Oncology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Special Relativity|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/This Quantum World|edit=1}} {{col-end}} </td></tr></table> }} <!-- Computing --> === Computing === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Computing]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Ada Programming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Algorithms|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Blender 3D: Noob to Pro|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/C Programming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/C Sharp Programming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Haskell|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/How To Assemble A Desktop PC|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/X86 Disassembly|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Knowing Knoppix|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/LaTeX|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 2.6|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/OpenSSH|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/UNDP-APDIP Books|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/XML - 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These templates can be used on the main page to advertise these books. The templates can be edited here and included in other locations. <inputbox> type = create buttonlabel= Create default = Template:Goodbook/ preload = Template:Goodbook/Blank editintro = Template:Goodbook/Editintro break = no width = 40 </inputbox></noinclude> <!-- ADD LAST THREE PROMOTED BOOKS HERE (AS WELL AS TO SECTIONS BELOW) --> === New featured books === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Our latest|body= <table cellpadding="5"> <tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/OpenSSH|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Linear Algebra|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3|edit=1}} {{col-end}} </td></tr> </table> }} <!-- Humanities --> === Humanities === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Humanities]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/European History|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Guitar|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Muggles' Guide to Harry Potter|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/New Zealand History|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{col-end}} </td></tr></table> }} <!-- Languages --> === Languages === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Languages]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Latin|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Miskito|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Spanish|edit=1}} {{col-end}} </td></tr></table> }} <!-- Social sciences --> === Social sciences === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Social sciences]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Applications of ICT in Libraries|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Blended Learning in K-12|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Communication Theory|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Consciousness Studies|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Elements of Political Communication|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/European History|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Introduction to Paleoanthropology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Introduction to Sociology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Learning Theories|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Lucid Dreaming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Managing Groups and Teams|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/New Zealand History|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Stuttering|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/UK Constitution and Government|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Zine Making|edit=1}} {{col-end}} <td><tr></table> }} <!-- Science, mathematics, and engineering --> === Science, mathematics, and engineering === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Science]], [[Department:Mathematics]], or [[Department:Engineering]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Acoustics|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Anatomy and Physiology of Animals|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Basic Physics of Nuclear Medicine|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Control Systems|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Engineering Acoustics|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/First Aid|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Formal Logic|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Fundamentals of Transportation|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/High School Mathematics Extensions|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Historical Geology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Human Physiology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Linear Algebra|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Physics Study Guide|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Proteomics|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Radiation Oncology|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Special Relativity|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/This Quantum World|edit=1}} {{col-end}} </td></tr></table> }} <!-- Computing --> === Computing === {{dynamic navigation|expand=yes|title=Visit [[Department:Computing]] to find even more.|body= <table cellpadding="5"><tr><td> {{col-begin}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Ada Programming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Algorithms|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Blender 3D: Noob to Pro|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/C Programming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/C Sharp Programming|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Haskell|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/How To Assemble A Desktop PC|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/X86 Disassembly|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Knowing Knoppix|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/LaTeX|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 2.6|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/OpenSSH|edit=1}} {{col-3}} {{Goodbook/Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/UNDP-APDIP Books|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/Write Yourself a Scheme in 48 Hours|edit=1}} {{Goodbook/XML - 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Announced in August 2006, it combines a number of anticipated improvements along with a few genuine surprises. Most people won’t be surprised to learn the 400D / XTi now features a larger 2.5in screen and Canon’s Picture Styles, but following the earlier EOS 30D, many equally expected the new entry-level body to employ the same sensor as its predecessor. But instead of re-using the 350D / XT’s 8 Megapixel sensor, Canon’s developed a brand new 10.1 Megapixel CMOS sensor for the 400D / XTi. This makes it Canon’s highest resolution digital SLR with an EF-S lens mount to date. In addition the EOS 400D / Rebel XTi is the first Canon digital SLR to feature a self-cleaning sensor which shakes off dust particles. Reference frames can also be tagged to images for automatic removal of more stubborn dust particles later using supplied software. Following the design of the Canon 350D, the Canon 400D (Digital Rebel XTi) is very compact, relatively lightweight, and compromises little on manual controls and in-use performance. '''Summary of changes (compared to the EOS 350D / Digital Rebel XT)''' - 10.1 megapixel CMOS sensor with improved microlens array, fill factor and lower noise - EOS Integrated Cleaning System - Anti-static coatings on sensor surfaces plus anti-dust materials in the camera body - Separate low pass filter with ultra-sonic vibration - Software based dust mapping / removal - Nine point Auto Focus sensor (same as EOS 30D) with F2.8 support - Continuous shooting burst up to 27 JPEG and 10 RAW images - Single large, bright, 2.5" LCD monitor with 160° viewing angles (horizontal and vertical) - Camera settings and adjustment on LCD monitor - Proximity sensor below viewfinder eyepiece to disable the LCD during composition - New viewfinder view includes 9 AF points as well as EOS 30D style status bar - Picture Styles, larger range of image parameter adjustment (same as EOS 30D) - Improved user interface - Image magnification available in record review - Histogram available as brightness (Luminance) or RGB (Red, Green, Blue) - Three settings for long exposure noise reduction (adds Auto option) - Auto rotation with three options (not recorded, record don't rotate, record and rotate) - Additional custom functions (magnified view in record review, LCD display at power on) - Up to 9999 images per folder on storage card - Automatic storage of setting adjustments (no longer requires a press of the SET button) - Improved print / share / direct print features - Lower introductory list price ($100 lower) {{BookCat}} jvf83e934zrqdr1vfmbphfthv2boypr 0 117339 4654078 4428127 2026-07-11T19:15:15Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654078 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Hortibox|Strawberries | Image = StrawberryWatercolor.jpg | Binomial = | Genus = Fragaria | Family = Rosaceae | Variety = | Type = Perennials | Sun = | Water = | Soil = | USDA Hardiness Zone = | Sunset Zone = | Propagation = | Pruning season = | Pruning tolerance = | Forcing = | Transplant = Transplanted easily | Pest issues = Some serious | Disease issues = | Bloom season = | Fruit season = | Sowing methods = | Harvest = | Storage = | Weediness = | Pollination = | Seed Dispersal = | Germination Time = | Germination Signal = | Ripe Seed = | Seed Banking = | Vegetative Spread = | Allelopathy = | Group = | Sowing time = | Days to germination = | Days to baby = | Days to maturity = | Bolting = | Flat cropping = | Planting depth = | Plant spacing = | Row spacing = | Seed collection = | Height and spread = | Root = Rhizomes, spreading by stolons. | Growth rate = | Shade cast = | Underplanting = | Toxicity and edibility = Fruits are edible, most are sweet. }} The '''strawberry''' (''Fragaria'') is a genus of plants in the family Rosaceae, and the fruit of these plants. There are more than 20 named species and many hybrids and cultivars. The most common strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the Garden strawberry, ''[[../Fragaria x ananassa/]]''. The typical modern strawberry grown as a food crop comes from the Americas, and is a hybrid of both north and South American varieties. Ironically, the crossbreeding was done in Europe to correct a mistake; the European horticulturists had only brought female South American plants, and were forced to cross them with the North American variety in order to get fruit and seeds. Fragaria comes from "fragans", meaning odorous, an allusion to the perfumed flesh of the fruit. Madam Tallien, a great figure of the French Revolution, who was nicknamed Our Lady of Thermidor, used to take baths full of strawberries to keep the full radiance of her skin. Fontenelle, centenarian writer and gourmet of the 18th century, considered his long life was due to the strawberries he used to eat. ==Description== The strawberry is an accessory fruit, meaning that the fleshy part is derived not from the ovaries (which are the "seeds", or achenes) but from the peg at the bottom of the hypanthium that held the ovaries. So from a technical standpoint, the seeds are the actual fruits of the plant, and the flesh of the strawberry is modified receptacle tissue. It is greenish-white as it develops and in most species turns red when ripe. ==Growing Conditions== <!--sun, soil, etc.--> ==Varieties== There are more than 20 different ''Fragaria'' species worldwide. Key to the classification of strawberry species is recognizing that they vary in the number of chromosomes. There are seven basic types of chromosomes that they all have in common. However, they exhibit different polyploidy. Some species are diploid, having two sets of the seven chromosomes (14 chromosomes total). Others are tetraploid (four sets, 28 chromosomes total), hexaploid (six sets, 42 chromosomes total), octoploid (eight sets, 56 chromosomes total), or decaploid (ten sets, 70 chromosomes total). As a rough rule (with exceptions), strawberry species with more chromosomes tend to be more robust and produce larger plants with larger berries (Darrow). ;Diploid species [[Image:Fragaria_vesca_2.jpg|thumb|right|Woodland Strawberry, ''Fragaria vesca'']] *''[[../Fragaria daltoniana/]]'' *''[[../Fragaria iinumae/]]'' *''[[../Fragaria nilgerrensis/]]'' *''[[../Fragaria nipponica/]]'' *''[[../Fragaria nubicola/]]'' *''[[../Fragaria vesca/]]'' (Woodland Strawberry) *''[[../Fragaria viridis/]]'' *''[[../Fragaria yezoensis/]]'' ;Tetraploid species *''[[../Fragaria moupinensis/]]'' *''[[../Fragaria orientalis/]]'' ;Hexaploid species *''[[../Fragaria moschata/]]'' (Musk Strawberry) ;Octoploid species and hybrids *[[../Fragaria x ananassa/]] (Garden Strawberry) *[[../Fragaria chiloensis/]] (Beach Strawberry) *[[../Fragaria iturupensis/]] (Iturup Strawberry) *[[../Fragaria virginiana/]] (Virginia Strawberry) ;Decaploid species and hybrids *[[../Fragaria × Potentilla hybrids/]] *''[[../Fragaria × vescana/]]'' Numerous other species have been proposed. Some are now recognized as subspecies of one of the above species (see GRIN taxonomy database). The Mock Strawberry and Barren Strawberry, which both bear resemblance to ''Fragaria'', are closely related species in the genus ''[[../Potentilla/]]''. The Strawberry tree is an unrelated species. ==Uses== <!--Ornamental uses, food crop, material use (lumber, cut flower), etc.--> ==Maintenance== <!--discuss any special maintenance concerns, such as pruning, transplanting, monitoring, etc.--> ==Propagation== <!--discuss propagation--> ==Harvest== <!--Discuss harvesting and storage--> ==Pests and Diseases== '''[[../Leaf Spots/]]''' '''[[../Gray Mold/]]''' '''[[../White Mold/]]''' *''[[../Sclerotinia/]]'' '''[[../Nutrient Deficiencies/]]''' *Boron Deficiency '''[[../Aphids/]]''' *Melon Aphid: ''[[../Aphis gossypii/]]'' *Buckthorn Aphid: ''[[../Aphis nasturtii/]]'' *Strawberry Aphid: ''[[../Chaetosiphon fragaefolii/]]'' '''[[../Spittlebugs/]]''' *Meadow Spittlebug: ''[[../Philaenus spumarius/]]'' '''[[../Bugs/]]''' *Tarnished Plant Bug: ''[[../Lygus lineolaris/]]'' '''[[../Earwigs/]]''' *European Earwig: ''[[../Forficula auricularia/]]'' '''[[../Thrips/]]''' *Western Flower Thrips: ''[[../Frankliniella occidentalis/]]'' '''[[../Beetles/]]''' *Fuller Rose Beetle: ''[[../Pantomorus cervinus/]]'' *Fourspotted Sap Beetle: ''[[../Glischrochilus quadrisignatus/]]'' *Hop Flea Beetle: ''[[../Psyllioides punctata/]]'' *Palestriped Flea Beetle: ''[[../Systena blanda/]]'' *Redheaded Flea Beetle: ''[[../Systena frontalis/]]'' *Strawberry Flea Beetle: ''[[../Altica ignata/]]'' *Strawberry Rootworm: ''[[../Paria fragariae/]]'' *Strawberry Sap Beetle: ''[[../Stelidota geminata/]]'' '''[[../Weevils/]]''' *Rough Strawberry Root Weevil:''[[../ Brachyrhinus rugostriatus/]]'' *Strawberry Root Weevil: ''[[../Otiorhynchus ovatus/]]'' *Strawberry Bud Weevil: ''[[../Anthonomus signatus/]]'' '''[[../Caterpillars/]]''' *Strawberry Leafroller: ''[[../Ancylis comptana fragariae/]]'' *Obliquebanded Leafroller: ''[[../Choristoneura rosaceana/]]'' *Stalk Borer: ''[[../Papaipema nebris/]]'' *Sparganothis Leafroller: ''[[../Sparganothis sulfureana/]]'' *Green Fruitworm: ''[[../Lithophane antennata/]]'' *Omnivorous Leaftier: ''[[../Cnephasia longana/]]'' *Redbanded Leafroller: ''[[../Platymota stultana/]]'' *Strawberry Crown Borer: ''[[../Synanthedon bibionipennis/]]'' *Strawberry Crownminer: ''[[../Monochroa fragariae/]]'' *Variegated Leafroller: ''[[../Platynota flavedana/]]'' '''[[../Mites/]]''' *Cyclamen Mite: ''[[../Steneotarsonemus pallidus/]]'' '''[[../Millipedes/]]''' '''[[../Slugs and Snails/]]''' ==Gallery== <gallery class="center"> Image:Strawberry surface closeup.jpg|Closeup of the surface of a strawberry Image:Strawberry flower.jpg|Strawberry flowers and developing fruit Image:Strawberries picked.jpg|Harvested strawberries Image:Wild strawberries on straw.jpg|The traditional North European way of gathering strawberries Image:Whole_wild_strawberry_plant_UK_2006.JPG|A wild strawberry plant, showing characteristic shape Image:Strawberrypollination2102.JPG|Strawberry farms generally add hives of honeybees to improve pollination Image:Giant_strawberry.JPG|A large strawberry. Image:Strawberry farm in DaHu Taiwan.JPG|Strawberry farm in DaHu, Taiwan </gallery> ==References== {{commons|{{SUBPAGENAME}}}} *{{cite book |last= Ann Fowler Rhoads and Timothy A. Block|first= | authorlink= |editor= |others= Anna Anisko, illustrator|title= The Plants of Pennsylvania: An Illustrated Manual|edition= |year= 2000|publisher= Morris Arboretum, University of Pennsylvania Press|pages=605–606 }} *{{cite book |last= P. D. Strausbaugh and Earl L. Core|first= | authorlink= |editor= |others= |title= Flora of West Virginia|edition= Second|year= 1977|publisher= Seneca Books, Grantsville, W. Virginia|pages=490–493 }} *{{cite book |last= Christopher Brickell and Judith D. Zuk|first= | authorlink= |editor= |others= |title= The American Horticultural Society A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants |edition= |year= 1997|publisher= DK Publishing|pages=443 }} *{{cite book |last= Staff of the L. H. Bailey Hortorium|first= | authorlink= |editor= |others= |title= Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada|edition= |year= 1976|publisher= Cornell University Press|pages=484 }} *{{cite book |last=Cranshaw |first=Whitney | authorlink= |editor= |others= |title=Garden Insects of North America: The Ultimate Guide to Backyard Bugs|edition= |year=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=596 }} *{{cite book |last= Pippa Greenwood, Andrew Halstead, A.R. Chase, Daniel Gilrein|first= | authorlink= |editor= |others= |title=American Horticultural Society Pests & Diseases: The Complete Guide to Preventing, Identifying, and Treating Plant Problems |edition= First Edition|year=2000 |publisher= Dorling Kindersley (DK) Publishing, inc.|pages=205 }} *Darrow, George M. The Strawberry: History, Breeding and Physiology. New York. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. [http://www.nalusda.gov/pgdic/Strawberry/darpubs.htm Available online]. *[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cor/fragaria/frainfo.html List of Fragaria resources, USDA] *[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/tax_search.pl?Fragaria GRIN Fragaria Taxonomy Database] Listing of ''Fragaria'' species, also from a USDA website *[http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Fragraria_vesca Medicinal uses of strawberries in Armenia] *[http://www.chilebosque.cl/herb/fchilo.html ''Fragaria chiloensis'' pictures from ''Chilebosque''] *[http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/selectnewpest.strawberry.html Strawberry pest management guidelines] *[http://physics.bu.edu/~larcy/Fragaria/index.html Crossing of cv. 'Mieze Schindler' with cv. 'Elsanta'] <references/> {{Horticat (add "y" where applicable)| | taxa level (family, genus, species, variety) = | large tree = | small tree = | large shrub = | small shrub = | woody vine = | herbaceous vine = | herbaceous plant = | herbaceous ground cover = | woody ground cover = | aquatic = | evergreen = | ephemeral = | spring flowers = | summer flowers = | fall flowers = | winter flowers = | weedy or aggressive = | perennial = y | annual = | biennial = | full shade = | part shade = | full sun = | drought tolerant = | wet soil tolerant = | quality nectar source = | attracts songbirds = | attracts hummingbirds = | attracts butterflies = | fruit or vegetable = y | culinary herb = | edible flower = | medicinal uses = | good for cut flowers = | good for cut fruit = | good for dried cut flowers = | good fragrance = | pest and disease resistant = | deer resistant = | frequently deer browsed = | North America native = | North America invasive = | South America native = | South America invasive = | Europe native = | Europe invasive = | Asia native = | Asia invasive = | Africa native = | Africa invasive = | Australia native = | Australia invasive = | USDA 1 = | USDA 2 = | USDA 3 = | USDA 4 = | USDA 5 = | USDA 6 = | USDA 7 = | USDA 8 = | USDA 9 = | USDA 10 = | USDA 11 = | USDA 12 = | white flowers = | pink flowers = | red flowers = | orange flowers = | yellow flowers = | green flowers = | blue flowers = | purple flowers = | brown flowers = | black flowers = | poisonous to humans = | poisonous to livestock or pets = }} ata82a0ovzjfteqs2g79g7u8f82lp6r 0 119426 4654121 4652436 2026-07-11T19:21:37Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654121 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikipedia|molecular geometry}} '''The shapes of molecules''' is the title of Section 3.3 in ''Chemical Ideas'' and it covers the topic of '''molecular geometry'''. == Introductory examples == === Methane molecule === <gallery class="center"> Image:Methane-2D-dot-cross.png|<div style="text-align: center;">dot-cross diagram</div> Image:Methan Lewis.svg|<div style="text-align: center;">bond-line diagram</div> Image:Methane-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">ball-and-stick model</div> </gallery> === Ammonia molecule === <gallery class="center"> Image:Ammonia-2D-dot-cross.png|<div style="text-align: center;">dot-cross diagram</div> Image:Ammonia-2D-flat.png|<div style="text-align: center;">bond-line diagram</div> Image:Ammonia-with-lone-pairs-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">ball-and-stick model with lone pairs displayed</div> Image:Ammonia-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">ball-and-stick model without lone pairs displayed</div> </gallery> === Water molecule === <gallery class="center"> Image:Water-2D-dot-cross.png|<div style="text-align: center;">dot-cross diagram</div> Image:Water with 4 single electrons.svg|<div style="text-align: center;">bond-line diagram</div> Image:Water-with-lone-pairs-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">ball-and-stick model with lone pairs displayed</div> Image:Water-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">ball-and-stick model without lone pairs displayed</div> </gallery> === Hydrogen fluoride molecule === <gallery class="center"> Image:Hydrogen-fluoride-2D-dot-cross.png|<div style="text-align: center;">dot-cross diagram</div> Image:Hydrogen-fluoride-2D-flat.png|<div style="text-align: center;">bond-line diagram</div> Image:Hydrogen-fluoride-with-lone-pairs-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">ball-and-stick model with lone pairs displayed</div> Image:Hydrogen-fluoride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">ball-and-stick model without lone pairs displayed</div> </gallery> == Polyhedra == === Tetrahedra === You have probably come across tetrahedra before in maths, although you most likely called them triangle-based pyramids. Tetrahedra have four vertices (corners), four faces and six edges. Each face is an equilateral triangle. The tetrahedron is one of the most important shapes in chemistry because a very great many molecules contain them. Tetrahedral molecules don't actually contain little pyramids. What they do contain is a central atom bonded to four other atoms. The four atoms surrounding the central atom occupy positions that you can imagine as the vertices of a tetrahedron. In the image gallery below, the central atom is coloured magenta and the surrounding atoms are coloured white. <gallery class="center"> Image:Tetrahedron-1-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">a tetrahedral molecule</div> Image:Tetrahedron-2-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">to see the tetrahedron, connect the surrounding atoms with lines</div> Image:Tetrahedron-3-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">the lines form the edges of the tetrahedron</div> Image:Tetrahedron-4-3D-balls.png Image:Tetrahedral-angle-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral angle ≈ 109.5°</div> Image:AX4E0-2D.svg|<div style="text-align: center;">chemists represent tetrahedra using hashed and wedged bonds</div> Image:Methane-2D-small.png|<div style="text-align: center;">this is how chemists represent methane</div> Image:Methane-2D-flat-small.png|<div style="text-align: center;">this 'flat' representation - GCSE-style - is simpler but less realistic</div> </gallery> The angle between any two bonds in a tetrahedral molecule is approximately 109.5°. The tetrahedral angle can be calculated as accurately as required because it is equal to cos⁻¹(–⅓). === Octahedra === You may or may not have met an octahedron before. Octahedra have six vertices (corners), eight faces and twelve edges. Each face is an equilateral triangle. Octahedra are very important in chemistry because many [[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Complexes|transition metal-based molecules]] are octahedral. <gallery class="center"> Image:Octahedron-1-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">an octahedral molecule</div> Image:Octahedron-2-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">to see the octahedron, connect the surrounding atoms with lines</div> Image:Octahedron-3-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">the lines form the edges of the octahedron</div> Image:Octahedron-4-3D-balls.png Image:Octahedral-angle-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral angle = 90° exactly</div> Image:AX6E0-2D.svg|<div style="text-align: center;">chemists represent octahedra using hashed and wedged bonds</div> Image:Sulfur-hexafluoride-2D-small.svg|<div style="text-align: center;">this is how chemists represent sulfur hexafluoride, SF₆</div> Image:Sulfur-hexafluoride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">a ball-and-stick model of SF₆</div> </gallery> == Common molecular geometries == <gallery class="center"> Image:Linear-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear</div> Image:Bent-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">bent</div> Image:Trigonal-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar</div> Image:Pyramidal-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">pyramidal</div> Image:Square-planar-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">square planar</div> Image:Tetrahedral-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral</div> Image:Trigonal-bipyramidal-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal bipyramidal</div> Image:Octahedral-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral</div> </gallery> == Further examples == === Example molecules === <gallery class="center"> Image:Carbon-dioxide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear: CO₂</div> Image:Hydrogen-sulfide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">bent: H₂S</div> Image:Boron-triiodide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar: BI₃</div> Image:Ammonia-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">pyramidal: NH₃</div> Image:Xenon-tetrafluoride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">square planar: XeF₄</div> Image:Methane-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral: CH₄</div> Image:Phosphorus-pentachloride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal bipyramidal: [[w:phosphorus pentachloride|PCl₅]]</div> Image:Sulfur-hexafluoride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral: [[w:sulfur hexafluoride|SF₆]]</div> </gallery> === Example ions === <gallery class="center"> Image:Hydroxide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear:<br>[[w:hydroxide|hydroxide]], OH⁻</div> Image:Carbonate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar:<br>[[w:carbonate|carbonate]], CO₃²⁻</div> Image:Nitrate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar:<br>[[w:nitrate|nitrate]], NO₃⁻</div> Image:Hydronium-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal pyramidal:<br>[[w:hydronium|hydronium]], H₃O⁺</div> Image:Thiosulfate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:thiosulfate|thiosulfate]], S₂O₃²⁻</div> Image:Sulfate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:sulfate|sulfate]], SO₄²⁻</div> Image:Phosphate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:phosphate|phosphate]], PO₄³⁻</div> Image:Ammonium-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:ammonium|ammonium]], NH₄⁺</div> </gallery> == Molecular geometry and lone pairs == You can use the so-called ''AXE method'' to calculate the shape of a molecule. It is based on molecules that have a central atom, which we label A. Atoms or groups bonded to A are labelled X. Lone pairs are labelled E. A molecule with three lone pairs and two atoms/groups bonded to it would be denoted AX₂E₃. The table below shows how X and E and molecular shape are related. Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) is used to predict the shape of a molecule once X and E are known. This sounds more complicated than it is. You consider any X's and E's to be regions of charge that position themselves as far apart from each other as possible, in order to minimize the forces of electrostatic repulsion between each other. {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! AXE label ! X<br><small>(substituents)</small> ! E<br><small>(lone pairs)</small> ! Shape ! 2D diagram<br><small>lone pairs shown</small> ! 2D diagram <br><small>lone pairs not shown</small> ! 3D model<br><small>lone pairs shown</small> ! 3D model<br><small>lone pairs not shown</small> ! Examples |- ! AX₁E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Linear | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:dihydrogen|H₂]] |- ! AX₁E₁ | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | Linear | [[Image:AX1E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:cyanide|CN⁻]] |- ! AX₁E₂ | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | Linear | [[Image:AX1E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:allotropes of oxygen#dioxygen|O₂]] |- ! AX₁E₃ | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">3</div> | Linear | [[Image:AX1E3-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E3-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:hydrogen chloride|HCl]] |- ! AX₂E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Linear | [[Image:AX2E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Linear-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:beryllium chloride|BeCl₂]]<br>[[w:mercury(II) chloride|HgCl₂]]<br>[[w:carbon dioxide|CO₂]] |- ! AX₂E₁ | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | Bent | [[Image:AX2E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2-bent-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Bent-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:nitrite|NO₂⁻]]<br>[[w:sulfur dioxide|SO₂]]<br>[[w:ozone|O₃]] |- ! AX₂E₂ | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | Bent | [[Image:AX2E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2-bent-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Bent-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:water (molecule)|H₂O]]<br>[[w:hydrogen sulfide|H₂S]]<br>[[w:oxygen difluoride|OF₂]] |- ! AX₂E₃ | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">3</div> | Linear | [[Image:AX2E3-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E3-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Linear-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:xenon difluoride|XeF₂]]<br>[[w:triiodide|I₃⁻]] |- ! AX₃E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">3</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Trigonal planar | [[Image:AX3E0-side-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E0-side-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Trigonal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:boron trifluoride|BF₃]]<br>[[w:carbonate|CO₃²⁻]]<br>[[w:nitrate|NO₃⁻]]<br>[[w:sulfur trioxide|SO₃]] |- ! AX₃E₁ | <div style="text-align: center;">3</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | Trigonal pyramidal | [[Image:AX3E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3-pyramidal-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Pyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:ammonia|NH₃]]<br>[[w:phosphorus trichloride|PCl₃]] |- ! AX₃E₂ | <div style="text-align: center;">3</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | T-shaped | [[Image:AX3E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3-T-shaped-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:T-shaped-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:chlorine trifluoride|ClF₃]]<br>[[w:bromine trifluoride|BrF₃]] |- ! AX₄E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">4</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Tetrahedral | [[Image:AX4E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Tetrahedral-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:methane|CH₄]]<br>[[w:ammonium|NH₄⁺]]<br>[[w:phosphate|PO₄³⁻]]<br>[[w:sulfate|SO₄²⁻]]<br>[[w:perchlorate|ClO₄⁻]] |- ! AX₄E₁ | <div style="text-align: center;">4</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | Seesaw | [[Image:AX4E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4-seesaw-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Seesaw-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:sulfur tetrafluoride|SF₄]] |- ! AX₄E₂ | <div style="text-align: center;">4</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | Square Planar | [[Image:AX4E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4-square-planar-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Square-planar-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:xenon tetrafluoride|XeF₄]] |- ! AX₅E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">5</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Trigonal Bipyramidal | [[Image:AX5E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX5E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:Trigonal-bipyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Trigonal-bipyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:phosphorus pentachloride|PCl₅]] |- ! AX₅E₁ | <div style="text-align: center;">5</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | Square pyramidal | [[Image:AX5E1-2D-1.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX5-square-pyramidal-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX5E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Square-pyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:chlorine pentafluoride|ClF₅]]<br>[[w:bromine pentafluoride|BrF₅]] |- ! AX₅E₂ | <div style="text-align: center;">5</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">2</div> | Pentagonal planar | [[Image:AX5E2-2D.png|100px]] | | [[Image:AX5E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Pentagonal-planar-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:tetramethylammonium pentafluoroxenate|XeF₅^-]] |- ! AX₆E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">6</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Octahedral | [[Image:AX6E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX6E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX6E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Octahedral-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:sulfur hexafluoride|SF₆]] |- ! AX₆E₁ | <div style="text-align: center;">6</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | Pentagonal pyramidal | [[Image:AX6E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX6-pentagonal-pyramidal-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX6E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Pentagonal-pyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | IF₆^- |- ! AX₇E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">7</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Pentagonal bipyramidal | [[Image:AX7E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX7E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX7E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Pentagonal-bipyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:iodine heptafluoride|IF₇]] |- ! AX₈E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">8</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Square antiprismatic | | | [[Image:AX8E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Square-antiprismatic-3D-balls.png|100px]] | IF₈^- |- ! AX₈E₁ | <div style="text-align: center;">8</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">1</div> | Distorted square antiprismatic | | | | [[Image:Square-antiprismatic-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:nitrosonium octafluoroxenate(VI)|XeF₈^2-]] |- ! AX₉E₀ | <div style="text-align: center;">9</div> | <div style="text-align: center;">0</div> | Tricapped trigonal prismatic OR capped square antiprismatic | | | [[Image:AX9E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX9E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:potassium nonahydridorhenate|ReH₉^2-]] (tricapped trigonal prismatic) |} {{BookCat}} 3c67ajqtj8c2550femgffian0dnqg3d 0 119428 4654064 4644534 2026-07-11T19:06:32Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654064 wikitext text/x-wiki A '''complex''' is a compound in which a central metal atom is surrounded ligands that form dative covalent bonds with it. Complexes are discussed in ''Chemical Ideas'' Section 11.6: ''The d block: complex formation''. == Examples of complex geometry == <gallery class="center"> Image:Diamminesilver(I)-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear:<br>[[w:Tollens' reagent|diamminesilver(I)]], [Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺</div> Image:Dicyanoaurate(I)-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear:<br>[[w:gold cyanidation|dicyanoaurate(I)]], [Au(CN)₂]⁻</div> Image:Tetrachloronickelate(II)-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:nickel(II) chloride#Coordination chemistry|tetrachloronickelate(II)]], [NiCl₄]²⁻</div> Image:Nickel-tetracarbonyl-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:nickel carbonyl|tetracarbonylnickel]], Ni(CO)₄</div> Image:Borohydride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:borohydride|tetrahydridoborate(III)]], [BH₄]⁻</div> Image:Tetrahydroxozincate(II)-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>tetrahydroxozincate(II), [Zn(OH)₄]²⁻</div> Image:Tetraamminecopper(II)-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">square planar:<br>[[w:ammine|tetraamminecopper(II)]], [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺</div> Image:Tetracyanonickelate(II)-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">square planar:<br>[[w:cyanide|tetracyanonickelate(II)]], [Ni(CN)₄]²⁻</div> Image:Cisplatin-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">square planar:<br>[[w:cisplatin|cisplatin, ''cis''-diamminedichloroplatinum(II)]], PtCl₂(NH₃)₂</div> Image:Hexaaquacopper(II)-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral:<br>[[w:metal aquo complex|hexaaquacopper(II)]], [Cu(H₂O)₆]²⁺</div> Image:Ferricyanide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral:<br>[[w:ferricyanide|hexacyanoiron(III)]], [Fe(CN)₆]³⁻</div> </gallery> == Why are transition metal complexes usually coloured? == You might like to look at [[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Spectroscopy|the spectroscopy page]] to remind yourself of how and why light interacts with electrons in molecules. You could also have a look at [[A-level Chemistry/OCR (Salters)/Atomic orbitals|the atomic orbitals page]] to see what shape d orbitals are. === Partially-filled d orbitals split by ligands === In a nutshell, transition metal complexes are coloured because their central transition metal atoms have a '''partially-filled d subshell''' that is '''split''' by the surrounding '''ligands'''. ''Partially-filled'' means at least one d orbital is half-filled or empty '''and''' at least one d orbital is half-filled or full, i.e. that the d subshell contains between 1 and 9 electrons. ''Split'' means that the within the d subshell, there are now different energy levels, whereas without the ligands, the five d orbitals that make up the d subshell all have the same energy. ==== This is really a university-level topic ==== For the purpose of exams, students of Salters A-Level Chemistry are not required to understand how or why ligands cause the d subshell to split, just that it happens. Students who go on to study chemistry at university will learn about the interactions between metal atoms and ion with ligands in much greater detail, where they will encounter [[Wikipedia:Crystal field theory|crystal field theory]] (electrostatic effects of ligands on d orbitals) and [[Wikipedia:Ligand field theory|ligand field theory]] (covalent bonding of ligands to metal atoms and ions). ==== Ligands split d orbitals ==== [[Image:Electron-config-d0.png|thumb|200px|right|Without ligands, all five d orbitals have equal energy.]] A complex needs ligands to be coloured. Without ligands, all five d orbitals are equal in energy (''degenerate'' is a word often used here — it simply means ''of the same energy''). When ligands are present, some of the d orbitals become higher in energy than before, and some become lower. This happens because some of the d orbitals are nearer the ligands than others so they experience more repulsion from the ligand electrons and thus have a higher energy. ==== An empty d shell cannot absorb visible photons ==== [[Image:D-orbital-split-octahedral-empty-2D-wide.png|thumb|200px|right|Empty d shells have no electrons to absorb photons]] A coloured complex needs partially-filled d orbitals. Empty d orbitals cannot produce colour because they lack electrons. Electrons are needed to move from a lower-energy d orbital to a higher-energy d-orbital by absorbing a photon of visible light. Complexes of Sc³⁺ are colourless because Sc³⁺ (electron configuration: [Ar]3s²3d⁰) has empty d orbitals. The same is also true of all elements that come before Ti in the periodic table — none of these have any electrons in their d orbitals. For instance, K has d orbitals but they are unoccupied and as such, complexes of K cannot absorb photons promoting a d electron from a d orbital to a higher energy one, since K doesn't have any d electrons. ==== A full d shell cannot absorb visible photons ==== [[Image:D-orbital-split-octahedral-full-2D-wide.png|thumb|200px|right|If all d orbitals are full, d electrons have nowhere to go once they gain energy.]] If a complex has an empty d shell, there are no electrons to move. If a complex has a full d shell, there are no vacancies in any d orbitals for an electron to move into. Complexes of Zn²⁺ and Cu⁺ (electron configuration: [Ar]3s²3d¹⁰) are colourless because the d orbitals of Zn²⁺ and Cu⁺ are full. === How do ligands split d orbitals? === We noted above that the presence of ligands around a transition metal atom or ion splits the five d orbitals into two groups, one group higher in energy and one group lower in energy than they were before the ligands arrived. ''Chemical Ideas'' p.&nbsp;271 offers a short and sweet explanation which is ideal for revision and exams. This section attempts to present a deeper explanation. It is more detailed than the ''Salters Advanced Chemistry'' specification requires, but this may be exactly what you want to know if you're interested. ==== Ligand electrons repel d electrons ==== Ligands have lone pairs of electrons that they use to bond to transition metal atoms or ions. The presence of these ligand electrons repels the transition metal's electrons in its d orbitals. The metal d electrons can't go anywhere to avoid the repulsion, so the only effect is that their energy increases. ==== Ligands affect different d orbitals differently ==== Ligands do not affect each of the five d orbitals to the same extent. A d orbital that brings its electrons close to the ligands will increase a great deal in energy. A d orbital occupies space away from the ligands will increase in energy a little, but not as much. As you can probably imagine, the exact positioning of the ligands determines which d orbitals they will affect the most. ==== Splitting in octahedral complexes ==== [[Image:D-orbital-split-octahedral-2D.png|thumb|right|200px|In an octahedral complex, two d orbitals become higher in energy and three become lower in energy. The two higher-energy d orbitals are given the label e_g and the three lower-energy d orbitals are labelled t_2g.]] In an octahedral complex, the d_z² and d_x²−y² orbitals are increased in energy the most. We refer to the d_z² and d_x²−y² orbitals collectively as the e_g d orbitals. The images below illustrate the orbitals d_z² (left) and d_x²−y² (right) and their positioning within an octahedral complex. The central transition metal atom or ion is grey, the six ligands are red and the orbitals are yellow. <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:ML6-3dz2-3D-phaseless.png|200px]] [[Image:ML6-3dx2-y2-3D-phaseless.png|200px]]</div> Let us continue to consider an octahedral complex. The remaining d orbitals, d_xy, d_xz and d_yz see their energy increase to a lesser extent. We refer to the d_xy, d_xz and d_yz orbitals collectively as the t_2g d orbitals. The images below illustrate these three orbitals in relation to the central metal atom and ligands in an octahedral complex. Compare these images of the t_2g orbitals with those of the e_g above. You may be able to see that the t_2g orbitals are, on average, further away from the ligands than the e_g orbitals. This is the reason for splitting. <div style="text-align: center;">[[Image:ML6-3dxy-3D-phaseless.png|200px]] [[Image:ML6-3dxz-3D-phaseless.png|200px]] [[Image:ML6-3dyz-3D-phaseless.png|200px]]</div> ==== Splitting in tetrahedral complexes ==== [[Image:D-orbital-split-tetrahedral-2D.png|thumb|right|200px|In a tetrahedral complex, three d orbitals increase in energy while two decrease. The three higher-energy d orbitals are given the label t₂ and the two lower-energy d orbitals are labelled e. This is the opposite order of energy to that found in octahedral complexes.]] In a tetrahedral complex, the d_xy, d_xz and d_yz orbitals are increased in energy the most. We refer to the d_xy, d_xz and d_yz orbitals collectively as the t₂ d orbitals. The remaining d orbitals, d_z² and d_x²−y², see their energy increase to a lesser extent. We refer to the d_z² and d_x²−y² orbitals collectively as the e d orbitals. === e_g and t_2g === You should know the labels e_g and t_2g; they are mathematical constructs derived from [[w:group theory|group theory]]. Chemists later borrowed the labels as they refer to the [[w:molecular symmetry|molecular symmetry]] and are useful for determining behavior, orbital splitting, and properties of molecules. {{BookCat}} 4nisqjf7xqzbontuxfl49epbmnn89wn 0 122225 4654071 3742301 2026-07-11T19:10:05Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654071 wikitext text/x-wiki {{msg:GeneralChemTOC|prev=Solids|next=Gases}} == Liquids at a Molecular Level == Liquids have some intermolecular bonding, but it isn't as strong as bonding in a solid. As a result, the molecules are close together, but they are not tightly packed. Instead, they are free to slide past each other. Liquids occur at temperatures above the ''melting point'' of a substance, but below its ''boiling point''. At the melting point, the molecules are moving slow enough to form rigid bonds and become a solid. At the boiling point, the molecules are moving so fast that they cannot form any bonds and become a gas. ==Characteristics of Liquids== [[Image:Dispersion.gif|thumb|Diffusion is the chaotic mixing of fluids. The jar on the left has warmer water.]] Liquids have '''definite volume''', but '''indefinite shape'''. They are free to form droplets and puddles when they are not inside a container. When a liquid is inside a container, it will take its shape. Unlike gases, a liquid will not change its volume to spread out and completely fill a container. There is enough intermolecular bonding to give liquids a definite volume. Liquids are '''fluid''', able to flow and take any shape. This occurs due to the weak intermolecular bonding that allows the molecules to slide past each other freely. As a result of being fluid, liquids exhibit many interesting properties that solids do not, including capillary action and diffusion. Liquids, like gases, undergo '''diffusion''' when mixed. This can be seen by adding food coloring to water. Different liquids, when added, will chaotically spread out and mix together. Diffusion will occur faster when the liquid is warmer because the increased kinetic energy allows the molecules to move faster and collide more frequently. Liquids are usually considered '''incompressible'''. The molecules are already close together, so it is difficult to compress them any more. Under very high pressures, liquids will actually compress, but not very much. Liquids, unlike gases, have a distinct '''surface'''—they need not take their container's shape. This allows the formation of droplets and puddles. == Special Properties == === Cohesion and Adhesion === [[Image:Spider web Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|Water droplets ''adhere'' to a spiderweb. Their round shape is caused by ''cohesion''.]] The molecules of a liquid are attracted to each other. This is called '''cohesion'''. Molecules like methane are non-polar, so they are held together only by van der Waals forces. These molecules will have minimal cohesion. In contrast, water molecules use hydrogen bonding, so they display strong cohesion. A cohesive liquid will form more spherical droplets and have much higher ''surface tension''. {{Wikipedia|Adhesion}} Adhesion is the attraction of a liquid molecule to its surroundings. Adhesive liquids will demonstrate ''capillary action''. They are also more "wet". Mercury is very cohesive, but not adhesive. As a result, it doesn't leave behind residue as it rolls across a surface. Water, on the other hand, is much more adhesive. When water rolls across a surface, it wets that surface because some of the molecules adhere to it. ===Surface Tension and Capillary Action=== When water drops are on an ''impermeable'' (waterproof) surface, they tend to form beads. This is due to its '''surface tension'''. Liquid molecules pull at each other, and as a result they decrease their surface area. The molecules at the boundary of the liquid are pulled in, causing a droplet shape. When water is on a ''permeable'' surface, it spreads out, as can be seen with water on a paper towel. This '''capillary action''' explains how water in the ground reaches the top of trees that are hundreds of feet tall. <gallery class="center"> Image:Capillary Attraction Repulsion (PSF).jpg|Adhesive liquids (like water but not mercury) will rise up a narrow tube. Image:WassermoleküleInTröpfchen.svg|Cohesive liquids have ''surface tension'' to hold themselves into droplets. </gallery> === Pressure === Liquids will distribute pressure evenly. This concept, known as ''Pascal's Law'', is crucial for equipment like hydraulic brakes. It is a result of their incompressibility. {{Helpful hint|hint=If there is no atmospheric pressure (a vacuum, like outer space), liquids cannot form.}} Liquids will '''evaporate'''. Although the average kinetic energy of the molecules is too low to overcome bonding and become a gas, individual molecules will occasionally have above-average energy and break free from the surface of the liquid. The molecule then escapes to the gas phase. At the same time, however, a gas molecule may hit the surface of the liquid and slow down enough to join the liquid. A glass of water left outside in the sun will eventually become empty. The sunlight adds energy to the molecules, allowing some to escape as a gas. Eventually, all molecules will escape. The tendency of a liquid to evaporate depends on its intermolecular forces. '''Volatile''' liquids tend to evaporate quickly have relatively weak intermolecular forces keeping the molecules together, making it easier for them to escape the liquid phase. Conversely, non-volatile liquids do not evaporate to any visible extent due to the presence very strong intermolecular forces. The evaporation increases with temperature. It can be measured by '''vapor pressure''', the amount of pressure exerted by the evaporated gas above the liquid's surface. Vapor pressure increases with temperature, and once it reaches the pressure of the surrounding atmosphere, the liquid will boil. Vapor pressure also depends on the intensity of intermolecular forces in the liquid. === Viscosity === '''Viscosity''' refers to the liquid's resistance to flow. For example, [[w:Maple syrup|maple syrup]] has a relatively high viscosity when compared to water because maple syrup flows much slower than water, which flows relatively quickly and easily. The difference in viscosity between these two liquids is due to the attractive forces within the specific liquid. In order to flow, molecules must roll and move over each other. A solution with low attractive forces would allow the molecules to move in a more free and easy manner, decreasing the viscosity. In most cases, the viscosity of a liquid decreases as the temperature of a liquid is increased. Increasing the temperature of a liquid causes the molecules to have a higher [[w:Kinetic energy|kinetic energy]]. This increase in kinetic energy breaks down the intermolecular forces present in the liquid. Since viscosity is dependent on these attractive forces, the viscosity will decrease when the kinetic energy is increased. {{BookCat}} d5dbcci0eu00sl69w6zn3uiauuyj6z7 0 122226 4654082 3174793 2026-07-11T19:16:23Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654082 wikitext text/x-wiki {{msg:GeneralChemTOC|prev=Phases of Matter|next=Liquids}} == Characteristics of Solids == '''Shape and volume''' are both definite in solids. Although solids have a rigid shape, a large amount of force can cause deformation to the structure of a solid. There are three types of deformation: {{TextBox|1= * ''Brittle'' deformation causes bonds to break in an irregular way. Shredding paper and shattering glass are good examples. * ''Elastic'' deformation is temporary. The molecules will return to their original positions as soon as the force is removed. Rubber bands and tires are elastic, as well as steel rods and wooden boards. * ''Plastic'' deformation is permanent. Plastic deformation can be observed by bending a metal spoon.}} [[Image:Ductility.svg|thumb|(a) Brittle; (b) and (c) shows ''ductility'']] Most materials are capable of all three types of deformation. Small amounts of stress cause elastic deformation, but large amounts will cause plastic deformation. In the event of repeated deformation or tremendous stress, brittle deformation occurs. Solids are '''incompressible'''. Solids may break or deform under stress, but they tolerate little compression. For instance, a wooden plank will break if force is applied, but it will not compress like a sponge. The only reason sponges compress is because they contain air pockets and undergo elastic deformation. Otherwise, solids will not compress. At the molecular level, this happens because the intermolecular bonds do not change size without breaking. Some solids, usually metals, have properties like '''ductility''' and '''malleability'''. A ductile material can be stretched into long, thin wires. A malleable substance can be hammered into very thin sheets. Gold and copper are some of the most malleable and ductile substances known. These properties occur as a result of the [[General Chemistry/Metallic bonds|metallic bonding]]. == Solids at the Molecular Level == Solids occur when there is enough intermolecular bonding to hold the molecules of a substance into a relatively rigid structure. The molecules are close together, and their movement is restricted to vibration. Solids occur at the lowest temperatures and highest pressures. As the temperature of a solid increases, so does the kinetic energy of its molecules. At the ''melting point'', the molecules have enough energy to overcome their bonds and '''melt''' into a liquid. Likewise, a liquid will '''freeze''' once its molecules are not moving fast enough to avoid strong intermolecular bonds. Compounds that have ionic bonding or metallic bonding are most likely to be found in the solid phase due to their high melting points. Also, covalent network substances (like diamond or quartz) are solids because the atoms are secured with covalent bonds, requiring extreme amounts of energy to separate them. === Types of Solids === {{Wikipedia|Crystal structure}} * '''Crystalline''' solids have a molecular structure with a specific geometric shape. The solid has a specific melting point at which all molecules begin to break free of their bonds. Substances like salt, diamond, and quartz are crystalline solids. These solids usually form by cooling a liquid slowly, so that the molecules have time to arrange themselves in a crystalline structure as their bonds form. * '''Amorphous''' solids have a molecular structure with no specific shape. The solid melts over a range of temperatures because the amount of energy needed to break the bonds varies from molecule to molecule. Substances like coal and glass are amorphous. Amorphous solids usually form when a liquid is cooled quickly, so there is no time for the molecules to arrange themselves into a crystal. Crystalline solids are typically harder and more rigid. Coal and diamond are both made from elemental carbon, but coal is amorphous and diamond is crystalline. Because of its crystal structure, diamond is one of the hardest substances known, whereas coal can be scratched away with a fingernail. The crystal structure also explains diamond's brilliant, transparent appearance. Coal is black and dull because the disorder of the atoms does not allow light to pass. {{Info|Ionic solids and metallic solids are always crystalline. Covalent network solids can be crystalline or amorphous. Van der Waals solids are always amorphous.}} === Packing and Unit Cells === [[Image:Sodium-chloride-unit-cell-3D-ionic.png|thumb|The unit cell of sodium chloride]] In crystalline solids, the atoms are arranged in a specific pattern. The smallest repeating part of this pattern is called the '''unit cell'''. The unit cell may have more atoms than the empirical formula of a substance because the geometric shape may require several atoms. In the case of sodium chloride, the empirical formula contains only two atoms, but the unit cell has 27 atoms. The molecules of a solid are ''close packed''. They arrange themselves in the densest shape possible. Usually, two different patterns occur. * ''Face-centered cubic'' or '''FCC''' * ''Hexagonal close-packed'' or '''HCP''' [[Image:ImgSalt.jpg|thumb|left|Halite, or rock salt, exhibits FCC packing.]] FCC crystals have three alternating layers, described as ABCABCABC (every third layer is the same). The layers are arranged so that each unit cell is halfway between the two unit cells above or below it. HCP crystals have two alternating layers, described as ABABABAB (every other layer is the same). <gallery class="center"> Image:Close-packed spheres.jpg|FCC lattice Image:Hexagonal close-packed unit cell.jpg|HCP lattice </gallery> {{BookCat}} 1c9fwvvkx1q7d82gbwhxi7osccldmit 0 133018 4654079 3740219 2026-07-11T19:15:40Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654079 wikitext text/x-wiki == Importance of Significant Figures == Significant figures (also called significant digits) are an important part of scientific and mathematical calculations, and deals with the accuracy and precision of numbers. It is important to estimate uncertainty in the final result, and this is where significant figures become very important. ===Precision and Accuracy=== Before discussing how to deal with significant figures one should discuss what precision and accuracy in relation to chemical experiments and engineering are. '''Precision''' refers to the reproducibility of results and measurements in an experiment, while '''accuracy''' refers to how close the value is to the actual or true value. Results can be both precise and accurate, neither precise nor accurate, precise and not accurate, or vice versa. The validity of the results increases as they are more accurate and precise. A useful analogy that helps distinguish the difference between accuracy and precision is the use of a target. The bullseye of the target represents the true value, while the holes made by each shot (each trial) represents the validity. <gallery class="center"> Image:Accuracy_and_precision-highprecisionlowaccuracy.png|High precision, but unfortunately low accuracy Image:Accuracy_and_precision-highaccuracylowprecision.png|High accuracy, but not very good precision </gallery> As the above images show, the first has a lot of holes (black spots) covering a small area. The small area represents a precise experiment, yet it seems that there is a faultiness within the experiment, most likely due to systematic error, rather than random error. The second image represents an accurate though imprecise experiment. The holes are near the bullseye, even "touching" or within, though the problem is that they are spread out. This could be due to random error, systematic error, or not being careful in measuring. === Counting Significant Figures === There are three preliminary rules to counting significant. They deal with non-zero numbers, zeros, and exact numbers. 1) ''Non-zero numbers'' - all non-zero numbers are considered significant figures 2) ''Zeros'' - there are three different types of zeros *''leading zeros'' - zeros that precede digits - do not count as significant figures (example: .0002 has one significant figure) *''captive zeros'' - zeros that are "caught" between two digits - do count as significant figures (example: 101.205 has six significant figures) *''trailing zeros'' - zeros that are at the end of a string of numbers and zeros - only count if there is a decimal place (example: 100 has one significant figure, while 1.00, as well as 100., has three) 3) ''Exact numbers'' - these are numbers not obtained by measurements, and are determined by counting. An example of this is if one counted the number of millimetres in a centimetre ('''10''' - it is the definition of a millimetre), but another example would be if you have '''3''' apples. {{Example| How many significant figures do the following numbers have? Assume none of them are exact numbers. a) 4.2362 - all numbers, so five b) 2.0 - zeros after a decimal point count, so two c) 9900 - only two in this case, because there is no decimal point d) .44205 - there is a "captive zero," which means it counts, so five e) .05 - only the five counts, so one f) 3.9400E9 - tricky one, but scientific notation helps make the zeros at the end noticeable; there are five}} === The Parable of the Cement Block === People new to the field often question the importance of significant figures, but they have great practical importance, for they are a quick way to tell how precise a number is. Including too many can not only make your numbers harder to read, it can also have serious negative consequences. As an anecdote, consider two engineers who work for a construction company. They need to order cement bricks for a certain project. They have to build a wall that is 10 feet wide, and plan to lay the base with 30 bricks. The first engineer does not consider the importance of significant figures and calculates that the bricks need to be 0.3333 feet wide and the second does and reports the number as 0.33, figuring that a precision of <math> \pm 0.01ft </math> (0.1 inches) would be precise enough for the work she was doing. Now, when the cement company received the orders from the first engineer, they had a great deal of trouble. Their machines were precise but not so precise that they could consistently cut to within 0.0001 feet. However, after a good deal of trial and error and testing, and some waste from products that did not meet the specification, they finally machined all of the bricks that were needed. The other engineer's orders were much easier, and generated minimal waste. When the engineers received the bills, they compared the bill for the services, and the first one was shocked at how expensive hers was. When they consulted with the company, the company explained the situation: they needed such a high precision for the first order that they required significant extra labor to meet the specification, as well as some extra material. Therefore it was much more costly to produce. What is the point of this story? Significant figures matter. It is important to have a reasonable gauge of how precise a number is so that you know not only what the number is but how much you can trust it and how limited it is. The engineer will have to make decisions about how precisely he or she needs to specify design specifications, and how precise measurement instruments (and control systems!) have to be. If you do not need 99.9999% purity then you probably don't need an expensive assay to detect generic impurities at a 0.0001% level (though the lab technicians will probably have to still test for heavy metals and such), and likewise you will not have to design nearly as large of a distillation column to achieve the separations necessary for such a high purity. === Mathematical Operations and Significant Figures === Most likely at one point, the numbers obtained in one's measurements will be used within mathematical operations. What does one do if each number has a different amount of significant figures? If one adds 2.0 litres of liquid with 1.000252 litres, how much does one have afterwards? What would 2.45 times 223.5 get? For addition and subtraction, the result has the same number of '''decimal places''' as the least precise measurement use in the calculation. This means that 112.420020 + 5.2105231 + 1.4 would have have a single decimal place but there can be any amount of numbers to the left of the decimal point (in this case the answer is 119.0). For multiplication and division, the number that is the least precise measurement, or the '''number of digits'''. This means that 2.499 is more precise than 2.7, since the former has four digits while the latter has two. This means that 5.000 divided by 2.5 (both being measurements of some kind) would lead to an answer of 2.0. === Rounding === So now you know how to pick which numbers to drop if there is a question about significant figures, but one also has to take into account rounding. Once one has decided which digit should be the last digit kept, one must decide whether to round up or down. * If the number is greater than five (6 to 9), one rounds up - 1.36 becomes 1.4 * If the number is less than five (1 to 4), one rounds down - 1.34 becomes 1.3 What does one do when there is a five? There is a special case that deals with the number five, since, if you have not noticed, it is in the middle (between 1 and 9). Often in primary school one learns to just round up, but engineers tend to do something different, called unbiased rounding. * If the number before the five is even, then one rounds down - 1.45 becomes 1.4 * If the number before the five is odd, then one rounds up - 1.55 becomes 1.6 * Another case is this: 1.4501, where the numbers after five are greater than zero, so one would round to 1.5 Note: '''Remember that rounding is generally done at the end of calculations, not before the calculations are made.''' Why is this done? Engineers make many calculations that often matter, since time, money, etc. are being taken into account, it is best to make sure that the final results are not synthetic or untrue to what the actual value should be. This relates back to accuracy and precision. {{BookCat}} o8hyy9jt5drs6eywdnw0u111tzls008 4 140081 4654145 4653702 2026-07-11T23:10:57Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 /* Unprotection/edit request */ new section 4654145 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Lisawilliam2 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Lisawilliam2}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Lisawilliam2/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:11, 29 June 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 29 June 2026 (UTC) == Amz.bizistech reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amz.bizistech}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amz.bizistech/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 June 2026 (UTC) :'''Blocked'''. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:11, 30 June 2026 (UTC) == Emirati yahzota reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Emirati yahzota}} Long-term abuse, [[:w:Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Muhammad Ali Rajab]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Emirati yahzota/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :I deleted their page addition. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] could we get a CU here? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:28, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Bestdealsautofla reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Bestdealsautofla}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Bestdealsautofla/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Cthrucleaningsolutionso reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Cthrucleaningsolutionso}} advertising <!-- USERREPORTED:/Cthrucleaningsolutionso/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Sandbox deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) :: The user was blocked indefinitely as a spam-only account. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:47, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Protecting Pages == Hello, Admins, My name is Kayden Swanson, and I have proudly created ''[[The Geoguide]].'' But I would like to remove the ability for fellow users to edit it to prevent vandalism and preserve my prized creation I have made for school. Could you permanently lock it so others cant edit it while I still can? [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 02:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]]! Unfortunately, that is not an appropriate justification for protecting a page here at Wikibooks per the [[Wikibooks:Protection policy|protection policy]]. Notably, {{tq|"Preemptive full protection of pages is contrary to the open nature of Wikibooks"}}. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 6 July 2026 (UTC) ::NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO okay that's fine [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 00:26, 8 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I'm sorry, but that's not within the scope of the protection policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) :::If you really want a stable version, you can make a PDF of the existing content and link it. See [[Help:Print versions]] and {{tl|Print version}}/{{tl|PDF version}}. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Prudhvifmsdh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prudhvifmsdh}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prudhvifmsdh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:07, 8 July 2026 (UTC) == I'm unable to create a page == Hello, I wanted to created the page [[English in Use/Agreement]]. I thought I would use a modified version of a Wikipedia article (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_in_the_English_language). It's already written like a textbook, so I did some improvements and clicked "published", but I got the error: <blockquote>Welcome to Wikibooks!Your edit has triggered an automated filter and has been disallowed. It looks like your edit has added a large amount of content to this page.If you copied the content from another website, please do not add it without rewriting it in your own words. Unless the content is in the public domain (published before 1923), it is almost certainly copyrighted and cannot be added to Wikibooks.If all of the content is your own work and you cannot find anything to link, feel free to ask for the edit to be performed at the reading room. If you have received this message in error, you may report it here.</blockquote> What should I do? Can you help me? [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 20:43, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] An editfilter is preventing your edit. In my opinion, you did not do anything wrong and the filter is wrong, but an admin (=not me) would need to fix it. [[User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]] ([[User talk:Der-Wir-Ing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Der-Wir-Ing|contribs]]) 20:52, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|Justtocreateapage}} As a new user you face harsher requirements. You should make useful edits to Wikibooks first. If you want to use a modified version of a WP article, [[Wikibooks: Requests for import|requesting an import]] is the proper venue. This [[Help: Importing|preserves the edit history]]. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 21:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :::Okay, thanks you all. I'll request for an import then [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 21:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::::{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:50, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unprotection/edit request == Hi, would an admin please temporarily unprotect the non-MediaWiki pages at [[User:TenshiBot/Errors]]? As for the MediaWiki pages, would an admin go through them and replace the <nowiki><center></nowiki> tags and replace it with <nowiki><div style="text-align: center"></nowiki>? [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 23:10, 11 July 2026 (UTC) t47w6clg8zq039zxbxdsvjljxjar04d 4654165 4654145 2026-07-12T02:35:23Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Unprotection/edit request */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4654165 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Lisawilliam2 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Lisawilliam2}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Lisawilliam2/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:11, 29 June 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 29 June 2026 (UTC) == Amz.bizistech reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amz.bizistech}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amz.bizistech/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 June 2026 (UTC) :'''Blocked'''. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:11, 30 June 2026 (UTC) == Emirati yahzota reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Emirati yahzota}} Long-term abuse, [[:w:Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Muhammad Ali Rajab]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Emirati yahzota/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :I deleted their page addition. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] could we get a CU here? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:28, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Bestdealsautofla reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Bestdealsautofla}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Bestdealsautofla/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Cthrucleaningsolutionso reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Cthrucleaningsolutionso}} advertising <!-- USERREPORTED:/Cthrucleaningsolutionso/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Sandbox deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) :: The user was blocked indefinitely as a spam-only account. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:47, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Protecting Pages == Hello, Admins, My name is Kayden Swanson, and I have proudly created ''[[The Geoguide]].'' But I would like to remove the ability for fellow users to edit it to prevent vandalism and preserve my prized creation I have made for school. Could you permanently lock it so others cant edit it while I still can? [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 02:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]]! Unfortunately, that is not an appropriate justification for protecting a page here at Wikibooks per the [[Wikibooks:Protection policy|protection policy]]. Notably, {{tq|"Preemptive full protection of pages is contrary to the open nature of Wikibooks"}}. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 6 July 2026 (UTC) ::NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO okay that's fine [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 00:26, 8 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I'm sorry, but that's not within the scope of the protection policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) :::If you really want a stable version, you can make a PDF of the existing content and link it. See [[Help:Print versions]] and {{tl|Print version}}/{{tl|PDF version}}. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Prudhvifmsdh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prudhvifmsdh}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prudhvifmsdh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:07, 8 July 2026 (UTC) == I'm unable to create a page == Hello, I wanted to created the page [[English in Use/Agreement]]. I thought I would use a modified version of a Wikipedia article (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_in_the_English_language). It's already written like a textbook, so I did some improvements and clicked "published", but I got the error: <blockquote>Welcome to Wikibooks!Your edit has triggered an automated filter and has been disallowed. It looks like your edit has added a large amount of content to this page.If you copied the content from another website, please do not add it without rewriting it in your own words. Unless the content is in the public domain (published before 1923), it is almost certainly copyrighted and cannot be added to Wikibooks.If all of the content is your own work and you cannot find anything to link, feel free to ask for the edit to be performed at the reading room. If you have received this message in error, you may report it here.</blockquote> What should I do? Can you help me? [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 20:43, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] An editfilter is preventing your edit. In my opinion, you did not do anything wrong and the filter is wrong, but an admin (=not me) would need to fix it. [[User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]] ([[User talk:Der-Wir-Ing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Der-Wir-Ing|contribs]]) 20:52, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|Justtocreateapage}} As a new user you face harsher requirements. You should make useful edits to Wikibooks first. If you want to use a modified version of a WP article, [[Wikibooks: Requests for import|requesting an import]] is the proper venue. This [[Help: Importing|preserves the edit history]]. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 21:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :::Okay, thanks you all. I'll request for an import then [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 21:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::::{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:50, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unprotection/edit request == Hi, would an admin please temporarily unprotect the non-MediaWiki pages at [[User:TenshiBot/Errors]]? As for the MediaWiki pages, would an admin go through them and replace the <nowiki><center></nowiki> tags and replace it with <nowiki><div style="text-align: center"></nowiki>? [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 23:10, 11 July 2026 (UTC) : Unprotecting, fixing, and protecting back would take too long—I know just the thing, which is using JWB. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC) prtvuw64l30fc6mvp3cjd81npvyifo4 4654186 4654165 2026-07-12T03:02:44Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Unprotection/edit request */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4654186 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Lisawilliam2 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Lisawilliam2}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Lisawilliam2/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:11, 29 June 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 29 June 2026 (UTC) == Amz.bizistech reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amz.bizistech}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amz.bizistech/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 June 2026 (UTC) :'''Blocked'''. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:11, 30 June 2026 (UTC) == Emirati yahzota reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Emirati yahzota}} Long-term abuse, [[:w:Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Muhammad Ali Rajab]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Emirati yahzota/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :I deleted their page addition. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] could we get a CU here? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:28, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Bestdealsautofla reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Bestdealsautofla}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Bestdealsautofla/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Cthrucleaningsolutionso reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Cthrucleaningsolutionso}} advertising <!-- USERREPORTED:/Cthrucleaningsolutionso/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Sandbox deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) :: The user was blocked indefinitely as a spam-only account. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:47, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Protecting Pages == Hello, Admins, My name is Kayden Swanson, and I have proudly created ''[[The Geoguide]].'' But I would like to remove the ability for fellow users to edit it to prevent vandalism and preserve my prized creation I have made for school. Could you permanently lock it so others cant edit it while I still can? [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 02:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]]! Unfortunately, that is not an appropriate justification for protecting a page here at Wikibooks per the [[Wikibooks:Protection policy|protection policy]]. Notably, {{tq|"Preemptive full protection of pages is contrary to the open nature of Wikibooks"}}. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 6 July 2026 (UTC) ::NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO okay that's fine [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 00:26, 8 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I'm sorry, but that's not within the scope of the protection policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) :::If you really want a stable version, you can make a PDF of the existing content and link it. See [[Help:Print versions]] and {{tl|Print version}}/{{tl|PDF version}}. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Prudhvifmsdh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prudhvifmsdh}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prudhvifmsdh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:07, 8 July 2026 (UTC) == I'm unable to create a page == Hello, I wanted to created the page [[English in Use/Agreement]]. I thought I would use a modified version of a Wikipedia article (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_in_the_English_language). It's already written like a textbook, so I did some improvements and clicked "published", but I got the error: <blockquote>Welcome to Wikibooks!Your edit has triggered an automated filter and has been disallowed. It looks like your edit has added a large amount of content to this page.If you copied the content from another website, please do not add it without rewriting it in your own words. Unless the content is in the public domain (published before 1923), it is almost certainly copyrighted and cannot be added to Wikibooks.If all of the content is your own work and you cannot find anything to link, feel free to ask for the edit to be performed at the reading room. If you have received this message in error, you may report it here.</blockquote> What should I do? Can you help me? [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 20:43, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] An editfilter is preventing your edit. In my opinion, you did not do anything wrong and the filter is wrong, but an admin (=not me) would need to fix it. [[User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]] ([[User talk:Der-Wir-Ing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Der-Wir-Ing|contribs]]) 20:52, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|Justtocreateapage}} As a new user you face harsher requirements. You should make useful edits to Wikibooks first. If you want to use a modified version of a WP article, [[Wikibooks: Requests for import|requesting an import]] is the proper venue. This [[Help: Importing|preserves the edit history]]. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 21:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :::Okay, thanks you all. I'll request for an import then [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 21:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::::{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:50, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unprotection/edit request == Hi, would an admin please temporarily unprotect the non-MediaWiki pages at [[User:TenshiBot/Errors]]? As for the MediaWiki pages, would an admin go through them and replace the <nowiki><center></nowiki> tags and replace it with <nowiki><div style="text-align: center"></nowiki>? [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 23:10, 11 July 2026 (UTC) : Unprotecting, fixing, and protecting back would take too long—I know just the thing, which is using JWB. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC) : [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]], I've done what JWB could process; should there be way more in your bot's error log, let me know. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:02, 12 July 2026 (UTC) iap6gxlcp4147lmh1q7j23bbujzyaoy 4654194 4654186 2026-07-12T10:12:00Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 /* Unprotection/edit request */ Reply 4654194 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{shortcut|WB:AN|WB:AA}} {{TOC left}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{ombox|type=content|text='''To request a rename or usurpation''', go to the global request page at Meta [[meta:SRUC|here]].<br />''Please do not post those requests here!''}} {{Clear}} Welcome to the '''Administrative Assistance reading room'''. You can request assistance from [[WB:ADMIN|administrators]] for handling a variety of problems here and alert them about problems which may require special actions not normally used during regular content editing. Please be patient as administrators are often quite busy with either their own projects or trying to perform general maintenance and cleanup. You can deal with most vandalism yourself: [[Wikibooks:Dealing with vandalism|fix it]], then [[Wikibooks:Templates/User_notices|warn the user]]. If there is repeated vandalism by one user, lots of vandalism on a single page, or vandalism from many users, tell an admin here, or in [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks #wikibooks] (say <code>!admin</code> to get attention). For more general questions and assistance that doesn't require an administrator, please use the [[WB:HELP|Assistance Reading Room]]. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Lisawilliam2 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Lisawilliam2}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Lisawilliam2/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:11, 29 June 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by Kittycataclysm. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:27, 29 June 2026 (UTC) == Amz.bizistech reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Amz.bizistech}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Amz.bizistech/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:10, 30 June 2026 (UTC) :'''Blocked'''. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:11, 30 June 2026 (UTC) == Emirati yahzota reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Emirati yahzota}} Long-term abuse, [[:w:Wikipedia:Sockpuppet investigations/Muhammad Ali Rajab]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Emirati yahzota/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :I deleted their page addition. @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] could we get a CU here? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:28, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Bestdealsautofla reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Bestdealsautofla}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Bestdealsautofla/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Cthrucleaningsolutionso reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Cthrucleaningsolutionso}} advertising <!-- USERREPORTED:/Cthrucleaningsolutionso/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 22:19, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Sandbox deleted}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:26, 3 July 2026 (UTC) :: The user was blocked indefinitely as a spam-only account. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 01:47, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == Protecting Pages == Hello, Admins, My name is Kayden Swanson, and I have proudly created ''[[The Geoguide]].'' But I would like to remove the ability for fellow users to edit it to prevent vandalism and preserve my prized creation I have made for school. Could you permanently lock it so others cant edit it while I still can? [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 02:41, 6 July 2026 (UTC) :Hi @[[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]]! Unfortunately, that is not an appropriate justification for protecting a page here at Wikibooks per the [[Wikibooks:Protection policy|protection policy]]. Notably, {{tq|"Preemptive full protection of pages is contrary to the open nature of Wikibooks"}}. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 6 July 2026 (UTC) ::NOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO okay that's fine [[User:Kayden Swanson|Kayden Swanson]] ([[User talk:Kayden Swanson|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kayden Swanson|contribs]]) 00:26, 8 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I'm sorry, but that's not within the scope of the protection policy. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) :::If you really want a stable version, you can make a PDF of the existing content and link it. See [[Help:Print versions]] and {{tl|Print version}}/{{tl|PDF version}}. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Prudhvifmsdh reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Prudhvifmsdh}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Prudhvifmsdh/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:39, 8 July 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 13:07, 8 July 2026 (UTC) == I'm unable to create a page == Hello, I wanted to created the page [[English in Use/Agreement]]. I thought I would use a modified version of a Wikipedia article (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agreement_in_the_English_language). It's already written like a textbook, so I did some improvements and clicked "published", but I got the error: <blockquote>Welcome to Wikibooks!Your edit has triggered an automated filter and has been disallowed. It looks like your edit has added a large amount of content to this page.If you copied the content from another website, please do not add it without rewriting it in your own words. Unless the content is in the public domain (published before 1923), it is almost certainly copyrighted and cannot be added to Wikibooks.If all of the content is your own work and you cannot find anything to link, feel free to ask for the edit to be performed at the reading room. If you have received this message in error, you may report it here.</blockquote> What should I do? Can you help me? [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 20:43, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] An editfilter is preventing your edit. In my opinion, you did not do anything wrong and the filter is wrong, but an admin (=not me) would need to fix it. [[User:Der-Wir-Ing|Der-Wir-Ing]] ([[User talk:Der-Wir-Ing|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Der-Wir-Ing|contribs]]) 20:52, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :: {{re|Justtocreateapage}} As a new user you face harsher requirements. You should make useful edits to Wikibooks first. If you want to use a modified version of a WP article, [[Wikibooks: Requests for import|requesting an import]] is the proper venue. This [[Help: Importing|preserves the edit history]]. ‑‑[[User:Kai Burghardt|Kai Burghardt]] ([[User talk:Kai Burghardt|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kai Burghardt|contribs]]) 21:15, 10 July 2026 (UTC) :::Okay, thanks you all. I'll request for an import then [[User:Justtocreateapage|Justtocreateapage]] ([[User talk:Justtocreateapage|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Justtocreateapage|contribs]]) 21:39, 10 July 2026 (UTC) ::::{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:50, 10 July 2026 (UTC) == Unprotection/edit request == Hi, would an admin please temporarily unprotect the non-MediaWiki pages at [[User:TenshiBot/Errors]]? As for the MediaWiki pages, would an admin go through them and replace the <nowiki><center></nowiki> tags and replace it with <nowiki><div style="text-align: center"></nowiki>? [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 23:10, 11 July 2026 (UTC) : Unprotecting, fixing, and protecting back would take too long—I know just the thing, which is using JWB. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:35, 12 July 2026 (UTC) : [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]], I've done what JWB could process; should there be way more in your bot's error log, let me know. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 03:02, 12 July 2026 (UTC) ::There's still a lot of the <nowiki><font></nowiki> tags which need replacing in the talk page archives. [[User:Tenshi Hinanawi|Tenshi Hinanawi]] ([[User talk:Tenshi Hinanawi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tenshi Hinanawi|contribs]]) 10:11, 12 July 2026 (UTC) 6j2dikqbujzygm4459vtzbylslaqlo7 0 140635 4654131 3284192 2026-07-11T19:23:27Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654131 wikitext text/x-wiki {{FirstAidHeader}} <gallery class="center"> Image:First Aid Green Cross.png Image:Illustration of cardiopulmonary resuscitation.jpg Image:Purple-nitrile-glove.jpg Image:CPR mask 2.jpg Image:Diagram of the human heart (cropped).svg Image:CardiopulmonaryResuscitationBabyDummy.jpg File:Tongue blocking airway.svg Image:Abrasion on hand 20050906.jpg Image:Direct-pressure-and-elevation.jpg Image:Heart attack diagram.png Image:Asthma before-after.png Image:Astma-medication.png Image:Abdominal thrusts3.jpg Image:Blister.jpg Image:Forearm splint.jpg Image:Glukometr OT.jpg Image:Spike-waves.png Image:Ticks 1.jpg Image:Canule de Goedel 2.jpg Image:Ballon ventilation 1.jpg Image:Aspirateur medical 1.jpg Image:O2kit.jpg Image:Automated External Defibrillator Amsterdam airport.jpg Image:Deconference-2002-triage-tag.jpg Image:Star of life caution.svg Image:Nuvola filesystems services.png Image:Nuvola apps important.svg Image:Gnome-globe.svg Image:Stop hand nuvola.svg Image:Star of life globe.svg Image:Globe-Star of life.svg Image:Image-Star of life with a gold star.png Image:First aid kit for tropical country - unpacked.jpg Image:First aid kit for tropical country - packed.jpg Image:Road rash first aid kit.jpg Image:Old Rexalt first aid kit.jpg Image:Road rash on shoulder.jpg Image:Improvised first aid - bandage on leg.jpg Image:Bleeding wound on thumb.jpg Image:Bus, tram and first aid signs, Germany.jpg Image:Gray507.png Image:Carotidian pulse and recovery position.jpg File:Communitive midshaft humeral fracture callus.jpg </gallery> {{FAFooter13}} {{BookCat}} ccy0tqa1tqf1nmkycerolp0cyfmcldr 0 147661 4653994 4652412 2026-07-11T13:17:49Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653994 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chechen Header}} ---- <big><big>'''Дарс 1: Хьан цIе хIун ю?'''</big></big><br /> <big>''Lesson 1: What's your name?''</big> __NOTOC__ {| width="50%" | width="100%" style="vertical-align:top; border: 1px solid #000000; color: #000; background-color: #FFFFFF; padding:3px 3px 3px 3px;"| '''In this lesson you will learn:''' * ''your first words in Chechen'' [[Chechen/Lesson 1#Шун цхьалгIaчу дешнаш (Your first words)|→]] * ''how to greet someone and tell your name'' [[Chechen/Lesson 1#Маршалла хаттар (Greetings)|→]] * ''Chechen pronouns'' [[Chechen/Lesson 1#ЦIерметдешнаш (Pronouns)|→]] * ''how to form basic sentences and the class system'' [[Chechen/Lesson 1#Классаш и хоттам (Classes and the copula)|→]] * ''about the Islamic influence in the Chechen language'' [[Chechen/Lesson 1#Культура (Culture)|→]] |} == Шун цхьалгIa дешнаш (Your first words) == {| width="50%" style="margin: auto;" | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; border: 2px solid #EE3B3B; color: #000; background-color: #6EFF70; padding:3px 3px 3px 3px;"| [[Image:Stewart-yawn.jpg|120px]]<br /> <big> <big> '''кIант''' </big> </big> <br /> boy <br /> [[Image:Ce-к1ант.ogg|40px]] <br /> | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; border: 2px solid #EE3B3B; color: #000; background-color: #6EFF70; padding:3px 3px 3px 3px;"| [[Image:Iraqi girl smiles.jpg|120px]]<br /> <big> <big> '''йоI''' </big> </big> <br /> girl <br /> [[Image:Ce-йо1.ogg|40px]] <br /> |- | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; border: 2px solid #EE3B3B; color: #000; background-color: #6EFF70; padding:3px 3px 3px 3px;"| [[Image:Bhajji.jpg|90px]]<br /> <big> <big> '''стаг''' </big> </big> <br /> man <br /> [[Image:Ce-стаг.ogg|40px]] <br /> | width="50%" style="vertical-align:top; border: 2px solid #EE3B3B; color: #000; background-color: #6EFF70; padding:3px 3px 3px 3px;"| [[Image:Arab market-1.JPG|140px]]<br /> <big> <big> '''зуда''' </big> </big> <br /> woman <br /> [[Image:Ce-зуда.ogg|40px]] <br /> |} == Дарсан хIума (Lesson Material) == In these lessons, we will learn how to greet another person, ask how they are feeling, and ask what their names are. We will also be able to tell what our names are and engage in simple conversation. === Маршалла хаттар (Greetings) === <small>''Note that the phonetics which are written out for pronunciaton follow English pronunciation rules. The letter '''ä''' will represent the palochka, allowing you to make the '''I''' sound you have learnt in the [[Chechen/Alphabet|Alphabet lesson]]. This is again temporary, try to read the Cyrillic alphabet instead of the phonetics.''</small> {| width="100%" | width="100%" style="vertical-align:top; border: 2px solid #CD3333; color: #000; background-color: #F0FFF0; padding:3px 3px 3px 3px;"| [[Image:DCM greeting local Imams at the Lamidat of Ngaoundéré.JPG|right|500px]] [[Image:Armitage and Shujaat Hussein.jpg|right|500px]] <small>How to greet someone:</small> * '''Ассаламу Iалайкум''' - Hello &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(as-sa-lam-u `a-lay-kum)''</small> * '''Ва Iалайкум ассалам''' - Reply to the above greeting &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(wa `a-lay-kum as-sa-lam)''</small> * '''Салам''' - Hi &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(sa-lam)''</small> * '''Ва салам''' - Reply to the above greeting &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (va sa-lam)''</small> * '''Маршалла ду хьоьга''' - Greetings to you (singular) &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(mar-shal du hög)''</small> * '''Маршалла ду шуьга''' - Greetings to you (plural, formal) &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (mar-shal du shüg)''</small> * '''Iуьйре дика йойла''' - Good morning &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(`üür dik yoil)''</small> * '''Де дика дойла''' - Good afternoon &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (day dik yoil)''</small> * '''Суьйре дика йойла''' - Good evening &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(süür dik yoil)''</small> * '''Буьйса декъал йогIийла''' - Good night &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (büüs dek-kal yo-ghil)''</small> * '''Девзина хаза хета''' - Nice to meet you &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (dev-zeen khaz khaet)''</small> <small>How to ask about feelings:</small> * '''Муха ду гIуллакхаш?''' - How are you? (lit. how is your health?) &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(mookh doo ghool-lah-qash)''</small> * '''Дика ду, баркалла''' - Fine, thanks &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (deek doo, bar-kahl)''</small> * '''Бехк ма биллахь''' - Excuse me &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(byekhk mah beel-lahh)''</small> <small>How to express thanks:</small> * '''Баркалла''' - Thank you &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(bar-kahl)''</small> * '''Массарна а''' - You're welcome &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (mahs-sahr-naah)''</small> <small>How to exchange names:</small> * '''Хьан цIe хIу ю?''' - What is your name? &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(hahn tse hooh yu?)''</small> * '''Сан цIe ... ю''' - My name is ... &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (sahn tse ... yu)''</small> <small>How to say yes, no, and maybe:</small> * '''ХIаъ''' - Yes &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(hah)''</small> * '''ХIан-хIа''' - No &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (haa-ha)''</small> * '''Хила тарло''' - Maybe &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(hil tarl)''</small> * '''Дика ду''' - Okay &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(dik du)''</small> <small>Some other useful phrases:</small> * '''Со кхета''' - I understand &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(soh khaet)''</small> * '''Со ца кхета''' - I don't understand &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>'' (soh tsa khaet)''</small> * '''Суна нохчийн мотт ца хаа''' - I don't speak Chechen &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(Suna nokh-chijn mott ca kha-a)''</small> * '''Суна ца хаа''' - I don't know &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(soon tsa kha-a)''</small> * '''A''' - And &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(a)''</small> * '''Я''' - Or &nbsp;&nbsp; <small>''(yah)''</small> |} <big> '''Notes''' </big> ** The greetings, <big>'''Ассаламу Iалайкум'''</big> and <big>'''Салам'''</big>, along with their replies, <big>'''Ва Iалайкум ассалам'''</big> and <big>'''Ва салам'''</big>, are derived from the religion of Islam, and borrowed from Arabic. This is a very special greeting to give to a Chechen, especially if you are not Chechen or Muslim. This literally means ''Peace be upon you'', and can be found in many other languages that have had or still have a strong Islamic influence. Again, you do not have to be Muslim to say this greeting. ** In Chechen, like many European languages, there are two ways to address a person. There is a singular and plural form (Like in English saying ''you'' and ''you all''), then there is also a familiar form and polite form. We have encountered these in the greetings <big>'''Маршалла ду шуьга'''</big> and <big>'''хьоьга'''</big>. The familiar form, <big>'''хьоьга'''</big>, is also the same as the singular form, and is used when talking to people you know well or if you are in a younger generation, used amongst people around your age, or talking to your pet dog or cat. The polite form, <big>'''шуьга'''</big>, is used when speaking to strangers, teachers, in business, or people of higher status in the social class. It is also used when talking to more than one person. When in doubt, use the polite form. ** You probably have been either baffled or "laughing" at the way to say ''yes'' and ''no'' in Chechen. Indeed, you have read the pronunciation correctly. To say yes in Chechen, it is a quick '''Ha''' sound but cut it short at the end. To get the sound, try to just blow out air and whilst your mouth is open, stop your breath from both your nose and mouth. Do this really fast and you have just said ''Yes'' in Chechen. ** To say ''no'' in Chechen, it is a little different than ''yes'' and a bit softer. If you speak ''sarcasm'', all you have to do is give a fake laugh, (ha ha), but hold the first ''ha'' longer than the second. You should realise too that luckily Chechen is not a language to be spoken fast like French, Spanish, or even English. Each word needs to be said clearly in order to be understood. Also realise that Chechens are not used to hearing foreigners speak their language, so you need to really emphasise these sounds that sound weird to us English speakers in order to be understood. So try it again bearing this in mind, ''Haa-ha''. <small><span style="color:green"> At this point, you might feel frustrated with this new starting vocabulary and the odd sounds of Chechen. It is important to approach language learning in a positive way, and enjoy it. If you feel frustrated, take a deep breath, take a break, and come back to it. The more you practise and look at something, the more it will become natural. Chechen is not like any language you have probably heard of, so of course it will be different, but remember, the results can be very rewarding. And of course, this is a self teaching course, so go at your own pace. You don't have to go on to the next section or lessons until you feel comfortable! </span></small> == Грамматика (Grammar) == Chechen grammar is extremely complicated for [[:w:Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language speakers. There are 8 grammatical cases (if you are unfamiliar with a case system, don't worry, we will cover it in the future lessons). This means that a word will change form or add a suffix depending on its action in the sentence. As of now, we will focus on the more spoken aspect of Chechen whilst covering the basic essential parts of the [[:w:grammar|grammar]]. === ЦIерметдешнаш (Pronouns) === [[:W:Pronouns|Pronouns]] are nouns which substitute other nouns in a certain phrase or sentence. For example, in English pronouns are ''I, you, he, she, it''. In Chechen they are: {|style="font-size:95%; margin: auto;" |- style="background:#efefef;" !width="150px"| English !!width="150px"| Chechen !!width="20px"| !!width="150px"| English !!width="150px"| Chechen |- | I || Со || || We || Тхо, Вай <nowiki>*</nowiki> |- | You || Хьо || || You (plural) || Шу |- | He, She, it || Иза || || They || Уьш |- |} </center> * In Chechen there are two ways to say '''We'''. These forms are called ''Inclusive'' and ''Exclusive''. The inclusive form, <big>'''Вай'''</big>, (sometimes pronounced ''vay'' depending on the dialect) is used when you are including the listener. (For example: We, both you and me, will go to the store). The exclusive form, <big>'''Тхо'''</big>, is used when you are referring to a group which does not include the listener. (For example: We, my friend and I, are going to the store). * Note that in Chechen, pronouns are never capitalised unless of course they are starting the sentence. (In English, we always capitalise ''I'' in the sentence. Like most European languages, we do not capitalise '''cо''' in Chechen). === Классаш и хоттам (Classes and the copula) === Now that we have learnt the pronouns, we can start building our first Chechen sentences. Before we get into constructing our basic sentences, we need to cover some explanations first in English. '''The Class System''' is something unique in the Chechen language. Instead of having each word fall into a gender category such as ''masculine, feminine,'' or ''neuter'', Chechen words each belong to a specific class. These determine the grammatical course of the other words in the sentence, especially certain important verbs. There are 6 classes in Chechen, which we can remember as ''V Y D Y B B'' "(to help you remember the order: vyu dyubb)" or '''В Ю Д Ю Б Б'''. The good part of this class system is that the chart is very easy to memorise and figure out ways to remember it. The bad part is that there isn't really any pattern to determine the class of inanimate objects. Let's start with the first 2 classes. These are the easier ones to learn, because they actually do have a similar gender attribute found in languages like English and Finnish. This aspect is called ''natural gender''. Meaning if you are talking about a boy, this boy is obviously masculine, along with ''uncle, grandfather, man, an American man'' and so on. These words fall into '''Class 1 (V - В)'''. If the word refers to a woman, such as ''wife, girl, aunt, a British woman'', these words fall into '''Class 2 (Y - Ю)'''. But what does this mean? These will make the Chechen copula, ''to be''. A copula is just a technical linguistic word for a verb. In other words, we are now learning the way to make sentences like ''I am a boy, he is a man, she is a girl'' and so on. The words ''am, is,'' and ''are'' will go at the end of the sentence, just like any other verb in Chechen. So you will wind up saying ''I boy am, he man is, she girl is''. And of course these words will change appropriately to the class. Now let's take a look at how to say ''am, is,'' and ''are'' in Chechen for the first two classes. (Note: This is called conjugating a verb). <center> {|style="font-size:95%;" |- style="background:#efefef;" !width="150px"| Pronoun !!width="150px"| Class 1 <br /> <small>masculine</small> !!width="150px"| Class 2 <br /> <small>feminine</small> |- | со || ву || ю |- | хьо || ву || ю |- | иза || ву || ю |- | тхо || ду || ду |- | шу || ду || ду |- | уьш || бу || бу |- |} We can look at this chart and easily master it. Just remember in the singular (I, you, he, she, it) that '''ву''' always refers to masculine and '''ю''' always refers to feminine. In the plural, the copula is the same for both classes. We and the plural form of You both use '''ду''' and They use '''бу'''. That it! You have just mastered your first 2 classes of Chechen! Now let's use them and make our sentences! === Нохчийн предложни (The Chechen Sentence) === The sentence order in Chechen is '''Subject + Object/Predicate + Verb''' (SOV), similar to Korean and Japanese. What does this mean? Take note of the following English examples of sentence structure: '''English:''' I am a boy, and she is a girl.<br /> '''Chechen:''' I boy am, and she girl is. This will take some time to get used to. Just keep practising! But now let's start making some sentences in Chechen. Look at the examples if you have difficulty understand the explanations, some people can just learn a language by seeing examples> '''Со кIант ву''' - I am a boy <br /> '''Иза кIант ву''' - He is a boy <br /> '''Иза йоI ю''' - She is a girl <br /> '''Хьо зуда ю''' - You are a woman <br /> '''Со кIант ву a хьо йоI ю''' - I am a boy and you are a girl Why don't you try a few out yourself? How would you say, "''He is a man?''" Now translate this sentence from Chechen to English: "''Хьо йоI ю я зуда ю? Со зуда ю.''". Yes, со кхета that these sentences are very elementary, but we start at the basics and we will build on them. == Культура (Culture) == Note that sometimes the Chechen word, '''оьздангалла''' is used to mean culture, but '''культура''' is more common. === Ислам нохчийн маттахь (Islam in the Chechen language) === Ассаламу Iалайкум (assalamu alaykum!) Do you remember from this lesson what the proper response would be? Ва Iалайкум Ассалам (wa alaykum assalam!) This greeting comes from the Arabic, ''peace be upon you'', which is also the universal Islamic greeting. Chechnya is a Muslim country and the language has been welcoming influence from Arabic, the original language of the Holy Quran and also used in daily prayers. I am sure you have noticed by now the many sounds that come from Arabic are also found in the Chechen language. Besides these sounds, there are a few phrases that you will commonly hear when listening to Chechens speak their language. Besides the Islamic greeting, Assalamu alaykum, there are a few others you might encounter, such as '''ЛаилахIа иллаАллахIа''', ''laa illaha illallah''. This means "there is no god but Allah". '''АллахIа''', pronounced ''Allah'', is the Arabic word for the monotheistic God. Chechens might also use the word Дала or Дела as well to refer to God, but АллахIа is more common. Another common Islamic phrase would be '''ИншАллахIа''', ''inshallah'', which literally means "God willing". Some words like the word for thank you, '''баркалла''', have totally integrated into the Chechen language and have derived from the Arabic. In a later lesson, we will learn religious vocabulary and more about religion in Chechnya, but for now, it is a good time to understand the Islamic influence on the Chechen people and their beautiful language. <small><span style="color:blue"> '''Дика ду! Молодец!''', you have done well so far. How do you like Chechen now? Take a break, review what you have learnt, then move on and read a little about Chechen culture and do the exercises. When you are walking in town, in a store, or whatever the place may be around people, try saying to yourself (not outloud, unless you want people staring at you) these simple sentences, like ''He is a boy, and he is a man''. </span></small> ---- {{Chechen Header}} {{BookCat}} phihvu91e666ng31itzgznkrabfl74c 0 148290 4654013 4652406 2026-07-11T15:02:02Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654013 wikitext text/x-wiki Back to Previous Chapter: [[Metabolomics/Introduction_to_Metabolomics| Introduction to Metabolomics]]<br> Next chapter: [[Metabolomics/Hormones | Hormones]]<br> Go to: [[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Lipids | Lipids]]<br> #[[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Carbohydrates/Glucose | Glucose]] #[[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Carbohydrates/Sucrose and Other Dissacharides | Sucrose and Other Dissacharides]] #[[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides | Polysaccharides]] ='''Carbohydrates'''= ==KEGG MAPS== {|style="background:Darkgray; margin: auto;" |- !style="color:black"|<big>KEGG Maps of Relating Carbohydrate Pathways</big> |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Carbohydrate Metabolism'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Pentose Phosphate'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Citric Acid Cycle'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Nucleotide Sugars Metabolism'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Starch and Sucrose Metabolism'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Pyruvate Metabolism'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=left|width=400px|'''Other Relating Carbohydrate Pathways'''| [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00040.html Pentose and Glucuronate Interconversions]</br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00051.html Fructose and Mannose metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00052.html Galactose Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00053.html Ascorbate and Aldarate Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00530.html Aminosugars Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00630.html Glyoxylate and Dicarboxylate Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00640.html Propanoate Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00650.html Butanoate Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00660.html C5-Branched Dibasic Acid Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00031.html Inositol Metabolism]<br> [http://www.genome.ad.jp/kegg/pathway/map/map00562.html Inositol Phosphate Metabolism] }} |} {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- !MetaCyc Carbohydrate Pathways |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=Carbohydrates-Biosynthesis Carbohydrate Synthesis] |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=Carbohydrates-Degradation Carbohydrate Degradation] |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=GLYCOLYSIS Glycolysis] |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=PENTOSE-P-PWY Pentose Phosphate Pathway] |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=CALVIN-PWY Calvin Cycle] |} <u>Examples of Carbohydrate Metabolites</u> Lactose: http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/image/imgsrv.fcgi?t=l&cid=6134 (PubChem) Glycogen: http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/image/imgsrv.fcgi?t=l&cid=439177 (PubChem) Ribose http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/image/imgsrv.fcgi?t=l&cid=5779 (PubChem) Glyceraldehyde http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/image/imgsrv.fcgi?t=l&cid=751 (PubChem) Starch: http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/image/imgsrv.fcgi?t=l&cid=439341 (PubChem) ---- '''Websites''' '''[http://www.whatislife.com/reader2/Metabolism/pathway/glycogen.html What is Life? Pentose Phosphate Pathway and Glycogen Metabolism]''' and '''[http://www.whatislife.com/reader2/Metabolism/pathway/glycolysis.html What is Life? Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis]''' ''<u>Summary:</u>'' This website gives a basic overview of carbohydrates and the role they play in the human body. It also covers metabolism of carbohydrates. Glucose oxidation can be seen in Glycolysis as well as the pentose-phosphate pathway while the regeneration of glucose is seen in gluconeogenesis. This website shows, step by step, the reactions of these pathways and the energy yield from each step. The second link for this website goes to a page covering glycogen metabolism, showing the net reactions for the synthesis and degradation of glycogen. Both links have sections on major control mechanisms for glucose and glycogen metabolism. ''<u>Terms:</u>'' Glucosidases – enzymes involved in breaking down complex carbohydrates such as starch and glycogen ascorbic acid – a sugar acid with antioxidant properties. Scurvy is the disease caused by a deficiency of vitamin C. glucostat – removing glucose when offered in excess via glycogen synthesis and glycolysis and providing glucose when needed by gluconeogenesis concomitant – accompanying in a passive way hepatic lipase – lipolytic enzyme, synthesized by hepatocytes and found localized at the surface of liver sinusoid capillaries phosphoglucomutase – an enzyme that transfers a phosphoryl group on a glucose monomer from the 1' to the 6' position in the forward direction or the 6' to the 1' position in the reverse UTP – (Uridine triphosphate) - a pyrimidine nucleotide, consisting of the organic base uracil Relation: This website clearly explains what is meant by carbohydrate metabolism. It shows the relationship between glycolysis and gluconeogenesis and the three enzymes that are different between the two pathways. It also shows major control methods for the metabolism of carbohydrates, specifically glucose and glycogen in this case. This site is a great resource to use for a more in depth coverage of glucose and glycogen metabolism. '''[http://www.hmdb.ca/ The Human Metabolome Database]''' <u>''Summary:''</u> The Human Metabolome Database is a database that contains information about small metabolites. This information includes chemical composition, taxonomy, location in the body, normal levels of the metabolite, genomic sequence, pathways it is involved in, and other molecules it interacts with. This site has links to KEGG, PubChem, MetaCyc, ChEBI, PDB, Siss-Prot, and GenBank (see terms below). This website is particularly easy to use and has enormous amounts of information on each molecule. Just go to the main page and type in the name of the molecule you are looking for. <u>''Terms:''</u> KEGG – Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes - bioinformatics resource for linking genomes to life and the environment PubChem – Free database of chemical structures of small organic molecules and information on their biological activities MetaCyc – Encyclopedia of Metabolic Pathways - contains over 900 pathways from more than 900 different organisms ChEBI – Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI) is a freely available dictionary of molecular entities focused on 'small' chemical compounds PDB – Protein Data Bank - Archive of experimentally-determined, biological macromolecule 3-D structures from the Brookhaven National Laboratory Swiss-Prot – manually curated biological database of protein sequences GenBank – NIH genetic sequence database, an annotated collection of all publicly available DNA sequences Relation: This website provides easy access to information on small molecules, such as carbohydrates, that would be useful in the study of metabolomics. You are able to determine what the normal levels of a metabolite is in the body and the pathways involved that could increase or decrease those levels. This would be helpful in screening for particular metabolic diseases. '''[http://ull.chemistry.uakron.edu/biochem/15/ University of Akron: Carbohydrate Metabolism]''' <u>''Summary:''</u> This is a very basic website outlying the principles of carbohydrate metabolism. It touches on the metabolite glucose including its synthesis and degradation pathways. It also touches upon other carbohydrates such as starch, glycogen, and maltose. This site describes what these metabolites are used for in the body and how they are a part of several different pathways. Biosynthesis and regulation of carbohydrate metabolites are also a part of this website. <u>''Terms:''</u> Fructose – is a simple reducing sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods Aldolase – an enzyme that helps convert glucose into energy Fermentation – the process of energy production in a cell under anaerobic conditions (without oxygen) Propionate – is a naturally-occurring carboxylic acid Biotin – vitamin H or B7, water-soluble B-complex vitamin, used in carboxylation reactions NDP-Glucose – Nucleoside diphosphate-Glucose – activated intermediate Glycosidic bond – certain type of functional group that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another Relation: This site shows the different ways that carbohydrate metabolites interact in our body and how they can by synthesized and broken down. This site is a great tool to visualize where certain metabolites are found and the pathways they are involved in. With many diagrams, this site is ideal for piecing together where carbohydrate metabolites fit in the grand scheme of things in the human body. ---- '''Peer-review Articles''' '''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=18183306 A Model for Carbohydrate Metabolism in the Diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum Deduced from Comparative Whole Genome Analysis ]''' <u>''Summary:''</u> Diatoms are responsible for 20% of the earth’s carbon fixation. However, this mechanism is not well understood. This paper attempt to clarify this process by proposing a model for carbon fixation by diatoms. Little is also known about the synthesis and storage of Chrysolaminaran, the main carbohydrate in diatoms. This carbohydrate is secreted and is a major component of biofilms. In this paper, a model for the carbon concentrating mechanism, photorespiration, the oxidative and reductive pentose phosphate pathways and a model of the glycolytic reactions were generated. The model for the glycolytic reaction is shown below. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2173943&blobname=pone.0001426.g004.jpg Link to glycolytic reaction proposed by this paper] <u>''Terms:''</u> Diatoms – major group of eukaryotic algae, and are one of the most common types of phytoplankton, most are unicellular Rubisco – Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenases - catalyzes the incorporation of CO2 Chrysolaminaran – the principle storage carbohydrate in diatoms Chimeras – two or more different populations of genetically distinct cells Endosymbiont – any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism Plastids – organelles that only exist in plant cells and photosynthetic protists, responsible for photosynthesis in silico analysis – analysis performed using computers in conjunction with informatics capabilities chlorenchyma cells – parenchyma cells that contain chlorophyll periplasmic space – space seen between the plasma membrane and the outer membrane Relation: Much is known about carbohydrate metabolism and the many different carbohydrate metabolites in the human body. However, it is surprising that little is known about how diatoms fix carbon dioxide since it is so important to our survival. This paper takes the first step in proposing a mechanism by which this takes place. Someday, we may find this very diagram in our textbooks. '''[http://jbiol.com/content/6/4/10 Dynamic rerouting of the carbohydrate flux is key to counteracting oxidative stress]''' <u>''Summary:''</u> In order to access this article, you must first complete a free registration with the journal of biology. This study is one of the first to develop a mathematical model that describes the observed experimental changes in metabolic flux. In response to reactive oxygen species, yeast will shift from glycolysis to the pentose-phosphate pathway as an immediate and protective response to ROS. This shift is made in order to maintain redox balance in the cell. <u>''Terms:''</u> Deleterious – harmful, injurious Triose-phosphate isomerase – TPI - catalyzes the reversible interconversion of the triose phosphate isomers dihydroxyacetone phosphate and D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate metabolic flux – the rate of flow of metabolites Reactive oxygen species – ROS - oxygen ions, free radicals, and peroxides, both inorganic and organic Perturbations – disturbance of motion, course, arrangement, or state of equilibrium de novo – afresh, anew, beginning again diamide – Any compound containing two amido groups united with one or more acid or negative radicals Relation: It is well known that the human body will alter which pathway it uses (glycolysis or gluconeogenesis) depending on the carbohydrate status of the blood. This study has now shown that yeast will change from using glycolysis to the pentose phosphate pathway in response to reactive oxygen species. It is interesting to see how many different organisms have the ability to switch between pathways in order to counteract detrimental affects or to save energy. '''[http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/M708798200v1 Destabilization of ATP-sensitive potassium channel activity by novel KCNJ11 mutations identified in congenital hyperinsulinism]''' <u>''Summary:''</u> This paper demonstrates the importance of the ATP-sensitive potassium channel in controlling the amount of insulin secreted by pancreatic cells. It is shown that having a mutation in the genes encoding for this potassium channel can depolarize the membrane leading to an increase in the basal level of insulin secretion. This can lead to the disease, hyperinsulinism. <u>''Terms:''</u> Hyperinsulinism – refers to an above normal level of insulin in the blood of a person or animal Sulfonylurea – A class of oral hypoglycemic agents (pills and capsules taken to lower the level of blood glucose) by people with type 2 diabetes Phosphoinositides – serve as direct local modulators or recruiters of the protein machineries that control membrane trafficking Hypoglycemia – is the medical term for a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal level of glucose in the blood Somatostatin – growth hormone inhibiting hormone octreotide.- potent inhibitor of growth hormone, glucagon, and insulin Chemiluminescence – the emission of light (luminescence) with limited emission of heat as the result of a chemical reaction Exogenous – caused by factors from outside the organism or system Relation: Throughout the study of metabolism, we learn that a pH and charge gradient is necessary to have across a membrane. In this case, the charge gradient is essential for proper signaling in the cell. With a lower depolarization, insulin is secreted at a higher basal level, leading to the disease of hyperinsulinism. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1694820.com <u>''Summary:''</u> The main point of this peer review article is to discuss the glycolysis process, which results in the formation of ATP as the main fuel in the anaerobic eukaryote, Monocercomonoides. Both ATP and Glucose are metabolites that relate directly to glycolysis and would be included in the organism's metabalome. Since anaerobic eukaryotes lack a complete tricarboxylic acid cycle, they can only extract few molecule of ATP per molecule of glucose. This is opposite of human cells, which makes this article important as it discusses alternate versions of enzymes in glycolysis. In anaerobic eukaryotes, enzymes such as pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase and pyrophosphate-fructose 6-phosphate phosphotransferase were examined through horizontal gene transfers from the bacteria in question to other eukaryotes. Horizontal gene transfers are processes in which an organism transfers genetic material to another cell that is not its offspring. Analysis of the glycolytic pathway of Monocercomonoides resulted in identification of both single-gene trees and conserved HGT events that provide evidence for the monophyly of protists known as Ecavata. Shared horizontal gene transfer events between oxymonads and both Giardia and Trichomonas further supported this relationship. This relationship becomes an important resource as it focuses on using glucose metabolites of Monocercomonoides to determine its lineage. <u>''Terms:''</u> Horizontal Gene Transfer- process in which an organism transfers genetic material to another cell that is not its offspring Monophyly- a group of organisms that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants. Oxymonad- a group of flagellated protozoa found exclusively in the intestines of termites and other wood-eating insects. Diplomonads- a group of flagellates, most of which are parasitic. Also classified as Protists. Walking primers-is a sequencing method for sequencing large DNA fragments (between 1,3 and 7 kilobases) that works by dividing long sequences into several consecutive short ones. Phylogenetic analysis- Analysis of the evolutionary connections between traits (for example, sequences) Taxa- Any organism or group of organisms of the same taxonomic rank; for example, members of an order, family, genus, or species. Relation: This resource is very closely related to our current coursework. As one would recall we had to memorize the complete glycolysis pathway, which is exactly what this article covered. It focused on the enzymes involved in the pathway, which are some that I have memorized. It also reviewed the process through an anaerobic prospective, which sheds light on how glycolysis can be altered but still produce ATP. This is very interesting as we mainly focused on just the one type of glycolysis. '''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1748240 Flux control and excess capacity in the enzymes of glycolysis and their relationship to flight metabolism in Drosophila melanogaster]''' ''Summary:'' The focus of this research article is to study the degree of flux control of several enzymes involved in the glycolytic pathway on flight performance of the fruit fly. The author’s were able to research this by “knocking out” the enzymes phosphoglucose isomerase, phosphoglucomutase, triosephosphate isomerase, hexokinase, pyruvate kinase, and glycogen phosphorylase and studying the effect each knockout had on wing beat frequency of Drosophila. Wing-beat frequency is an accurate measure of flux control because it is closely correlated with oxygen consumption and directly reflects the rate of the hydrolysis of ATP. <u>''Terms:''</u> Dipteran - A member of the insect order Diptera (the two-winged, or "true," flies), characterized by the use of only one pair of wings for flight and the reduction of the second pair of wings to knobs used for balance. P-element - a transposon that is present in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, and is used widely for mutagenesis and the creation of genetically modified flies used for genetic research. Hemolymph – insect “blood” Polymorphism - The occurrence of different forms, stages, or types in individual organisms or in organisms of the same species, independent of sexual variations. Dysgenic - Relating to or causing the deterioration of hereditary qualities in offspring. Introgression - Infiltration of the genes of one species into the gene pool of another through repeated backcrossing of an interspecific hybrid with one of its parents. Relevance: The research carried out in this article involves the glycolytic pathway, which we have covered in class. The authors researched the control of several of the enzymes involved in glycolysis on the regulation of flight in Drosophila. The authors tested the enzymes’ regulatory effectiveness by reducing each enzyme’s activity and calculating their flux controls on flight performance. '''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1133787 Dynamic profiling of the glucose metabolic network in fasted rat hepatocytes using (1,2-13C2) glucose]''' <u>''Summary:''</u> This paper focused on measuring the rate at which metabolites flow through the pathway (i.e. the flux) of the rat hepatic glucose metabolic network in both forward and reverse directions. <u>''Terms:''</u> Ion exchange chromatography – A process that allows the separation of ions and polar molecules based on the charge properties of the molecules. Electron impact ionization – Method of mass spectrometry ionisation. The sample of interest is vaporized into the mass spectrometer ion source, where it is impacted by the a beam of electrons with sufficient energy to ionise the molecule. Isotopomer – (isotopic isomer) Isomer having the same number of each isotopic atom but differing in their positions. Outflux – Movement of metabolites out of the pathway. Influx – Movement of metabolites into the pathway. Anaplerosis - An intermediate enzyme reaction that replaces the concentration of vital reacting compound that has been depleted in an organism. Relevance: The paper involves two major concepts that have been discussed in class. First, it uses a measurement of flux as a means to analyze the metabolic control of a pathway. Secondly, it mentions that, rather than existing in isolation, many pathways are in fact linked and integrated into each other through the sharing of substrates, activators, inhibitors etc, so that changes in one have an effect on the others. '''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=141173 Metabolic-flux profiling of yeasts S.cerevisiae and P.stipitis]''' <u>''Summary:''</u> This research explores the differences in metabolic regulation between 2 strains of yeast, S.cerevisiae and P.stipitis, when grown in media containing different concentrations of glucose. The central carbon metabolism of P.stipitis is largely unidentified, while that of S.cerevisiae is well documented. Metabolic-flux ratio analysis was used to identify active pathways in the central carbon metabolism of P.stipitis. Differences in flux ratios were indicative of differences in activity in pathways between the strains of yeast. <u>''Terms:''</u> METAFoR (Metabolic-flux ratio) Analysis – a method to determine the rate at which a metabolite is produced NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy – a technique used to identify molecules Chemostat Cultures – cultures grown in a static chemical environment anaplerosis – process of restoring depleted sources of metabolic intermediates respiro-fermentative metabolism – simultaneous execution of fermentation and respiration Relevance: This research can be directly tied to the content of this course. It focuses on 3 metabolic pathways: glycolysis, pentose phosphate, and the citric acid cycle. The analysis of these pathways and subsequent comparison between 2 organisms is an investigation of metabolic regulation. {{BookCat}} ==Articles and Web Pages for Review and Inclusion== '''Peer-Reviewed Article #1:''' === Transcriptomic and metabolomic profiling of Zymomonas Mobilis during aerobic and anaerobic fermentations === [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2164/10/34 Yang S, Tschaplinski TJ, Engle NL, Carroll SL, Martin SL, Davison BH, Palumbo AV, Rodriguez M and Brown SD. ''BMC Genomics'' (2009) '''10''':34] '''Reviewer: Shannon B''' '''Main Focus:''' The main focus of the article was to understand how the aerobic and anerobic Z.mobilis fermentations mixture with ZM4s would affect their growth with and without oxygen. '''Summary:''' Zhomana mobilis (ZM4) produces very closely to the theoretical yields of ethanol with high productivity that is specific. The recombinant strains are able to ferment both C-5 and C-6 sugars. ZM4 is achieved best under anaerobic conditions but is an aerotolerant organism. This particular DNA molecule is not well understood under the genetic and physiological responses to stresses. For Zhomana mobilis (ZM4), a type of bacteria, transcriptomic and metabolomic aerobic and anaerobic fermentations were demonstrated by microarray analysis. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC), and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were also demonstrated to the experiment. When oxygen was not present, ZM4 absorbed glucose more rapidly, higher growth rate, and the major end product was ethanol. There were other end products that produced a great amount such as acetate, lactate, and acetoin. There was only 1.7% of ethanol shown aerobically as there was anaerobically. Certain gene expressions were not examined during the early exponential growth phase between aerobic and anaerobic conditions via microarray analysis. As fermentations continued there were greater differences in extracellular metabolite profiles. Under anaerobic conditions ZM4 contained lower levels of amino acids such as alanine, valine and lysine relating to aerobic conditions. In the stationary phase, the microarray analysis showed that 166 genes were differently expressed by more than a two-fold. ZM4 ferments glucose, fructose, and sucrose producing ethanol and carbon dioxide via the Enterner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway. A key enzyme was encoded by transcripts of the ED pathway genes. During the ZM4 fermentations the high oxygen concentration negatively influenced the fermentation performance and the maximum specific growth rates were not very different between the aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Although, oxygen did affect the physiology of the cells which lead to the buildup of metabolic byproducts which after awhile led to high differences in transcriptomic profiles in stationary phase. '''Helpful links:''' http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/success/zmobilis_mar_2001.pdf http://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/542 ====New Terms==== High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC): is a form of column chromatography that separates, identifies, and quantifies compounds based on their idiosyncratic polarities and interactions with the column's stationary phase. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_performance_liquid_chromatography) Gas chromatography (GC): A chromatography that is used for separating and analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas-liquid_chromatography) Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS): identifies different substances within a test sample that combines gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GC-MS) Microarray analysis: determines which genes in a cell are switched on at a certain point in time. Thousands of samples are measured in a single assay of many different types of assays that are used. (http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-microarray-analysis.htm) Lignocellulosic: "A compound of lignin and cellulose that occurs in the walls of xylem cells in woody tissue." (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/lignocellulose) Entner-Doudoroff (ED) pathway: uses a set of enzyme that is different than what is used in glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway that catabolizes glucose to pyruvate . (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entner%E2%80%93Doudoroff_pathway) Aerotolerant organism: An organism that is anaerobic and is capable of surviving or growing regardless of the presence of oxygen. (http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Aerotolerant) Zymomonas mobilis: a bacterium that belongs to the genus Zymomonas.It's known for it's bioethanol-producing capabilities. "It was originally isolated from alcoholic beverages like the African palm wine, the Mexican pulque, and also as a contaminant of cider and beer in European countries." (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zymomonas_mobilis) '''Relevance Statement:''' There are quite a lot of techniques used in this article which will be useful in the study of metabolism and different metabolites. For example, gas chromatography (GC), High-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. As our course concentrates on different metabolic pathways these techniques are pretty helpful on understanding the metabolic measurements and results of these metabolic pathways. This article concentrates more on the aerobic and anaerobic fermentation. This gives us a better idea of where this metabolic pathway is applied in different organisms like the Zymomonas mobilis. Different bacteria have been studied such as Escherichia coli, Zymomonas mobilis, and Klebsiella oxytoca. Gram positive bacteria have also been studied such as Bacillus subtilis and corynebacterium glutamicum. pw65cffdbhzwj2t05c3de20htkkaizv 0 148296 4654019 3268948 2026-07-11T15:31:19Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654019 wikitext text/x-wiki Back to Previous Chapter: [[Metabolomics/Introduction_to_Metabolomics| Introduction to Metabolomics]]<br> Next chapter: [[Metabolomics/Hormones | Hormones]]<br> #[[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Carbohydrates | Carbohydrates]] #[[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Lipids | Lipids]] #[[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Amino Acids | Amino Acids]] #[[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Nucleotides | Nucleotides]] ===Table of Contents=== #[[/Carbohydrates/]] #[[/Lipids/]] #[[/Amino Acids/]] #[[/Nucleotides/]] == '''Metabolites''' == Metabolites are organic compounds that are starting materials/intermediates in metabolism pathways. Metabolites are small simple structures absorbed in a diet. They include vitamins and essential amino acids. They can be used to construct more complex molecules, or they can be broken down into simpler ones. Intermediary metabolites may be synthesized from other metabolites and often release chemical energy. For example, glucose, can be synthesized via gluconeogenesis (an anabolic reaction) to form starch or glycogen, and can be broken down during glycolysis (catabolic reaction) to obtain chemical energy. End products of metabolism are excreted from the organism. Urea, for example, is an end product of protein degradation in man. Carbon dioxide is usually thought of as an end product of carbohydrate, protein, and fat degradation in aerobic organisms, although technically, carbon dioxide, as carbonic acid, can also participate in the biosynthesis of some substances, particularly in plants. Catabolism and Anabolism Catabolism: degradative metabolism involving the release of energy and resulting in the breakdown of complex materials (as proteins or lipids) within the organism. Anabolism: the constructive part of metabolism concerned especially with macromolecular synthesis. Catabolism: [[Image: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/catabolism.]] Anabolism: [[Image: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anabolism.]] ===Metabolites and their pathways=== ====KEGG Pathways==== [http://www.genome.jp/ GenomeNet] is a resource database developed by the Kyoto University Bioinformatics Center dedicated to provide computational devices to aid the study on the genome are various areas in biomedical sciences. The database provide tons of diversified maps of various metabolic pathways in humans and in plants. In addition, topics such as disease and drugs research are also mentioned and discussed in details with visual aids. Gene sequencing and analysis are also hugely emphasized at GenomeNet that provides many bioinformatic tools to in studying the genome sequence motif, phylogenetic research, and everything else you want to know about genes. One of the huge contribution from GenomeNet is providing '''KEGG''' maps and pathways that served as visual aids for studying of Matabolomics. [http://www.genome.jp/kegg/ Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes] or KEGG, is a database of biological systems which consists of genes, proteins, chemical building blocks, molecular pathways, hierarchies and relationships between various biological objects. KEGG links genomes to biological systems and maps pathways together to see the interactive cycle and the metabolites involved. You can also search through the KEGG website by entering a specific organism. Primary Metabolites: Below are links that show the different pathways of all Primary metabolites. Primary metabolites encompass reactions involving compounds which are formed as part of the normal anabolic and catabolic processes. These processes take in the cells of the organism. {|style="background:Darkgray; margin: auto;" |- !style="color:black"|<big>KEGG Maps of Some Primary Metabolites</big> |- |{{dropimage|align=center|width=400px|'''Carbohydrate Secondary Metabolite Pathway'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|width=400px|align=center|'''Lipid Metabolite Pathway'''| ] ]}} |- |{{dropimage|width=400px|align=center|'''Nucleotide Metabolism Pathway'''| ] ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=center|width=400px|'''Energy Synthesizing Pathway'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|width=400px|align=center|'''Other Primary Metabolites Pathways'''| [http://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html#amino Amino Acid Metabolite Pathways] <br> [http://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html#glycan Glycan Biosynthesis Metabolite Pathway]<br> [http://www.genome.jp/kegg/pathway.html#cofactor Cofactors and Vitamins Metabolite Pathways]}} |} New Vocabulary: 1. Orthologs, or orthologous genes, are genes in different species that are similar to each other because they originated from a common ancestor. 2. Ohnologous genes are paralogous genes that have originated by a process of whole-genome duplication. 3. Paralogs: a gene in an organism that is duplicated to occupy two different positions in the same genome, making the two copies paralogous. 4. Xenologs: Homologs resulting from horizontal gene transfer between two. Xenologs can have different functions, if the new environment is vastly different for the horizontally moving gene. In general, though, xenologs typically have similar function in both organism 5. Gametology: term which denotes the relationship between homologous genes on nonrecombining, opposite sex chromosomes. Gametologs result from the origination of genetic sex determination and barriers to recombination between sex chromosomes Relevance: This website database relates to our course work and text book by compiling all of the metabolism pathways. It defines metabolites, characterizes them in their role they play in any pathway and gives us a clear view on the relationship it has with organism as a whole. This database can be used for research to further develop our understanding in the world of Metabolomics which will in turn help us understand and maybe even cure different illnesses. ====MetaCyc==== [http://metacyc.org/ MetaCyc] is a database for over 900 primary and secondary metabolic pathways from various organisms; it also contains associated compounds, enzymes, and genes. Similary to KEGG, MetaCryc database aid the studying of Metabolomics by providing visual aid of many metabolic pathways. The exciting aspect of [http://biocyc.org/META/class-tree?object=Pathways MetaCyc pathways] is the detail explanation of the pathways. You can view all metabolites and their subclasses. (It also allows you to see all metabolites in relationship to each other and their hierarchy.) New vocabulary: 1. Prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring. They are mediators and have a variety of strong physiological effects; although they are technically hormones, they are rarely classified as such. 2. Cyclooxygenases: Prostaglandins are produced following the sequential oxidation of AA, DGLA or EPA by cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and COX-2) and terminal prostaglandin synthesis. 3. Pseudo compound: is not necessarily a physical compound. For example light, or a mis match of DNA base pairs, could be considered pseudo compounds. 4. Superatoms: are clusters of atoms that seem to exhibit some of the properties of elemental atoms. 5. Taxon (plural taxa), or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or group of organisms. Relevance: This web site database relates to our course work and textbook in the same way the KEGG web page is. MetaCyc however allows for a user friendly specific search based on the organism. It also looks for closely on the genome. ====The Human Metabolome Database==== [http://www.hmdb.ca/ Human Metabolome Database] is the most complete collection of human metabolite and human metabolism data in the world. It contains records for more than 2180 metabolites. It contains every metabolite and where you can find them (biofluids, tissue etc) it gives the molecular structure, weight and IUPC. The HMDB also contains a collection of experimental metabolite concentration data compiled from hundreds of mass spectra and Nuclear Magnetic resonance metabolomic analyses performed on urine, blood and cerebrospinal fluid samples. The HMDB contains compound description, names and synonyms, structural information, physico-chemical data, reference NMR and MS spectra, biofluid concentrations, disease associations, pathway information, enzyme data, gene sequence data, SNP and mutation data as well as extensive links to images, references and other public databases. Another aspect of the HMDB is Biofluid search which allows you to look at normal and abnormal concentrations of different metabolites for 7 different biofluids. [http://universe-review.ca/F11-monocell.htm Universe-review.ca] is a link that gives a brief summary on different essential metabolites. It goes through the structure of the molecule and their role in various metabolic pathways. [http://universe-review.ca/F11-monocell.htm Biosynth Chemistry & Biology] is another site with specific information on Lipids. New Vocabulary: 1. CAS registry numbers are unique numerical identifiers for chemical compounds, polymers, biological sequences, mixtures and alloys. They are also referred to as CAS numbers, CAS RNs or CAS #s 2. Biofluid: encompasses any fluid found in the body, HMDB includes: Amniotic Fluid, Bile, Blood, Breast Milk, CSF, Feces, Lymph, Menses, Mucus, Saliva, Sebum, Semen, Sweat, Synovial Fluid, Urine, Vitreous Humour and Vomit. 3. Sebum: oily substances are secreted by Sebaceous glands called sebum and the debris of dead fat-producing cells. 4. Simplified molecular input line entry specification or SMILES: is a specification for unambiguously describing the structure of chemical molecules using short ASCII strings. SMILES strings can be imported by most molecule editors for conversion back into two-dimensional drawings or three-dimensional models of the molecules. 5. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), character encoding based on the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that work with text Relevance: While the past two data base are more specific for metabolite pathways, HMDB focuses on the metabolite composition and chemistry/ chemical interaction. This is relevant because HMDB really breaks down each metabolite to the molecular level. HMDB also allows for purchasing of these compounds. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1694820.com Summary: The main point of this peer review article is to discuss the glycolysis process, which results in the formation of ATP as the main fuel in the anaerobic eukaryote, Monocercomonoides. Both ATP and Glucose are metabolites that relate directly to glycolysis and would be included in the organism's metabalome. Since anaerobic eukaryotes lack a complete tricarboxylic acid cycle, they can only extract few molecule of ATP per molecule of glucose. This is opposite of human cells, which makes this article important as it discusses alternate versions of enzymes in glycolysis. In anaerobic eukaryotes, enzymes such as pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase and pyrophosphate-fructose 6-phosphate phosphotransferase were examined through horizontal gene transfers from the bacteria in question to other eukaryotes. Horizontal gene transfers are processes in which an organism transfers genetic material to another cell that is not its offspring. Analysis of the glycolytic pathway of Monocercomonoides resulted in identification of both single-gene trees and conserved HGT events that provide evidence for the monophyly of protists known as Ecavata. Shared horizontal gene transfer events between oxymonads and both Giardia and Trichomonas further supported this relationship. This relationship becomes an important resource as it focuses on using glucose metabolites of Monocercomonoides to determine its lineage. Terms: Horizontal Gene Transfer- process in which an organism transfers genetic material to another cell that is not its offspring Monophyly- a group of organisms that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants. Oxymonad- a group of flagellated protozoa found exclusively in the intestines of termites and other wood-eating insects. Diplomonads- a group of flagellates, most of which are parasitic. Also classified as Protists. Walking primers-is a sequencing method for sequencing large DNA fragments (between 1,3 and 7 kilobases) that works by dividing long sequences into several consecutive short ones. Phylogenetic analyses- Analysis of the evolutionary connections between traits (for example, sequences) Taxa- Any organism or group of organisms of the same taxonomic rank; for example, members of an order, family, genus, or species. Relevance: How does this information relate to the information that you have studied in this course to date? This resource is very closely related to our current coursework. As one would recall we had to memorize the complete glycolysis pathway, which is exactly what this article covered. It focused on the enzymes involved in the pathway, which are some that I have memorized. It also reviewed the process through an anaerobic prospective, which sheds light on how glycolysis can be altered but still produce ATP. This is very interesting as we mainly focused on just the one type of glycolysis. ====Institute for Analytical Sciences==== http://www.isas.de/english/menu-top/research/research-departments/metabolomics/ Summary: ISAS’s main focus is to create analytical methods that will be able to answer questions about a metabolites specificity, selectivity, and dynamic range. They want to be able to identify a metabolom in a single step (ex: from a sample of air breathed out by a person being able to identify dangerous metabolites that would signal cancer was present in the lungs). Another goal of ISAS is to detect differences at the single cell level that come from mutations and the varying environments that each cell is in. Terms: Biogenic- necessary for the maintenance of life processes (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/biogenic) Mycotoxins-A toxin produced by a fungus. The term is usually reserved for fungal metabolites that are toxic to man and/or animals and are produced by molds growing on foodstuffs (e.g., aflatoxins, ergot alkaloids). (http://www.plantpath.cornell.edu/glossary/Defs_M.htm) Microfluidics- Microfluidics is the science of designing, manufacturing, and formulating devices and processes that deal with volumes of fluid on the order of nanoliters or picoliters. The devices themselves have dimensions ranging from millimeters down to micrometers. (http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci526632,00.html) Hyphal- a long, branching filamentous cell of a fungus, and also of Actinobacteria. In fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphal) Amperometric- relating to or being a chemical titration in which the measurement of the electric current flowing under an applied potential difference between two electrodes in a solution is used for detecting the end point (http://www.webster.com/dictionary/amperometric) Voltammetry- is a category of electroanalytical methods used in analytical chemistry and various industrial processes. In voltammetry, information about an analyte is obtained by measuring the current as the potential is varied. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltammetry) Chronocoulometry- The study of electrode surface properties, such as surface area. (http://www.answers.com/topic/chronocoulometry?cat=technology) Cytostatic- inhibiting or suppressing cellular growth and multiplication (http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/cytostatic) Relevance: A lot of the techniques that ISAS uses so far are similar to subjects we have studied in the course. ISAS uses nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry to evaluate intracellular and extracellular metabolites in human bowel tissues in an attempt to identify metabolites created by cancer cells. In Chapter 4 we learned that NMR can show the dynamic part of a components structure (folding, conformational alterations, and interactions with different molecules). Through the use of this method people could diagnosed with colorectal cancer earlier and through a less invasive method than before. Since cancer cells have mutated genes and create different metabolites than the colorectal cells normally would, a method being able to identify these products would be very helpful. In chapter 3 we learned about Mass Spec methods including MALDI MS, ESI MS, and MS/MS. ISAS uses ion mobility mass spectrometry in a lot of their projects including mold identification, analysis of breath to check for diabetes and lung cancer. Ion Mass Spec (IMS) detects low amounts of chemicals by using a homogenous electric field to see differences in migration of the gas phase ions. Where proteomics and genomics can show general drug treatments for problems, the Single Cell Laboratory research could be used to create specific drugs for each individual person’s unique cells and how their metabolome might be different. ====Learn More==== Additional Articles: 1)A metabolome study of the steady-state relation between central metabolism, amino acid biosynthesis and penicillin production in Penicillium chrysogenum [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WN3-4PDC19R-1&_user=47004&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2008&_rdoc=3&_fmt=full&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236951%232008%23999899998%23677531%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6951&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=7&_acct=C000005018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=47004&md5=b99d60371bfc4a02c615cf744ab7065c] 2)A critique of the molecular target-based drug discovery paradigm based on principles of metabolic control: Advantages of pathway-based discovery [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WN3-4PPMXW2-2&_user=47004&_coverDate=01%2F31%2F2008&_rdoc=2&_fmt=full&_orig=browse&_srch=doc-info(%23toc%236951%232008%23999899998%23677531%23FLA%23display%23Volume)&_cdi=6951&_sort=d&_docanchor=&_ct=7&_acct=C000005018&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=47004&md5=f3dae2a75744791f9f01be9e56ae310b] 3)Metabolomics - the way Forward [http://springerlink.metapress.com/content/v2276h12677n5012/fulltext.pdf] Images The following links are images, structures and diagrams of each previously mentioned metabolite. [[Image:http://www.brynmawr.edu/Acads/Chem/mnerzsto/carb-1.htm]] - Carbohydrate structures. [[Image:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pccompound&term=carbohydrate]] – PubChem images for Carbohydrate. [[Image:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez]] - PubChem images for Lipids. [[Image:http://www.chemistryland.com/ElementarySchool/BuildingBlocks/Lipids.jpg]] - Lipid [[Image:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez]] - PubChem Amino Acids [[Image:http://www-jmg.ch.cam.ac.uk/data/molecules/amino/]] - All Amino Acids (formula and diagram) [[Image:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez]] - Nucleotide PubChem [[Image:http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/images/ch1_nucleotide.jpg]] - The big picture - Nucleotides [[Image:http://www.nvo.com/jin/nss-folder/scrapbookcell/4%20nucleotide.jpg]] – 4 Nucleotides [[Image:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez]] - Co-factors PubChem [[Image:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez]] PubChem Glycan ---- == Metabolites Index == {{BookCat}} =Articles and Web Pages for Review and Inclusion= taflrwno3ghbkokq4i55jgovh6xn2x7 0 150581 4654022 4652409 2026-07-11T15:46:27Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654022 wikitext text/x-wiki Back to Previous Chapter: [[Metabolomics/Introduction_to_Metabolomics| Introduction to Metabolomics]]<br> Next chapter: [[Metabolomics/Hormones | Hormones]]<br> Next Category: [[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Lipids| Lipids]]<br> Go to: [[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Carbohydrates/Polysaccharides| Polysaccharides]]<br> Go back to: [[Metabolomics/Metabolites/Carbohydrates/Glucose| Glucose]]<br> =='''Sucrose'''== [[File:Sugar 2xmacro.jpg|thumbnail|table sugar]] ==='''Introduction'''=== Sucrose also known as table sugar is one of the few natural chemicals consumed in pure form (other examples are H2O and NaCl). Its average annual consumption is 175 pounds per person in the United States. Table sugar is isolated from sugar cane and sugar beets where it is roughly 14-20% of the weight making it easily extracted. The world production of sugar is around 150 million tons per year. ===''' Disaccharide Structure'''=== [[File:Saccharose2.svg|thumbnail|α-D-glucopyranose on the left and β-D-fructofuranose on the right]] Sucrose is not a simple monosaccharide, but a disaccharide composed of two units, glucose and fructose. The structure of sucrose can be deduced from its chemical behavior. Acid hydrolysis will split the molecule into glucose and fructose. Sucrose is a nonreducing sugar meaning it does not have an aldehyde group or is capable of forming one through isomerism. Sucrose also does not form osazones or undergo mutarotation. These findings suggest that the component monosaccharide units are linked by an acetal bridge connecting the two anomeric carbons. X-ray structural analysis confirms this hypothesis: Sucrose is a disaccharide in which the α-D-glucopyranose from of glucose is attached to β-D-fructofuranose in this way. Sucrose has a specific rotation of +66.5 and when treated with aqueous acid the rotation will decrease to a value of -20. This same effect can be achieved using the enzyme invertase on sucrose. The phenomenon is known as the inversion of sucrose and is related to the mutarotation of monosaccharides. The inversion of sucrose includes three separate reactions: hydrolysis of itself to α-D-glucopyranose and β-D-fructofuranose, mutarotation of α-D-glucopyranose to the equilibrium mixture with the β form, and mutarotation of β-D-fructofuranose to the more stable β-D-fructopyranose. Because the value for the rotation of fructose is -92 and the rotation value for glucose is +52.7, the net rotation is negative. This gives an "invert sugar" because it becomes inverted relative to the original solution. ==='''Role of Sucrose when Exposed to Atrazine and Oxidative Stress'''=== Soluble sugars act as metabolite signaling molecules that activate specific or hormone-crosstalk transduction pathways, in addition to playing a central role in plant structure and metabolism. Research was conducted on the different roles of exogenous sucrose in Arabidopsis thaliana plantlets when exposed to the herbicide atrazine and oxidative stress. A transcriptomic approach was utilized along with the employment of CATMAs (complete arabidopsis transcriptome microarrays). Conditions of xenobiotic stress (stresses from natural substances that are foreign to the human body) and sucrose-induced tolerance in the presence of atrazine, of sucrose, and of sucrose plus atrazine were compared. This comparison displayed atrazine's effect on gene expression and, therefore, the physiology of seedlings. There was as well, due to the larger-than-anticipated impact of atrazine on seedling physiology, potential impairment of protein translation and of reactive-oxygen-species (ROS) defense mechanisms. In addition, there were significant modifications of gene expression pertaining to ROS defense, and repair mechanisms, when there was sucrose-induced protection against atrazine injury. These alterations resulted from the combined influences of sucrose and atrazine. This highlights the significance of the interactions between sucrose and xenobiotic signaling, or of sucrose and ROS signaling. The resulting sucrose interactions produced characteristic differential expression of gene families including ascorbate peroxidases, glutathione-S-transferases and cytochrome P450s. Using these genes as molecular markers is expected to substantially progress future research of xenobiotic tolerance and phytoremediation (the use of certain plants to clean up soil, sediment, and water contaminated with metals and/or organic contaminants). Comparative observations between the atrazine-induced stress situation and the sucrose-atrazine protection situation via the transcriptomic approach has provided new insight into xenobiotic-signaling pathways, xenobiotic tolerance pathways, and identifying novel xenobiotic tolerance pathways. Research conducted on these reactions, in environments containing high concentrations of atrazine, prior to the transcriptomic approach produced trivial data. Early TF and gene target studies involving sucrose-induced tolerance are expected to be more useful when investigating sugar-induced tolerances towards other xenobiotics. Sucrose has, as well, been proven to induce a tolerance towards other xenobiotics. <!--Start of table definition--> {|style="background:white; color:black" border="0" height="230" align="center" valign="bottom" cellpadding=10px cellspacing=0px <!--Start of the details for the top-of-table heading--> |+style="background:white; color:black"|'''''Other Common Disaccharide''''' <!--Start the first row and add row formats--> |-align="center" <!--Start of individual cell details for the first row--> |[[Image:Lactose2.png|150x150px|none]] |[[Image:maltose structure.svg|150x150px|none]] |[[Image:Trehalose skeletal.svg|150x150px|none]] |[[Image:Cellobiose skeletal.svg|150x150px|none]] <!--Start of a second row and add formats--> |-align="center" valign="top" <!--Start of individual cell details for the second row--> |width="100"|'''Lactose''' |width="100"|'''Maltose''' |width="100"|'''Trehalose''' |width="100"|'''Cellobiose''' |} References: Organic Chemisty 6th Edition by Vollhardt (pg1142-1143) http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=18053238 www.medterms.com http://www.envirotools.org/factsheets/phytoremediation.shtml http://www.catma.org/database/ <br> <br> KEGG: {|style="background:Darkgray; margin: auto;" |- !style="color:black"|<big>Sucrose Relating KEGG Maps</big> |- |{{dropimage|align=center|width=400px|'''Carbohydrate Secondary Metabolite Pathway'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=center|width=400px|'''Pentose Phosphate'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=center|width=400px|'''Citric Acid Cycle'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=center|width=400px|'''Nucleotide Sugars Metabolism'''| ]}} |- |{{dropimage|align=center|width=400px|'''Starch and Sucrose Metabolism'''| ]}} |} {| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto;" |- ! Sucrose Relating MetaCyc Pathways |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?type=PATHWAY&object=SUCSYN-PWY Sucrose biosynthesis] |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=SUCROSE-DEG Sucrose degradation]] |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=LACTOSE-DEG Lactose degradation] |- |[http://biocyc.org/META/NEW-IMAGE?object=Trehalose-Degradation Trehalose degradation] |} Web source 1 1.[[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaccharide]] 2. The main focus of this source is to provide a definition of disaccharides along with a general description of basic aspects such as composition, structure, formation, and a list of common disaccharides including sucrose, lactose, maltose, trehalose, and cellulobiose, and what monosaccharides they’re composed of, and their linkage types. 3.<u>Reducing disaccharide</u>: monosaccharide components bonded by hydroxyl groups. <u>Non-reducing disaccharide</u>: components bond through their anomeric centers <u>Dehydration reaction</u>: chemical reaction involving loss of water from reacting molecule <u>Glycosidic bond</u>: functional group bonding a carbohydrate molecule to another molecule. The bond between hemiacetal group of the saccharide and hydroxyl group of another organic compound. <u>Diastereoisomers</u>: stereoisomers that are not enantiomers (mirror images) and that have different physical properties and react differently from one another. 4. This source briefly discusses formation of disaccharides which we covered in class using sucrose. It also describes alpha and beta linkages between the components of common disaccharides, some of which we’ve discussed in class. Web source 2 1.[[http://faculty.virginia.edu/mcgarveylab/Carbsyn/Carblist/html/disacch.html]] 2. This source primarily focuses on the difference between reducing and non-reducing disaccharides. For both types, it lists the names, discusses and shows images of the structures of the disaccharide, and provides some information about the uses or sources of the disaccharide. 3. <u>Cellobiose</u>: 4-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl-D-glucose, results from the hydrolysis of cellulose by bacteria <u>Endocellulase</u>: enzyme that hydrolyzes cellulose <u>Lactose intolerance</u>: A condition in which the enzyme lactase is absent or non-functioning and lactose cannot be broken down into its monosaccharide components <u>Galactosemia</u>: A condition that is an inability to process the resulting D-galactose after hydrolysis. <u>Furanosyl unit</u>: five of these are present in sucrose 3.This source connects to the course material through it’s description of the structures of the components of the disaccharides, discussion of the meaning of reducing and non-reducing sugars, and alpha and beta linkages. Web source 3 1.[[http://www.biocarta.com/pathfiles/sucrosePathway.asp]] 2. The purpose of this source is to provide information about the pathway of sucrose synthesis, which occurs in plants. It includes an illustration of the process, and provides information pertaining to the starting products, intermediate, and enzymes required. 3.<u>Photosynthesis</u>: carbohydrates are synthesized from CO2 and water, releasing oxygen, and using light to provide energy. <u>Activated glucose</u>: uridine disphospate (UDP) glucose, which consists of the pyrophosphate group, the pentose sugar ribose, glucose, and uracil. <u>Nucleotide group</u>: phosphorylated pentose sugar that is linked via an N-glycosidic bond to a purine or pyrimidine base. <u>Photophosphorylation</u>: production of ATP using the energy of sunlight for the phosphorylation reaction 4. The purpose of this source is to provide information about sucrose synthesis as a pathway, which we discussed in class as part of the topic of photosynthesis. Peer-reviewed Articles: “Fermentation of High Concentrations of Maltose by Saccharomyces cerevisiae Is Limited by the COMPASS Methylation Complex” 1.[[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1636176]] 2. This source is about late stage fermentation of high concentrations of maltose (main carbohydrate in brewer’s wort) in yeast used to produce beer. It discusses the COMPASS methylation complex, which methylates lysine 4 on histone H3, controls maltose utilization genes in late-stage fermentation. 3.<u>Fermentation</u>: oxidation of organic compounds that result in energy production, with sugars as a typical substrate, and ethanol, hydrogen, and lactic acid as typical byproducts. <u>Methylation</u>: replacement of a hydrogen atom with a methyl group. <u>Telomeric region</u>: DNA region at the end of a chromosome that consists of repeated sequences and protects the genetic material from damage. <u>Northern blotting</u>: a method of RNA analyzation using electrophoresis. <u>Western blotting</u>: a method of detecting specific proteins using electrophoresis. “Adaptation of Sucrose Metabolism in the Escherichia coli Wild-Type Strain EC3132†” 1.[[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=135337]] 2.This article pertains to an experiment involving the cloning, sequencing, and analysis of the csc gene locus from E. coli wild-type strain EC3132 that allows cells to utilize sucrose as a carbon source. 3.<u>Sucrose permease</u>: <u>Fructokinase</u>: <u>Sucrose hydrolase</u>: <u>Phosphoenolpyruvate</u>: “Metabolic Fluxes in Corynebacterium glutamicum during Lysine Production with Sucrose as Carbon Source” 1.[[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=535182]] 2. Metabolic fluxes were determined for Corynebacterium glutamicum grown on sucrose medium in a study about the process of molasses based industrial production. 3.<u>Metabolic flux</u>: <u>Pentose Phosphate Pathway</u>: <u>Fructose-specific phosphotransferase system (PTS):</u> <u>Isocitrate dehydrogenase</u>: <u>NADPH</u>: {{BookCat}} =Articles and Web Pages for Review and Inclusion= skphaelbr36euprv7fnsvr2lxgydien 0 155374 4654077 4645479 2026-07-11T19:14:14Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654077 wikitext text/x-wiki {{msg:GeneralChemTOC|prev=Chemical Kinetics|next=Reaction Rates}} Chemical kinetics is the study of the rates of chemical reactions. You may know if a reaction is capable of happening, and you may know how far the reaction will proceed, but you don't know fast it will happen. Consider two reactions: the rusting of an iron nail and the combustion of propane. Both reactions will occur, and both will occur to completion. The rusting will take years to complete, but propane will combust in an instant. Furthermore, the nail will rust faster when it's moist, and slower in the presence of less oxygen. Obviously, there are factors that affect the rates of chemical reactions. The study of these factors and rates is '''chemical kinetics'''. <gallery class="center"> Image:Stacheldraht 05.jpg|This iron wire has taken years to become rusty. Image:Sechselauten 2007 Boegg Explosion.JPG|This fire took only a moment to start. </gallery> == Reaction Rate == {| border="0" cellpadding="15px" | <math>a\hbox{A} + b\hbox{B} \to c\hbox{C} + d\hbox{D}</math> | Consider this generic chemical reaction. (Lower case letters represent the molar coefficients.) |- | <math>r = -\frac{1}{a} \frac{d[\hbox{A}]}{dt} = -\frac{1}{b} \frac{d[\hbox{B}]}{dt} = \frac{1}{c} \frac{d[\hbox{C}]}{dt} = \frac{1}{d} \frac{d[\hbox{D}]}{dt}</math> | The reaction rate <math>r</math> is defined as the rate of change of the concentration of the substances. Remember that a substance written inside brackets is its concentration, and it is always raised to the power of its coefficient in the reaction (just like equilibrium expressions). The reaction rate involves [[Calculus]], but in non-mathematical terms it is simply the rate of change of the concentrations. |- | <math>r = k[\hbox{A}]^a[\hbox{B}]^b</math> | Actually measuring the rate of change of the reactants and products is difficult. Instead, the reaction rate can be accurately modeled by a '''rate equation'''. This is an example of a rate equation that might model the above reaction, where <math>k</math> is a constant. |} In summary, the ''reaction rate'' can be determined using a ''rate equation'', which depends on (among other things) the concentration of the reactants. The reaction rate essentially measures the speed at which a reaction proceeds. == Collision Theory == {{SideBox|All reactions have activation energy regardless of being endothermic or exothermic.}}Collision theory predicts that reactions occur when molecules collide. In order for reactants to form products, the reactant molecules must physically collide so that they can rearrange themselves into product molecules. Only some collisions are ''effective'' because the collision must involve enough energy to allow the reaction to occur. This is called '''activation energy''', the energy needed to begin a reaction. Activation energy explains why gasoline will not spontaneously ignite. First, a small spark or flame must be present. The heat generated by the spark gives the gasoline molecules enough energy to activate the reaction. Being highly exothermic, the combustion of gasoline releases a large amount of heat—more than enough to activate further reactions and create a fire. Collision theory allows us to predict the '''rate constant''' <math>k</math> for a rate equation (see above). At a given temperature <math>T</math>, the rate constant is: <div style="text-align: center;"><math>k = Z \rho e^{-E_a / (RT)}</math>,</div> where <math>R</math> is the Universal Gas Constant, <math>E_a</math> is the activation energy for the reaction, <math>\rho</math> is a predicted-to-actual correction factor, and <math>Z</math> is the '''collision factor'''. The collision factor can also be calculated mathematically. It is the average number of reactant particle collisions per unit time. == Factors Affecting Rate == The rate of a reaction is affected by many factors. These effects can be measured empirically or explained by collision theory. === Concentration === This is the most obvious factor affecting rate. Increasing the concentration of the reactants will increase the rate they react. This is the main purpose of writing a rate equation; the concentrations can be plugged in like variables and the rate can be solved mathematically. In a rate equation in the form <math>r = k[\hbox{A}]^a[\hbox{B}]^b</math>, the concentrations are the variables (raised to the powers of their coefficients in the reaction). All other factors that can affect rate are lumped into <math>k</math>, which is considered a constant. Collision theory explains this. Higher concentrations means more molecules packed into a given space. Therefore, there will be more collisions and thus a faster reaction. === Pressure === In a reaction of gaseous reactants, the partial pressure of the gases has the same function as the concentration. {{SideBox|Adding an inert gas like argon will not affect the rate because the partial pressures of the reacting gases remain the same.}} However, increasing the overall pressure (or decreasing the volume if you remember the [[General Chemistry/Gas Laws|gas laws]]) will also result in a greater reaction rate. The increased pressure causes the molecules to collide with more force. More collisions will be effective and therefore products will form faster. === Temperature === As you should already know, a molecule's kinetic energy is directly proportional to its temperature. By increasing the temperature, molecules collide more vigorously, and more collisions will be effective. === Stirring === In a ''heterogeneous reaction'' there are two or more phases of matter interacting, such as a solid dissolving into a liquid. Stirring or shaking the mixture will speed up the reaction rate. This is common sense. When you add sugar to a drink, you stir it because you know it will dissolve faster. Collision theory would predict this because the stirring would increase the number of collisions between reactant molecules. In a similar manner, increasing the surface area of a solid reactant will increase the reaction rate. === Catalysts/Enzyme === [[Image:CatalysisScheme-en.svg|thumb|The activation energy E<sub>a</sub> is decreased by a catalyst, but the overall reaction does not change.]] A '''catalyst''' is a substance that helps a reaction proceed without being consumed. [[General Chemistry/Chemical equations#Other Information|Catalysts]] have already been explored in this book. A Catalyst provides a reaction pathway with lower activation energy. In biochemistry, an '''enzyme''' is a protein that serves as a catalyst. {{BookCat}} 19xei8whfhaxt0aecq1p2okxsi4xmk3 2 161833 4654017 4414350 2026-07-11T15:08:58Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654017 wikitext text/x-wiki [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Table http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Table] {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin: auto;" ! Particle !! Relative Charge !! Relative Mass |- ! Proton | +1 || 1 |- ! Neutron | 0 || 1 |- ! Electron | -1 || 0 (Negligible, or approximately <math>\frac{1}{1863}</math> |} tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t tetetetet ette t {| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5 class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" align="right" ! MUX !! Channel |- | Mux 1 || BBC 1 |- | Mux 2 || ITV 1 |- | Mux A || Five |- | Mux B || BBC 4 |- | Mux C || Sky News |- | Mux D || The Hits |} mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj mike fjdjdjdj junk {| align="left" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |} 6b4rhlrucsgihp9ol6r2kntwn5chvns 2 162898 4654147 4414264 2026-07-11T23:15:14Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 Fixes obsolete HTML tags lints 4654147 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="align: center; padding: 1em; {{#ifeq:{{{clear}}}|true||border: solid 2px darkblue; background-color: darkblue; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 25px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 25px;}}"> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: medium;{{#ifeq:{{{clear}}}|true|| color: white;}}>TheSun Welcomes You.</span></div></div> <div style="align: left; padding: 1em; {{#ifeq:{{{clear}}}|true||border: solid 2px darkblue; background-color: white; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 25px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 25px;}}"> =Projects= <big> '''My contributions often deal with:''' </big> {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} * '''Chemistry''' * '''Music''' * '''Language''' {{col-2}} * '''Drinks''' * '''Philosophy''' * '''Random stuff''' {{col-end}} <big>'''I'm working on'''</big> {{col-begin}} {{col-2}} *[[Introduction to Chemical Engineering Processes‎]] - ** <s>[[Introduction to Chemical Engineering Processes/Significant figures|Significant figures]]</s> - [[File:10von10.png‎]] ** [[Introduction to Chemical Engineering Processes/MATLAB|MATLAB]] [[File:2von10.png‎]] ** [[Introduction to Chemical Engineering Processes/General chemistry review|General Chemistry Review]] [[File:0von10.png‎]] {{col-2}} *[[German]] [[File:2von10.png‎]] ** Finish [[German/Level_I|Level 1]] [[File:4von10.png‎]] {{col-end}} I've only started on these endeavourers, because I am in college and enjoy the outdoors. {{col-begin}} [[de:Benutzer:TheSun]] =You need Help?= {{col-2}} * '''Talk''' [[User_talk:TheSun|to me]] * '''Ask''' [[WB:HELP| for help]] * '''Edit''' [[User:TheSun/Sandbox|a "Sandbox"]] ([[WB:BOLD|experiment]]) {{col-2}} <big> '''Have an idea?'''</big> * '''Read''' the [[Help:How_to_start_a_book|Help page]] about starting a book. * '''Check out''' Whiteknight's [[User:Whiteknight/New_Book_Guide|New Book Guide]]. {{col-end}} --- [[Special:Contributions/TheSun|My Wikibooks contributions]]<br /> [[w:User:TheSun|TheSun on Wikipedia]] <nowiki>'''~ ~~~~ ~'''</nowiki> </div> 1g41n71e0x2vsq2mqg1tzaf4d8o2gyn 0 181060 4654108 4646322 2026-07-11T19:20:48Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654108 wikitext text/x-wiki <table WIDTH="90%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 10px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" valign=center> <gallery class="center"> Image:soft_crab.jpg Image:tangier_weekend.jpg Image:exhibit_viewing.jpg Image:immature-tomato-1.jpg </gallery> <div style="text-align: center;"> {{font/top|color="#663300" face="LUCIDA"}} == Non-Traditional Educational Careers == <table WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 5px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" > == ''Learning Targets'' == <ul><li> Advantages and Disadvantages of non-traditional educators <li> Creative Methods and Techniques <li> Value of Feedback.</ul> </td></tr></table> {{font/end}}</div> </td></tr></table> {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} There are many new approaches to recruiting educators in high need subject areas including alternative and expedited routes to teacher licensure and career switching programs in order to gain the expertise of educators with previous professional work experiences. Many people who are considering a career change look to teaching as a way to incorporate and apply their existing knowledge in a content area. Many elementary, middle, and high schools are actively accepting applications for teachers in what the Virginia Department of Education calls the “critical shortage areas such as mathematics, foreign languages, sciences, and technology education” (Education). However, there is yet another educational career opportunity that is emerging and gaining respect and popularity in the classroom by the students ''and'' teachers! {{font/end}} {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} == What is a ''non-traditional'' educational career? == Classroom based teachers are taking their students outside of their classroom and visiting science, nature, and history centers seeking more effective learning (Price). These centers employ educational coordinators who deliver information to students through unique and creative methods. These non-traditional educators, sometimes called “field teachers” (Payne), bring a unique edge to the educational experience for students and teachers alike. Non-traditional educators integrate different learning methods to meet the needs of different types of learners in a real world setting. They incorporate new knowledge with social interaction by prepare exciting lessons and creative activities for the students such as inside of the classroom or outside during a field trip. Non-traditional educators work with school teachers to meet the needs of the students and lesson plans as well as work with a school system’s high expectations that the experience will be worthwhile (Payne). {{font/end}} {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} == Are they effective? == Non-traditional educators who present information to students through field trips, guest lectures, and other types of class demonstrations are gaining recognition for their effective teaching styles. <big>''Advantages''</big> Non-traditional educators have some advantage over the traditional classroom teachers and lesson plans. “Teachers teach daily. If there is an important message, a different instructor can be a breath of fresh air to the students. If an important message is taught incorrectly, you are sending the wrong message, and in my case, it could be deadly.”(Packett, 2009) Non-traditional educators are an expert within the subject matter being taught. They generally present the same information to audiences on a regular basis. Packett discussed his advantage of his work history and experience that provided his concentrated knowledge base. It allowed him to "hone in on it and perfect it.” Although field educators have advantages over a classroom based teacher, a cooperative relationship can be established. Pre-visit and post-visit classroom based lessons can emphasize the learning experience. Also, guest speakers and field educators can give validity to the classroom teacher by repeating terms and lessons that have been introduced in the classroom (Payne). “we offer things that support and complement” what can be taught in the classroom. <big>''Disadvantages''</big> Non-traditional educators have a limited time to learn the types of students that are present in a classroom or in a class group. This can present as a disadvantage for an instructor. Also acting as a disadvantage is the limited amount of time to present subject material given the distance for travel or time restraints that surround the field trip or classroom period. <big>''Student Benefits''</big> Non-traditional educators recognize that students learn in different ways and there is a responsibility to teachers to present new knowledge in a way for all types of learners to benefit. Some students need to have a reason for learning, some are able to learn new facts without needing a personal connection, while some students benefit most from exploring and learning firsthand (Payne). Non-traditional educators take these differences into consideration and use various teaching techniques to connect to as many individual students in a classroom. ''Connection to their world'' Students benefit from out-of-the-classroom opportunities that non-traditional educators present for many reasons. The presentations allow students the chance to connect with a new environment outside of the classroom. Also, students are eager to learn if the lessons of the classroom can be applied to their real world (Payne). Teagle further explains, “we are also teaching students the value of working in the field. History is not just in books, but in the artifacts.” ''Alternative to Lectures'' Some non-traditional educators use constructivist principles and social interactions using small groups as an alternative to lecture methods (Payne). Payne explains, “Telling is not teaching”. ''Small, interactive groups'' He explained that during field trips, smaller groups led by parent chaperones and teachers allow for easier orchestration of rotating stations, maximizing the amount learning for students and exposure to new material. “When I’m in the classroom, I tend to have larger groups. When groups get large, retention goes down.” ''A unique perspective'' When students and teachers take field trips and visit farms, museums, and other places, visitors "get the sights and smells and all of the student’s senses are filled" (Packett, 2009). Teagle adds, “we offer a different perspective of the 1700’s and a unique setting to the students. We are teaching kids how to make research and learning a continuous process. We are unearthing new information every day, just as we’ve shown them in the artifacts digging station”(Teagle, 2009). {{font/end}} {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} == Who are they? == Non-traditional educators come from a variety of backgrounds to teach a variety of specialty subjects. They are safety educators, museum interpreters and curators, history and environmental site educators, and trainers for advanced educational workshops. Andrew Packett, Public Relations Coordinator for [http://www.nnec.com/ Northern Neck Electric Cooperative], has 20 years of experience as a non-traditional educator. Formerly a [http://www.dare.com DARE Drug Abuse Resistance Education] officer for drug prevention, he currently teaches electrical safety to elementary school children. Packett says “Who better to go into the classroom to teach electrical safety, but me. It should be an expert in the field.” After spending several years as an interpreter for [http://www.shirleyplantation.com/ Shirley Plantation], Virginia’s historic first plantation, Robert Teagle is the Education Director and Curator for [www.christchurch1735.org/ Historic Christ Church]. His years of experience in interpretation and personal interest in Virginia history offer visitors a unique perspective. Some historical and environmental site educators use their settings' existing resources as a tool for teaching. The Chesapeake Bay Foundation’s [http://www.cbf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=edu_sfe_resid_pi Port Isobel Island Study Center] and [http://www.cbf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=edu_sfe_resid_fox/ Fox Island Study Center] offer the perfect setting for their Field Educators to carry out [http://www.cbf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=lrn_sub_teachers/ Chesapeake Classrooms] courses. An interesting alternative is the National Park Service’s [http://www.nps.gov/learn/trt/ Teacher to Ranger to Teacher program] that draws from all perspectives as a traditional classroom instructor, a Ranger student, and a field instructor (Interpretation and Education). {{font/end}} <table WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 5px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" > {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} ''"Instructors draw upon their expertise as professional scientists, authors, historians, artists, and adventurers" - National Park Service, Institutes and Field Schools '' {{font/end}} </td></tr></table> {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} == Advice from the experts == <big>''Persue it!''</big> Robert Teagle encourages all educators who are considering a non-traditional career to "Persue it!" He has created an impressive workshop for elementary age school children, complete with take home art work and post-visit history fairs where children can win exciting prizes. <big>''Be Enthusiastic!''</big> Andrew Packett encourages non-traditional educators to incorporate excitement into their presentations. “I come into the classroom very enthusiastic! The level of enthusiasm you must maintain, to capture students’ attention and keep it, can be exhausting!” <big>''Learn the Terms!''</big> Packett also recommends familiarizing yourself with the public school system. Field educators should target the curriculum. "You must address the Virginia SOL’s or you may not get into the classroom." Also, if classroom experience is limited, a field educator "must enter the classroom and observe the grade levels that you will be presenting information to. You need to understand the terminology and acronyms in current public school systems!" <big>''Make it fun!''</big> Teagle and Packett both agree that field experiences and guest speakers into the classroom must include an element of entertainment. Make it fun! Use active learning and hands-on stations. <big>''Value of Feedback''</big> Lastly, field educators place high value on post-visit feedback from classrooms and teachers. Questionnaires can be completed by the students and teachers as well as informal types of feedback such as thank you letters from the schools. Assessments that occur during the educational sessions are also of value. Teagle says "kids provide the best critiques". When performing activities with the children, he critiques his own lesson plans and learns best by doing activities with the children. He concludes that he uses this valuable feedback to help shape the content of future school groups. {{font/end}} == Test Your Knowledge == {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} 1. What is another name for non-traditional educators, a term coined by Payne? a.substitute teacher b.field officers c.field teachers d.classroom teacher 2.A large school group arrives to Jamestown for a visit to this historic first settlement. The group of 90 students were only able to travel with 3 teachers and one adult parent of a student. When the adults discussed how they will split up the students into smaller group activities, the one parent admitted that they were not comfortable leading a group of students alone. This meant that there would be groups of 20 children each. Which of the following statements will be true? a.The large groups of children will retain more new information. b.The large groups of children will have no impact on their retention of the new information. c.The large groups of children will retain less information. d.None of the above. 3. What is one way for a classroom based teacher and a non-traditional "field" teacher to create a cooperative relationship? a.immediately upon completion of the presentation of the field teacher, the classroom teacher should correct the misinformation. b.discuss the lesson plan before the presentation of new material and create pre- and post-visit activities. c.classroom teacher discusses success of field trip and expertise of field teacher with principle and recommends hiring that person for the next nine week session of earth science. 4. Which of the following is not a role of a non-traditional educator? a.incorporate new knowledge with social interaction. b.avoid incorporation of SOL material in presentations as to avoid interruption in the lesson plans of the classroom based teacher. c.integrate various teaching styles to appeal to the many types of learners that exist in a classroom. d.provide opportunities to apply their new knowledge in a real world setting 5. Which of the following situations would be the best way for a field teacher to go about getting feedback after a class presentation? a.The field teacher contacts the classroom teacher by phone. b.The field teacher contacts each student's parent by phone for an interview. c.The field teacher gives the classroom teacher questionnaires to be completed immediately following the presentation and offers to pick up the completed questionnaires in 3 days. Answers: 1)c 2)c 3)b 4)b 5)c {{font/end}} == References == {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} Education, D. o. (n.d.). Virigina Career Switcher Alternative Route to Licensure Program. Retrieved February 7, 2009, from http://www.doe.virginia.gov/VDOE/newvdoe/CareerSwitcher/ Interpretation and Education. (n.d.). Retrieved February 7, 2009, from National Park Service: www.nps.gov/learn/institutes.htm Packett, A. (2009, February 6). Public Relations Specialist, Northern Neck Electric. (R. Crowther, Interviewer) Payne, B., Sumter, M., & Sun, I. (2003, Fall2003). BRINGING THE FIELD INTO THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE CLASSROOM: FIELD TRIPS, RIDE-ALONGS, AND GUEST SPEAKERS. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 14(2), 327-344. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Price, Sabra & Hein, George E. (1991). More than a field trip: science programmes for elementary school groups at museums. International Journal of Science Education, 13 (5), 505-519. Retrieved February 7, 2009, from http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/0950069910130502 Spencer, J. (Winter 2001-2002). From Traditional to Radical: One Teacher's Oddyssey. Thought and Action - The NEA Higher Education Journal , 93-100. Teagle, R. (2009, February 6). Education Director and Curator, The Foundation for Historic Christ Church. (R. Crowther, Interviewer) {{font/end}} == References of Photography == {{font/top|color=#663300|face='Lucida'}} www.freephotos.lu - free domain photography www.easystockphotos.com/education/ - free domain photography <table WIDTH="90%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 10px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" valign=center> <gallery class="center"> Image:aquarium-fish-23.jpg Image:branch-with-lot-of-apples.jpg Image:bird-7.jpg Image:telescope_viewing.jpg </gallery> </td></tr></table> {{font/end}} {{FEIA/Rating|27}} {{BookCat}} 3gcfeqziuv6rdy4bc4pf8oqsio6v8ff 0 185872 4654083 4652388 2026-07-11T19:16:28Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654083 wikitext text/x-wiki {{msg:GeneralChemTOC|prev=Chemistries of Various Elements/Hydrogen|next=Chemistries of Various Elements/Inner Transition Metals}} == Transition Metals == The transition metals are found in the middle of the [[General Chemistry/Periodic Table|periodic table]]. There are two definitions of ''transition metals'': # All d-block elements (Groups 3-12) # Elements with partially occupied d-orbitals or that can form cations with partially occupied d-orbitals The first definition is more common and is used casually, but the second definition emphasizes the unique properties of transition metals and is the one used by IUPAC (The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry). The second definition is commonly considered to exclude Zn, Cd and Hg because these elements have a ''d<sup>10</sup>'' electronic configuration (the d-orbitals being fully, not partially, occupied). However, recently reported fluoride Hg(IV) compounds, which have a ''d<sup>8</sup>'' configuration put this exemption into doubt and make it reasonable to consider Hg (and possibly Zn and Cd too) as transition metals. Transition metals behave differently than other metals because of their partially occupied d-orbitals. Adding electrons to a transition metal does not affect its valence shell because the electrons go into the d-orbital (which is not part of the valence shell). All transition metals have one or two valence electrons. === Electrons and Oxidation === Transition metals are interesting because they can have several [[General Chemistry/Redox Reactions/Oxidation state|oxidation states]], unlike most other metals. This happens because the transition metals can lose their d electrons in addition to their s electrons when forming ions. [[Image:Transition metal oxidation states 2.png|center|frame|The solid dots show common oxidation states, and the hollow dots show possible but unlikely states.]] Remember that an electron orbital is most stable when it is full or half-full (or empty). Studying the electron configurations of the transition metals shows an interesting pattern: {| style="margin: auto;" | Sc: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>1</sup> |- | Ti: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>2</sup> |- | V : || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>3</sup> |- | Cr: || [Ar]4s<sup>'''1'''</sup>3d<sup>'''5'''</sup> |- | Mn: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>5</sup> |- | Fe: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>6</sup> |- | Co: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>7</sup> |- | Ni: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>8</sup> |- | Cu: || [Ar]4s<sup>'''1'''</sup>3d<sup>'''10'''</sup> |- | Zn: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>10</sup> |} To be more stable, an s-electron "jumps up" to the d-orbital in chromium and copper. This also occurs in in heavier transition metals like molybdenum, tungsten, and platinum. With heavier transition metals in Periods 5, 6, and 7, the effects of ''relativity'' cause changes in the energy levels of the orbitals. In those elements, s-electrons "jump up" to d-shells more often than expected with the full/half-full rule. When ions of the transition metals form, they lose their s-electrons first, then they lose their d-electrons if further ionized. For example, copper can form two different ions, and titanium can form three: {| style="margin: auto;" | Cu: || [Ar]4s<sup>1</sup>3d<sup>10</sup> |- | Cu<sup>+</sup>: || [Ar]4s<sup>0</sup>3d<sup>10</sup> |- | Cu<sup>2+</sup>: || [Ar]4s<sup>0</sup>3d<sup>9</sup> |- | Ti: || [Ar]4s<sup>2</sup>3d<sup>2</sup> |- | Ti<sup>2+</sup>: || [Ar]4s<sup>0</sup>3d<sup>2</sup> |- | Ti<sup>3+</sup>: || [Ar]4s<sup>0</sup>3d<sup>1</sup> |- | Ti<sup>4+</sup>: || [Ar]4s<sup>0</sup>3d<sup>0</sup> |} === Colors === Transition metals and their oxides, when dissolved, form colored compounds. Group 1 and 2 metals are clear when dissolved and white when precipitated. Other metals, like lead, are clear when dissolved and may have color when precipitated (lead precipitates are yellow). Transition metals, on the other hand, are colored when dissolved. Different metals are known for their specific colors, finding use as inks or paints. [[Image:Coloured-transition-metal-solutions.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Left to right: cobalt(II) nitrate (red); potassium dichromate (orange); potassium chromate (yellow); nickel(II) chloride (green); copper(II) sulfate (blue); potassium permanganate (purple).]] <!-- maybe mention ligands and crystal field theory--> == Families == === Coinage Metals === The "coinage metals" are [[w:Copper|copper]], [[w:Silver|silver]], [[w:Gold|gold]], and [[w:Roentgenium|roentgenium]]. These elements are used for much more than just coins, and many other elements besides these are made into coins. Furthermore, roentgenium is radioactive with a half-life of 3.6 seconds, making it useless for commercial applications. Consequently, the "coinage metals" are more appropriately called '''Group 11 (IB)''' elements. Copper, silver, and gold, although relatively rare (copper), rare (silver), or extremely rare (gold), are among the longest-known and most familiar elements. They are soft, shiny, dense metals resistant to corrosion and very good conductors of electricity. Roentgenium, a recently discovered synthetic element, is so short-lived that its physical and chemical properties are ill-defined. Copper is by far the most heavily used of these elements due to its electrical properties, its commonness (contrasted to silver and gold) and the attractiveness of its alloys brass and bronze. Until aluminum became commonplace, copper was second only to iron in production among the metals. <gallery perrow=3 widths=150px class="center"> Image:Kupferfittings 4062.jpg|Copper pipes Image:SilverUSGOV.jpg|Silver, the shiniest Image:Gold1oz.jpg|Gold </gallery> They are easy to identify when found because copper (reddish) and gold (yellow) are the only two colored metals that people are likely to encounter. Silver is the shiniest of metals, and it is usually found in the presence of copper or gold and gives an obvious contrast. They are often found uncombined. Because of their softness they are easily struck as coins, and their comparative rarity and attractiveness, along with their resistance to corrosion make them compact stores of wealth. They are too soft to have structural value, but copper alloys with such elements as zinc and tin to form harder brasses and bronzes. Brass and bronze were essential in the earliest metal tools; without them, civilization as we know would be impossible. Gold and silver, due to their attractiveness and their resistance to oxidation, have been used heavily in jewelry and other ornamental works. Gold, although extremely expensive, is so malleable that at modest cost a small amount can be pounded into a foil of extreme thinness that allows it to be used as a covering of some architectural objects; a little gold goes a long way. Copper oxidizes with some difficulty to the +1 state in halides and an oxide and to the +2 state in salts such as copper sulfate CuSO<sub>4</sub>. Soluble copper compounds are easily identified by their distinctive blue-green color. Silver oxidizes to the +1 state in such substances as silver nitrate AgNO<sub>3</sub> and silver sulfide Ag<sub>2</sub>S, the latter the typical blackening of silver. Gold oxidizes to the +1 and +3 state with great difficulty. These elements are poor (copper) to extremely-poor (gold) reducing agents and their compounds are very good oxidizing agents. Copper ions oxidize most metals: <div style="text-align: center;"><math>\hbox{Cu}^{2+}_{(aq)} + \hbox{Fe}_{(s)} \to \hbox{Cu}_{(s)} + \hbox{Fe}^{2+}_{(aq)}</math></div> The reaction is even stronger with either silver or gold. In effect a solution of one of these metals' salts plates most other metals. Silver is most electrically conductive metal, followed by copper then gold. This makes copper a favorite material for electrical wires. Gold-tipped wires are employed in situations that need electrical precision (like high-quality audio) because gold will not tarnish (the tarnish of copper is much less conductive). === Zinc Family === The ''Zinc Family'' is '''Group 12 (IIB)''' and consists of [[w:zinc|zinc]], [[w:cadmium|cadmium]], [[w:mercury|mercury]], and [[w:copernicum|copernicum]]. Zinc, cadmium, and mercury are metals with low melting points for metals. This is because they have an especially stable electron configuration. Mercury is so poor at forming metallic bonds that it is liquid at room temperature. <gallery class="center"> Image:10 Pfennig 1921.jpg|A zinc coin Image:Cd,48.jpg|Cadmium pieces Image:Hg Mercury.jpg|A puddle of mercury </gallery> Zinc and cadmium are soft metals that easily oxidize to the +2 oxidation state. Neither of these two metals appears uncombined in nature. Zinc is heavily used in alloys with copper to create a harder metal known as brass; as a coating for iron (the process is called "galvanizing"), it oxidizes to form a protective layer of zinc oxide (ZnO) that protects the iron from oxidation, also known as rust. Zinc oxide is much safer than lead oxide and is often used in white paint. Since 1982, zinc has been the main metal used in American pennies. It is now used in new organ pipes. Cadmium forms two substances, cadmium yellow (cadmium sulfide, CdS) and cadmium red (cadmium selenide, CdSe) that appeared in paints. These paints had strong colors that many of the great artists of the Impressionist periods cherished in their paintings. But these substances are very poisonous, and painters who used them often died young and crippled. Modern painters ordinarily use different paints that do not use these two poisonous chemicals. Mercury, in contrast, is a shiny liquid at room temperature and oxidizes with some difficulty. It conducts electricity well. Because it is liquid it is an unusual metal—but it is a metal. It has been used in thermometers (but not so often after it has been identified as a dangerous poison) because it expands with heat and in switches where it can flow into a closed space to close a circuit. Mercury oxidizes to the +2 state in mercuric chloride (HgCl<sub>2</sub>); in some strange compounds, two mercury atoms share an electron and offer their "spare" electrons to form substances in the +1 state, such as mercurous chloride (Hg<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>2</sub>). Zinc is an essential trace element for living things; it has some germicidal properties and is toxic (poisonous) in large quantities. Zinc pennies should never be swallowed. Cadmium, mercury, and their compounds are very dangerous poisons. Although mercury is attractive and has remarkable properties, it should be used with extreme care, and only by workers who have appropriate knowledge of its hazards. The artificial Element 112 named copernicum in 2010 is probably part of this group in its properties, but it is extremely difficult to produce and too unstable to have a well-defined chemistry. Few atoms of this element have ever been made. The elements of Groups 8, 9, and 10 are in two distinct groups: the common elements iron, cobalt, and nickel of the upper row of transition metals and the platinum metals of the second and third rows, and the far-scarcer platinum metals of the two lower rows of transition elements. == Iron, cobalt, and nickel == These elements are fairly-good reducing agents -- so good that they rarely appear uncombined in nature. [[w:iron|Iron]] is by far the most common of these. One of the most common elements in the universe, it is the heaviest metal that forms in normal fusion in stars (but only the largest stars). Once a star begins to produce iron in its core, that star is doomed in short order to a violent explosion that destroys the star and scatters its matter, including all of the elements that it has formed in fusion. Uncombined iron, cobalt, and nickel -- but especially iron -- are to be found in meteors, solid objects that strike the earth. Iron is by far the most common of the transition elements, and one of the most useful. It's hard to count all the uses of iron, the metal most used (whether pure or in alloys) in almost all machines. Giant "glass box" skyscrapers depend upon iron bars within their concrete "skeletons" to give them strength and stability. The rails of railroads are long iron bars. Concrete highways and airstrips have iron re-enforcing bars to give them the strength to hold heavy vehicles. The vehicles themselves are largely iron and a harder material known as steel, an alloy of iron, carbon, and often metals other than iron. Iron is the cheapest of all structural metals. With some skill of an artisan known as a [[blacksmith]] it can be worked into many useful objects such as horseshoes, nails, plows, chains, pails, ladders, and many tools. In foundries, iron and steel are shaped in far greater quantities into such objects as furniture and parts of aircraft, ships, motor vehicles, and appliances. Iron has one fault as a structural material: it rusts easily. In the presence of water (especially salt water) it corrodes into oxides: Fe<sub>(s)</sub> + 1/2 O<sub>2</sub><sub>(g)</sub> → FeO<sub>(s)</sub> 2 Fe<sub>(s)</sub> + 3/2 O<sub>2</sub><sub>(g)</sub> → Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sub>(s)</sub> and a mixed oxide known as hematite 2 Fe<sub>(s)</sub> + 3/2 O<sub>2</sub><sub>(g)</sub> → Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><sub>(s)</sub> one of the most common ores of iron. Iron oxides are mildly alkaline, so iron resists attacks by alkalis; acids attack it. For example, Fe <sub>(s)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4(l)</sub> → Fe<sup>2+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + H<sub>2</sub><sub>(g)</sub> Even a comparatively weak acid, like phosphoric acid, can attack iron oxide. This is the "naval jelly" reaction that removes rust from iron: FeO<sub>(s)</sub> + H<sub>3</sub>PO<sub>4(l)</sub> → Fe<sup>2+</sup><sub>(aq)</sub> + HPO<sub>4(aq)</sub><sup>-2</sup> + H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>(l)</sub> A great advance of humanity, the beginning of the Iron Age, began when people found that they could separate iron from oxygen by burning it with carbon (usually charcoal) which can reduce iron oxides to iron: Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub><sub>(s)</sub> + 4 C<sub>(s)</sub> → 3 Fe<sub>(s)</sub> + 4 CO<sub>(g)</sub> Much of existing economic activity depends upon the extraction of iron ore, the reduction of iron ore to iron, the strengthening of iron to steel, the creation of iron and steel objects, and the various practices used in protecting iron from corrosion. Important as that activity is, our lives would be impossible without an important compound of iron known as hemoglobin which carries oxygen through the bloodstream to cells where the cells can use the oxygen to release energy from food also delivered to cells through the bloodstream. <gallery perrow=3 widths=150px class="center"> Image:Hell Gate Bridge by Dave Frieder.jpg|two suspension bridges Image:OldPlow2006-05-21.JPG|an old iron plow Image:Redbloodcells.jpg| red blood cells contain hemoglobin Image:Industrial lifting magnet.jpg|an electromagnet attracting scrap iron </gallery> The earth itself has a hot, dense core of largely iron and nickel. At the temperatures characteristic of the Earth's core the iron and nickel form a giant natural magnet that creates a magnetic field that goes beyond the Earth itself into the atmosphere. That magnetic field drives off much dangerous radiation that would kill life on the Earth's surface if it reached the Earth's surface. Cobalt and nickel are both far scarcer than iron and not as extensively used in commerce as iron, although they have specialized uses. === Platinum Family === The Platinum group metals are [[w:ruthenium|ruthenium]], [[w:rhodium|rhodium]], [[w:palladium|palladium]], [[w:osmium|osmium]], [[w:iridium|iridium]], and [[w:platinum|platinum]]. These elements are found in the second two rows of '''Groups 8/9/10 (IIIB)'''. Unlike their lighter counterparts in Groups 8, 9, and 10 of these elements are resistant to corrosion and tarnish. They serve as '''catalysts''' for many chemical reactions, speeding up the reaction without being consumed by it. Palladium, osmium, and the other platinum group metals absorb hydrogen when powdered. Rhodium is used in ''catalytic converters''—metallic structures found inside vehicles. Catalytic converters convert nitric oxides (which are toxic pollutants) into elemental nitrogen and oxygen (both of which make up breathable air): <div style="text-align: center;"><math>2 \hbox{NO}_x \to x \hbox{O}_2 + \hbox{N}_2</math></div> That reaction would not occur without rhodium to serve as a catalyst. {{BookCat}} fijoxqhw1yg40awgk41gl0wbrciw9xf 0 185874 4654118 4453307 2026-07-11T19:21:25Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654118 wikitext text/x-wiki {{msg:GeneralChemTOC|prev=Chemistries of Various Elements|next=Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 2}} == Alkaline Metals == [[Image:Na_(Sodium).jpg|thumb|Sodium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife.]] The ''alkaline metals'' are the elements in '''Group 1 (1A)'''. They are [[w:Lithium|lithium]], [[w:Sodium|sodium]], [[w:Potassium|potassium]], [[w:Rubidium|rubidium]], [[w:Cesium|cesium]]<ref>Spelt as Caesium in [[w:British English|British English]].</ref>, and [[w:Francium|francium]]. These elements are best marked by their reactivity. Physically they are soft, shiny (when freshly prepared) solids with low melting points; they conduct electricity well. They all have one valence electron that they lose easily to almost any electronegative substance. Alkali metals are never found in their elemental form outside the lab because they are too reactive. Even the smallest amount of oxygen or water would react with the metal. For this reason, alkali metals have no structural use. They must be kept under inert liquids such as kerosene or in inert gases (nitrogen suffices for any of these elements other than lithium). Alkali metals have many uses in both biological life and industry. Francium, however, is radioactive and decays rapidly to other elements, so it has no commercial use and its chemical properties are vaguely understood. All oxidize easily to the +1 oxidation state. {{Info|The alkali metals have very similar chemical and physical properties. They can be studied as a whole, rather than element-by-element, due to this similarity.}} == Safety == Leave experiments with alkali metals to the experienced chemists. {{Warning|Alkali metals are dangerous. Their reactions release enough heat to cause flames, and may produce explosive byproducts like hydrogen gas. Never cast any alkali metal into water or acids. These metals should never be allowed to touch flesh because they react with any water upon them and yield corrosive hydroxides that damage flesh.}} == Reactions == Alkali metals react violently with water, halogens, and acids. The reactions release surprising amounts of heat and light. In a chemical equation, alkali metals are represented with an M. Here are some example equations: {| border="0" cellpadding="15px" | <math>4 \hbox{M}_{(s)} + \hbox{O}_{2(g)} \to 2 \hbox{M}_{2}\hbox{O}_{(s)}</math> | Alkali metals react with oxygen to form '''oxides''', which have a duller appearance and lower reactivity. The oxides are much less reactive than the pure metals. |- | <math>\hbox{M}_2\hbox{O}_{(s)} + \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O} \to 2 \hbox{MOH}_{(aq)}</math> | However, the oxides do react vigorously with water to form a '''hydroxide'''. The resulting hydroxides of these elements dissociate completely in water to form some of the strongest [[General Chemistry/Properties and Theories of Acids and Bases|bases]] known. "Lye" is an industrial-strength base, which is sodium hydroxide (NaOH). |- | <math>\hbox{NaOH}_{(aq)} + \hbox{HCl}_{(aq)} \to \hbox{NaCl}_{(aq)} + \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(l)}</math> | These hydroxides react readily with acids to form water and their corresponding alkali '''salt''' in a [[General Chemistry/Reactions of Acids and Bases#Neutralization|neutralization]] reaction. |- | <math>2 \hbox{M}_{(s)}+ 2 \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O} \to 2 \hbox{MOH}_{(aq)} + \hbox{H}_{2(g)}</math> | The pure alkali metal can also react directly with water. In this case, the metal is a [[General Chemistry/Reactions of Acids and Bases#Anhydrides|basic '''anhydride''']]. Gaseous hydrogen is released, which is flammable. |- | <math>2 \hbox{M}_{(s)} + \hbox{Cl}_{2(g)} \to 2 \hbox{MCl}_{(s)}</math> | Exposing an alkali metal to a [[General Chemistry/Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 18|halogen]] will cause an extremely exothermic reaction that results in an [[General Chemistry/Ionic bonding|ionic '''salt''']]. |} Almost every salt of an alkali metal is highly soluble in water. They form conducting solutions, proving their ionic nature. === Flame Tests === When burned in a flame, the alkali metals give off a unique color that can be used to identify them. <gallery caption="Flame Tests" widths="100px" heights="100px" perrow="3" class="center"> Image:FlammenfärbungLi.png|Lithium (pinkish-red flame) Image:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg|Sodium (yellow flame) Image:FlammenfärbungK.png|Potassium (pale violet flame) </gallery> ==References== {{BookCat}} j6h1cbp9bv99hyli5x4lylfgms4jdvw 0 185880 4654059 4101668 2026-07-11T18:56:26Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654059 wikitext text/x-wiki {{msg:GeneralChemTOC|prev=Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 16|next=Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 18}} == Halogens == The ''halogens'' are found in '''Group 17(VIIA)'''. The halogens are [[w:Fluorine|fluorine]], [[w:Chlorine|chlorine]], [[w:Bromine|bromine]], [[w:Iodine|iodine]], and [[w:Astatine|astatine]]. Like the [[General Chemistry/Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 1|alkali metals]], the halogens are extremely reactive. They have seven valence electrons, meaning they require only one more electron for a noble configuration. This gives them very large electron affinities and extreme reactivity to form ions with a -1 charge. They are so reactive that in their homogeneous state, UV light will catalyze a radical reaction. The halogens exist in '''diatomic''' form. Under normal conditions, they will always occur in pairs, covalently bonded. The covalent bond allows them to share an electron and possess a complete octet. F<sub>2</sub> is a pale yellowish-brown gas. It is highly reactive, causing organic compounds and hydrogen gas to explode, even without a spark. Cl<sub>2</sub> is a pale yellow-green gas. It reacts with water to form disinfectants and bleaches. Br<sub>2</sub> is a reddish-brown liquid, but, being '''volatile''', it readily evaporates into a reddish vapor. I<sub>2</sub> is a gray solid that forms a violet gas if heated. Fluorine is the most [[General Chemistry/Electronegativity|electronegative]] of all elements, and it is so reactive that it attacks almost any other element (noble gases, oxygen, nitrogen, and gold are the exceptions) to form fluorides. Chlorine is somewhat less reactive, bromine somewhat less reactive than chlorine, and iodine even less, but even iodine is a formidable ionizer. Extreme radioactivity masks the chemical properties of astatine. With increasing atomic weight for these elements, the elements have higher boiling and melting points. At normal temperatures, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. {{Info|The halogens have very similar chemical properties. They can be studied as a whole, rather than element-by-element, due to this similarity.}} <gallery caption="The Halogens" class="center"> Image:Fluorid měďnatý.PNG|Copper (II) Fluoride Image:Chlorinegas.jpg|Chlorine gas Image:Bromine2.jpg|Bottle containing both liquid and gaseous bromine Image:Iodine-sample.jpg|Solid iodine pieces </gallery> == Safety == {{Warning|All of these pure elements are dangerous and should never be touched. Fluorine is extremely dangerous in that it corrodes almost anything—even glass. Breathing the vapors of these elements, even in minute amounts, can cause death. Soluble fluorides are highly toxic to living things and hazardous to the environment. }} == Reactions == {| border="0" cellpadding="15px" | <math>2 \hbox{F}_{2(g)} + 2 \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(l)} \to \hbox{O}_{2(g)} + 4 \hbox{HF}_{(aq)}</math><br> <math>\hbox{Cl}_{2(g)} + \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(l)} \to \hbox{HCl}_{(aq)} + \hbox{HClO}_{(aq)}</math><br> <math>\hbox{Br}_{2(g)} + \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(l)} \to \hbox{HBr}_{(aq)} + \hbox{HBrO}_{(aq)}</math> | The halogens in diatomic form react with water to produce [[General Chemistry/Properties and Theories of Acids and Bases|'''acids''']].<br> Iodine does not react with water and is only slightly [[General Chemistry/Solubility|soluble]]. Chlorine also has low solubility, but it will react in water to form hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. |- |<math>\hbox{X}_2 + \hbox{H}_{2(g)} \to 2 \hbox{HX}_{(g)}</math> |In chemical reactions, an X is used to symbolize any halogen element. All halogens form gaseous compounds with hydrogen: hydrogen fluoride HF, hydrogen chloride HCl, hydrogen bromide HBr, and hydrogen iodide HI. These are acidic, strongly reactive substances called '''hydrogen halides'''. |- |<math>\hbox{HX}_{(g)} + 2\hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(g)} \to \hbox{H}_3\hbox{O}^+_{(aq)} + \hbox{X}^-_{(aq)} + \hbox{H}_2\hbox{O}_{(l)}</math> | When hydrogen halides are dissolved in water, they are known as '''hydrohalic acids'''. Except for hydrogen fluoride, they are among the [[General Chemistry/Chemical Equilibria/Acid-Base Equilibrium|strongest]] known acids. |- | <math>2 \hbox{M}_{(s)} + \hbox{X}_{2(g)} \to 2 \hbox{MX}_{(s)}</math><br> <math>\hbox{HX}_{(g)} + \hbox{NH}_{3(g)} \to \hbox{NH}_4\hbox{X}_{(g)}</math> |These reactions show reactions with metals and ammonia gas to form [[General Chemistry/Ionic bonding|'''salts''' and '''ammonium halides''']], respectively. |- | <math>\hbox{SiCl}_4 + 2\hbox{H}_2\hbox{O} \to \hbox{SiO}_2 + 4 \hbox{HCl}</math> | Many non-metallic halides react with water to release hydrogen halides. For example, silicon chloride and water react. |} == Other Compounds == Halides of metals are known as '''salts'''. Sodium chloride, better known as "table salt", is the crystalline substance often used to enhance the flavor of food. Note, however, that not all salts are halides (for example, sodium sulfate Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>), and not all halides are salts (carbon tetrachloride, CCl<sub>4</sub>). '''Interhalogens''' are molecules composed of two or more different halogen atoms. They are similar to the diatomic halogens. Some examples are chlorine monofluoride ClF and bromine monochloride BrCl. There are many others, and they are all very reactive and somewhat unstable. Interhalogens take the form XY<sub>n</sub>, where n is 1, 3, 5, or 7. X and Y are both halogens, X being the less electronegative. Larger molecules and ions are also known. E.g. I<sub>2</sub> does not dissolve in water very well, but it dissolves readily in a solution containing iodide ions under the formation of the triiode anion I<sub>2</sub> + I<sup>-</sup> --> I<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> '''Noble gas compounds''' have been formed using fluorine. Although noble gases are supposedly inert, the larger ones like xenon will form covalent bonds with a very electronegative element like fluorine. Xenon difluoride XeF<sub>2</sub>, xenon tetrafluoride XeF<sub>4</sub>, and xenon hexafluoride XeF<sub>6</sub> are among the noble gas compounds that have been created. == Oxidation states == Fluorine is by far the most electronegative element and when it reacts it invariably assumes an oxidation number of -1. The compounds formed this way are called '''fluorides'''. The other halogens ofter react in similar fashion, but they are less electronegative than fluorine. If they react in the presence of an element with a higher electronegativity than their own other (higher) oxidation numbers may result. For chlorine this can only happen with two elements: oxygen and fluorine. The best known compounds with higher oxidation states are the oxo-acids and their salts. {|class="wikitable" |- ! Ox # !! Acid !! Name !! Anion !! Name |- | +7 ||HClO<sub>4</sub>||perchloric acid|| ClO<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup>||perchlorate ion |- | +5 ||HClO<sub>3</sub>||chloric acid|| ClO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>||chlorate ion |- | +3 ||HClO<sub>2</sub>||chlorous acid|| ClO<sub>2</sub><sup>-</sup>||chlorite ion |- | +1 ||HClO||hypochlorous acid|| ClO<sup>-</sup>||hypochlorite ion |- | -1 ||HCl||hydrochloric acid|| Cl<sup>-</sup>||chloride ion |} As shown the oxidation numbers can range over a full octet from -1 to +7, representing an electron configuration for the chlorine atom ranging from [Ar] to [Ne]. The naming is somewhat makeshift. The endings -ic for the acid and -ate for the anion are typically reserved for the highest oxidation number, but they had already been given to the +5 species when the +7 ones were found. This is why the per- suffix was added. The +3 species have the usual -ous and -ite endings for a oxidation state one step below the highest and the hypo- prefix indicates that it is a an even lower oxidation state. Some of these compounds are rather common. Hydrochloric acid can be found in our stomachs and as a household cleaner. In pure form it is a gas, but it is quite soluble in water. Table salt is a chloride salt, the hypochlorite ion is the active ingredient in bleach. Perchlorates are very soluble salts and this fact is often exploited if we wish to make a certain cation readily soluble. The elements bromine and iodine form similar acids and salts to chlorine. ==Halo-acids== Oxo-acids like nitric acid HNO<sub>3</sub> of sulfuric acid H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> and their anions like the nitrate ion NO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> or the sulfate ion SO<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup> are well known. In these molecular ions oxygen functions as the more electronegative ligand around a central atom (N or S) in a high oxidation state. Halogens being rather electronegative themselves can fulfill the same role as oxygen and this gives rise to halo-acids and their anions. A good example of such an anion is the tetrafluoroborate anion BF<sub>4</sub><sup>-</sup>. The naming of such compounds is derived from the oxo ones. The name borate with its -ate ending indicates that boron in its highest oxidation state is the central atom. The fact that the ligands are F rather than oxygen is indicated by the prefix fluoro- and the tetra- indicates that there are four ligands around the central atom. Similar names pertain to the other halogens, e.g. ZnCl<sub>4</sub><sup>2-</sup> is the tetrachlorozincate ion. {{BookCat}} 62yhxbrxde03m3t1dqr5i5whjr8hg3f 0 185881 4654130 4436419 2026-07-11T19:23:06Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654130 wikitext text/x-wiki {{msg:GeneralChemTOC|prev=Chemistries of Various Elements/Group 17|next=Chemistries of Various Elements/Hydrogen}} == Noble gas elements of G-18:-- == The ''noble gases'' are in '''Group 18 (8A)'''. They are [[w:Helium|helium]], [[W:Neon|neon]], [[w:Argon|argon]], [[w:Krypton|krypton]], [[w:Xenon|xenon]], and [[w:Radon|radon]]. They were once called ''inert gases'' because they were thought to be completely '''inert'''—unable to form compounds. This is a reasonable belief because the noble gases have a complete [[General Chemistry/Octet Rule and Exceptions|octet]], making them very stable and unlikely to gain or lose any electrons. However, some compounds have been formed with the larger elements of this group, like xenon tetrafluoride (XeF<sub>4</sub>). No normal compounds of helium, neon, or argon are stable at any but the coldest of temperatures. Radon is dangerously radioactive; it causes cancer. It is so unstable that its radioactivity makes any chemical experiments with it nearly impossible. {{Info|Noble gases all have a complete octet (eight valence electrons), except for helium (which has only two electrons). Because this configuration is extremely stable as well as symmetrical, the noble gases are very unreactive.}} == Ionization == If an electric current is passed through a gas, its electrons will become excited. The electron will jump to a higher energy level, but they will then de-excite (fall back down) to their stable state, also known as their ground state, and in doing so they will release the energy they initially absorbed in the form of a photon, the fundamental unit of light. In other words, gases can be used to convert electricity into light—the concept of "neon signs". Neon signs are not necessarily filled with neon. They are filled with any mixture of gases to get the desired color. Each gas has a unique color that it emits. <gallery caption="Colors of different noble gases when used in &quot;neon&quot; signs" perrow="5" class="center"> Image:HeTube.jpg|Helium (pink) Image:NeTube.jpg|Neon (red-orange) Image:ArTube.jpg|Argon (blue) Image:KrTube.jpg|Krypton (pale green) Image:XeTube.jpg|Xenon (pale blue) </gallery> Of course, other gases can be used besides the noble gases. == Helium == [[Image:Helium-II-creep.svg|thumb|120px|Helium will not freeze. Instead, it becomes a superfluid.]] Helium is a unique noble gas. It is the second most abundant element in the universe. Lighter than air, it is used in blimps because it will allow them to float without the risk of an explosion. Neon is the only element less reactive than helium. Helium will not freeze under normal pressure. There cannot be enough [[General Chemistry/Intermolecular bonds|intermolecular force]] to lock the atoms into a solid. It remains a gas until 4 K, then becomes a liquid. With the right conditions, helium becomes a ''superfluid''. It is a liquid that will creep along the edges of its container with zero viscosity. Helium atoms (they never combine with other atoms) are too light to remain in the Earth's atmosphere. Almost all of the small amount of helium on Earth is the result of radioactive decay of very heavy elements like thorium and uranium. {{BookCat}} == Neon == Neon is best known for its presence in neon lights. The brightly-colored fish known as neon tetras are named for having a reddish color similar to that of a neon light, and not for possessing or using neon. e0r07i8b4rdwlz1qka68njur8wet48b 0 194011 4654070 4649432 2026-07-11T19:09:07Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654070 wikitext text/x-wiki <table WIDTH="90%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 10px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" valign=center> <gallery class="center"> Image:soft_crab.jpg Image:tangier_weekend.jpg Image:exhibit_viewing.jpg Image:immature-tomato-1.jpg </gallery> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #663300; font-family: LUCIDA;"> == Non-Traditional Educational Careers== </span></div> <table WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 5px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" > == Learning Targets == <ul><li> Advantages and Disadvantages of non-traditional educators <li> Creative Methods and Techniques <li> Value of Feedback.</ul> </td></tr></table> </td></tr></table> There are many new approaches to recruiting educators in high need subject areas including alternative and expedited routes to teacher licensure and career switching programs in order to gain the expertise of educators with previous professional work experiences. Many people who are considering a career change look to teaching as a way to incorporate and apply their existing knowledge in a content area. Many elementary, middle, and high schools are actively accepting applications for teachers in what the Virginia Department of Education calls the “critical shortage areas such as mathematics, foreign languages, sciences, and technology education” (Education). However, there is yet another educational career opportunity that is emerging and gaining respect and popularity in the classroom by the students ''and'' teachers! == What is a ''non-traditional'' educational career?== Classroom based teachers are taking their students outside of their classroom and visiting science, nature, and history centers seeking more effective learning (Price). These centers employ educational coordinators who deliver information to students through unique and creative methods. These non-traditional educators, sometimes called “field teachers” (Payne), bring a unique edge to the educational experience for students and teachers alike. Non-traditional educators integrate different learning methods to meet the needs of different types of learners in a real world setting. They incorporate new knowledge with social interaction by prepare exciting lessons and creative activities for the students such as inside of the classroom or outside during a field trip. Non-traditional educators work with school teachers to meet the needs of the students and lesson plans as well as work with a school system’s high expectations that the experience will be worthwhile (Payne). == Are they effective?== Non-traditional educators who present information to students through field trips, guest lectures, and other types of class demonstrations are gaining recognition for their effective teaching styles. ===Advantages=== Non-traditional educators have some advantage over the traditional classroom teachers and lesson plans. “Teachers teach daily. If there is an important message, a different instructor can be a breath of fresh air to the students. If an important message is taught incorrectly, you are sending the wrong message, and in my case, it could be deadly.”(Packett, 2009) Non-traditional educators are an expert within the subject matter being taught. They generally present the same information to audiences on a regular basis. Packett discussed his advantage of his work history and experience that provided his concentrated knowledge base. It allowed him to "hone in on it and perfect it.” Although field educators have advantages over a classroom based teacher, a cooperative relationship can be established. Pre-visit and post-visit classroom based lessons can emphasize the learning experience. Also, guest speakers and field educators can give validity to the classroom teacher by repeating terms and lessons that have been introduced in the classroom (Payne). “we offer things that support and complement” what can be taught in the classroom. ===Disadvantages=== Non-traditional educators have a limited time to learn the types of students that are present in a classroom or in a class group. This can present as a disadvantage for an instructor. Also acting as a disadvantage is the limited amount of time to present subject material given the distance for travel or time restraints that surround the field trip or classroom period. ===Student Benefits=== Non-traditional educators recognize that students learn in different ways and there is a responsibility to teachers to present new knowledge in a way for all types of learners to benefit. Some students need to have a reason for learning, some are able to learn new facts without needing a personal connection, while some students benefit most from exploring and learning firsthand (Payne). Non-traditional educators take these differences into consideration and use various teaching techniques to connect to as many individual students in a classroom. ''Connection to their world'' Students benefit from out-of-the-classroom opportunities that non-traditional educators present for many reasons. The presentations allow students the chance to connect with a new environment outside of the classroom. Also, students are eager to learn if the lessons of the classroom can be applied to their real world (Payne). Teagle further explains, “we are also teaching students the value of working in the field. History is not just in books, but in the artifacts.” ''Alternative to Lectures'' Some non-traditional educators use constructivist principles and social interactions using small groups as an alternative to lecture methods (Payne). Payne explains, “Telling is not teaching”. ''Small, interactive groups'' He explained that during field trips, smaller groups led by parent chaperones and teachers allow for easier orchestration of rotating stations, maximizing the amount learning for students and exposure to new material. “When I’m in the classroom, I tend to have larger groups. When groups get large, retention goes down.” ''A unique perspective'' When students and teachers take field trips and visit farms, museums, and other places, visitors "get the sights and smells and all of the student’s senses are filled" (Packett, 2009). Teagle adds, “we offer a different perspective of the 1700’s and a unique setting to the students. We are teaching kids how to make research and learning a continuous process. We are unearthing new information every day, just as we’ve shown them in the artifacts digging station”(Teagle, 2009). == Who are they?== Non-traditional educators come from a variety of backgrounds to teach a variety of specialty subjects. They are safety educators, museum interpreters and curators, history and environmental site educators, and trainers for advanced educational workshops. Andrew Packett, Public Relations Coordinator for [http://www.nnec.com/ Northern Neck Electric Cooperative], has 20 years of experience as a non-traditional educator. Formerly a [http://www.dare.com DARE Drug Abuse Resistance Education] officer for drug prevention, he currently teaches electrical safety to elementary school children. Packett says “Who better to go into the classroom to teach electrical safety, but me. It should be an expert in the field.” After spending several years as an interpreter for [http://www.shirleyplantation.com/ Shirley Plantation], Virginia’s historic first plantation, Robert Teagle is the Education Director and Curator for [www.christchurch1735.org/ Historic Christ Church]. His years of experience in interpretation and personal interest in Virginia history offer visitors a unique perspective. Some historical and environmental site educators use their settings' existing resources as a tool for teaching. The Chesapeake Bay Foundation’s [http://www.cbf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=edu_sfe_resid_pi Port Isobel Island Study Center] and [http://www.cbf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=edu_sfe_resid_fox/ Fox Island Study Center] offer the perfect setting for their Field Educators to carry out [http://www.cbf.org/site/PageServer?pagename=lrn_sub_teachers/ Chesapeake Classrooms] courses. An interesting alternative is the National Park Service’s [http://www.nps.gov/learn/trt/ Teacher to Ranger to Teacher program] that draws from all perspectives as a traditional classroom instructor, a Ranger student, and a field instructor (Interpretation and Education). <table WIDTH="60%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 5px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" > ''"Instructors draw upon their expertise as professional scientists, authors, historians, artists, and adventurers" <br>- National Park Service, Institutes and Field Schools '' </td></tr></table> == Advice from the experts== <big>''Persue it!''</big> Robert Teagle encourages all educators who are considering a non-traditional career to "Persue it!" He has created an impressive workshop for elementary age school children, complete with take home art work and post-visit history fairs where children can win exciting prizes. <big>''Be Enthusiastic!''</big> Andrew Packett encourages non-traditional educators to incorporate excitement into their presentations. “I come into the classroom very enthusiastic! The level of enthusiasm you must maintain, to capture students’ attention and keep it, can be exhausting!” <big>''Learn the Terms!''</big> Packett also recommends familiarizing yourself with the public school system. Field educators should target the curriculum. "You must address the Virginia SOL’s or you may not get into the classroom." Also, if classroom experience is limited, a field educator "must enter the classroom and observe the grade levels that you will be presenting information to. You need to understand the terminology and acronyms in current public school systems!" <big>''Make it fun!''</big> Teagle and Packett both agree that field experiences and guest speakers into the classroom must include an element of entertainment. Make it fun! Use active learning and hands-on stations. <big>''Value of Feedback''</big> Lastly, field educators place high value on post-visit feedback from classrooms and teachers. Questionnaires can be completed by the students and teachers as well as informal types of feedback such as thank you letters from the schools. Assessments that occur during the educational sessions are also of value. Teagle says "kids provide the best critiques". When performing activities with the children, he critiques his own lesson plans and learns best by doing activities with the children. He concludes that he uses this valuable feedback to help shape the content of future school groups. == Test Your Knowledge == 1. What is another name for non-traditional educators, a term coined by Payne? a.substitute teacher b.field officers c.field teachers d.classroom teacher 2.A large school group arrives to Jamestown for a visit to this historic first settlement. The group of 90 students were only able to travel with 3 teachers and one adult parent of a student. When the adults discussed how they will split up the students into smaller group activities, the one parent admitted that they were not comfortable leading a group of students alone. This meant that there would be groups of 20 children each. Which of the following statements will be true? a.The large groups of children will retain more new information. b.The large groups of children will have no impact on their retention of the new information. c.The large groups of children will retain less information. d.None of the above. 3. What is one way for a classroom based teacher and a non-traditional "field" teacher to create a cooperative relationship? a.immediately upon completion of the presentation of the field teacher, the classroom teacher should correct the misinformation. b.discuss the lesson plan before the presentation of new material and create pre- and post-visit activities. c.classroom teacher discusses success of field trip and expertise of field teacher with principle and recommends hiring that person for the next nine week session of earth science. 4. Which of the following is not a role of a non-traditional educator? a.incorporate new knowledge with social interaction. b.avoid incorporation of SOL material in presentations as to avoid interruption in the lesson plans of the classroom based teacher. c.integrate various teaching styles to appeal to the many types of learners that exist in a classroom. d.provide opportunities to apply their new knowledge in a real world setting 5. Which of the following situations would be the best way for a field teacher to go about getting feedback after a class presentation? a.The field teacher contacts the classroom teacher by phone. b.The field teacher contacts each student's parent by phone for an interview. c.The field teacher gives the classroom teacher questionnaires to be completed immediately following the presentation and offers to pick up the completed questionnaires in 3 days. Answers: 1)c 2)c 3)b 4)b 5)c == References == Education, D. o. (n.d.). Virigina Career Switcher Alternative Route to Licensure Program. Retrieved February 7, 2009, from http://www.doe.virginia.gov/VDOE/newvdoe/CareerSwitcher/ Interpretation and Education. (n.d.). Retrieved February 7, 2009, from National Park Service: www.nps.gov/learn/institutes.htm Packett, A. (2009, February 6). Public Relations Specialist, Northern Neck Electric. (R. Crowther, Interviewer) Payne, B., Sumter, M., & Sun, I. (2003, Fall2003). BRINGING THE FIELD INTO THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE CLASSROOM: FIELD TRIPS, RIDE-ALONGS, AND GUEST SPEAKERS. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 14(2), 327-344. Retrieved February 8, 2009, from Academic Search Complete database. Price, Sabra & Hein, George E. (1991). More than a field trip: science programmes for elementary school groups at museums. International Journal of Science Education, 13 (5), 505-519. Retrieved February 7, 2009, from http://www.informaworld.com/10.1080/0950069910130502 Spencer, J. (Winter 2001-2002). From Traditional to Radical: One Teacher's Oddyssey. Thought and Action - The NEA Higher Education Journal , 93-100. Teagle, R. (2009, February 6). Education Director and Curator, The Foundation for Historic Christ Church. (R. Crowther, Interviewer) == References of Photography == www.freephotos.lu - free domain photography <table WIDTH="90%" ALIGN="center"><tr><td style="background-color: #CCCCFF; border: solid 10px #FFCC66; padding: 1em;" valign=center> <gallery class="center"> Image:aquarium-fish-23.jpg Image:branch-with-lot-of-apples.jpg Image:bird-7.jpg Image:telescope_viewing.jpg </gallery> </td></tr></table> {{BookCat}} p9z3kddph4rv06ae91dnqqjapauzpm3 0 196591 4654127 4643421 2026-07-11T19:22:45Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654127 wikitext text/x-wiki Vision, or the ability to see depends on visual system sensory organs or eyes. There are many different constructions of eyes, ranging in complexity depending on the requirements of the organism. The different constructions have different capabilities, are sensitive to different wave-lengths and have differing degrees of acuity, also they require different processing to make sense of the input and different numbers to work optimally. The ability to detect and decipher EM has proved to be a valuable asset to most forms of life, leading to an increased chance of survival for organisms that utilise it. In environments without sufficient light, or complete lack of it, lifeforms have no added advantage of vision, which ultimately has resulted in atrophy of visual sensory organs with subsequent increased reliance on other senses (e.g. some cave dwelling animals, bats etc.). Interestingly enough, it appears that visual sensory organs are tuned to the optical window, which is defined as the EM wavelengths (between 300nm and 1100nm) that pass through the atmosphere reaching to the ground. This is shown in the figure below. You may notice that there exists other "windows", an IR window, which explains to some extent the thermal-"vision" of snakes, and a radiofrequency (RF) window, of which no known lifeforms are able to detect. [[Image:Atmospheric_electromagnetic_opacity.svg|center|700px]] Through time evolution has yielded many eye constructions, and some of them have evolved multiple times, yielding similarities for organisms that have similar niches. There is one underlying aspect that is essentially identical, regardless of species, or complexity of sensory organ type, the universal usage of light-sensitive proteins called opsins. Without focusing too much on the molecular basis though, the various constructions can be categorised into distinct groups: * Spot Eyes * Pit Eyes * Pinhole Eyes * Lens Eyes * Refractive Cornea Eyes * Reflector Eyes * Compound Eyes The least complicated configuration of eyes enable organisms to simply sense the ambient light, enabling the organism to know whether there is light or not. It is normally simply a collection of photosensitive cells in a cluster in the same spot, thus sometimes referred to as spot eyes, eye spot or stemma. By either adding more angular structures or recessing the spot eyes, an organisms gains access to directional information as well, which is a vital requirement for image formation. These so called pit eyes are by far the most common types of visual sensory organs, and can be found in over 95% of all known species. [[Image:Nautilus_pompilius_(head).jpg|thumb|200px|left|Pinhole eye]] Taking this approach to the obvious extreme leads to the pit becoming a cavernous structure, which increases the sharpness of the image, alas at a loss in intensity. In other words, there is a trade-off between intensity or brightness and sharpness. An example of this can be found in the Nautilus, species belonging to the family Nautilidae, organisms considered to be living fossils. They are the only known species that has this type of eye, referred to as the pinhole eye, and it is completely analogous to the pinhole camera or the camera obscura. In addition, like more advanced cameras, Nautili are able to adjust the size of the aperture thereby increasing or decreasing the resolution of the eye at a respective decrease or increase in image brightness. Like the camera, the way to alleviate the intensity/resolution trade-off problem is to include a lens, a structure that focuses the light unto a central area, which most often has a higher density of photo-sensors. By adjusting the shape of the lens and moving it around, and controlling the size of the aperture or pupil, organisms can adapt to different conditions and focus on particular regions of interest in any visual scene. The last upgrade to the various eye constructions already mentioned is the inclusion of a refractive cornea. Eyes with this structure have delegated two thirds of the total optic power of the eye to the high refractive index liquid inside the cornea, enabling very high resolution vision. Most land animals, including humans have eyes of this particular construct. Additionally, many variations of lens structure, lens number, photosensor density, fovea shape, fovea number, pupil shape etc. exists, always, to increase the chances of survival for the organism in question. These variations lead to a varied outward appearance of eyes, even with a single eye construction category. Demonstrating this point, a collection of photographs of animals with the same eye category (refractive cornea eyes) is shown below. <div style="text-align: center;">'''Refractive Cornea Eyes'''</div> <table border=0 align=center> <tr> <td> [[File:Hawk_eye.jpg|150 px|thumb|Hawk Eye]] </td> <td> [[File:Ewe sheep black and white.jpg|150 px|thumb|Sheep Eye]] </td> <td> [[File:Изображение_307.jpg|thumb|150 px|Cat Eye]] </td> <td> [[File:Eye_iris.jpg|thumb|150 px|Human Eye]] </td> </tr> </table> An alternative to the lens approach called reflector eyes can be found in for example mollusks. Instead of the conventional way of focusing light to a single point in the back of the eye using a lens or a system of lenses, these organisms have mirror like structures inside the chamber of the eye that reflects the light into a central portion, much like a parabola dish. Although there are no known examples of organisms with reflector eyes capable of image formation, at least one species of fish, the spookfish (Dolichopteryx longipes) uses them in combination with "normal" lensed eyes. [[Image:Volucella_pellucens_head_complete_Richard_Bartz.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Compound eye]] The last group of eyes, found in insects and crustaceans, is called compound eyes. These eyes consist of a number of functional sub-units called ommatidia, each consisting of a facet, or front surface, a transparent crystalline cone and photo-sensitive cells for detection. In addition each of the ommatidia are separated by pigment cells, ensuring the incoming light is as parallel as possible. The combination of the outputs of each of these ommatidia form a mosaic image, with a resolution proportional to the number of ommatidia units. For example, if humans had compound eyes, the eyes would have covered our entire faces to retain the same resolution. As a note, there are many types of compound eyes, but delving to deep into this topic is beyond the scope of this text. Not only the type of eyes vary, but also the number of eyes. As you are well aware of, humans usually have two eyes, spiders on the other hand have a varying number of eyes, with most species having 8. Normally the spiders also have varying sizes of the different pairs of eyes and the differing sizes have different functions. For example, in jumping spiders 2 larger front facing eyes, give the spider excellent visual acuity, which is used mainly to target prey. 6 smaller eyes have much poorer resolution, but helps the spider to avoid potential dangers. Two photographs of the eyes of a jumping spider and the eyes of a wolf spider are shown to demonstrate the variability in the eye topologies of arachnids. <gallery caption="Eye Topologies of Spiders" class="center"> File:Wolf_eyes_for_guide.jpg|Wolf Spider File:Phidippus_pius_eyes.jpg|Jumping Spider </gallery> {{BookCat}} k0rgr9n4vtg26c54mmt323f9rraei7s 4 202336 4654174 2151491 2026-07-12T03:00:05Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. 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Creative Commons may be contacted at http://creativecommons.org/. }}<noinclude> [[Category:Wikibooks copyright|{{PAGENAME}}]]</noinclude> q0i2fp4qeami3u2pm419tj7qgedabwp 4654176 4654174 2026-07-12T03:01:02Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Fix. 4654176 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ <noinclude>{{pp-protected|small=yes}} {{shortcut|WB:CC-BY-SA}}</noinclude> {{ombox | text = <div style="text-align: center; font-size:150%; font-weight:bold; padding: 0.3em;">Creative Commons Deed</div> <div style="text-align: center;">This is a human-readable summary of the full license below.</div> You are free: * '''to Share'''—to copy, distribute and transmit the work, and * '''to Remix'''—to [[w:Literary adaptation|adapt]] the work Under the following conditions: * '''Attribution'''—You must [[w:Attribution (copyright)|attribute]] the work in the manner specified by the author or [[wikt:licensor|licensor]] (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work.) * '''Share Alike'''—If you alter, transform, or build upon this work, you may distribute the resulting work only under the same, similar or a compatible license. 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Fair Dealing Rights== Nothing in this License is intended to reduce, limit, or restrict any uses free from copyright or rights arising from limitations or exceptions that are provided for in connection with the copyright protection under copyright law or other applicable laws. ==<span id="3"></span>3. License Grant== Subject to the terms and conditions of this License, Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-exclusive, perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright) license to exercise the rights in the Work as stated below: <ol type="a"> <li id="3.a">to Reproduce the Work, to incorporate the Work into one or more Collections, and to Reproduce the Work as incorporated in the Collections;</li> <li id="3.b">to create and Reproduce Adaptations provided that any such Adaptation, including any translation in any medium, takes reasonable steps to clearly label, demarcate or otherwise identify that changes were made to the original Work. For example, a translation could be marked "The original work was translated from English to Spanish," or a modification could indicate "The original work has been modified.";</li> <li id="3.c">to Distribute and Publicly Perform the Work including as incorporated in Collections; and,</li> <li id="3.d">to Distribute and Publicly Perform Adaptations.</li> <li id="3.e">For the avoidance of doubt: <ol type="i"> <li id="3.e.i">'''Non-waivable Compulsory License Schemes.''' In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme cannot be waived, the Licensor reserves the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License;</li> <li id="3.e.ii">'''Waivable Compulsory License Schemes.''' In those jurisdictions in which the right to collect royalties through any statutory or compulsory licensing scheme can be waived, the Licensor waives the exclusive right to collect such royalties for any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License; and,</li> <li id="3.e.iii">'''Voluntary License Schemes.''' The Licensor waives the right to collect royalties, whether individually or, in the event that the Licensor is a member of a collecting society that administers voluntary licensing schemes, via that society, from any exercise by You of the rights granted under this License.</li> </ol> </li> </ol> The above rights may be exercised in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter devised. The above rights include the right to make such modifications as are technically necessary to exercise the rights in other media and formats. Subject to Section 8(f), all rights not expressly granted by Licensor are hereby reserved. ==<span id="4"></span>4. Restrictions== The license granted in Section 3 above is expressly made subject to and limited by the following restrictions: <ol type="a"> <li id="4.a">You may Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work only under the terms of this License. You must include a copy of, or the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) for, this License with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. You may not offer or impose any terms on the Work that restrict the terms of this License or the ability of the recipient of the Work to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. You may not sublicense the Work. You must keep intact all notices that refer to this License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work You Distribute or Publicly Perform. When You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Work that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Work from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the License. This Section 4(a) applies to the Work as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Work itself to be made subject to the terms of this License. If You create a Collection, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Collection any credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested. If You create an Adaptation, upon notice from any Licensor You must, to the extent practicable, remove from the Adaptation any credit as required by Section 4(c), as requested.</li> <li id="4.b">You may Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation only under the terms of: (i) this License; (ii) a later version of this License with the same License Elements as this License; (iii) a Creative Commons jurisdiction license (either this or a later license version) that contains the same License Elements as this License (e.g., Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 US)); (iv) a Creative Commons Compatible License. If you license the Adaptation under one of the licenses mentioned in (iv), you must comply with the terms of that license. If you license the Adaptation under the terms of any of the licenses mentioned in (i), (ii) or (iii) (the "Applicable License"), you must comply with the terms of the Applicable License generally and the following provisions: (I) You must include a copy of, or the URI for, the Applicable License with every copy of each Adaptation You Distribute or Publicly Perform; (II) You may not offer or impose any terms on the Adaptation that restrict the terms of the Applicable License or the ability of the recipient of the Adaptation to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the Applicable License; (III) You must keep intact all notices that refer to the Applicable License and to the disclaimer of warranties with every copy of the Work as included in the Adaptation You Distribute or Publicly Perform; (IV) when You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Adaptation, You may not impose any effective technological measures on the Adaptation that restrict the ability of a recipient of the Adaptation from You to exercise the rights granted to that recipient under the terms of the Applicable License. This Section 4(b) applies to the Adaptation as incorporated in a Collection, but this does not require the Collection apart from the Adaptation itself to be made subject to the terms of the Applicable License.</li> <li id="4.c">If You Distribute, or Publicly Perform the Work or any Adaptations or Collections, You must, unless a request has been made pursuant to Section 4(a), keep intact all copyright notices for the Work and provide, reasonable to the medium or means You are utilizing: (i) the name of the Original Author (or pseudonym, if applicable) if supplied, and/or if the Original Author and/or Licensor designate another party or parties (e.g., a sponsor institute, publishing entity, journal) for attribution ("Attribution Parties") in Licensor's copyright notice, terms of service or by other reasonable means, the name of such party or parties; (ii) the title of the Work if supplied; (iii) to the extent reasonably practicable, the URI, if any, that Licensor specifies to be associated with the Work, unless such URI does not refer to the copyright notice or licensing information for the Work; and (iv) , consistent with Section 3(b), in the case of an Adaptation, a credit identifying the use of the Work in the Adaptation (e.g., "French translation of the Work by Original Author," or "Screenplay based on original Work by Original Author"). The credit required by this Section 4(c) may be implemented in any reasonable manner; provided, however, that in the case of a Adaptation or Collection, at a minimum such credit will appear, if a credit for all contributing authors of the Adaptation or Collection appears, then as part of these credits and in a manner at least as prominent as the credits for the other contributing authors. For the avoidance of doubt, You may only use the credit required by this Section for the purpose of attribution in the manner set out above and, by exercising Your rights under this License, You may not implicitly or explicitly assert or imply any connection with, sponsorship or endorsement by the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties, as appropriate, of You or Your use of the Work, without the separate, express prior written permission of the Original Author, Licensor and/or Attribution Parties.</li> <li id="4.d">Except as otherwise agreed in writing by the Licensor or as may be otherwise permitted by applicable law, if You Reproduce, Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work either by itself or as part of any Adaptations or Collections, You must not distort, mutilate, modify or take other derogatory action in relation to the Work which would be prejudicial to the Original Author's honor or reputation. Licensor agrees that in those jurisdictions (e.g. Japan), in which any exercise of the right granted in Section 3(b) of this License (the right to make Adaptations) would be deemed to be a distortion, mutilation, modification or other derogatory action prejudicial to the Original Author's honor and reputation, the Licensor will waive or not assert, as appropriate, this Section, to the fullest extent permitted by the applicable national law, to enable You to reasonably exercise Your right under Section 3(b) of this License (right to make Adaptations) but not otherwise.</li> </ol> ==<span id="5"></span>5. Representations, Warranties and Disclaimer== UNLESS OTHERWISE MUTUALLY AGREED TO BY THE PARTIES IN WRITING, LICENSOR OFFERS THE WORK AS-IS AND MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE WORK, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTIBILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, NONINFRINGEMENT, OR THE ABSENCE OF LATENT OR OTHER DEFECTS, ACCURACY, OR THE PRESENCE OF ABSENCE OF ERRORS, WHETHER OR NOT DISCOVERABLE. SOME JURISDICTIONS DO NOT ALLOW THE EXCLUSION OF IMPLIED WARRANTIES, SO SUCH EXCLUSION MAY NOT APPLY TO YOU. ==<span id="6"></span>6. Limitation on Liability== EXCEPT TO THE EXTENT REQUIRED BY APPLICABLE LAW, IN NO EVENT WILL LICENSOR BE LIABLE TO YOU ON ANY LEGAL THEORY FOR ANY SPECIAL, INCIDENTAL, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR EXEMPLARY DAMAGES ARISING OUT OF THIS LICENSE OR THE USE OF THE WORK, EVEN IF LICENSOR HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. ==<span id="7"></span>7. Termination== <ol type="a"> <li id="7.a">This License and the rights granted hereunder will terminate automatically upon any breach by You of the terms of this License. Individuals or entities who have received Adaptations or Collections from You under this License, however, will not have their licenses terminated provided such individuals or entities remain in full compliance with those licenses. Sections 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 8 will survive any termination of this License.</li> <li id="7.b">Subject to the above terms and conditions, the license granted here is perpetual (for the duration of the applicable copyright in the Work). Notwithstanding the above, Licensor reserves the right to release the Work under different license terms or to stop distributing the Work at any time; provided, however that any such election will not serve to withdraw this License (or any other license that has been, or is required to be, granted under the terms of this License), and this License will continue in full force and effect unless terminated as stated above.</li> </ol> ==<span id="8"></span>8. Miscellaneous== <ol type="a"> <li id="8.a">Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform the Work or a Collection, the Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.</li> <li id="8.b">Each time You Distribute or Publicly Perform an Adaptation, Licensor offers to the recipient a license to the original Work on the same terms and conditions as the license granted to You under this License.</li> <li id="8.c">If any provision of this License is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, it shall not affect the validity or enforceability of the remainder of the terms of this License, and without further action by the parties to this agreement, such provision shall be reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make such provision valid and enforceable.</li> <li id="8.d">No term or provision of this License shall be deemed waived and no breach consented to unless such waiver or consent shall be in writing and signed by the party to be charged with such waiver or consent.</li> <li id="8.e">This License constitutes the entire agreement between the parties with respect to the Work licensed here. There are no understandings, agreements or representations with respect to the Work not specified here. Licensor shall not be bound by any additional provisions that may appear in any communication from You. This License may not be modified without the mutual written agreement of the Licensor and You.</li> <li id="8.f">The rights granted under, and the subject matter referenced, in this License were drafted utilizing the terminology of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (as amended on September 28, 1979), the Rome Convention of 1961, the WIPO Copyright Treaty of 1996, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty of 1996 and the Universal Copyright Convention (as revised on July 24, 1971). These rights and subject matter take effect in the relevant jurisdiction in which the License terms are sought to be enforced according to the corresponding provisions of the implementation of those treaty provisions in the applicable national law. If the standard suite of rights granted under applicable copyright law includes additional rights not granted under this License, such additional rights are deemed to be included in the License; this License is not intended to restrict the license of any rights under applicable law.</li> </ol> {{ombox|image=none|text= <h3>Creative Commons Notice</h3> Creative Commons is not a party to this License, and makes no warranty whatsoever in connection with the Work. Creative Commons will not be liable to You or any party on any legal theory for any damages whatsoever, including without limitation any general, special, incidental or consequential damages arising in connection to this license. Notwithstanding the foregoing two (2) sentences, if Creative Commons has expressly identified itself as the Licensor hereunder, it shall have all rights and obligations of Licensor. Except for the limited purpose of indicating to the public that the Work is licensed under the CCPL, Creative Commons does not authorize the use by either party of the trademark "Creative Commons" or any related trademark or logo of Creative Commons without the prior written consent of Creative Commons. Any permitted use will be in compliance with Creative Commons' then-current trademark usage guidelines, as may be published on its website or otherwise made available upon request from time to time. For the avoidance of doubt, this trademark restriction does not form part of the License. Creative Commons may be contacted at http://creativecommons.org/. }}<noinclude> [[Category:Wikibooks copyright|{{PAGENAME}}]]</noinclude> gz5kg2bakr5jdxf30ijnsojorxsvspv 8 225179 4654180 1775742 2026-07-12T03:01:28Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. (via JWB) 4654180 wikitext text/x-wiki {{edit filter warning |action = warn |friendly = yes |text = <div style="text-align: center">'''[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome to Wikibooks!]]'''</div> Your edit has triggered an automated filter because it was detected that your edit added a large amount of content, but no internal links or [[Help:Templates|templates]]. *You may wish to link to other relevant articles to enhance readers' understanding of the subject and to help them find related information. **To turn a word or phrase into a link to another Wikibooks page, simply add square brackets around the text like: <tt><nowiki>[[link]]</nowiki></tt> to make [[link]] or you can use the link button - [[File:Button link.png|link=]] - in the toolbar above the edit box. *If you copied the content from another website, ''please do not add it'' without rewriting it in your own words. 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(via JWB) 4654183 wikitext text/x-wiki {{edit filter warning |action = throttle |friendly = yes |text=<div style="text-align: center">'''[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome to Wikibooks!]]'''</div> We're sorry, your move cannot be completed at this time. Your move has been stopped by an automated throttle designed to limit the rate at which certain types of unusual moves are performed. Such move actions are frequently associated with vandalism. If your move action is well-intentioned, then we apologize for the inconvenience. Please try again later, or you may ask [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|another user]] for assistance. }} qbtrkays7ua2d2mivq9uujxdej6ankw 8 225189 4654182 1912315 2026-07-12T03:01:29Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. (via JWB) 4654182 wikitext text/x-wiki {{edit filter warning |action = warn |friendly = yes |text = <div style="text-align: center">'''[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome to Wikibooks!]]'''</div> '''Please consider making your page longer.''' Your edit has triggered an automated filter because it looks like you're trying to create a very short new page. Pages that are too short to properly identify their subject and explain its importance are often [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy|deleted]]. When you are ready, you may hit "Save page" again below to create this page. *You may also find [[Help:Editing]] helpful in learning Wikibooks syntax. *Instead of creating a new page, it may make more sense to redirect this title to point to some other existing page. *If you were merely experimenting with wiki editing, try using our [[Wikibooks:Sandbox|sandbox]] instead. *Lastly, if you have any questions, or need assistance, please feel free to [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Assistance|ask for assistance]]. If you received this message while doing something other than trying to create a short new page, please [[Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives|report this error]].}} 4kjhz92d1vhpyzkslv3vgzqkc05zue6 8 225190 4654178 1912298 2026-07-12T03:01:20Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. (via JWB) 4654178 wikitext text/x-wiki {{edit filter warning |action = warn |friendly = yes |text = <div style="text-align: center">'''[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome to Wikibooks!]]'''</div> Your edit has triggered an automated filter because it appears your edit is attempting to hide part of the content of this page. While this can have some constructive purposes, when editing articles and most other pages it is usually best to avoid code of this nature, since it can lead to difficulties when others attempt to edit or view the page. If you are using this to format templates or infoboxes, consider using <tt><nowiki>&amp;nbsp;</nowiki></tt> or similar code instead. 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If this page you are creating does contain textbook content, you are more than welcome to add it, but please note the title of the page should generally not be in the form of a question. The page's title should be the subject of the page. If you're sure you still want to make this page, go to the bottom of this page and click 'Save page' again, and then [[Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives|report this error]].}} t7g03ksaanxyd648dj4apaluc7q8jt9 0 225505 4654039 3832284 2026-07-11T18:03:55Z Koavf 16549 4654039 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>This randomly chooses a featured Wikijunior book to display on the [[Main Page]]. [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book|Create]] and semi-protect a new Featured Wikijunior book template, add it to the [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book/List|list]] in alphabetical order, and then update the total on this page (<code>X</code> in {{tlx|Rand|X|Seed}}). [[Category:Main page|Wikijunior]] ---- </noinclude><div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;">'''[[Wikijunior|More featured children's books...]]'''</div> {{Featured Wikijunior book/List|n={{#expr:{{Rand|12|3}} + 1}}}} dszmur0g6lvd11kxau6kn2a986ts78w 4654040 4654039 2026-07-11T18:04:04Z Koavf 16549 4654040 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>This randomly chooses a featured Wikijunior book to display on the [[Main Page]]. [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book|Create]] and semi-protect a new Featured Wikijunior book template, add it to the [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book/List|list]] in alphabetical order, and then update the total on this page (<code>X</code> in {{tlx|Rand|X|Seed}}). [[Category:Main page|Wikijunior]] ---- </noinclude><div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;">'''[[Wikijunior|More featured children's books...]]'''</div> {{Featured Wikijunior book/List|n={{#expr:{{Rand|13|3}} + 1}}}} d72vg351brjnvbs2f2ue3l1cy26t98q 4654054 4654040 2026-07-11T18:52:24Z Koavf 16549 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edits by [[Special:Contributions/Koavf|Koavf]] ([[User talk:Koavf|talk]]) to last version by Mrjulesd 3832284 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>This randomly chooses a featured Wikijunior book to display on the [[Main Page]]. [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book|Create]] and semi-protect a new Featured Wikijunior book template, add it to the [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book/List|list]] in alphabetical order, and then update the total on this page (<tt>X</tt> in {{tlx|Rand|X|Seed}}). [[Category:Main page|Wikijunior]] ---- </noinclude><div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;">'''[[Wikijunior|More featured children's books...]]'''</div> {{Featured Wikijunior book/List|n={{#expr:{{Rand|12|3}} + 1}}}} 75i6tv7l8ncrydnmubuak31z2jbhnhp 4654057 4654054 2026-07-11T18:53:22Z Koavf 16549 4654057 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>This randomly chooses a featured Wikijunior book to display on the [[Main Page]]. [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book|Create]] and semi-protect a new Featured Wikijunior book template, add it to the [[Template:Featured Wikijunior book/List|list]] in alphabetical order, and then update the total on this page (<code>X</code> in {{tlx|Rand|X|Seed}}). [[Category:Main page|Wikijunior]] ---- </noinclude><div style="text-align:center; margin-bottom:10px;">'''[[Wikijunior|More featured children's books...]]'''</div> {{Featured Wikijunior book/List|n={{#expr:{{Rand|12|3}} + 1}}}} dszmur0g6lvd11kxau6kn2a986ts78w 10 225506 4654038 2630093 2026-07-11T18:03:12Z Koavf 16549 4654038 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>[[Category:Featured Wikijunior book templates| ]]</noinclude><includeonly>{{Featured Wikijunior book/{{select parameter|n={{{n}}}</includeonly> |Alphabet |Animal Alphabet |Big Cats |Biology |The Elements |Europe |Food Alphabet |Human Body |Kings and Queens of England |Languages |Small Numbers |Solar System |World at Work <includeonly>}}}}</includeonly> qbv1dxakv1nkparrmt2tuk7uhkst2q7 4654055 4654038 2026-07-11T18:52:26Z Koavf 16549 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Koavf|Koavf]] ([[User talk:Koavf|talk]]) to last version by Xania 2630093 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>[[Category:Featured Wikijunior book templates| ]]</noinclude><includeonly>{{Featured Wikijunior book/{{select parameter|n={{{n}}}</includeonly> |Alphabet |Animal Alphabet |Big Cats |Biology |Europe |Food Alphabet |Human Body |Kings and Queens of England |Languages |Small Numbers |Solar System |World at Work <includeonly>}}}}</includeonly> 4ql68eencdxfzfaqy15tawffn4rlq2u 0 228373 4654072 3592580 2026-07-11T19:10:36Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654072 wikitext text/x-wiki {{dewikify}} '''Thin layer chromatography''' (TLC) is a [[chromatography]] technique used to separate mixtures.<ref name=HarwoodMoodyEOCPAP>{{cite book |author = Laurence M. Harwood, Christopher J. Moody |title = Experimental organic chemistry: Principles and Practice |edition = Illustrated edition |pages = 159–173 |isbn = 978-0632020171 |Publishing Date: 13 Jun 1989 |Publisher: WileyBlackwell |Number of Pages: 790}}</ref> Thin layer chromatography is performed on a sheet of glass, plastic, or aluminum foil, which is coated with a thin layer of [[adsorbent]] material, usually [[silica gel]], [[aluminium oxide]], or [[cellulose]] ([[blotter paper]]). This layer of adsorbent is known as the [[stationary phase]]. After the sample has been applied on the plate, a [[solvent]] or solvent mixture (known as the [[mobile phase]]) is drawn up the plate via [[capillary action]]. Because different [[analyte]]s ascend the TLC plate at different rates, separation is achieved.<ref>Vogel's Textbook of Practical Organic Chemistry (5th Edition) (Hardcover) by A.I. Vogel (Author), A.R. Tatchell (Author), B.S. Furnis (Author), A.J. Hannaford (Author), P.W.G. Smith {{ISBN|0582462363}}</ref>. Thin layer chromatography can be used to: *Monitor the progress of a reaction *Identify compounds present in a given substance *Determine the purity of a substance Specific examples of these applications include: *determination of the components a plant contains *analyzing [[ceramide]]s and [[fatty acid]]s *detection of [[pesticide]]s or [[insecticide]]s in food and water *analyzing the dye composition of fibers in [[forensic]]s, or *assaying the [[radiochemical purity]] of [[radiopharmaceutical]]s A number of enhancements can be made to the original method to automate the different steps, to increase the resolution achieved with TLC and to allow more accurate quantitation. This method is referred to as [[HPTLC]], or "high performance TLC". ==Plate preparation== TLC plates are usually commercially available, with standard particle size ranges to improve reproducibility. They are prepared by mixing the adsorbent, such as [[silica gel]], with a small amount of [[inert]] binder like [[calcium sulfate]] (gypsum) and water. This mixture is spread as a thick slurry on an unreactive carrier sheet, usually [[glass]], thick aluminum foil, or plastic. The resultant plate is dried and ''activated'' by heating in an oven for thirty minutes at 110&nbsp;°C. The thickness of the adsorbent layer is typically around 0.1 – 0.25&nbsp;mm for analytical purposes and around 0.5 – 2.0&nbsp;mm for preparative TLC.<ref>[http://www.materialharvest.com/welcome/silica_products/tlc_plates.html Tables] showing the thickness value of commercial regular and preparative Thin Layer Chromatography plates</ref> ==Technique== [[Image:Tlc sequence.svg|thumb|right|200px|Development of a TLC plate, a purple spot separates into a red and blue spot.]] The process is similar to [[paper chromatography]] with the advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different stationary phases. Because of its simplicity and speed TLC is often used for monitoring [[chemical reaction]]s and for the qualitative analysis of reaction products. A small spot of solution containing the sample is applied to a plate, about one centimeter from the base. The plate is then dipped in to a suitable [[solvent]], such as [[hexane]] or [[ethyl acetate]], and placed in a sealed container. The [[solvent]] moves up the plate by [[capillary action]] and meets the sample mixture, which is dissolved and is carried up the plate by the solvent. Different [[chemical compound|compounds]] in the sample mixture travel at different rates due to the differences in their attraction to the stationary phase, and because of differences in solubility in the solvent. By changing the solvent, or perhaps using a mixture, the separation of components (measured by the [[Retardation factor|R<sub>f</sub>]] value) can be adjusted. Also, the separation achieved with a TLC plate can be used to estimate the separation of a [[column chromatography|flash chromatography]] column.<ref>Fair, J. D.; Kormos, C. M. ''[[J. Chromatogr. A]]'' '''2008''', ''1211''(1-2), 49-54. ({{DOI|10.1016/j.chroma.2008.09.085}})</ref> Separation of compounds is based on the competition of the solute and the mobile phase for binding places on the stationary phase. For instance, if normal phase silica gel is used as the stationary phase it can be considered polar. Given two compounds which differ in polarity, the more polar compound has a stronger interaction with the silica and is therefore more capable to dispel the mobile phase from the binding places. Consequently, the less polar compound moves higher up the plate (resulting in a higher Rf value). If the mobile phase is changed to a more polar solvent or mixture of solvents, it is more capable of dispelling solutes from the silica binding places and all compounds on the TLC plate will move higher up the plate. Practically this means that if you use a mixture of ethyl acetate and heptane as the mobile phase, adding more ethyl acetate results in higher Rf values for all compounds on the TLC plate. Changing the polarity of the mobile phase will normally not result in reversed order of running of the compounds on the TLC plate. An [[eluotropic series]] can be used as a guide in selecting a mobile phase. If a reversed order of running of the compounds is desired, an apolar stationary phase should be used, such as C18-functionalized silica. ==Preparative TLC== TLC can also be used on a small semi-preparative scale to separate mixtures of up to a few hundred milligrams. The mixture is not "spotted" on the TLC plate as dots, but rather is applied to the plate as a thin even layer horizontally to and just above the solvent level. When developed with solvent the compounds separate in horizontal bands rather than horizontally separated spots. Each band (or a desired band) is scraped off the backing material. The backing material is then extracted with a suitable solvent (e.g. [[Dichloromethane|DCM]]) and filtered to give the isolated material upon removal of the solvent. For small-scale reactions with easily separated products, preparative TLC can be a far more efficient in terms of time and cost than doing [[column chromatography]]. Obviously, the whole plate can not be chemically developed or the product will be chemically destroyed. Thus this technique is best used with compounds that are coloured, or visible under [[UV light]]. Alternatively, a small section of the plate can be chemically developed e.g. cutting a section out and chemically developing it, or masking most of the plate and exposing a small section to a chemical developer like [[iodine]]. ==Analysis== As the chemicals being separated may be colorless, several methods exist to visualize the spots: * Often a small amount of a [[fluorescent]] compound, usually [[manganese]]-activated [[zinc silicate]], is added to the adsorbent that allows the visualization of spots under a [[blacklight]] (UV<sub>254</sub>). The adsorbent layer will thus fluoresce light green by itself, but spots of analyte quench this fluorescence. * [[Iodine]] vapors are a general unspecific color [[reagent]] * Specific color reagents exist into which the TLC plate is dipped or which are sprayed onto the plate<ref>Stains for Developing TLC Plates http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfthb/research/handbook/TLCstains.htm</ref> * In the case of lipids, the chromatogram may be transferred to a [[PVDF]] membrane and then subjected to further analysis, for example [[mass spectrometry]], a technique known as [[Far-Eastern blot]]ting. Once visible, the ''R''<sub>''f''</sub> value , or [[retention factor]], of each spot can be determined by dividing the distance traveled by the product by the total distance traveled by the solvent (the solvent front). These values depend on the solvent used, and the type of TLC plate, and are not physical constants. ==Applications== In [[organic chemistry]], reactions are qualitatively monitored with TLC. Spots sampled with a [[capillary]] tube are placed on the plate: a spot of starting material, a spot from the reaction mixture, and a "co-spot" with both. A small (3 by 7&nbsp;cm) TLC plate takes a couple of minutes to run. The analysis is qualitative, and it will show if the starting material has disappeared, i.e. the reaction is complete, if any product has appeared, and how many products are generated (although this might be under-estimated due to co-elution). Unfortunately, TLCs from low-temperature reactions may give misleading results, because the sample is warmed to room temperature in the capillary, which can alter the reaction—the warmed sample analyzed by TLC is not the same as what is in the low-temperature flask. One such reaction is the [[DIBALH]] reduction of ester to aldehyde. As an example the chromatography of an extract of green leaves (for example [[spinach]]) in 7 stages of development. [[Carotene]] elutes quickly and is only visible until step 2. [[Chlorophyll]] A and B are halfway in the final step and [[lutein]] the first compound staining yellow. <gallery class="center"> image:Chromatography of chlorophyll - Step 1.jpg|Step 1 image:Chromatography of chlorophyll - Step 2.jpg|Step 2 image:Chromatography of chlorophyll - Step 3.jpg|Step 3 image:Chromatography of chlorophyll - Step 4.jpg|Step 4 image:Chromatography of chlorophyll - Step 5.jpg|Step 5 image:Chromatography of chlorophyll - Step 6.jpg|Step 6 image:Chromatography of chlorophyll - Step 7.jpg|Step 7 </gallery> In one study TLC has been applied in the screening of [[organic reaction]]s<ref>''TLC plates as a convenient platform for solvent-free reactions'' Jonathan M. Stoddard, Lien Nguyen, Hector Mata-Chavez and Kelly Nguyen [[Chem. Commun.]], '''2007''', 1240 - 1241, {{DOI|10.1039/b616311d}}</ref> for example in the fine-tuning of [[BINAP]] synthesis from [[2-naphthol]]. In this method the alcohol and catalyst solution (for instance iron(III) chloride) are place separately on the base line, then reacted and then instantly analyzed. == References == {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} ese1eqn2vp2igo8r1em55brnyfvnkyb 0 228961 4654041 3785363 2026-07-11T18:05:01Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654041 wikitext text/x-wiki <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:Practical Project: Picking a project}} </NOINCLUDE> So now is time to start thinking about what sort of project you are going to make. This is an important decision as this will drive the rest of this coursework. Projects that I've marked in the past have included: *Cricket Player Management System based on a database that keeps track of matches and player scores *Database of children at a day care centre that deals with the billing for parents *A computer room booking database that allowed teachers to book rooms for different days and see other teacher's timetables graphically *A stock control database for a hardware shop that handles re-orders and sales *A web-based maths revision site that allowed for random papers to be created then automatically marked *An A-Level Maths revision maze game *A French revision side scrolling adventure *Physics projectile modeling tool *A snake game where it asked you to eat the correct answers to maths questions *A helicopter flying game that asked you economics questions to get extra fuel *A computing revision program wrapped around a tetris clone *A chess game that enforces all the rules of the game and recognises when it's check mate *Phone based revision game for mathematics You have probably noticed that there is a lot of talk about databases and data manipulation. An easy way to tackle this project is to build a data processing system, i.e. a stock control system or a revision game, with a database in the back-end to store data. This is a strong sort of project and a way to getting top marks. However, you don't have to do something like this. If your code is complex enough then you don't have to store any data and the parts of the write up that talk about databases, you can skip. You might not be encouraged to make games, but if it is a game with a database or revision system behind it, or showing clever simulations of A-Level standard mathematics then you need to talk to your Computing teacher. == What is Data Processing == [[Image:IBM Electronic Data Processing Machine - GPN-2000-001881.jpg|thumb|150px|Data processing will require a database or other datastore]] Every system you make must involve data processing. This means taking data and adding, updating, deleting, interpreting and displaying it. This is very easy with a database, but you must get beyond the defaults of add, edit, delete, that something like Access gives you. Think about using complex queries and fancy ways to present your results. It could also be an XML file storing seating plans or student records, editing/deleting/adding questions to a revision game and recording the scores of different users. Whatever you do you must have data processing at the heart of it. Using a form of SQL (e.g MySQL) or similar (e.g MariaDB) is a good choice over Access because it easily integrates with a lot of programming languages. Also SQL is on the COMP3 syllabus so you will need basic SQL knowledge anyway. == How to pick a Complex problem == To get top marks the system has to be complex but what does that mean? There are a few things that you need to do and a few more things you need to do to stand a chance to get top marks. AQA's marks scheme says, to get in the top band for complexity, you need at least one of the following: * Non trivial algorithms, e.g Graph traversal or recursion. * Use of sophisticated features of your chosen programming language, e.g runtime created objects, sophisticated data structures, user defined classes * Time-based simulation * Use of network protocols (e.g TCP/IP) * Development for mobile devices * Complexity in the non-computing side of the problem (e.g using complex maths, if its something in your A-level maths its complex enough) * Image processing or pattern recognition (e.g using regex Note: regex is in the COMP3 syllabus, so you'll be learning it anyway). If you can use more than one of these, you'll guarantee yourself these marks. Also having more will give you more to write about in your later sections. However, don't be too ambitious because you don't want to spend all your time on the coding or not finish the program. If you're using a database it can be harder to tell if your project is going to be complex. AQA has a document on this, but in short your database will need to be fully normalised and high volumes of data will get you more marks. If you can, try to implement one of the points above and you will get the marks. {{ExerciseRobox|title=Warning!}} Never create something in Access alone, you need to show real coding. Even if Access would be a simpler solution this will not allow you to get marks for a complex project. Always check with your teacher about complexity {{Robox/Close}} == Finding a Problem and a User == You probably have a few ideas running through your head already but you now need to find a user. Users aren't necessarily going to find you so if you are a member of a local sports club, church, drama society etc. try and think how a data processing system could help them out. For example, you could keep track of the members of a choir, which sessions they attended and whether they have paid their subscription. If you know someone who runs a small business could you write a system to keep track of when staff were on duty, how much stock they have, how many sales they make? Is there an area in your school / college that could be improved? Ask your teachers, maybe they still need to write reports manually, maybe they would want a revision tool for their subject, maybe they would like web based system to book out rooms, maybe they want a program writing that could simulate projectile motion to demonstrate something in class. Once you have found your user keep hold of them, they are going to be key to you completing every part of this project. <gallery caption="What will you do?" widths="60px" heights="65px" perrow="5" class="center"> File:Ccard_icon.png File:Nuvola_camera.svg File:Nuvola_apps_looknfeel.png File:Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg File:Nuvola_mimetypes_source.svg File:Gcalctool.svg File:Nuvola apps edu science.svg File:Nuvola apps package games strategy.png File:Nuvola apps kpovmodeler.svg File:Nuvola apps artsmidimanager.png </gallery> If you're having trouble finding a user, try asking some of your teachers at school. If you want to do a simulation, your maths or physics teachers may be helpful. ==Workable projects?== Do the following sound complex enough? If not, how would you make them complex? Remember to check with your teacher about complexity. {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A database of shop sales that allows people to update stock and add new stock items. <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Probably not complex enough! If this is built around an Access Created database with wizards used to make all the forms and run the update queries it definitely won't be. You might get away with it by building it in mySQL with a web front end, but you should still be looking to include some of the more complex topics such as displaying graphs and statistical data on sales. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | An online revision site allowing students to log in and sit randomly made maths tests <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds reasonably complex, if you were planning on scripting the whole thing yourself in ASPX or PHP and not using a package such as Wordpress. You might want to throw in some nice features such as a messaging and mailing system. You might also want to get the program to create dynamic visual displays of the random questions being asked, such as creating triangles of the dimensions being tested. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A 2D F1 racing game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex, especially if you try and think about collision detection, AI etc. However, who is your user? You need a real life user, could you ask you Physics teacher to come up with a scenario to simulate? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A Four in a Row game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex with the graphical representation and AI element, but again, who is your user? Could you make this for a primary school? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | 3D shooter <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Too complex, unless you want to write some code around something like Blender or the Unreal Engine. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A photo album database <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Not complex enough as it is currently written. You could certainly add features like placing it online and allowing for tagging of photos. Make sure you check with your teacher. | &nbsp; |} == How will you solve the problem? == Once you have a user and a problem how are you going to solve it? You aren't a multibillion pound IT firm and you probably don't have much more than a years programming experience. You have got to be realistic about how you are going to solve this problem. Here are a couple of questions you need to start thinking about, write down your answers *What languages do you already know? What languages and skills do you need to learn? *Is it going to be web, phone or desktop application based? *Will you use a relational database or flat file data structure, or nothing at all? *Do you know how to normalise data tables or read from text/XML files? *Do you have enough time to do what you want to? *Is it complex enough to get you top marks? == Next Steps == Write all of this down somewhere, it's going to come in useful for your [[../Analysis/]]! {| class="wikitable" |- ! Question !! Answer |- | What is your idea? || |- | Is your idea complex enough? || |- | How will you deliver the complexity? || |- | Who is your end user? || |- | What programming languages do you know? || |- | How long do you have? || |- | Do you need to use a database or other data store? || |- | web based / phone app / desktop?|| |- | What do you need to learn? || |- | What web sites and books can help you? || |} {{BookCat}} <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} </NOINCLUDE> 5nkc8vc312tx77rq3l8jmqsu23ypvrd 4654044 4654041 2026-07-11T18:11:49Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/TenshiBot|TenshiBot]] ([[User talk:TenshiBot|talk]]) to last version by Minorax 3785363 wikitext text/x-wiki <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:Practical Project: Picking a project}} </NOINCLUDE> So now is time to start thinking about what sort of project you are going to make. This is an important decision as this will drive the rest of this coursework. Projects that I've marked in the past have included: *Cricket Player Management System based on a database that keeps track of matches and player scores *Database of children at a day care centre that deals with the billing for parents *A computer room booking database that allowed teachers to book rooms for different days and see other teacher's timetables graphically *A stock control database for a hardware shop that handles re-orders and sales *A web-based maths revision site that allowed for random papers to be created then automatically marked *An A-Level Maths revision maze game *A French revision side scrolling adventure *Physics projectile modeling tool *A snake game where it asked you to eat the correct answers to maths questions *A helicopter flying game that asked you economics questions to get extra fuel *A computing revision program wrapped around a tetris clone *A chess game that enforces all the rules of the game and recognises when it's check mate *Phone based revision game for mathematics You have probably noticed that there is a lot of talk about databases and data manipulation. An easy way to tackle this project is to build a data processing system, i.e. a stock control system or a revision game, with a database in the back-end to store data. This is a strong sort of project and a way to getting top marks. However, you don't have to do something like this. If your code is complex enough then you don't have to store any data and the parts of the write up that talk about databases, you can skip. You might not be encouraged to make games, but if it is a game with a database or revision system behind it, or showing clever simulations of A-Level standard mathematics then you need to talk to your Computing teacher. == What is Data Processing == [[Image:IBM Electronic Data Processing Machine - GPN-2000-001881.jpg|thumb|150px|Data processing will require a database or other datastore]] Every system you make must involve data processing. This means taking data and adding, updating, deleting, interpreting and displaying it. This is very easy with a database, but you must get beyond the defaults of add, edit, delete, that something like Access gives you. Think about using complex queries and fancy ways to present your results. It could also be an XML file storing seating plans or student records, editing/deleting/adding questions to a revision game and recording the scores of different users. Whatever you do you must have data processing at the heart of it. Using a form of SQL (e.g MySQL) or similar (e.g MariaDB) is a good choice over Access because it easily integrates with a lot of programming languages. Also SQL is on the COMP3 syllabus so you will need basic SQL knowledge anyway. == How to pick a Complex problem == To get top marks the system has to be complex but what does that mean? There are a few things that you need to do and a few more things you need to do to stand a chance to get top marks. AQA's marks scheme says, to get in the top band for complexity, you need at least one of the following: * Non trivial algorithms, e.g Graph traversal or recursion. * Use of sophisticated features of your chosen programming language, e.g runtime created objects, sophisticated data structures, user defined classes * Time-based simulation * Use of network protocols (e.g TCP/IP) * Development for mobile devices * Complexity in the non-computing side of the problem (e.g using complex maths, if its something in your A-level maths its complex enough) * Image processing or pattern recognition (e.g using regex Note: regex is in the COMP3 syllabus, so you'll be learning it anyway). If you can use more than one of these, you'll guarantee yourself these marks. Also having more will give you more to write about in your later sections. However, don't be too ambitious because you don't want to spend all your time on the coding or not finish the program. If you're using a database it can be harder to tell if your project is going to be complex. AQA has a document on this, but in short your database will need to be fully normalised and high volumes of data will get you more marks. If you can, try to implement one of the points above and you will get the marks. {{ExerciseRobox|title=Warning!}} Never create something in Access alone, you need to show real coding. Even if Access would be a simpler solution this will not allow you to get marks for a complex project. Always check with your teacher about complexity {{Robox/Close}} == Finding a Problem and a User == You probably have a few ideas running through your head already but you now need to find a user. Users aren't necessarily going to find you so if you are a member of a local sports club, church, drama society etc. try and think how a data processing system could help them out. For example, you could keep track of the members of a choir, which sessions they attended and whether they have paid their subscription. If you know someone who runs a small business could you write a system to keep track of when staff were on duty, how much stock they have, how many sales they make? Is there an area in your school / college that could be improved? Ask your teachers, maybe they still need to write reports manually, maybe they would want a revision tool for their subject, maybe they would like web based system to book out rooms, maybe they want a program writing that could simulate projectile motion to demonstrate something in class. Once you have found your user keep hold of them, they are going to be key to you completing every part of this project. <center><gallery caption="What will you do?" widths="60px" heights="65px" perrow="5"> File:Ccard_icon.png File:Nuvola_camera.svg File:Nuvola_apps_looknfeel.png File:Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg File:Nuvola_mimetypes_source.svg File:Gcalctool.svg File:Nuvola apps edu science.svg File:Nuvola apps package games strategy.png File:Nuvola apps kpovmodeler.svg File:Nuvola apps artsmidimanager.png </gallery></center> If you're having trouble finding a user, try asking some of your teachers at school. If you want to do a simulation, your maths or physics teachers may be helpful. ==Workable projects?== Do the following sound complex enough? If not, how would you make them complex? Remember to check with your teacher about complexity. {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A database of shop sales that allows people to update stock and add new stock items. <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Probably not complex enough! If this is built around an Access Created database with wizards used to make all the forms and run the update queries it definitely won't be. You might get away with it by building it in mySQL with a web front end, but you should still be looking to include some of the more complex topics such as displaying graphs and statistical data on sales. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | An online revision site allowing students to log in and sit randomly made maths tests <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds reasonably complex, if you were planning on scripting the whole thing yourself in ASPX or PHP and not using a package such as Wordpress. You might want to throw in some nice features such as a messaging and mailing system. You might also want to get the program to create dynamic visual displays of the random questions being asked, such as creating triangles of the dimensions being tested. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A 2D F1 racing game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex, especially if you try and think about collision detection, AI etc. However, who is your user? You need a real life user, could you ask you Physics teacher to come up with a scenario to simulate? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A Four in a Row game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex with the graphical representation and AI element, but again, who is your user? Could you make this for a primary school? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | 3D shooter <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Too complex, unless you want to write some code around something like Blender or the Unreal Engine. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A photo album database <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Not complex enough as it is currently written. You could certainly add features like placing it online and allowing for tagging of photos. Make sure you check with your teacher. | &nbsp; |} == How will you solve the problem? == Once you have a user and a problem how are you going to solve it? You aren't a multibillion pound IT firm and you probably don't have much more than a years programming experience. You have got to be realistic about how you are going to solve this problem. Here are a couple of questions you need to start thinking about, write down your answers *What languages do you already know? What languages and skills do you need to learn? *Is it going to be web, phone or desktop application based? *Will you use a relational database or flat file data structure, or nothing at all? *Do you know how to normalise data tables or read from text/XML files? *Do you have enough time to do what you want to? *Is it complex enough to get you top marks? == Next Steps == Write all of this down somewhere, it's going to come in useful for your [[../Analysis/]]! {| class="wikitable" |- ! Question !! Answer |- | What is your idea? || |- | Is your idea complex enough? || |- | How will you deliver the complexity? || |- | Who is your end user? || |- | What programming languages do you know? || |- | How long do you have? || |- | Do you need to use a database or other data store? || |- | web based / phone app / desktop?|| |- | What do you need to learn? || |- | What web sites and books can help you? || |} {{BookCat}} <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} </NOINCLUDE> dobcc7y87yo307ur3hwu10d4lbsaukc 4654102 4654044 2026-07-11T19:20:01Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654102 wikitext text/x-wiki <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:Practical Project: Picking a project}} </NOINCLUDE> So now is time to start thinking about what sort of project you are going to make. This is an important decision as this will drive the rest of this coursework. Projects that I've marked in the past have included: *Cricket Player Management System based on a database that keeps track of matches and player scores *Database of children at a day care centre that deals with the billing for parents *A computer room booking database that allowed teachers to book rooms for different days and see other teacher's timetables graphically *A stock control database for a hardware shop that handles re-orders and sales *A web-based maths revision site that allowed for random papers to be created then automatically marked *An A-Level Maths revision maze game *A French revision side scrolling adventure *Physics projectile modeling tool *A snake game where it asked you to eat the correct answers to maths questions *A helicopter flying game that asked you economics questions to get extra fuel *A computing revision program wrapped around a tetris clone *A chess game that enforces all the rules of the game and recognises when it's check mate *Phone based revision game for mathematics You have probably noticed that there is a lot of talk about databases and data manipulation. An easy way to tackle this project is to build a data processing system, i.e. a stock control system or a revision game, with a database in the back-end to store data. This is a strong sort of project and a way to getting top marks. However, you don't have to do something like this. If your code is complex enough then you don't have to store any data and the parts of the write up that talk about databases, you can skip. You might not be encouraged to make games, but if it is a game with a database or revision system behind it, or showing clever simulations of A-Level standard mathematics then you need to talk to your Computing teacher. == What is Data Processing == [[Image:IBM Electronic Data Processing Machine - GPN-2000-001881.jpg|thumb|150px|Data processing will require a database or other datastore]] Every system you make must involve data processing. This means taking data and adding, updating, deleting, interpreting and displaying it. This is very easy with a database, but you must get beyond the defaults of add, edit, delete, that something like Access gives you. Think about using complex queries and fancy ways to present your results. It could also be an XML file storing seating plans or student records, editing/deleting/adding questions to a revision game and recording the scores of different users. Whatever you do you must have data processing at the heart of it. Using a form of SQL (e.g MySQL) or similar (e.g MariaDB) is a good choice over Access because it easily integrates with a lot of programming languages. Also SQL is on the COMP3 syllabus so you will need basic SQL knowledge anyway. == How to pick a Complex problem == To get top marks the system has to be complex but what does that mean? There are a few things that you need to do and a few more things you need to do to stand a chance to get top marks. AQA's marks scheme says, to get in the top band for complexity, you need at least one of the following: * Non trivial algorithms, e.g Graph traversal or recursion. * Use of sophisticated features of your chosen programming language, e.g runtime created objects, sophisticated data structures, user defined classes * Time-based simulation * Use of network protocols (e.g TCP/IP) * Development for mobile devices * Complexity in the non-computing side of the problem (e.g using complex maths, if its something in your A-level maths its complex enough) * Image processing or pattern recognition (e.g using regex Note: regex is in the COMP3 syllabus, so you'll be learning it anyway). If you can use more than one of these, you'll guarantee yourself these marks. Also having more will give you more to write about in your later sections. However, don't be too ambitious because you don't want to spend all your time on the coding or not finish the program. If you're using a database it can be harder to tell if your project is going to be complex. AQA has a document on this, but in short your database will need to be fully normalised and high volumes of data will get you more marks. If you can, try to implement one of the points above and you will get the marks. {{ExerciseRobox|title=Warning!}} Never create something in Access alone, you need to show real coding. Even if Access would be a simpler solution this will not allow you to get marks for a complex project. Always check with your teacher about complexity {{Robox/Close}} == Finding a Problem and a User == You probably have a few ideas running through your head already but you now need to find a user. Users aren't necessarily going to find you so if you are a member of a local sports club, church, drama society etc. try and think how a data processing system could help them out. For example, you could keep track of the members of a choir, which sessions they attended and whether they have paid their subscription. If you know someone who runs a small business could you write a system to keep track of when staff were on duty, how much stock they have, how many sales they make? Is there an area in your school / college that could be improved? Ask your teachers, maybe they still need to write reports manually, maybe they would want a revision tool for their subject, maybe they would like web based system to book out rooms, maybe they want a program writing that could simulate projectile motion to demonstrate something in class. Once you have found your user keep hold of them, they are going to be key to you completing every part of this project. <gallery caption="What will you do?" widths="60px" heights="65px" perrow="5" class="center"> File:Ccard_icon.png File:Nuvola_camera.svg File:Nuvola_apps_looknfeel.png File:Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg File:Nuvola_mimetypes_source.svg File:Gcalctool.svg File:Nuvola apps edu science.svg File:Nuvola apps package games strategy.png File:Nuvola apps kpovmodeler.svg File:Nuvola apps artsmidimanager.png </gallery> If you're having trouble finding a user, try asking some of your teachers at school. If you want to do a simulation, your maths or physics teachers may be helpful. ==Workable projects?== Do the following sound complex enough? If not, how would you make them complex? Remember to check with your teacher about complexity. {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A database of shop sales that allows people to update stock and add new stock items. <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Probably not complex enough! If this is built around an Access Created database with wizards used to make all the forms and run the update queries it definitely won't be. You might get away with it by building it in mySQL with a web front end, but you should still be looking to include some of the more complex topics such as displaying graphs and statistical data on sales. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | An online revision site allowing students to log in and sit randomly made maths tests <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds reasonably complex, if you were planning on scripting the whole thing yourself in ASPX or PHP and not using a package such as Wordpress. You might want to throw in some nice features such as a messaging and mailing system. You might also want to get the program to create dynamic visual displays of the random questions being asked, such as creating triangles of the dimensions being tested. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A 2D F1 racing game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex, especially if you try and think about collision detection, AI etc. However, who is your user? You need a real life user, could you ask you Physics teacher to come up with a scenario to simulate? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A Four in a Row game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex with the graphical representation and AI element, but again, who is your user? Could you make this for a primary school? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | 3D shooter <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Too complex, unless you want to write some code around something like Blender or the Unreal Engine. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A photo album database <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Not complex enough as it is currently written. You could certainly add features like placing it online and allowing for tagging of photos. Make sure you check with your teacher. | &nbsp; |} == How will you solve the problem? == Once you have a user and a problem how are you going to solve it? You aren't a multibillion pound IT firm and you probably don't have much more than a years programming experience. You have got to be realistic about how you are going to solve this problem. Here are a couple of questions you need to start thinking about, write down your answers *What languages do you already know? What languages and skills do you need to learn? *Is it going to be web, phone or desktop application based? *Will you use a relational database or flat file data structure, or nothing at all? *Do you know how to normalise data tables or read from text/XML files? *Do you have enough time to do what you want to? *Is it complex enough to get you top marks? == Next Steps == Write all of this down somewhere, it's going to come in useful for your [[../Analysis/]]! {| class="wikitable" |- ! Question !! Answer |- | What is your idea? || |- | Is your idea complex enough? || |- | How will you deliver the complexity? || |- | Who is your end user? || |- | What programming languages do you know? || |- | How long do you have? || |- | Do you need to use a database or other data store? || |- | web based / phone app / desktop?|| |- | What do you need to learn? || |- | What web sites and books can help you? || |} {{BookCat}} <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} </NOINCLUDE> 5nkc8vc312tx77rq3l8jmqsu23ypvrd 0 230460 4654067 3778951 2026-07-11T19:08:28Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654067 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Olmeca head in Villahermosa.jpg|thumb|349x349px|Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. This one is nearly 3 metres (9 ft) tall.]] The most ancient of the Mesoamerican civilizations is known by the name '''Olmec'''. They laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed. Among other "firsts", there is evidence that the Olmec practiced '''ritual bloodletting''' and played the '''Mesoamerican ballgame''', hallmarks of nearly all subsequent Mesoamerican societies. The Olmec have long attracted interest because of their fascinating and diverse artworks using semi-precious stones and their sophisticated monumental figurative sculpture. The Olmec were a sedentary group, and they produced large architectural complexes and a great deal of material culture. The most familiar aspect of the Olmecs is their artwork, particularly the aptly-named colossal heads. In fact, the Olmec civilization was first defined through artifacts purchased on the pre-Columbian art market in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Olmec artworks are considered among ancient America's most striking and beautiful, and among the world's masterpieces. ==History== [[Image:Olmec Heartland Overview 4.svg|left|thumb|350px|The Olmec heartland where the Olmecs reigned from c.1400 - 400 BCE.]] ===Origins=== Researchers have been studying Olmec culture since the early 20th century, but there is still a great deal about the Olmec that remains unknown to contemporary scholars. It is not known exactly where the Olmec people first came from, or how they came to settle in the lowlands of Mexico's southern Gulf Coast, or what language the Olmec spoke, or even what they called themselves. The name Olmec, in fact, comes from a '''Nahuatl''' word meaning "rubber land," a reference to one of the natural resources available in the Olmec heartland. The Olmec heartland was an area about 125 miles long by about 50 miles wide located in the lowlands of the southern Gulf Coast of Mexico in what is now the modern states of Veracruz and Tabasco. It was tremendously humid, with significant rainfall throughout the year, making it possible to cultivate crops year-round. The major cities arose along a network of rivers that facilitated the transportation of goods and materials in the region. During the height of the Olmec civilization, the area was characterized by tropical forest cover and Savannah. There are also volcanic mountains in this region, and it is from these that the Olmec acquired basalt for creating their monumental sculpture and architecture. Here in this region, the Olmecs constructed permanent city-temple complexes at San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes. The earliest Olmec site is believed to be San Lorenzo, where distinctive Olmec features appear around 1400 BCE. The rise of civilization here was assisted by the local ecology of well-watered alluvial soil, as well as by the transportation network that the Coatzacoalcos River basin provided. This environment may be compared to that of other ancient centers of civilization: the Nile, Indus, and Yellow River valleys, and Mesopotamia. This highly productive environment encouraged a densely concentrated population which in turn triggered the rise of an elite class. It was this elite class that provided the social basis for the production of the symbolic and sophisticated luxury artifacts that define Olmec culture. Many of these luxury artifacts, such as '''jade''', '''obsidian''' and '''magnetite''', came from distant locations and suggest that early Olmec elites had access to an extensive trading network in Mesoamerica. The source of the most valued jade, for example, is found in the Motagua River valley in eastern Guatemala, and Olmec obsidian has been traced to sources in the Guatemala highlands, such as El Chayal and San Martín Jilotepeque, or in Puebla, distances ranging from 200 to 400 km away (120 - 250 miles away) respectively. ===La Venta=== The first Olmec center, San Lorenzo, was all but abandoned around 900 BCE at about the same time that La Venta rose to prominence. A wholesale destruction of many San Lorenzo monuments also occurred c. 950 BCE, which may point to an internal uprising or, less likely, an invasion. The latest thinking, however, is that environmental changes may have been responsible for this shift in Olmec centers, with certain important rivers changing course. In any case, following the decline of San Lorenzo, La Venta became the most prominent Olmec center, lasting from 900 BCE until its abandonment around 400 BCE. La Venta sustained the Olmec cultural traditions, but with spectacular displays of power and wealth. The Great Pyramid of La Venta was the largest Mesoamerican structure of its time. Even today, after 2500 years of erosion, it rises 34 meters above the naturally flat landscape. Buried deep within La Venta, lay opulent, labor-intensive "Offerings": 1000 tons of smooth serpentine blocks, large mosaic pavements, and at least 48 separate deposits of polished jade '''celts''', pottery, figurines, and '''hematite''' mirrors ===Decline=== It is not known with any clarity what caused the eventual extinction of the Olmec culture. It ''is'' known that between 400 and 350 BCE, population in the eastern half of the Olmec heartland dropped precipitously, and the area would remain sparsely inhabited until the 19th century. This depopulation was likely the result of "very serious environmental changes that rendered the region unsuited for large groups of farmers", in particular changes to the river environment that the Olmec depended upon for agriculture, for hunting and gathering, and for transportation. Archaeologists propose that these changes were triggered by tectonic upheavals or subsidence, or the silting up of rivers due to agricultural practices. One theory for the considerable population drop during the end of the Formative period proposes that shifts in settlement location due to volcanism instead of extinction. Volcanic eruptions during the Early, Late and Terminal Formative periods would have blanketed the lands and forced the Olmecs to move their settlements Whatever the cause, within a few hundred years of the abandonment of the last Olmec cities, successor cultures had become firmly established. The Tres Zapotes site, on the western edge of the Olmec heartland, continued to be occupied well past 400 BCE, but without the hallmarks of the Olmec culture. This post-Olmec culture, often labeled Epi-Olmec, has features similar to those found at Izapa, some 330 miles (550 km) to the southeast. ==Art== [[File:Olmec mask 802.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Olmec face mask in jade]]The Olmec culture was first defined as an art style, and this continues to be the hallmark of the culture. Wrought in a large number of media – jade, clay, basalt, and greenstone among others – much Olmec art is surprisingly naturalistic. Other art, however, reveals fantastic anthropomorphic creatures, often highly stylized, using an iconography reflective of a religious meaning. Common motifs include down-turned mouths and a cleft head, both of which are seen in representations of Olmec '''were-jaguars'''. In addition to human and human-like subjects, Olmec artisans were adept at animal portrayals. While Olmec figurines are found abundantly in sites throughout the Formative Period, it is the stone monuments such as the colossal heads that are the most recognizable feature of Olmec culture. These monuments can be divided into four classes: *Colossal heads *Rectangular "altars" or "thrones" *Free-standing in-the-round sculpture *'''Stelae''' ===Colossal heads=== The most recognized aspect of the Olmec civilization are the enormous helmeted heads. As no known pre-Columbian text explains them, these impressive monuments have been the subject of much speculation. Once theorized to be ballplayers, it is now generally accepted that these heads are portraits of rulers, perhaps dressed as ballplayers. Infused with individuality, no two heads are alike and the helmet-like headdresses are adorned with distinctive elements, suggesting to some personal or group symbols. There have been 17 colossal heads unearthed to date. The heads range in size from the Rancho La Cobata head, at 3.4 m high, to the pair at Tres Zapotes, at 1.47 m. It has been calculated that the largest heads weigh between 25 and 55 tons. The heads were carved from single blocks or boulders of volcanic basalt, found in the Tuxtlas Mountains. The Tres Zapotes heads, for example, were sculpted from basalt found at the summit of Cerro el Vigía, at the western end of the Tuxtlas. The San Lorenzo and La Venta heads, on the other hand, were likely carved from the basalt of Cerro Cintepec, on the southeastern side, perhaps at the nearby Llano del Jicaro workshop, and dragged or floated to their final destination dozens of miles away. It has been estimated that moving a colossal head required the efforts of 1,500 people for three to four months. Some of the heads, and many other monuments, have been variously mutilated, buried and disinterred, reset in new locations and/or reburied. It is known that some monuments, and at least two heads, were recycled or re-carved, but it is not known whether this was simply due to the scarcity of stone or whether these actions had ritual or other connotations. It is also suspected that some mutilation had significance beyond mere destruction, but some scholars still do not rule out internal conflicts or, less likely, invasion as a factor. ===Jade face masks=== Another type of artifact is much smaller: hardstone carvings in jade of a face in a mask form. To date no example has been recovered in an archaeologically controlled Olmec context, but Curators and scholars refer to these as being Olmec in style. However they have been recovered from sites of other cultures, including one deliberately deposited in the ceremonial precinct of Tenochtitlan, which would presumably have been about 2,000 years old when the Aztecs buried it, suggesting these were valued and collected as Roman antiquities were in Europe. ===Gallery=== <gallery class="center"> File:Laventa3.jpg File:Olmec Head from San Lorenzo, Veracruz.jpg|Olmec colossal head monument File:Cabeza Colosal nº1 del Museo Xalapa.jpg|Monument 1, San Lorenzo File:Piezas del Conjunto Escultórico "Los Gemelos".jpg|One of the "twins" from El Azuzul File:The Wrestler (Olmec) by DeLange.jpg|"The Wrestler", an Olmec era statuette, 1200 - 800 BCE. File:Jaguarbaby.jpg|Olmec were-jaguar File:Olmec mask at Met.jpg|Olmec mask. File:Olmecmask.jpg|Olmec jade mask. File:Olmec Bird jug.jpg|Bird Vessel, 12th–9th century BCE File:Olmec celts from Met.jpg|Three celts, Olmec ritual objects. File:Olmec-style bottle 1.jpg|Olmec style bottle, reputedly from Las Bocas, 1100 - 800 BCE File:Juxtlahuaca Ruler (M Lachniet).jpg|Olmec-style painting from the Juxtlahuaca cave. </gallery> ==Beyond the heartland== [[Image:Formative Era sites.svg|thumb|right|350px|The major Formative Period (Pre-Classic Era) sites in present-day Mexico which show Olmec influences in the archaeological record.]] Olmec-style artifacts, designs, figurines, monuments and iconography have been found in the archaeological records of sites hundreds of kilometres outside the Olmec heartland. These sites include: *Tlatilco and Tlapacoya, major centers of the Tlatilco culture in the Valley of Mexico, where artifacts include hollow baby-face motif figurines and Olmec designs on ceramics. * Chalcatzingo, in Valley of Morelos, which features Olmec-style monumental art and rock art with Olmec-style figures. *Teopantecuanitlan, in Guerrero, which features Olmec-style monumental art as well as city plans with distinctive Olmec features. Other sites showing probable Olmec influence include San Bartolo, Takalik Abaj and La Democracia in Guatemala and Zazacatla in Morelos. The Juxtlahuaca and Oxtotitlan cave paintings feature Olmec designs and motifs. Many theories have been advanced to account for the occurrence of Olmec influence far outside the heartland, including long-range trade by Olmec merchants, Olmec colonization of other regions, Olmec artisans traveling to other cities, conscious imitation of Olmec artistic styles by developing towns – some even suggest the prospect of Olmec military domination or that the Olmec iconography was actually developed outside the heartland. The generally accepted, but by no means unanimous, interpretation is that the Olmec-style artifacts, in all sizes, became associated with elite status and were adopted by non-Olmec Formative Period chieftains in an effort to bolster their status. ==Notable innovations== In addition to their influence with contemporaneous Mesoamerican cultures, as the first civilization in Mesoamerica, the Olmecs are often ''speculatively credited'', with many "firsts", including the bloodletting and perhaps human sacrifice practices found in Mesoamerica, writing and epigraphy, and the invention of zero and the Mesoamerican calendar, and the Mesoamerican ballgame, as well as perhaps the compass. Some researchers even postulate that the Olmecs formulated the forerunners of many of the later Mesoamerican deities. ===Bloodletting and sacrifice speculations=== [[Image:La Venta Altar 5 (Ruben Charles).jpg|thumb|right|350px|Altar 5 from La Venta. The inert were-jaguar baby held by the central figure is seen by some as an indication of child sacrifice. In contrast, its sides show bas-reliefs of humans holding quite lively were-jaguar babies.]] Although there is no explicit representation of Olmec bloodletting in the archaeological record, there is nonetheless a strong case that the Olmecs ritually practiced it. Numerous natural and ceramic stingray spikes and maguey thorns, for example, have been found at Olmec sites, and certain artifacts have been identified as bloodletters. The argument that the Olmecs instituted human sacrifice is significantly more speculative. No Olmec or Olmec-influenced sacrificial artifacts have yet been discovered and there is no Olmec or Olmec-influenced artwork that unambiguously shows sacrificial victims or scenes of human sacrifice. However, at the El Manatí site, dis-articulated skulls and femurs as well as complete skeletons of newborn or unborn children have been discovered amidst the other offerings, leading to speculation concerning infant sacrifice. It is not yet known, though, how the infants met their deaths. Some authors have also associated infant sacrifice with Olmec ritual art showing limp were-jaguar babies, most famously in La Venta's Altar 5 or Las Limas figure. Any definitive answer will need to await further findings. ===Writing=== The Olmec may have been the first civilization in the Western Hemisphere to develop a writing system. Symbols found in 2002 and 2006 date to 650 BCE and 900 BCE respectively, preceding the oldest Zapotec writing dated to about 500 BCE. The 2002 find at the San Andrés site shows a bird, speech scrolls, and glyphs that are similar to the later Mayan hieroglyphs. Known as the Cascajal Block, the 2006 find from a site near San Lorenzo, shows a set of 62 symbols, 28 of which are unique, carved on a serpentine block. A large number of prominent archaeologists have hailed this find as the "earliest pre-Columbian writing". Others are skeptical because of the stone's singularity, the fact that it had been removed from any archaeological context, and because it bears no apparent resemblance to any other Mesoamerican writing system. There are also well-documented later hieroglyphs known as "Epi-Olmec," and while there are some who believe that Epi-Olmec may represent a transitional script between an earlier Olmec writing system and Mayan writing, the matter remains unsettled. ===Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and invention of the zero concept=== [[Image:Estela C de Tres Zapotes.jpg|thumb|250px|right|'''The back of Stela C from Tres Zapotes'''<br>This is the second oldest Long Count date yet discovered. The numerals 7.16.6.16.18 translate to September 3, 32 BCE (Julian). The glyphs surrounding the date are one of the few surviving examples of Epi-Olmec script.]] The Mesoamerican Long Count calendar used by many subsequent Mesoamerican civilizations, as well as the concept of zero, may have been devised by the Olmecs. Because the six artifacts with the earliest Long Count calendar dates were all discovered outside the immediate Maya homeland, it is likely that this calendar predated the Maya and was possibly the invention of the Olmecs. Indeed, three of these six artifacts were found within the Olmec heartland. But an argument against an Olmec origin is the fact that the Olmec civilization had ended by the 4th century BCE, several centuries before the earliest known Long Count date artifact. The Long Count calendar required the use of zero as a place-holder within its vigesimal (base-20) positional numeral system. A shell glyph was used as a zero symbol for these Long Count dates, the second oldest of which, on Stela C at Tres Zapotes, has a date of 32 BCE. This is one of the earliest uses of the zero concept in history. ===Mesoamerican ballgame=== The Olmec, whose name means "rubber people" in the Nahuatl language of the Aztecs, are strong candidates for originating the Mesoamerican ballgame so prevalent among later cultures of the region and used for recreational and religious purposes. A dozen rubber balls dating to 1600 BCE or earlier have been found in El Manatí, an Olmec sacrificial bog 10 kilometers east of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan. These balls predate the earliest ballcourt yet discovered at Paso de la Amada, c.1400 BCE, although there is no certainty that they were used in the ballgame. ==Daily Life== ===Religion and mythology=== [[Image:Señor_de_las_limas_2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Las Limas Monument 1, considered an important realisation of Olmec mythology. The youth holds a were-jaguar infant, while four iconic supernaturals are incised on the youth's shoulders and knees.]] Olmec religious activities were performed by a combination of rulers, full-time priests, and shamans. The rulers seem to have been the most important religious figures, with their links to the Olmec deities or supernaturals providing legitimacy for their rule. There is also considerable evidence for shamans in the Olmec archaeological record, particularly in the so-called "transformation figures". Olmec mythology has left no documents comparable to the ''Popul Vuh'' from Maya mythology, and therefore any exposition of Olmec mythology must rely on interpretations of surviving monumental and portable art, and comparisons with other Mesoamerican mythologies. Olmec art shows that such deities as the Feathered Serpent and a rain supernatural were already in the Mesoamerican pantheon in Olmec times. =====Were-Jaguar===== The were-jaguar was both an Olmec motif and a supernatural entity, perhaps a deity. The were-jaguar motif is characterised by almond-shaped eyes, a downturned open mouth, and a cleft head. It appears widely in the Olmec archaeological record, and in many cases, the were-jaguar motif represents the were-jaguar supernatural. The were-jaguar supernatural incorporates the were-jaguar motif as well as other features, although various academics define the were-jaguar supernatural differently. The were-jaguar supernatural was once considered to be the primary deity of the Olmec culture but is now thought to be only one of many. Originally, many scholars believed that the were-jaguar was tied to a myth concerning a copulation between a jaguar and a woman. Although this hypothesis is still recognized as viable by many researchers, other explanations for the were-jaguar motif have since been put forward, several questioning whether the motif actually represents a jaguar at all. The term is derived from Old English were, meaning "man", and jaguar, a large member of the cat family in the Olmec heartland, on analogy with werewolf. ===Social and political organization=== Little is directly known about the societal or political structure of Olmec society. Although it is assumed by most researchers that the colossal heads and several other sculptures represent rulers, nothing has been found like the Maya stelae which name specific rulers and provide the dates of their rule. Instead, archaeologists relied on the data that they had, such as large- and small-scale site surveys. These provided evidence of considerable centralization within the Olmec region, first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta – no other Olmec sites come close to these in terms of area or in the quantity and quality of architecture and sculpture. This evidence of geographic and demographic centralization leads archaeologists to propose that Olmec society itself was hierarchical, concentrated first at San Lorenzo and then at La Venta, with an elite that was able to use their control over materials such as water and monumental stone to exert command and legitimize their regime. Nonetheless, Olmec society is thought to lack many of the institutions of later civilizations, such as a standing army or priestly caste. And there is no evidence that San Lorenzo or La Venta controlled, even during their heyday, all of the Olmec heartland. There is some doubt, for example, that La Venta controlled even Arroyo Sonso, only some 35&nbsp;km away. Studies of the Tuxtla Mountain settlements, some 60&nbsp;km away, indicate that this area was composed of more or less egalitarian communities outside the control of lowland centers. ===Trade=== The wide diffusion of Olmec artifacts and "Olmecoid" iconography throughout much of Mesoamerica indicates the existence of extensive long-distance trade networks. Exotic, prestigious and high-value materials such as greenstone and marine shell were moved in significant quantities across large distances. While the Olmec were not the first in Mesoamerica to organise long-distance exchanges of goods, the Olmec period saw a significant expansion in interregional trade routes, more variety in material goods exchanged and a greater diversity in the sources from which the base materials were obtained. ===Village life and diet=== Despite their size, San Lorenzo and La Venta were largely ceremonial centers, and the majority of the Olmec lived in villages similar to present-day villages and hamlets in Tabasco and Veracruz. These villages were located on higher ground and consisted of several scattered houses. A modest temple may have been associated with the larger villages. The individual dwellings would consist of a house, an associated lean-to, and one or more storage pits. A nearby garden was used for medicinal and cooking herbs and for smaller crops such as the domesticated sunflower. Fruit trees, such as avocado or cacao, were likely available nearby. Although the river banks were used to plant crops between flooding periods, the Olmecs also likely practiced swidden (or slash-and-burn) agriculture to clear the forests and shrubs, and to provide new fields once the old fields were exhausted. Fields were located outside the village, and were used for maize, beans, squash, manioc, sweet potato, as well as cotton. Based on archaeological studies of two villages in the Tuxtlas Mountains, it is known that maize cultivation became increasingly important to the Olmec over time, although the diet remained fairly diverse. The fruits and vegetables were supplemented with fish, turtle, snake, and mollusks from the nearby rivers, and crabs and shellfish in the coastal areas. Birds were available as food sources, as were game including peccary, opossum, raccoon, rabbit, and in particular deer. Despite the wide range of hunting and fishing available, midden surveys in San Lorenzo have found that the domesticated dog was the single most plentiful source of animal protein. {{BookCat}} 8w1r7lyxah0ailwv45liihyjg4di2q9 0 230467 4654069 4644434 2026-07-11T19:09:02Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654069 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Teotihuacán'''<ref>The name is often spelled with an orthographic accent on the last syllable, following the spelling and pronunciation of the name in Spanish language|Spanish. However, the name is pronounced [''teoti'wakan''] in Nahuatl, with the accent on the syllable ''wa'', and by normal Nahuatl orthographic conventions a written accent would not appear in that position. Both pronunciations are used, and both spellings appear in this article.</ref> {{IPA|[teotiwa'kan]}} (Nahuatl: "place of those who have the road of the gods") was, at its height in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, the largest city in the Americas. The name Teotihuacan is also used to refer to the civilization that this city was the center of, which at its greatest extent included much of central Mexico. Its influence spread throughout Mesoamerica; evidence of Teotihuacano presence, if not outright political and economic control, can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The city was located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México, Mexico, approximately 40 kilometre (about 25 miles) northeast of Mexico City. It covers a total surface area of 83 square kilometres and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. == Name == [[Image:Piramide de la Luna 072006.jpg|thumb|right|360px| ...and the opposing view, from the Pyramid of the Sun.]]The name ''Teotihuacan'' was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztec centuries after the fall of the city. The term has been glossed as 'birthplace of the gods,' reflecting Nahua creation myths that took place in Teotihuacan. Another translation was offered by Thelma Sullivan, who interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the gods." The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as 'puh', or Place of Reeds. This suggests that the Maya understood Teotihuacan as a 'Place of Reeds' similar to other Central Mexican settlements that took the name 'Tollan,' such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula. This naming convention led to much confusion in the early 20th century as scholars debated whether Teotihuacan or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan described by 16th century chronicles. It now seems clear that 'Tollan' may be understood as a generic term applied to any large settlement, rather like the modern expression "the Big Smoke". In the Mesoamerican concept of urbanism, ''Tollan'' and other language equivalents serve as a metaphor, linking the bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of the lacustrine environment of the Valley of Mexico and the large gathering of people in a city.<ref>Miller and Taube (1993), p.170.</ref> [[Image:Classic sites 1.svg|Teotihuacán and other important Classic Era settlements.Image:MW-Teotihuacan8.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Platform along the Avenue of the Dead demonstrating the Talud-Tablero architectural style.]] == History == ===Origins and foundation=== The early history of Teotihuacan is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is debated. For many years, archaeologists believed it was built by the Toltec people, an early Mexican civilization. This belief was based on Aztec writings which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl word "Toltec" means "great craftsman" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization. Also, Teotihuacan predates the Toltec civilization, ruling them out as the city's founders. Other scholars have put forth the Totonac people as the founders of Teotihuacan, and the debate continues to this day. There is evidence that at least some of the people living in Teotihuacan came from areas influenced by the Teotihuacano civilization, including the Zapotec, Mixtec and Maya peoples. The culture and architecture of Teotihuacan was influenced by the Olmec people, who are considered to be the "mother civilization" of Mesoamerica. The earliest buildings at Teotihuacan date to about 200 BCE, and the largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by 100 CE. ===Zenith=== The city reached its zenith between 150 and 450 CE, when it was the center of a powerful culture that dominated Mesoamerica, wielding power and influence comparable to ancient Rome. At its height the city covered over 30 square kilometre (over 11½ square miles), and probably housed a population of over 150,000 people, possibly as many as 250,000.<ref>Malstrom, p. 105 gives a figure of 50,000 to 200,000. Coe et al. (1986) says it "might lie between 125,000 and 250,000".</ref>. Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihucano empire that spread to south as far as Guatemala. Notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures. Teotihuacan had a major influence on the Preclassic Maya, allying itself with some, conquering several other Maya centers including Tikal and influencing Maya culture. The Teotihuacano style of architecture was a major contribution to Mesoamerican culture. The stepped pyramids that were quite prominent in Maya and Aztec architecture came from Teotihuacan. {{Fact|date=February 2007}} This style of building was called "talud-tablero", where a rectangular panel (tablero) was placed over a sloping side (talud). The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers and craftsmen. Teotihuacan is known for producing a great number of obsidian artifacts. Unfortunately no ancient Teotihuacano non-ideogram|ideographic texts are known to exist (or known to have existed), but mentions of the city in inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacán nobility travelled to and perhaps conquered local rulers as far away as Honduras. Maya script|Maya inscriptions mention an individual nicknamed by scholars as "Spearthrower Owl", apparently ruler of Teotihuacan, who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as ruler of Tikal and Uaxactún in Guatemala. Most of what we infer about the culture at Teotihuacán comes from the murals that adorn the site and others, like the Wagner Murals, found in private collections, and from hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the Maya civilization|Maya describing their encounters with Teotihuacano conquerors. ===Collapse=== It was previously believed that sometime during the 7th or 8th centuries, the city was sacked and burned by invaders, possibly the Toltecs. More recent evidence, however, seems to indicate that the burning was limited to the structures and dwellings associated primarily with the elite class. Some see this as evidence that the burning was from an internal uprising and that the invasion theory is flawed due to the fact that early archaeological work on the city was focused exclusively on the palaces and temples, places used by the elites, and because all of these sites showed burning, archaeologists concluded that the whole city was burned. Instead, it is now known that the destruction in the city was focused on major civic structures along the Avenue of the Dead. Some statues seem to have been destroyed in a methodical way, their fragments dispersed. The fact that population began to decline around 500-600 AD also supports the internal unrest hypothesis. The decline of Teotihucán has been correlated with the droughts related to the Climate changes of 535–536. This theory is supported by the archeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of malnutrition during the 6th century. This does not conflict with either of the above theories however since both increased warfare and internal unrest can also be effects of a general period of drought and famine. <ref>Kaufman 2001 p.4 </ref> Other nearby centers like Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla attempted to fill the powerful vacuum left by Teotihuacan's decline. They may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacan in an attempt to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites shows an interest in emulating Teotihuacan forms, but also a more eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region. {{clear}} ==Teotihuacano culture== [[Image:Teotihuacan mask Branly 70-1999-12-1.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Stone mask discovered at Teotihuacán, 3rd to 7th century CE]] ===People=== There is archaeological evidence that Teotihuacán was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya civilization|Maya and what seem to be Nahua quarters. The Totonacs have always maintained that they were the ones who built it, a story that was corroborated later by the Aztecs. ===Language=== In his 2001 paper,<ref> Kaufman's paper entitled [http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/Nawa.pdf ''"Nawa linguistic prehistory"''] can be read as a .pdf file on the site of the MLDP, following this link. </ref> Terrence Kaufman presents linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacan was of Totonacan languages|Totonacan and/or Mixe-Zoquean languages|Mixe-Zoquean linguistic affiliation. He uses this to explain general influences from Totonacan and Mixe-Zoquean languages in many other Mesoamerican languages many of which do not have any known history of contact with either of the above mentioned groups. ===Religion=== The religion of Teotihuacan is similar to those of other Mesoamerican cultures. Many of the same gods were worshipped, including the Quetzalcoatl|Feathered Serpent and Tlaloc|The Rain god. Teotihuacan was a major religious center, and the priests probably had a great deal of political power. As with other Mesoamerican cultures, Teotihuacanos practiced human sacrifice. Human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the pyramids at Teotihuacan; it is believed that when the buildings were expanded, sacrifices were made to dedicate the new building. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed so the city could prosper. Some were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head and some were even buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military might were also buried alive but imprisioned in cages: cougars, a wolf, eagles, a falcon, an owl, and even venomous snakes. ==Site layout== The city's broad central avenue, called "Avenue of the Dead" (a translation from its Nahuatl name ''Miccaotli''), is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (second largest in the New World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Along the Avenue of the Dead are many smaller talud-tablero platforms. The Aztecs believed they were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Now they are known to be ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples. Further down the Avenue of the Dead is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined Temple of the Feathered Serpent. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who believed it was a fort. Many of the rich and powerful Teotihucanos lived in Palaces near the temples. The largest of these cover more than 3300 sq. meters <ref>Reader's Digest, p.116 </ref>. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of buildings contained workshops that produced pottery and other goods. The geographical layout of Teotihuacán is a good example of the Mesoamerican architecture|Mesoamerican tradition of planning cities, settlements and buildings as a representation of the Teotihuacano view of the Universe. Its urban grid is aligned to precisely 15.5º east of north. The Street of the Dead, in particular, seems to line up with Cerro Gordo to the north of the Pyramid of the Moon. Pecked-cross circles throughout the city and in the surrounding regions indicate how the grid was managed over long distances. ==Archaeological site== Image:Teonate.JPG|thumb|right|360px|Pyramid of the Sun Knowledge of the huge ruins of Teotihuacan was never lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During Aztec times, the city was place of pilgrimage and identified with the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Teotihuacan astonished the Spanish ''conquistadores'' during the Contact era. Today Teotihuacan is one of the most noted archaeological attractions in Mexico. ===Excavations and investigations=== Minor archaeological excavations were conducted in the 19th century, and in 1905 major projects of excavation and restoration began under archaeologist Leopoldo Batres. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of Mexican Independence in 1910. Major programs of excavation and restoration were carried out in 1960-65 and 1980-82. Recent projects at the Pyramid of the Moon and the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices. Teotihuacan features museums and reconstructed structures. ==Gallery== <gallery class="center"> Image:Teotihuacan.jpg Image:Teotihuacan_mask_Louvre_MH_78-1-187.jpg| Marble mask, 3rd - 7th century Image:Piramide del Sol 072006.JPG|Another view of the Pyramid of the Sun </gallery> ==Notes== {{reflist}} {{BookCat}} 8cnbdadkfyuv1489oz9sqha9ibuno1f 0 236850 4654085 3116406 2026-07-11T19:16:50Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654085 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:OpenEducationalResourcesAtOtagoPolytechnic.ogv|thumb|center|400px|Interviews with staff and students at Otago Polytechnic, in the initial stages of establishing open educational practices there (2006-2009). [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=52Gri8y9iYA Youtube version] [http://archive.org/details/OpenEducationResourcesAndPracticesAtOtagoPolytechnic Internet Archive version] Video by Leigh Blackall, Sunshine Connelly and Mark Leggett for Otago Polytechnic]] ==Video: Open educational resources and practices at Otago Polytechnic== In 2008, Otago Polytechnic signed the [[w:Cape Town Open Education Declaration|Cape Town Open Education Declaration]],<ref>Shona Cox. 2008 [http://www.eduvac.co.nz/node/492 Otago Polytech signs Cape Town Open Education Declaration]. Education Weekly Eduvac Wednesday, July 16th 2008.</ref> adopting the Creative Commons Attribution "CC By" copyright license. This means the CC By work of others can be shared and modified, as long as attribution to the original author is made. Many staff began publishing their educational materials to the Internet, using popular media sharing sites. Following are transcripts from interview samples given by Otago Polytechnic staff and students who featured in the video: Open educational resources and practices at Otago Polytechnic. <gallery align="center" class="center"> Image:Robin Day.png|Robin Day Image:Sarah Gauthier.png|Sarah Gauthier Image:anna hughes.png|Anna Hughes Image:phil ker.png|Phil Ker Image:William Lucas.png|William Lucas Image:David McQuillan.png|David McQuillan Image:Terry Marler.png|Terry Marler Image:sam mann.png|Samuel Mann Image:Khyla Russell.png|Khyla Russell Image:Jean Tillyshort.png|Jean Tillyshort Image:Mike Waddell.png|Mike Waddell Image:Ryan Ward.png|Ryan Ward </gallery> :'''Robin Day''', Deputy CEO: "So the vision is to make Otago Polytechnic a key and a lead provider in this area both in New Zealand and world wide.... The recognition of Creative Commons with Attribution as our default position has been widely accepted and feedback has been that it is instrumental in building Otago Polytechnic's reputation as an educational provider." :'''Sarah Gauthier''', Liaison Officer Marketing and Communications: "I'm aware that people in EDC are doing a lot of fantastic and innovative work, around getting people to work more collaboratively in the online format, both in teaching and learning, and maybe by bringing our materials to a wider audience. So rather than keeping it all closed up in an institution where information can only be found in books, we're putting information online, where many people can see, where people can interact with it in a different way.... You have this whole big world, out there, with little people living in columns, not knowing what the other one is doing. What I think open educational resources can do is connect those people, so that not only are they interacting, but they're learning, so their information actually goes up." :'''Anna Hughes''', lecturer: "I think open education is a great thing, it would be fantastic if more tertiary institutions - or any institution, embraced that open education policy. I think that Otago Polytechnic should be doing it, and should lead the way.... I think my vision would be that there is as much as possible out there in an open access forum, and that its available to as many people as possible around the world." :'''Phil Kerr''', CEO: "As an institution, we've embraced the concept of OER (Open Educational Resources) as a way of operating, that's manifested in our IP Policy, and our Copyright Policy, and we've started a journey that we think will be long term benefit not only to the Polytech, but to the sector, and education generally.... It's very easy to say why should we hide the content that we generate, let's make it freely available, let's encourage people to use it and put back in the pot so-to-speak, and I think everyone ends up better off with a philosophy of that nature." :'''William Lucas''', Lecturer: "I have a real problem with the whole issue of intellectual property, its crazy and restrictive, I mean its not as if you're giving something material away and that you lose being giving something of your resources. If you share your intellectual property you haven't lost anything.... I'll create the stuff and leave it lying around, and later I'll see other people using it - that's fine ... its the way it should be!" :'''David McQuillan''', Programme Coordinator (Massage Therapy): "I think that what people pay for is not just the content of the knowledge, they pay for someone who can guide them through it.... There's a huge learning curve with teaching online. Last year was our first year, and I'd say some things went really well, and other things we can improve on. If we look how the students have achieved through the year, we've decided that over-all they've performed better that the students in the previous year, there are some areas where their learning is more and where it is less, but over-all we're pretty happy with the outcome.... If we can persuade others who are in the same field, to become involved in open educational resources and development and collaboration, then that would be better for everyone really." :'''Samuel Mann''', lecturer: " ...what's changed in the last couple of years is that we've had a complete turn around in the approach to the accessibility of information ... now the emphasis is on, let's get this stuff out there! It really is an exciting thing.... The straight knowledge isn't our core business, our core business is facilitating people to understand that knowledge or to work with that knowledge." :'''Terry Marler''', Team Leader at the Educational Development Centre: "It's not just a giving, its a receiving as well. Of all kinds of personal connections, and understanding how resources could be customised and used in developing countries ... the other interesting thing is that, wherever I have gone, people say to me - 'Otago Polytechnic, we know all about your efforts.' Because of the work we do on Wikieducator we are well known for our work, and it is appreciated. It's like a door opens wherever I go because of this work." :'''Kyla Russell''', Kaitohutohu CEO: "The purpose of open educational resources is access to resources without having to reinvent a wheel, and the realisation that just by providing access, doesn't necessarily grant the qualification - it provides access to learning ... if people can come to learn to use it as a resource, then the greatest reason we can have is the concept of Ako - to teach is to learn. And so in teaching someone else you learn a lot about yourself, and learning from someone else you can pass on a new way of teaching. And so for me that's what it provides - not just as a resource, but how we use it - you know, engaging with it and using it as a tool rather than a nuisance." :'''Jean Tillyshort''', Group Manager for Central Otago: "We've had really good feedback about our policy for open education, and our open resources, and being proactive about that, and we've actually had really good feedback about particular resources we've put on the Net and made available as well." :'''Mike Waddell''', General Manager Marketing: "If I want to find out - through open education, how to peel an onion, I can find that out 70 thousand-probable ways by purely doing a search on the Internet. So why shouldn't then someone find out how to peel an onion at Otago Polytechnic? :'''Ryan Ward''', Co-president of the Student Association: "New Zealand may not be ready for free education, but it's definitely something we can work towards, and the reduction of those barriers - specifically the financial ones. Thousands of educational resources are freely available online, for collaboration, easier access, improved teaching and learning outcomes." ==References== <references/> {{BookCat}} 98p02ktudzdnn3o7lbt3wvjt9kp1kgx 0 245870 4654074 4326836 2026-07-11T19:11:16Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654074 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> ==Apple I== <gallery class="center"> Image:Apple I Computer.jpg|Apple I in custom case Image:CopsonApple1 2k.jpg|Mainboard Apple I Image:LCM+L Working Apple I.jpg|A working Apple I with custom peripherals </gallery> After the Apple I was released, Wozniak and Jobs set off to improve the design and functions of their product. ==Apple II == On June 5, 1977 the compact and self-contained Apple II computer was released. The Apple Computer took the world by storm. The Apple II was not only the first successful personal computer, it was the first successful computer to have a keyboard and monitor, a form which has come to be synonymous with "computer" to many. It was priced at $1,298.00 for 4KB of RAM or $2,698.00 for 48KB of RAM. The features included a 1 MHz Motorola 6502 8-bit processor using MOS technology and sound capabilities. The result was pure genius - a personalized computer that was attractive and easy to operate for the everyday user. Through the years Jobs and Wozniak created and sold over 2 million subsequent models that improved on the speed and original design of the Apple II (models included the: Apple II+, Apple //e, and Apple //c), making Apple a billion dollar company. In a recent video from Apple's YouTube channel, It commemorated Steve Jobs and he said "People don't buy Apple Computers for work, they buy it to change the world.". <gallery class="center"> Image:Apple-II.jpg|Apple II Image:Apple2.jpg|Apple II Image:Apple iieuroplus.jpg |Apple II EuroPlus front Image:Apple iieuroplus rear.jpg|Apple II EuroPlus rear Image:Apple iieuroplus open.jpg|Apple II EuroPlus open Image:AppleII.jpg|Apple ''II''c Pascal Image:AppleIIc.jpeg|Apple ''II''c Image:Taiwanese Apple II clone Cosmo.jpg|Taiwanese Apple II clone Cosmo Image:Apple iigs.jpg|Apple IIGS Image:Apple IIGS Woz.png| Apple IIGS "Woz Edition" Image:Apple_IIGS.jpg|Apple II<small>GS</small> Image:Mass-spectrometer_awi_hg.jpg|used to control a masspectrometer </gallery> In February 1981, Steve Wozniak left Apple after he crashed his airplane while taking off from Santa Cruz Sky Park. As a result of the accident, he had temporary Anterograde Amnesia, but was able to restore his short-term memory with the help of his girlfriend, Candi Clark. On the board now, to take Wozniak's place was Jeff Raskin and Bill Atkinson who came up with the Lisa project and the extension of the Apple II. Both of these systems had switched to the Motorola 6809E processors, 64 KB of RAM and monochrome graphics fitting a 256x256 pixel display. <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} myu0qb2d2w220c5taorfyxusj3tgxdx 0 245872 4654065 4326837 2026-07-11T19:08:17Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654065 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> During 1983, Jobs did some research at the labs of Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) and Alto's GUI (Graphical User Interface) systems. After various visits to these labs, Jobs was convinced that he should add the GUI to both the Macintosh and Lisa systems to heighten its marketability, and in 1983 Apple had another hit with the Macintosh model. The "Mac" was the first successful personal computer with a graphical user interface complete with mouse, windows, menus. Along with the Apple LaserWriter, one of the earliest mass-market Laser Printers, the Mac redefined how a computer should be used, and all personal computers since have worked like the Mac. Unit sales were again, in the millions. At the turn of the decade Apple released a line of attractive, usable laptop computers and again made millions. Apple appeared to be a charmed company; Apple products were innovative in both design and engineering, high quality, and fun to use. Legions of Apple fans drooled over press releases and went to extremes such as tattooing the Apple logo on their bodies in their expression of Apple-philia. On January 22, 1984, following the Super Bowl Half-Time marketing blitz, which premiered the Macintosh commercial with a woman throwing a sledgehammer into an Orwellian "Big Brother" video screen representing the competitor: IBM. The final Macintosh featured 128KB RAM (2 64KB chips soldered onto the motherboard) and expandable to 512KB, the Motorola 68000 processor operating at 8Mhz, an internal, 3.5” floppy disk drive, and 384x256 pixel bitmap display. Included were the Xerox-inspired GUI and two user-friendly programs – MacWrite, a word processor, and MacPaint, a simple graphics program. The Mac retailed at a price of $2,495.00, much less than the similarly designed and financially disastrous Lisa model (at $9,995.00 and including an internal hard drive) released a year earlier. "http://www.youtube.com/v/OYecfV3ubP8&rel=1 By 1984 the Apple Company faced several internal struggles between the CEO John Scully and Steve Jobs; eventually Jobs was forced out of Apple. During Jobs absence, Apple released Macintosh-specific packages such as, MacPublisher and Aldus PageMaker, along with the first LaserWriter Printer; this created a firm foundation for Apple's reputation of desktop publishing. The following year, Apple released the Macintosh Plus to combat the issues of the original Mac. The Mac Plus featured 1MB of RAM (expandable to 4MB), a SCSI hard drive controller that allowed for the possibility of adding 6 additional devices, and increased floppy disk capacity of 800KB. In 1987 Apple upgraded to the faster Motorola 68020 for the Macintosh II and introduced color graphics and open architecture. The Mac SE, (a lower-cost version of the Mac II), was released in the same year to follow-up with the declining PC clone prices. Later, the Mac IIx, Mac IIxi, Mac IIcx, Mac IIci, Mac II SE, and Mac IIfx were released into the 90's. <gallery class="center"> Image:MacII.jpg|Macintosh II<br /><small>other images: [[:Image:Macintosh II.jpg|1]], [[:Image:MacintoshII.jpg|2]], [[:Image:Macintosh II motherboard.jpg|mainboard]]</small> Image:Macintosh IIx.jpg|Macintosh IIx Image:Macintosh IIcx.jpg|Macintosh IIcx<br /><small>other images: [[:Image:Macintosh IIcx on black.jpg|1]]</small> Image:Macintosh IIci.jpg|Macintosh IIci Image:Macintosh IIsi 2.jpg|Macintosh IIsi<br /><small>other images: [[:Image:Macintosh IIsi Ports.jpg|back view]], [[:Image:Macintosh IIsi.jpg|1]]</small> Image:Macintosh IIvi.jpg|Macintosh IIvi Image:Macintosh IIvx.jpg|Macintosh IIvx Image:Macintosh IIfx.jpg|Macintosh IIfx </gallery> During 1992, the sales of Macintosh computers suffered from the accumulation of inexpensive PC clones, and finally for the first time in its history, Apple resorted to creating clones. Eventually in 1997, Steve Jobs the founding leader of Apple returned. He maneuvered the company away from the clones and reversed their direction with a back-to-basics approach. <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} 7lr0clziq2hush034aa4tvzz7uw17uq 0 245874 4654080 4326843 2026-07-11T19:15:45Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654080 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> Throughth its history, Apple had some products that couldn't meet customers' demands. Here are some notable examples of Apple products that failed. ==The Apple III== <gallery class="center"> Image:Apple III.jpg|Apple III Image:Apple3.jpg|Apple III Image:Apple3profile.jpg|Apple III with external ProFile hard disk </gallery> ==The Apple Lisa== <gallery class="center"> Image:Apple Lisa.jpg|Apple Lisa with a ProFile hard drive on top Image:Apple Lisa motherboard.jpg|Apple Lisa "motherboard" Image:Macintosh XL.jpg|Apple Lisa 2/10 (same case as the Macintosh XL) </gallery> ==The Macintosh 128k debacle== <gallery> Image:Macintosh 128k transparency.png|Macintosh 128k Image:Macintosh 128k Enter Museum.jpg|Macintosh 128k with peripherals at Enter museum in Switzerland Image:Macintosh 128K connettori.jpg|Backside ports of Macintosh 128K </gallery> <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> {{BookCat}} aoiluxh2s9q6nhkpb853g6knwa128rm 0 245875 4654066 4326844 2026-07-11T19:08:23Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654066 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> <gallery class="center"> Image:Apple interactive television box.jpg|Apple Interactive Television Box Image:Apple set top box back.jpg|Apple Interactive Television Box (rear view) </gallery> {{BookCat}} lcwnchjhyqa0cr7ttz803kxuim38py5 0 245876 4654116 4326845 2026-07-11T19:21:20Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654116 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{nav}}</noinclude> <gallery class="center"> Image:Pippinfront.jpg|Apple Pippin Image:Pippinrear.jpg|Apple Pippin (rear view) </gallery> {{BookCat}} pxneqolci3npotb54bgyddf20e6azal 0 246147 4654125 2059410 2026-07-11T19:22:33Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654125 wikitext text/x-wiki <gallery widths=160px heights=216px class="center"> File:Juliasetsdkjpegforeword1.jpg|Drawing perfect but file compressed too much File:Juliasetsdkjpegforeword2.jpg| File:Juliasetsdkjpegforeword3.jpg|File perfect but drawing incomplete </gallery> When the era of digital pictures began, a serious problem arose: * A digital picture took up a great deal of storage space. At that time computer memory was more expensive than it is now. The memory requirements were a very significant problem. Moreover, the electronic transmission of data was slow. A method had to be found by which the data could be compressed. The compression method could lose some information. It could be acceptable to introduce small changes in colour values if the overall impression of the picture were preserved. Sadly the solution to this problem is not, as one might hope, a nice piece of mathematical work in the classical sense. It involves experiments with the ability of the human eye to discern colour nuances compared with light intensity. Strange tables appear in the procedure. The '''JPEG method''' was a result of collaboration. JPEG stands for "Joint Photographic Expert Group". The expert group was organized in 1986 and in 1992 issued a standard for their new image file format, JPEG. Since that time this format has been the most commonly used format for storing and transmitting photos. The JPEG method is not difficult to understand. However, it ''is'' difficult to acquire knowledge about the method, mainly because it is not a fixed and final procedure but rather a principle. The number of articles that try to explain the method is immense. They often contain misunderstandings strongly suggesting the author himself has not made, or closely studied, a program that can produce a file or draw the picture from a file. Hence this Wiki book. ==Parts One and Two == This Wiki book is divided into two parts. Each is accompanied by programs. These are closely described and used to make illustrations and experiments. * '''Part one''' explains the idea. We have altered the method a little so that it is easier to understand. Our alterations allow us to introduce variables in order to make interesting experiments. Our method is rather simple. Naturally, it does not compress as efficiently as the real JPEG method, but it is still surprisingly good. It can compress a file so that the data take up about 7 per cent of the original data of the picture. When you have read ''part one'', you will have a good understanding of the principle of the JPEG method. If it was merely this you were looking for, you will not become very much wiser by reading ''part two''. * '''Part two''' is based on two articles: :# The official document (from 1992) where the method is described in full and recommended as international standard; :# The document (also from 1992) specifying the standard for the implementation of the method which has become the most commonly used - almost all JPEG pictures you will meet are in accordance with this implementation. We explain all the things necessary for making a program that can produce efficiently compressed JPEG files. We provide a program that can draw the pictures of the most commonly used JPEG file types. We have also made a program that can show all the most relevant information in the header part of a JPEG file. Some experience with this program can help you to understand the arrangement of a JPEG file. You can use this information (copy it or use it as guidelines), if you want to make your own JPEG compressor - for instance as a component of a program that can make computer graphics. ==About the Pictures== All the pictures in this book were made with the program in ''part two'' - also those in ''part one'', since the files made with the demonstration program are not true JPEG files. {{BookCat}} 7vlmz5pgfokpevouz0f11ylqv0o2yat 0 246188 4654076 2288665 2026-07-11T19:14:05Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654076 wikitext text/x-wiki ===The BMP format=== In the computer a colour is given by its composition of the three primary colours ''red'', ''green'' and ''blue'', and their shares are measured in ''bytes'', that is, integers from 0 to 255. Therefore a colour corresponds to a triple of bytes, called a ''RGB triple''. A ''picture'' is a rectangular matrix of RGB triples. If the picture is of width w and height h, the colour values (RGB triples) are indexed by the pairs (i, j), i = 0, ..., w-1, j = 0, ..., h-1, so that the left top corner has coordinate set (0, 0)(that is, the ordinate is measured downwards). The picture takes up 3wh bytes, and it can be stored in a memory-block by storing the h horizontal lines consisting of 3w bytes one after another. The procedure for showing the picture by transferring the memory-block (directly) to the screen is called a ''bitmap''. (In the bitmap procedure of ''Windows'' it is demanded that the number of bytes in the horizontal lines is divisible by 4, this means that the line segments of the memory-block possibly must be increased by 1, 2 or 3 bytes, usually filled with zeros.) A picture can be stored permanently in a file consisting of the data bytes arranged in this way and supplied with a ''header'' specifying the type of the file and the dimensions of the picture. This is so for the ''BMP'' file format of ''Windows'' (BMP = Bit Map Picture). A BMP file begins with a header of 54 bytes. As the data in a BMP file lie precisely in the way used to draw a bitmap, the picture can be drawn directly from the reading of the file - without involving RAM-memory and without the use of other than elementary arithmetic calculations. (The header of a BMP file is divided up in 17 blocks consisting of one, two or four bytes. Two bytes determine an integer from 0 to 256<sup>2</sup> - 1 = 65535, called a ''word'', and four bytes determine an integer from 0 to 256<sup>4</sup> - 1 = 4294967295, called a ''double word''. The first two blocks of the BMP header are the bytes 66 and 77, identified with the characters 'B' and 'M' and specifying the type of the file. Block 8 and 9 are double words stating the width and the height, block 10 and 11 are words, usually set to 1 and 24 (= bit per colour), respectively, and block 7 is a double word usually set to 40. The other blocks, except block 4 and 5, which are words, are double words, and all these blocks can be set to 0, as they usually are not read by the program reading the file.) ===Data compression=== The BMP file format and a memory-block to be transferred to the screen as a bitmap are easy tasks for the computer and for the programmer, but these ways of storing a picture take up a lot of memory: a picture of 1000x750 pixels takes up 3x1000x750 = 2.2 Mb. This can be accepted provisionally in the working-up procedure of a picture or for storing of relatively few pictures where the highest possible quality is desired, but so much space is unacceptable in folders with hundreds of pictures or in films or in transmissions from the internet. One would immediately think that it is impossible to get digitalized data to take up lesser space, because the material with the bits cannot be reduced like a photographic negative. But a digitalized data set consists of sequences of bits, and these can be replaced by sequences that are shorter - and if there are repetitions, the thing that repeats itself can be replaced by a sequence which acts as a symbol for its type and the number of repetitions. If the data are copies of the elements in some fixed set (of numbers, for instance), then we can assign to the elements of the set sequences of bits such that the elements which are used most frequently are assigned to the shortest sequences. Besides, if the elements of the data set are numbers of strongly varying size, we can, instead of allocating equal space to each number, try to remove the empty spaces between the numbers. This cannot of course be done without ceremony, since (in lack of a third bit) we must have a tool with which we can separate the sequences of bits corresponding to the numbers. However, we can insert sequences of bits acting as codes. Only a non-negative integer can immediately be digitalized, namely by writing its binary digit expression: ::n = c<sub>m</sub>2<sup>m</sup> + ... + c<sub>2</sub>2<sup>2</sup> + c<sub>1</sub>2 + c<sub>0</sub> where c<sub>0</sub>, ..., c<sub>m</sub> are bits: 0 or 1 - we order the sequence so that the most significant bit comes first. If the number is rational or real, we must in some way express it as the composite of two non-negative integers. The codes to be inserted can be chosen so that they are in one-to-one correspondence with the natural numbers, and such that the natural number assigned to a code is ''the number of digits'' of the following non-negative integer. The codes must be chosen so that the most frequently used natural numbers (stating number of digits) have the shortest codes, and moreover so that we can determine when a code ends. When the data are to be used (in order to show a picture, for instance), the compressed data set is subjected to a decoding procedure, leaving a data set that is exactly as the original. In almost all image file formats there is a possibility for compressing the data in this way. Such tricks are of course used in the JPEG procedure, but in this procedure the data are modified before the compression: by first transforming the colour values and then reducing the new values by dividing them by certain numbers and rounding off. The last procedure is called quantization and it may introduce (small) deviations. ===The RGB values=== The basis colours are the ''pure colours'', these are the "strongest" colours which have maximum ''saturation''. The pure colours make up a cyclic colour scale: <gallery widths=600px heights=64px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegpure.jpg|The pure colours </gallery> Therefore a pure colour is determined by an ''angle''. Every colour different from a grey scale colour is the result of mixing a uniquely determined pure colour with a grey scale colour. The pure colours are not of the same ''luminance'': three of them have lesser luminance than the others, and these are the ''primary'' colours: pure red, pure green and pure blue, assigned to the angles 0, 120 and -120 degrees. A pure colour that is not primary lies between two primary colours, and is the result of mixing the nearest of these with part of the other. If we mix the three primary colours, we get white - the colour of maximum luminance. From this we can see that every colour is produced by mixing the three primary colours, each made more or less darker. This is the RGB representation. We usually measure the three amounts in bytes, so that 255 corresponds to the primary colour and 0 corresponds to black. (We can find the pure colour associated to the colour C (different from a grey scale colour) in the following way: By subtracting the RGB values of C from white, we get the colour C1 with RGB triple (255-R, 255-G, 255-B). If we assume that blue has most share in this colour, then C1 = &beta; C2, for some &beta; <= 1 and a colour C2 for which blue has share 255. By subtracting C2 from white, we get a colour C3, and if we assume that red has most share in this, then C3 = &alpha; C4, for some &alpha; <= 1 and a pure colour C4, for which red has share 255 and blue has share 0. This is the pure colour associated to C, and we get C by mixing this pure colour with black according to &alpha; and with white according to &beta;.) ===The YCbCr values=== There is, however, a drawback to the RGB representation of the colours: the three values are of equal significance. We would prefer a triple representation where one of the values (the first) was more significant than the two others, because then, in the quantization procedure, we could allow larger deviations in the two less significant components. Such a representation is easy to imagine, as the four pictures below show: we can let the first value in the triple be the average value of the three RGB values, thus expressing the intensity of the colour (and giving the corresponding grey scale picture), and let the two other values form the "colour additions". We imagine the colours (the RGB triples) as the integral points in a cube of side length 256, having the three positive coordinate axes as sides, and its origin in the corner corresponding to black. In this cube the grey scales lie on the diagonal, and we take the diagonal as the first axis. We could let the two other coordinate axes be orthogonal to the diagonal and to each other, but in order to get a simple transform, we let them lie in the B-G-plane and the R-G-plane. Note that the new coordinate system means the two last colour values can be negative. We choose the units such that the first coordinate is measured in bytes and the two others are measured in ''signed bytes'': integers from -128 to 127. The new coordinate triple is connected with the RGB triple by a linear transform. We call the new representation the YCbCr values of the colour. Y stands for ''luminance'' (or ''luma'') and C stands for ''chroma'': Cb for ''chromatic blue'' and Cr for ''chromatic red''. Our assumptions mean that there are parameters kb and kr, such that the linear transform and its inverse are given by: ::Y = kr&#8729;R + (1 - kr - kb)&#8729;G + kb&#8729;B ::Cb = ½(B - Y)/(1 - kb) ::Cr = ½(R - Y)/(1 - kr) ::R = Y + 2(1 - kr)&#8729;Cr ::G = Y - (kb&#8729;(B - Y) + kr&#8729;(R - Y))/(1 - kb - kr) ::B = Y + 2(1 - kb)&#8729;Cb We see that if a colour is a grey scale colour, that is, if R = G = B, then Y is this number and Cb and Cr are zero. Mathematically, it would be natural to set kb and kr to 1/4, because the transform then would get a simple and natural form: ::Y = R/4 + G/2 + B/4 ::Cb = -R/6 - G/3 + B/2 ::Cr = R/2 - G/3 - B/6 ::R = Y + (3/2)Cr ::G = Y - (3/2)(Cb + Cr)/2 ::B = Y + (3/2)Cb However, in the JPEG implementation - which we are guided by here - the parameters kb and kr are set to 0.144 and 0.299, and with these values the formulas become: ::Y = 0.299&#8729;R + 0.587&#8729;G + 0.114&#8729;B ::Cb = -0.168736&#8729;R - 0.331264&#8729;G + 0.5&#8729;B ::Cr = 0.5&#8729;R - 0.418688&#8729;G - 0.081312&#8729;B ::R = Y + 1.402&#8729;Cr ::G = Y - 0.3441&#8729;Cb - 0.71414&#8729;Cr ::B = Y + 1.772&#8729;Cb This means that the coordinate axes are: the diagonal, the line (-0.34, 1.77) in the G-B-plane and the line (1.40, -0.71) in the R-G-plane. As the two chromatic coordinates range in the interval [-128, 127], we must add 128 to them in order to get bytes, so that we can draw "projections" of the picture on the coordinate axes. Instead of the composition of the picture in pictures in red-, green- and blue-scales, we now get pictures in grey-scale, blue-green-scale and red-green-scale: <gallery widths=200px heights=272px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegdecomp0.jpg|The original picture Image:Juliasetsdkjpegdecompa.jpg|The grey scale component </gallery> <gallery widths=200px heights=272px> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegdecompb.jpg|The blue-green component Image:Juliasetsdkjpegdecompc.jpg|The red-green component </gallery> As we want our numbers (integers) numerically as small as possible, we subtract 128 from the Y value, so that this, like the Cb and Cr, becomes a signed byte. {{BookCat}} ojpxarjkx80gl6mkaukh26855l334ps 0 246192 4654086 2010165 2026-07-11T19:17:10Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654086 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Leave out the last terms?=== After quantization, the last of the s<sup>2</sup> numbers of the sxs-matrices g(u, v) are usually very small, and we could choose one of the numbers r = 3, 4, ..., s-1 and omit those pairs (u, v) for which u or v >= r, so that we only had to deal with r<sup>2</sup> numbers (u, v = 0, 1, ..., r-1). However, we do not win much by doing this, since r must be rather near s-1 and since the actual size of the number of zeros is not essential (30 zeros engage 8 bits and 12 zeros engage 7 bits). In the drawing procedure we could save time by restricting the inverse cosine transform to r<sup>2</sup> numbers. We have done this in our (two) drawing programs of ''part two'' (we have set r = 6). But as such a program (for practical use) has to be written in assembly language, we do not win much by doing this either, since nowadays the picture is drawn pretty fast. But it is illustrative to see how many, or rather, how few of the cosine transformed numbers (the terms in the expansion of the colour value function) we actually need. We have therefore designed our drawing program so that we can enter a "number of terms" (the number r). In this picture (using 8x8-squares) the number of terms is 8 and 4, respectively: <gallery widths=200px heights=240px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegterma.jpg|8 terms Image:Juliasetsdkjpegtermb.jpg|4 terms </gallery> Note that the size of the file depends strongly on the fact that most of the numbers before the compression are zeros, because every second number states a number of zeros. Therefore, if there were only few zeros, the most (every second) of these numbers (being zero in coded form = 000), would unnecessarily occupy considerable space. Thus, if instead of dividing by a large number in the quantization, we divide by a small number (e.g. 0.1), we get the result that the file takes up twice as much space as in BMP format! ===Why only 8x8-squares?=== The choice (in the true JPEG procedure) of 8 as side length of the small squares, has nothing to do with the role of 8 in the computer, since the numbers are converted to sequences of bits of all sorts of lengths. The side length must not be too small, because then the effect of the cosine transform is lessened, and not too large either, because then the number of calculations may be too large: for an sxs-square, the total number of terms is s<sup>4</sup>, because there are s<sup>2</sup> points and for each point the formula has s<sup>2</sup> terms. Therefore, if the side length is doubled, the number of calculations quadruples. The choice of 8 as side length was surely the most optimal when the JPEG procedure was introduced. However, nowadays, as the speed has multiplied, we could make better compression by choosing a larger side length (12, for instance), but it is too late to alter this and the benefit is not significant. As regards the earlier mentioned quadratic picture of 280 pixels (to demonstrate the cosine transform), the number of calculations is 1225 times larger than if the picture were divided up in 8x8-squares. In the two pictures below we have used divisions up in 20x20- and 10x10-squares, respectively. The procedure is not as efficient for small divisions as for large ones. Both of the pictures are quantized by approximately the same numbers, the first takes up 13 Kb, the second takes up 22 Kb: <gallery widths=400px heights=296px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegsquarea.jpg|20x20-squares </gallery> <gallery widths=400px heights=296px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegsquareb.jpg|10x10-squares </gallery> ===The luminant contra the chromatic part=== Let us see how it goes if we make large differences in the quantization of the luminant and the chromatic part of the top-most picture below. In the left-most picture the quality is low for the luminant part and high for the chromatic part. Therefore the pattern is disturbed but the colours seem correct. In the right-most picture it is the opposite: the pattern is correct but the colours are unfamiliar: <gallery widths=256px heights=256px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpeglumchr0.jpg|Original </gallery> <gallery widths=256px heights=256px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpeglumchra.jpg|Bad luminant part Image:Juliasetsdkjpeglumchrb.jpg|Bad chromatic part </gallery> ===Difficult pictures=== The JPEG procedure always introduces changes into the picture, but by choosing a high quality, these changes can be made microscopic. But they are there, and if you want to someday be able to work up a picture, you should not save it in JPEG format. Some pictures are less suited for JPEG compression than others, in the sense that the quality must be set high, if you want the changes to be completely invisible. But it is always ''possible'' to save in JPEG without visible changes, people will say. However, this is not necessarily true: it depends on the JPEG implementation. Our demonstration program can always make a file resulting in a (nearly) faultless picture, but this is because we handle the colour components in the same way as the Y component - we only quantize by different numbers, but we could refrain from quantization (setting the quality to 100). In the true JPEG procedure it is possible to reduce the size of the two colour "pictures" (the colour components) compared to the grey scale picture (the Y component). This can be done (for instance) by a previous dividing up of the two colour "pictures" in 2x2-squares and by regarding such a square as one pixel by taking the average value of the four colour values, so that the colour pictures become four times as small. This is done before the dividing up in 8x8-squares, so that four 8x8-squares of the Y component are combined with one 8x8-square of the colour components. The reason is that the colours usually do not vary rapidly across the picture, and we can compress about 25 per cent more in this way. The procedure is called ''subsampling'' (of the colour components). The next two pictures are made with our (home-made but) true JPEG program in ''part two'', but with different settings. The picture is made by laying a picture for which every second pixel is green and every other pixel is transparent over another picture. Both pictures take up rather much space because of the strong changes from pixel to pixel. In the first picture the colour components are handed in the same way as the Y component, therefore the picture is correct. In the second picture subsampling of the colour components has been used, so that the colour values become average values, therefore the picture is more green: <gallery widths=400px heights=296px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegsubsampa.jpg|Without subsampling </gallery> <gallery widths=400px heights=296px class="center"> Image:SJuliasetsdkjpegsubsampb.jpg|Subsampling </gallery> Note that not all JPEG compressing programs allow for the option between subsampling and non-subsampling the colour components. For a picture in grey scale we have only the Y component, but as the contribution of the Cb and Cr components (after quantization) are small compared to the Y component, the grey scale version of a picture takes up almost as much space as the colour version - usually more than 90 per cent. The compression should reach its extremum when the picture is of only one colour. This is the case for our demonstration program: the data part of such a 1000x1000-pixel picture take up only 14 bytes. But when we use the true JPEG procedure, the data part will take up 15.000 bytes - we will see why in ''part two''. ===Transparency=== Some image formats can contain transparency, GIF and PNG, for instance, but not BMP and JPEG. GIF is especially suited for graphic representations and PNG is suited for pictures with objects laid over a simple background. They are both lossless, but a GIF picture can only contain 256 different colours (specified in the header), and, in spite of an effective compression, a photo converted to a PNG file often takes up 75 per cent of the BMP file. As regards JPEG, in a FAQ-article you can read the following answer to the question "Can I make a transparent JPEG?": "No. JPEG does not support transparency and is not likely to do so any time soon. It turns out that adding transparency to JPEG would not be a simple task; read on if you want the gory details". And then we are told that in a GIF picture the transparency is introduced by letting an unused colour value mark out the transparent domain, but this method cannot be used in JPEG. It could be used in BMP, where one of the 16777216 possible colours could easily be missed for marking out a transparent domain; however not in JPEG, where the colour values are imprecise. Transparency will engage one bit for each point, and this new component could be subjected to the same procedure as the three YCbCr components. However, this method is rejected on the grounds that the JPEG procedure is not suited for sharp passages: if the boundary around a hole, through which strongly deviating colours appear, is to be reproduced satisfactorily, the cosine transformed numbers (of the transparency component) could only be quantized by small numbers, and then the file would take up quite some space. This is true, but the picture would still take up much lesser space than in PNG format, and besides, transparency is usually only for temporary use. It is easy to arrange the JPEG file such that it can support transparency. However, as not much is won by cosine transform and quantization of the transparency component, these operations should be left out, and the bits for the transparency should be entered in the file in this way: we go along the horizontal lines by turns from left to right and from right to left, so that the pixels are adjacent, and in this sequence of bits we replace each unbroken interval of 0's or 1's by the number of the 0's or 1's (the sum of these numbers is just the width times the height). The resulting sequence of natural numbers is then coded, and can be written in the file before the colour data. By this method, the transparent domain becomes exactly as in the original picture. In the picture to the left the black is made transparent and the picture is laid over a blue background resulting in the picture to the right, and in spite of the very low quality of this picture, the transparent domain is the same: <gallery widths=200px heights=200px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegtransa.jpg|Original Image:Juliasetsdkjpegtransb.jpg|Transparency </gallery> The procedure of introducing transparency in a picture can take place via a picture in BMP format, for instance. The BMP format does not (at present) support transparency, but we can accompany the picture by a monochrome picture also in BMP format determining the transparent domain. A monochrome picture is a picture containing only two different colours, usually black and white. The RGB values of the two colours are stated in the header (or rather the header is prolonged with the bytes necessary for this information), and the data - one bit for each point - are written in the same way as the RGB values in an usual BMP file: row for row, but such that each 8-block of bits is converted to a byte (and such that the length of the rows of bytes is divisible by 4). This method is supported by the ''Windows'' bitmap drawing procedure: if we let the transparent domain in the picture with the colours be black, and let it be the white domain in the monochrome black-and-white picture, then ''Windows'' has procedures that can transfer the data of the two files directly to the screen, making a picture where the transparent domain is empty, so that we through this see the underlying - the desktop, for instance. {{BookCat}} tdiezsu5i8084zs0jarufjme7zlnp3q 0 246193 4654129 2725285 2026-07-11T19:22:55Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654129 wikitext text/x-wiki ===The cosine transform=== With the YCbCr representation of the colours, we can say that the picture is composed of three pictures of which the first is more significant than the two others. These three pictures are called the ''components'' of the picture: the Y component, the Cb component and the Cr component. But we can continue this process of getting few important and more less important elements. Let us assume that we have a picture in grey scale, then we can imagine that we start with a picture of only one colour, namely the average colour of all the colours in the picture, and by additions introduce more and more variation in the picture, so that at the end we have the complete picture. Then it would possibly turn out, that we could omit some of the last operations, as we were not able to distinguish the new additions. However, the expansion (which we have in mind) of the colour function in a sequence of terms having smaller and smaller importance, works only for a quadratic picture. Therefore our picture must be divided up in squares. And these squares must be rather small, because the number of calculations grows with the fourth power of the side length of the squares, which means that if the small squares are made twice as large, the number of calculations becomes four times as large. On the other hand, if the small squares are too small, the effect of the procedure is diminished. The optimal side length of the small squares seems to be 8-12 pixels. In JPEG the picture is divided up in 8x8-squares, but here we will see what happens if we let the squares have another side length than 8: we have arranged the program so that we can choose one of the numbers 2, 3, ..., 24 as side length s. Thus, we perform a regular dividing up of the picture in sxs-squares. In JPEG this is done by starting at the left top corner and going from left to right line-wise from top to bottom, just as when we read a text. In our program for demonstration of the theory, we will however go through the picture in another way, namely column-wise from left to right and zigzagging down and up, so that the squares continually have a side in common. We will assume that the width and the height of the picture are divisible by s, or rather: we will only use the part of the picture lying within the largest domain (starting at the left top corner) which can be divided regularily up in sxs-squares. The method we use to expand the colour function within a square, is the ''discrete cosine transform'' (DCT) defined as follows. We assume that we have a quadratic picture (in grey scales) of side length N, and we assume that N is rather large, so that we can talk about a "real" picture. This picture is a NxN-matrix of colour values (bytes): f(i, j), i, j = 0, 1, ..., N-1 (remember that (0, 0) corresponds to the left top corner, so that the ordinate j is measured downwards). We want to express f(i, j) in terms of pure double oscillations of the form f<sub>u, v</sub>(i, j) = c(i, u) &#8729; c(j, v), u, v = 0, ..., N-1, where the function c(i, u) is given by: ::<math>c(i,u) = \cos \frac{(2i+1)u\pi}{2N}</math> Note that f<sub>0, 0</sub>(i, j) is constant 1 and that the function f<sub>u, v</sub>(i, j) oscillates more the larger u or v are. We therefore want to express f(i, j) as a double sum of N<sup>2</sup> terms: ::<math>f(i,j) = \sum_{u=0}^{N-1} \sum_{v=0}^{N-1} h(u,v)\cdot c(i,u)\cdot c(j,v)</math> where the h(u, v)'s are (real) coefficients. The first term (u = 0 and v = 0) being a constant function is the average value of the N<sup>2</sup> numbers f(i, j). The following terms oscillate more and more (as functions of i and j), and if we omit some of the last terms, we get an approximation to f(i, j) that is free from the largest frequencies. We can find the coefficients h(u, v) of this series expression of f(i, j) in the following way. Let the NxN-matrix (of real numbers) g(u, v) (u, v = 0, 1, ..., N-1) be defined by: ::<math>g(u,v)= \frac{2\lambda (u)\lambda(v)}{N}\sum_{i=0}^{N-1} \sum_{j=0}^{N-1}c(i,u)\cdot c(j,v)\cdot f(i,j)</math> where &#955;(u) is 1 for u &#8800; 0 and 1/&#8730;2 for u = 0. The matrix g(u, v) is called the ''(forward) discrete cosine transform'' (DCT or FDCT) of the matrix f(i, j). Note that g(0, 0) = N times the average of the colour values. There is a formula which, from the NxN-matrix g(u, v), brings us back to the original NxN-matrix f(i, j), and it has an analogue look: ::f(i, j) = (2/N)&#8721;<sub>u, v = 0, ..., N-1</sub>&#955;(u)&#955;(v) &#8729; c(i, u) &#8729; c(j, v) &#8729; g(u, v) ::<math>f(i,j)=\frac{N}{2}\sum_{u=0}^{N-1} \sum_{v=0}^{N-1}\lambda (u)\cdot \lambda(v)\cdot c(i,u)\cdot c(j,v)\cdot g(u,v)</math> As this formula has the desired form for the series expansion of f(i, j), we see that the expansion is possible and that the coefficients h(u, v) are given by h(u, v) = (2&#955;(u)&#955;(v)/N) g(u, v). This formula for getting f(i, j) from g(u, v) is called the ''inverse discrete cosine transform'' (IDCT). That the two formulas are inverse to each other, is easy to see if we take this formula, in which &alpha; and &beta; are ''odd'' integers, for granted: ::<math>\frac{1}{2}\sum_{u=0}^{N-1}\cos \frac{\alpha u \pi }{2N}\frac{\beta u \pi }{2N}=0 \;\; for\; \alpha \neq \beta \; and \; \frac{N}{2} for \;\alpha = \beta </math> Now let us set N = 280, for instance, so that we consider a (grey scale) picture of 280x280 pixels. We transform the colour values f(i, j) (which are bytes), and from the transformed values g(u, v) (rounded off to integers which can be negative) we construct a picture, now in colours, because the numbers vary a lot and therefore cannot be measured in bytes. The new picture (also 280x280 pixels) could look like the picture to the left: <gallery widths=280px heights=280px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegcos1a.jpg|The cosine transformed picture Image:Juliasetsdkjpegcos1b.jpg|The reconstructed picture </gallery> After the transform, the "colour" values (in this example) vary from about -6000 to 24000, and the colouring is performed by a little trick: we have subtracted the minimum value from the values, so that they become non-negative, multiplied by (max - min)/65535 and rounded off, getting whole numbers from 0 to 65535 = 256<sup>2</sup> - 1. An integer in this interval can be written in the form a + 256xb, for bytes a and b, and to these we can associate the RGB triple (0, b, a), for instance (the numbers min and max must be introduced in the program which reconstructs the picture, but this can be done by writing them in some of the free entries in the header of the BMP file). The picture to the right above is the reconstructed picture. If, in the reconstruction procedure, we remove the terms for u > N/2 or v > N/2, so that we only make use of the mean fourth of the terms, we get a picture that is almost as the original - only a little blurred: <gallery widths=280px heights=280px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegcos2a.jpg|All the terms Image:Juliasetsdkjpegcos2b.jpg|One fourth of the terms </gallery> However, in the JPEG procedure terms are not actually removed: the coefficients are replaced by approximations of whose those for the high frequencies can deviate more from the original coefficients than those for the low frequencies. It is in this way the quantization procedure is carried out. Now to the (colour) picture divided up in small sxs-squares. After the cosine transform, we have s<sup>2</sup> numbers for each sxs-square and for each component (of the colour picture). From these numbers we can reconstruct the picture, and it is these numbers we are going to write in the file, after compressing. But if we did this without quantization (that is, without making the numbers numerically smaller in some way), we would have gained nothing by the cosine transform. Besides the quantization, to be explained below, we can do another thing which makes some of the values smaller and which has a good effect: we can replace each first term of the transformed values (the average value g(0, 0)) by its ''difference'' from the preceding first term of the same type (that is, for the preceding square for the same component). The first term g(0, 0) of the matrix g(u, v) (u, v = 0, ..., s-1) is called the ''DC'' term, and the others s<sup>2</sup>-1 terms, g(u, v), u > 0 or v > 0, are called the ''AC'' terms. Thus, we replace each of the DC terms (for a given sxs-square and component) by its derivation from the DC term of the preceding sxs-square (and the same component). ===Quantization=== Without the quantization procedure, the only source of loss of information would be rounding off of real numbers in order to get integers. As the mean numbers (g(u, v) for u or v near 0) are rather large, these errors are not significant: if we make the file now (that is, with cosine transform but without quantization) and apply a compression procedure (which is lossless), the picture which we can reconstruct from the file will be almost undistinguishable from the original, but it will still take up too much space. It is the quantization procedure that brings the size down and introduces deviations. By quantization we understand the procedure of making the coefficients of the expansion of f(i, j) in pure double oscillations, that is, the numbers g(u, v) from the cosine transform, smaller by dividing them by numbers q(u, v) depending on (u, v) and then rounding-off to integers. When the picture is to be drawn from the file, we multiply by the numbers we have divided by. If for instance g(u, v) = 135.6 is divided by q(u, v) = 36 and the result is rounded off, we get 4, and when we multiply 4 by 36, we get 144. We have then introduced errors which could be insignificant, since they are not errors in the colour values but in the cosine transformed numbers, and the main terms, the g(u, v)'s for u and v near 0, are quantized by much smaller numbers q(u, v) than the less important terms, the g(u, v)'s for u or v not near 0. Furthermore, as the numbers for the Y component have more significance than the numbers from the Cb and the Cr component, the cosine transformed numbers for these can bear to be quantized by larger numbers q(u, v). The 8x8-matrices q(u, v) (u, v = 0, ..., 7) of the quantization numbers for the Y component and the two colour components used in the JPEG procedure are chosen according to experiments. Consequently, there are several bids for such tables. In ''part two'' you can see some typical tables. Well chosen numbers mean that we can compress more without damaging the picture, but we will always meet situations where a part of the picture has disturbing flaws that forces us to choose smaller quantization values. Usually a ''quality factor'' qf is introduced in the program that makes the file, so that the quantization numbers can be adjusted. For instance, we can arrange the dependence so that best possible quality - qf = 100 - means that there is no quantization (all the quantization numbers are set to 1), and that qf = 75 means that the given quantization table q(u, v) is used. The table q(u, v) and the quality factor qf are applied again when the picture is drawn from the file. The quality factor must of course appear in the header of the file, whereas the tables only need to be in the programs that produce the file and draw the picture. In our program we must have quantization tables for varying side length of the small squares (from 2 to 24), and we must therefore construct the tables mathematically - as simple as possible. We first choose the q(u, v) values for qf = 75, and then find a formula so that all become 1 for qf = 100. Guided by the tables shown in ''part two'', for qf = 75, we choose the following values for side length s and for the Y component and the colour components, respectively: ::q(u, v) = (s/8)&#8729;12&#8729;(1 + 4&#8729;&#8730;(u<sup>2</sup> + v<sup>2</sup>)/ s) ::q(u, v) = (s/8)&#8729;20&#8729;(1 + 5&#8729;&#8730;(u<sup>2</sup> + v<sup>2</sup>)/ s) We arrange the program so that we can have different quality factors for the Y component and the colour components. We adjust the numbers q(u, v) according to qf in this way: ::q(u, v)<sup>&#8730;(100 - qf)/5</sup> The left picture below (for side length s = 8) is without quantization (qf = 100), and the file takes up 60 per cent of the original BMP file. In the picture to the right qf = 70, and the file now takes up only 6 per cent of the original: <gallery widths=320px heights=248px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegquanta.jpg|qf = 100 Image:Juliasetsdkjpegquantb.jpg|qf = 75 </gallery> When we put the matrix of the quantization table and the matrix of the cosine transformed and quantized numbers into the file, we must arrange these numbers linearly in some way. We do this in such a way that the most important ones (those for u and v near 0) come first, namely by applying this zigzag principle: <gallery widths=120px heights=120px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegzigzag.jpg|The zigzag principle </gallery> If s is the side length of the square, then the zigzag value m (= 1, 2, ..., s<sup>2</sup>) corresponding to the point (i, j) (i, j = 0, 1, ..., s-1) can be calculated with this program: <syntaxhighlight lang="pascal"> k = i + j if k < s then begin l = (k * (k + 1)) div 2 if k mod 2 = 0 then m = l + i + 1 else m = l + j + 1 end if k = s then m = (s - 2) * (s - 2) + i if k > s then begin k = 2 * s - 1 - k l = s * s - (k * (k + 1)) div 2 if k mod 2 = 0 then m = l + (s - i) else m = l + (s - j) end </syntaxhighlight> {{BookCat}} rjidbb4hb4wwvpmlzbdhj87gkdg5e9b 0 246194 4654075 2029857 2026-07-11T19:12:22Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654075 wikitext text/x-wiki ===The four distinct modes of operation=== The JPEG committee intended that the method should be available in a number of variants and with a number of extensions: :# The '''sequential''' DCT mode of operation, where the picture is scanned in the same way as in ''part one'' (but not in our zigzag way, column-wise from left to right, but line-wise from top to bottom, just as in reading ). :# The '''progressive''' DCT mode of operation, where the picture is displayed in its ''entirety'' concurrently with the transmission of the bitstream, at first imperfect and then gradually improving. :# The '''lossless''' mode of operation, where the file is only compressed, with no data lost by cosine transforms or quantization. :# The '''hierarchical''' (DCT or lossless) mode of operation, where the picture is stored at multiple resolutions for different uses (low-resolution screen, high-resolution printer, etc.), in such a way that the lower-resolution images are stored with supplementary data which can be added on to produce higher-resolution images as required. The colour values are usually measured in bytes (8-bit numbers), and in this case the precision of the (real) numbers in the calculations is set to 11 bit. JPEG also offers ''extended'' precision, primarily intended for grey scale pictures, where the colour values instead of utilizing 8 bits use 12 bits (a range from 0 to 4095), and where the precision in the calculations is increased to 15 bit. Extended precision implies that the Huffman tables must go to size 15 (instead of 11) for the DC numbers and size to 14 (instead of 10) for the AC numbers. Furthermore, the numbers in the quantization tables can be words (from 0 to 65535) instead of bytes. As this possibility is rarely used, we will ignore it here. For the ''baseline'' sequential DCT mode, that is, the non-extended sequential DCT mode, the method of coding is the Huffman coding with two tables for each component. For the extended modes you can choose between the Huffman coding with two or four tables for each component and the ''arithmetic'' coding. ====One Mode Survives==== Although four modes were intended, only the baseline sequential DCT mode has survived in widespread use. * There is not much point in the progressive and the hierarchical mode nowadays, where a JPEG picture is transmitted and displayed fast. * The benefits of the lossless mode seem too minor. Arithmetic coding can compress a little better than the Huffman coding, but it is slower and there have been patent-related problems. ====Software Used in Researching this Book==== Our account here, like our earlier account in ''part one'', was accompanied by the writing of some programs. This time this was done only to ensure that we had properly understood the procedure. We will show pieces of these programs written in a Pascal-like language which should be easy for everybody to understand. We first made a program that can convert a picture in BMP format to a grey scale picture in JPEG format. When this worked correctly, we extended it to colour pictures. Such a program, to be of use in production systems for JPEG files, must of course be written in assembly language and without making use of the co-processor (80-bit numbers) in the transforms. However, if the program is only for demonstration or if it is a part of a program producing computer graphic, it may be written in a high-level language and may use floating point operations. Our program which can read a JPEG file and draw the picture, for the baseline sequential DCT mode, was made in the same way. Since there are already many such programs, it does not need to be efficient. On the contrary, we have made it extra slow by using a "setpixel" procedure, because it is simpler - and because it gives the drawing a funny look. The picture to the left below is made with our program in ''part one'' and the right with our program in this part. The quality is approximately the same. The first takes up 16.3 Kb and the second takes up 15.1 Kb (uncompressed they take up 228 Kb): <gallery widths=304px heights=256px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegdemo.jpg|The demo program: 16.3 Kb Image:Juliasetsdkjpegtrue.jpg|The true program: 15.1 Kb </gallery> ===Requirements Documents=== "Digital Compression and Coding of Continuous-Tone Still Images - Requirements and Guidelines/Recommendation T.81" (1992), also called just T.81, is 180 pages long. If you are only interested in the baseline sequential DCT mode with Huffman coding, you do not have to read all 180 pages. The knowledge required of mathematics and programming is limited. You must already know the meaning of the mathematical terms, since these are not explained. The purpose of T.81 was to set a common standard for the core of the procedure. The specifics are described separately in standards for the implementation. These are in additional documents with titles like "JPEG File Interchange Format, Version ...". The only thing in our account that is in these implementation documents is the colour space ''designation'': the RGB &rarr; YCbCr transform. The formulas for this colour transform shown in ''part one'' can be found in version 1.02 from 1992 (7 pages). T.81 only speaks of ''four components''. It is implicit that only one component means that the picture is in grey scale, that three components can be the RGB components or most commonly the YCbCr components, and that the fourth component is for the possibility of transparency. {{BookCat}} aj3cng4hf7sauwe26n81e87t6ice2qx 0 246196 4654099 3371336 2026-07-11T19:19:51Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654099 wikitext text/x-wiki ===The markers=== The header part of a JPEG file is divided into ''segment''s, and each segment starts with a ''marker'', identifying the segment. Usually a JPEG file contains 7 different markers. A marker is a pair of bytes, the first is 255 and the second is different from 0 and 255. We identify a marker by its second byte. Two markers stand alone (and thus do not open a segment): the marker which opens the file SOI (Start Of Image) = 216 and the marker which closes the file EOI (End Of Image) = 217. (There is one more type of marker which stands alone, but this is not used in the sequential DCT mode which we restrict ourselves to here: it marks a restart of a scanning and it is indexed by one of the numbers 0, 1, ..., 7: RST0, ..., RST7 (ReSTart) = 208, ..., 215). The other markers open a segment, and in this case the following pair of bytes (b1, b2) states the length l of the segment (''including'' these two bytes): l = b1 * 256 + b2. The following sequence of l - 2 bytes is the content of the segment. There are the following types of segments (identified with their markers): ::APP0, APP1, ..., APP15 (APPlication) 224-239 ::COM (COMment) 254 ::SOF (Start Of Frame) 192-207, except 196, 200 and 204 ::DHT (Define Huffman Table) 196 ::DQT (Define Quantization Table) 219 ::SOS (Start Of Scan) 218 (and a few more, which are not used here: DNL (Define Number of Lines = 220), DRI (Define Restart Interval = 221), DHP (Define Hierarchical Progression = 222), EXP (EXPand reference component(s) = 223), DAC (Define Arithmetic Coding conditioning(s) = 204), TEM (for TEMporary use in arithmetic coding = 1) and besides some reserved markers: JPG (reserved for JPeG extensions = 200, 240, 241, ..., 253) and RES (REServed = 2, ..., 191)) The first two - APP and COM - specify things that lie outside the proper JPEG procedure. Usually only a single APP segment is present (namely APP0), specifying the implementation. An APP segment can also contain information on camera type and on when the picture was taken. COM can state the program used to make the file, the chosen quality per cent, etc. ===The frame segment SOF=== The point of departure of the JPEG procedure is a "picture", and a picture can be defined as a (rectangular) matrix of either numbers, pairs of numbers, triples of numbers or quadruples of numbers. That is, a picture is a matrix of arrays having one of the numbers 1-4 as length. A grey scale picture is a matrix of bytes. A colour picture is a matrix of RGB triples (of bytes) or of YCbCr triples (of signed bytes). A picture can thus be regarded as consisting of one or more (at most four) matrices of integers, and such a matrix is called a ''component'' of the picture. To each component is assigned a ''component identifier'' (byte): for instance 0 for the (one) component of a grey scale picture, and 0, 1 and 2 for the three components of a colour picture. The dimensions of the picture, the component identifiers and the order of the components are specified in the frame segment SOF, along with how the components are to be handled in relation to each other. Because the colours usually only alter slowly from place to place (and as we are not very good at distinguishing small alterations in colours), for the two colour components, we can, for instance, divide the picture up in 2x2-squares of pixels and take the average values, so that we regard such a square as one pixel and thus deal with colour pictures that are four times as small. We can also restrict ourselves to two pixels, either lying horizontally or vertically. A pair of numbers (Hi, Vi) for each component determines how the components are to be scanned in relation to each other. Hi and Vi can go from 1 to 4 (Hi and Vi must be rather small: the sum of their products must not exceed 10). Let H and V be the maximum Hi and Vi value, respectively. These maximum values are usually linked to the Y component, and this ((Hi, Vi) = (H, V)) means that the pixels are taken as they are: there are as many samples horizontally as the width of the picture, and there are as many horizontal lines as the height of the picture. If a (colour) component has the pair (Hi, Vi), the number of samples in a horizontal line is (Hi/H) times width, and the number of sampling lines is (Vi/V) times height, that is, small rectangles of (H/Hi)x(V/Vi) pixels are collected (and regarded as one pixel). Usually (Hi, Vi) = (1, 1) for the two colour components, and (Hi, Vi) = (1, 1) or (2, 1) or (1, 2) or (2, 2) for the Y component. (Hi, Vi) = (2, 2) means that four colour pixels are collected and that "this" pixel is combined with four Y pixels. As the picture is divided up in 8x8-squares, this means that four 8x8-squares for the Y component are combined with one 8x8-square for the colour components. The coded data (the coded 64-arrays) for the four Y squares are written in the file in the usual scanning order: from left to right along the lines, and from top to bottom. Next comes the coded data (the coded 64-arrays) for the two colour components. The analogue procedure when only two pixels are collected (horizontally or vertically). Such a part of the data stream arising from all the components and the collected 8x8-squares is called a ''minimum coded unit'' (MCU). This picture shows the drawing (pixel for pixel - and on an enlarged scale) when four Y component 8x8-squares are collected - you are to image four 8x8-squares in the centre, the two (uppermost) have been drawn, the third is being drawn: <gallery widths=216px heights=192px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegdraw.jpg|The drawing </gallery> The two pictures below the following picture (which takes up 3.2 Kb) are this picture with every second vertical line drawn black, but scanned in different ways: for the colour components, two pixels are collected in the vertical and the horizontal direction, respectively (that is, (Hi, Vi) = (1, 1) for the colour components, and (Hi, Vi) = (1, 2) and (2, 1) for the Y component). In the first picture (which takes up 5.9 Kb) the colours are correct, in the second picture (which takes up 4.7 Kb) the colours are faded, because they are mixed with the black of the lines: <gallery widths=480px heights=48px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegscale0.jpg|Original </gallery> <gallery widths=480px heights=48px> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegscalea.jpg|Vertical subsampling </gallery> <gallery widths=480px heights=48px> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegscaleb.jpg|Horizontal subsampling </gallery> The frame segment SOF consists of the following bytes: the marker (255, b), where the byte b specifies the scanning mode. We assume here that b = 192, meaning the baseline sequential DCT mode; then the pair of bytes stating the length of the segment (including these two bytes), this pair is (0, 8 + 3 * the number of components); then a byte stating the number of bits of the colour values, here set to 8 (meaning that the colour values are bytes), but it is 12 for the extended mode; then a pair of bytes (b1, b2) stating the height (= b1 * 256 + b2) of the picture and a pair of bytes stating the width; and finally a byte stating the number of components (1-4), and for each component these bytes: the ''component identifier'' (byte), Hi (½ byte) and Vi (½ byte)(byte = Hi * 16 + Vi) and the ''quantization table destination selector'' (byte). The pair (Hi, Vi) is here (1, 1) for the colour components and (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1) or (2, 2) for the Y component. The quantization table destination selector is one of the numbers 0-3, for instance 0 for the Y component and 1 for the colour components. ===The Huffman table segment DHT=== Usually there are two Huffman table segments in the file for a grey scale picture and four for a colour picture: for each component the DC and the AC numbers are coded differently, and the Y component and the two colour components are coded differently. In a Huffman segment the information (after the marker and the pair of bytes stating the length) is arranged in this way: the first half byte is 0 if the Huffman tables are for DC numbers and 1 if they are for the AC numbers. The next half byte is the ''Huffman table destination identifier'' (0 or 1), for instance 0 for the Y component and 1 for the colour components (to be referred to in the scan segment SOS where the Huffman tables are specified). The following sequence of 16 bytes is the list BITS, stating for i = 1, ..., 16 the number of codes of length i. And then comes the list HUFFVAL of Huffman values: for each code length different from zero, there will be just as many values as there are codes of this length. If we call the number of Huffman values nhv, the number of bytes in the segment (including the pair stating the length) is 19 + nhv. ===The Quantization table segment DQT=== A quantization table is an 8x8 matrix of bytes ordered after the zigzag principle. There are usually different quantization tables for the Y component and for the colour components. In the annex "Examples and guidelines" of T.81 you can find the following for respectively the Y component and the colour components: ::16 11 10 16 24&nbsp;&nbsp; 40&nbsp;&nbsp; 51&nbsp;&nbsp; 61 ::12 12 14 19 26&nbsp;&nbsp; 58&nbsp;&nbsp; 60&nbsp;&nbsp; 55 ::14 13 16 24 40&nbsp;&nbsp; 57&nbsp;&nbsp; 69&nbsp;&nbsp; 56 ::14 17 22 29 51&nbsp;&nbsp; 87&nbsp;&nbsp; 80&nbsp;&nbsp; 62 ::18 22 37 56 68&nbsp;&nbsp; 109 103 77 ::24 35 55 64 81&nbsp;&nbsp; 104 113 92 ::49 64 78 87 103 121 120 101 ::72 92 95 98 112 100 103 99 ::17 18 24 47 99 99 99 99 ::18 21 26 66 99 99 99 99 ::24 26 56 99 99 99 99 99 ::47 66 99 99 99 99 99 99 ::99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ::99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ::99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ::99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 It is mentioned that "If these quantization values are divided by 2, the resulting reconstructed image is usually nearly indistinguishable from the source image". With our program "JPEG_File" you can see the tables for a picture (using the sequential DCT procedure and) given the name "pict". In our program to produce a (true) JPEG file we have chosen another table for the Y component than the above, namely the following used in an image editing program (''IrfanView''), by setting the quality to 70 per cent: ::10 7&nbsp;&nbsp; 6&nbsp;&nbsp; 10 14 24 31 37 ::7&nbsp;&nbsp; 8&nbsp;&nbsp; 11 16 35 36 33 ::8&nbsp;&nbsp; 8&nbsp;&nbsp; 10 14 24 34 41 34 ::10 13 17 31 52 48 37 ::11 13 22 34 41 65 62 46 ::14 21 33 38 49 62 68 55 ::29 38 47 52 62 73 72 61 ::43 55 57 59 67 60 62 59 A quantization table is specified in a DQT segment. A DQT segment begins with the marker DQT = 219 and the length, which is (0, 67). Then comes a byte the first half of which here is 0, meaning that the table consists of bytes (8 bit numbers - for the extended mode it is 1, meaning that the table consists of words, 16 bit numbers), and the last half of which is the ''destination identifier'' of the table (0-3), for instance 0 for the Y component and 1 for the colour components. Next follow the 64 numbers of the table (bytes). ===The scan segment SOS=== Just after the scan segment SOS come the encoded data of the picture, and the scan segment specifies the Huffman tables to be used for the components. The segment begins with the marker SOS = 218 and the length, which is (0, 6 + 2 * the number of components). Then comes a byte stating the number of components (1-4), and then for each component two bytes, the first is the component identifier (defined in the frame segment) and the second is divided up in two parts, the first stating the destination selector of the DC Huffman table and the second the destination selector of the AC Huffman table (for instance 0 for the Y component and 1 for the colour components). The segment closes with three bytes which in our case (sequential DCT) are 0, 63 and 0 (the last divided in two half bytes). {{BookCat}} jf6alb0sx4ktjaw0n7h1ep9i4rkw9dj 0 246208 4654089 3513797 2026-07-11T19:17:29Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654089 wikitext text/x-wiki In our program that produces the JPEG file, we have only used the largest part of the picture (beginning at the left top corner) which can be regularily divided up in 8x8-(or 16x16)-squares. If the dividing up does not fit the picture, the width or/and the height of the picture must be increased by the necessary number of pixels, and the new vertical and horizontal lines are usually coloured as the last vertical and horizontal line of the picture, respectively. The program that draws the picture from the file needs no changes: it draws in reality the extended picture, but we do only see the true part of it, because the drawing window is given the true width and height. The top picture (shown on an enlarged scale) has width and height of 33 pixels, and the width and the height must be increased by 7 pixels in order to be divisible by 8. If we extend the width and the height of the drawing window by 7 pixels, we will see the bottom picture: <gallery widths=160px heights=160px class="center"> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegsizea.jpg|The visible picture </gallery> <gallery widths=200px heights=200px> Image:Juliasetsdkjpegsizeb.jpg|The real picture </gallery> {{BookCat}} cd0yswn4b1cwd4ipk5b0rzv5lchl7l8 0 247936 4653997 4381628 2026-07-11T13:32:45Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653997 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chechen Header}} ---- <big><big>'''Дарс 2: Довзийтахьа тхойшиъ!'''</big></big><br /> <big>''Lesson 2: Let's get to know each other!''</big> __NOTOC__ {| width="50%" | width="100%" style="vertical-align:top; border: 1px solid #000000; color: #000; background-color: #FFFFFF; padding:3px 3px 3px 3px;"| '''In this lesson you will learn:''' * ''learn words for family members'' [[Chechen/Lesson 2#Доьзал (Family)|→]] * ''how to say where you live'' [[Chechen/Lesson 2#Довзар (Meeting)|→]] * ''how to form the genitive and substantive cases'' [[Chechen/Lesson 2#Дожараш (Cases)|→]] * ''possessive pronouns'' [[Chechen/Lesson 2#ЦIерметдешнаш (Pronouns)|→]] * ''about Chechen geography'' [[Chechen/Lesson 2#Культура (Culture)|→]] |} == Дарсан хIума (Lesson Material) == In these lessons, we will learn the Chechen words for family members and also how to introduce them. We will also be able to express where we live and ask someone where he or she lives. === Доьзал (Family) === [[File:Family icon.png|left]] In Chechnya, like in most places in the world, family is an important aspect to daily life. Chechens are very close to their families. They might also be very curious about your family and background, especially if you are trying out your Chechen skills on them. Let's take a look at some vocabulary relating to family and friends. We can see that forming family words can be actually quite simple in Chechen. Chechen is a literal and logical language, meaning to say "grandfather", we can just say "my mother's father". Try to see if you can find a pattern with the words given below. [[Image:Muslim family of Amdo with Tibetan-style hats.jpg|right|300px]] '''доьзал''' - family <br /> '''адам''' - person <br /> '''жима бер''' - baby <br /> '''неца''' - aunt(sister of mother) <br /> '''дд''' - ??? <br /> '''ваша''' - brother <br /> '''йиша''' - sister <br /> '''кIант''' - son<br /> '''йоI''' - daughter <br /> '''да''' - father <br /> '''до''' -??? <br /> '''шича''' - cousin <br /> '''доттагI''' - friend <br /> '''майра''' - husband <br /> '''зуда''' - wife <br /> '''дада''' - grandfather (father's father) <br /> '''ненан да''' - grandfather (mother's father) <br /> '''де нана''' - grandmother (father's mother) <br /> '''ненан нана''' - grandmother (mother's mother) [[Image:Coyote-cartoon-L.jpg|left|50px]] ''Vocabulary lists'' are available for '''[[Chechen/Vocabulary/Family|Family]]''' related words! If you wish to expand your Chechen vocabulary, check out the extensive list of related words. === Довзар (Meeting) === Try out some phrases below with what you learned above! '''<big>Иза мила ву?</big>''' - ''Who is he?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Иза сан ваша ву.</big>''' - ''He is my brother'' '''<big>Иза мила ю?</big>''' - ''Who is she?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Иза сан йиша ю.</big>''' - ''She is my sister'' '''<big>Уьш муьлш бу?</big>''' - ''Who are they?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Уьш сан да-нана бу.</big>''' - ''They are my parents'' '''<big>Иза мила ву?</big>''' - ''Who is he?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Суна иза ца воьвза</big>''' - ''I don't know him'' '''<big>А иза мила ю?</big>''' - ''And who is she?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Суна иза ца йоьвза</big>''' - ''I don't know her'' '''<big>Хьо мичахь Iаш ву/ю?</big>''' - ''Where do you live?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Со Соьлжа-гIалахь Iаш ву/ю</big>''' - ''I live in Grozny'' '''<big>Иза мичахь Iаш ю?</big>''' - ''Where does she live?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Иза да-нана долчохь Iаш ю</big>''' - ''She lives with her parents'' '''<big>Хьан ваша мичахь Iаш ву?</big>''' - ''Where does your brother live?'' &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; '''<big>Сан ваша Москвахь Iаш ву</big>''' - ''My brother lives in Moscow'' == Грамматика (Grammar) == In regards to Chechen grammar in this lesson, we are going to learn about grammatical cases and expand a bit more on the pronouns we learned in the last lesson. This all ties together, since we will be learning the ''genitive case endings'' for the personal pronouns. If you don't know what that means, you will in a few seconds! === Артикль (The Article) === Real quick, have you noticed something odd about the Chechen language yet? Let me ask you a question, how do you say 'the' or 'a'? Well, you can't! Like [[Russian]], [[Chinese]], and [[Finnish]], as well as many other languages, Chechen doesn't have any indefinite nor definite articles. Therefore, '''ваша''' can mean: ''a brother, the brother'' or just ''brother''. Don't worry, you will figure out where the articles are needed in translation with the context and enough practice. === Дожараш (Cases) === In plain English, well...we don't really have cases in modern day English. This might be a bit difficult to explain if you are not already familiar with other languages. I am sure you have heard of the subject and object. Cases define what function the noun has in the sentence and changes the word accordingly. In Chechen, there are 8 cases, meaning, 8 different ways a word can change its form by adding or changing letters at the end of the word. The first case, '''ЦIерниг дожар''', or the [[:w:Nominative case|nominative case]], is the easiest case to learn. Words in the nominative case are in its original dictionary form and act as the subject of the clause in the sentence. Just remember, ''normal'' sounds like ''nominative'', and this is the case where the word is "normal", if that helps you remember it. We don't need to spend a lot of time on the nominative case, so we can talk about the second case briefly, which is '''Доланиг дожар''', or the [[:w:Genitive case|genitive case]]. The genitive case represents ownership, similar to our English "mine, yours, his" from "I, you, he". Think of "genetics" to remember the genetive case. In Chechen, the genetive is actually pretty simple to put together. Just add '''н''' to the end of the word. If the word ends in a vowel, then add '''ан''' or '''ин'''. So for example: '''ГIала''' - the city, '''ГIалан нах''' - the people of the city, the city's people We will talk more about the genitive later, as there are some exceptions, like '''и''' can be added instead of '''а''', but we'll talk about it later. Just understand ''what'' the genitive is at first. The final case we will talk about today is the [[:w:Substantive case|substantive case]], Хотталург дожар. This case is a locative case in Chechen as it describes "where" something is located. Think of it as the English, ''in'' or ''at''. Chechen uses this case to add an ending, '''ахь, ехь, ах, ех''' at the end of the word. So: '''ГIала''' - the city, '''ГIалахь''' - in the city '''Мотт''' - a language '''Маттахь''' - in a language As I said, there are some exceptions, but down the road, you will pick up on how words and vowels change in Chechen. For now, just remember what you learned: {|style="font-size:95%; margin: auto;" |- style="background:#efefef;" !width="150px"| Case !!width="150px"| Function !!width="150px"| Ending !!width="150px"| Example |- | Nominative || standard || - || гIала |- | Genitive || of, 's || -н, -ан, -ин, -и || гIалан |- | Substantive || in, at || -ахь, -ехь, -ах, -ех || гIалахь |- |} === ЦIерметдешнаш (Pronouns) === Let's look at pronouns a bit more. Last time we learned ''I, you, he, she, it'' and this time we will learn the genitive pronouns, ''my, your, his, her, its''. Just like what you just read about the genitive case, the pronouns will take the ending '''н'''. {|style="font-size:95%;" |- style="background:#efefef;" |- | width="150px"| ''[[:w:Nominative Case|ЦIерниг дожар]]'' || width="65px"| со || width="65px"| хьо || width="65px"| иза || width="65px"| тхо || width="65px"| вай || width="65px"| шу || width="65px"| уьш |- | width="150px"| ''[[:w:Genitive case|Доланиг дожар]]'' || width="65px"| сан || width="65px"| хьан || width="65px"| цуьнан || width="65px"| тхан || width="65px"| вайн || width="65px"| шун || width="65px"| церан |- |} Therefore: '''сан ваша''' - my brother, '''иза сан ваша ву''' - he is my brother, '''иза хьан ваша а ву''' - he is also your brother == Культура (Culture) == === Нохчийн географи (Chechen Geography) === [[Image:Rus-Chechnya-district.png|right|thumb|Сурт Нохчийчоьн районийн карта оьрсийн маттахь]] Chechnya is a small country buried in the mountains of the Northern Caucasus. It shares borders with Dagestan to the east, Georgia to the south, Ingushetia and North Ossetia to the west, and Russia to the north. Azerbaijan is very close to Chechnya as well. There are many mountains in the southern part close to the Georgian border, which are simply called the [[:w:Caucasus mountains|Caucasus Mountain Range]]. The capital of Chechnya is [[:w:Grozny|Grozny]], or '''Соьлжа-гIала''' (Solzh ghala). Grozny is located right in the center of Chechnya. Other major cities in Chechnya are Guderemes ('''Гудермес'''), Shali ('''Шали'''), Vedeno ('''Ведено'''), Argun ('''Устрада-гIала'''), and Urus Martan ('''Хьалхара-Марта'''). Major resources in Chechnya consist of zinc, oil, natural gas, and uranium, making it an essential area in the region. There are three major rivers that run through the Chechen territory, [[:w:Terek River|the Terek]], [[:w:Sunzha River|Sunzha]], and [[:w:Argun River (Caucasus)|Argun]] rivers. There are no seaports since Chechnya is a landlocked country, but there are highways, railroads, bus routes, and an international airport in Grozny. ---- {{Chechen Header}} {{BookCat}} 5bbxoybsiru418idbnj5ukwczh4t70d 0 257025 4654124 3401056 2026-07-11T19:22:10Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654124 wikitext text/x-wiki <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU2| | Prev = Hardware and software | Next = System software}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:Fundamentals of Computer Systems: Classification of software}} </NOINCLUDE> You have probably used a lot of software over the years, here we are going to study the different classifications (types) of software that are out there. <gallery caption="Software can perform many different tasks" widths="60px" heights="65px" perrow="5" class="center"> File:Ccard_icon.png File:Nuvola_camera.svg File:Nuvola_apps_looknfeel.png File:Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg File:Nuvola_mimetypes_source.svg File:Gcalctool.svg File:Nuvola apps edu science.svg File:Nuvola apps package games strategy.png File:Nuvola apps kpovmodeler.svg File:Nuvola apps artsmidimanager.png </gallery> The two main classifications of software that all programs fit under are: * System software * Application software {{CPTAmbox|text=Whatever you do don't use brand names in answer questions about software types. Writing ''Microsoft Word'' will get you no marks, writing ''word processor'' will!}} [[File:CPT-Classification_of_Software_-_relationships.svg|thumb|center|250px]] Without software, most hardware would sit there doing nothing or perform specific tasks. To make most hardware run we need to use software, and your task here is to select the correct type of software for each job. == System software == {{Dbox|[[w:System software|System software]]|software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application software}} [[File:Ubuntu_12.04_Final_Live_CD_Screenshot.png|thumb|center|An example of a modern GUI as used in [[w:Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]]]] Modern computers are complex machines involving many different parts. To keep it running well you will need system software. System software will handle the smooth running of all the components of the computer. It will also provide the general functionality for other programs to use. These include programs that may be tools to speed up the computer, tools to develop new software and programs to keep you safe from attacks. There are several different types of system software that we will look at in more detail very shortly: * '''Operating Systems''' are a collection of programs that ''make the computer hardware conveniently available to the user'' and also ''hide the complexities of the computer's operation''. The Operating System (such as Windows 7, Apples iOS or Linux) interprets commands issued by application software (e.g. word processor and spreadsheets). The Operating System is also ''an interface between the application software and computer''. Without the operating system, the application programs would be unable to communicate with the computer. * '''Utility programs''' are small, powerful programs with a limited capability, they are usually operated by the user (or) operator to maintain a smooth running of the computer system. Various examples include file management, diagnosing problems and finding out information about the computer etc. Notable examples of utility programs include copy, paste, delete, file searching, disk defragmenter, disk cleanup. However, there are also other types that can be separately installable from the Operating System. * '''Library programs''' are a compiled collection of subroutines (e.g. libraries make many functions and procedures available when you write a program) * '''Translator software''' (Assembler, Compiler, Interpreter) # '''Assembler''' translates assembly language programs into machine code (A binary code that a machine can understand). # '''Compiler''' translates high level language code into object code (which is the machine language of the target machine). # '''Interpreter''' analyses and executes a high-level language program a line at a time. Execution will be slower than for the equivalent compiled code as the source code is analyzed line by line. == Application software == {{Dbox|[[w:Application software|Application software]]|software designed to help the user to perform specific tasks}} [[File:GIMP 2.6 Anleitung Abs. 3 Ergebnis beschneiden.png|thumb|center|[[w:GIMP|GIMP]] is an example of photo editing general purpose application software]] Application software is designed for people like me and you to perform tasks that we consider useful. This might be the ability of a scientist to work out statistical information using a set of results, or someone who wants to play the latest computer game. There are several categories of Application software that we'll look into shortly: * General purpose application software. * Special purpose application software. * Bespoke application software {{CPTExample|title=Example: Software categories}} Place the following software into its correct category: * Computer Game - This is built for a human user, therefore it is application software * Virus Scanner - This is built to make the computer run better, therefore it is system software {{Robox/Close}} {{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Software categories}} {{CPTQuestion|What are the two main categories of software?}} {{CPTAnswer| * System Software * Application software }} {{CPTQuestion|Why is software important for computer systems?}} {{CPTAnswer| Without software the tasks that hardware can perform is often fixed and limited }} {{CPTQuestion|For each of the two main classifications of software give three sub categories:}} {{CPTAnswer| * System software ** Operating system software ** Utility programs ** Library programs ** Translator software (Compiler, assembler, interpreter) * Application software ** General purpose application software. ** Special purpose application software. ** Bespoke application software }} {{CPTQuestion|Place each of these software products into its correct category (application or system): * Word processor * Operating system * Defragmenter * GPS mapping software * Music encoding library}} {{CPTAnswer| * Word processor (Application) * Operating system (System) * Defragmenter (System) * GPS mapping software (Application) * Music encoding library (System) }} {{CPTQuestion|Fill in the missing software categories: [[File:CPT-software-categories-ex.svg|450px]]}} {{CPTAnswer| [[File:CPT-software-categories.svg|left|450px]] }} {{Robox/Close}} {{BookCat}} 2fpq4vwyol7v6siwtitq55pw718xo37 8 257154 4654177 2171484 2026-07-12T03:01:16Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Replacing deprecated tags. 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If you received this message in error, please press "Save page" below and then [[Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives|report this error]]. }} j68ibm1pn3jr7y7of86ledco9p9yhpo 8 265986 4654068 4608284 2026-07-11T19:08:37Z Codename Noreste 3441010 Fix. 4654068 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ns:project}}:Autoreviewed users s3yyu3uccu49qoflsmiidqsvhg1bihw 3 269776 4654045 4642214 2026-07-11T18:20:11Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* The Elements Wikijunior book */ new topic ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4654045 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] to Wikibooks, Koavf!</div> <!-- FIRST COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7;"> <div style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Crystal Clear app kedit.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''First steps tutorial'''</div> <div style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> '''Wikibooks is for [[WB:AGF|collaborative]] development of free&nbsp;[[WB:WIW|textbooks]].''' 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If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our [[Wikibooks:Wikibooks for Wikimedians|Wikimedia Orientation]] should quickly get you started. </div> </div> <div style="clear:both; padding-right:1em; text-align:right; font-size:smaller">(Would you like to provide [[Template talk:Bigwelcome|feedback]] on this message?)</div> </div> <!-- SECOND COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Icon apps query.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Getting help'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Read the [[Using Wikibooks]] book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our [[Help:Contents|help pages]] for more information. * You can get friendly help from the community in the [[WB:HELP|user assistance room]] or our [[irc:wikibooks|IRC channel]]. * Upload freely licensed files to [[commons:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]]. You may [[WB:RFP|request permission]] to upload [[w:fair use|fair use]] files locally. Please include author and source {{tl|information}} and a {{nowrap|{{tl|non-free use rationale}}}} for [[WB:FU|non-free]] files. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #14304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Nuvola filesystems trashcan full.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Made a mistake?'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * You can [[WB:REVERT|restore]] a previously saved version. * Pages should follow the [[WB:NP|<code>'''Book Title/Chapter Title'''</code>]] naming convention. * Need to rename a page? 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You can request undeletion at [[WB:RFU]], or ask the administrator who deleted the page. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible selected" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Transmission icon.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Goodies, tips and tricks'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Please fill in [[WB:ES|the edit summary]] and [[WB:PREVIEW|preview]] your edits before saving. * Sign your name on [[WB:TALK|discussion pages]] by typing &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the ''Gadgets'' tab of [[Special:Preferences|''my preferences'']]; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit ''save''! </div> </div> <div style="text-align:right; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em;">Thanks. [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC)</div> </div> <div style="clear:both;"> </div> I see you've been editing for years but nobody has said Hi, so Hi! [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC) == Our confusing subject/category hierarchy == The way we've got things set up is less than ideal; it's grown up over the years as we've tried to make do with the wiki software we've been given. I can try to fix up a Subject:Anarchism for you later today (anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours from now). Here's an attempt to explain generally how it all works: * Each book has a ''book category'', which contains all the pages in that book (and also any templates specific to that book). * Each subject has a ''subject category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name that subject. * Each subject has an associated ''allbooks category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name either that subject, or any of its subsections. There are a series of pages that (unfortunately) have to be set up just right in order to make all that happen; it's a bit tricky. We really ''should'' have a full-blown interactive wizard for managing it all, but while we're waiting for that (I'm working on tools for building wizards, over at [[n:Help:Dialog|English Wikinews]]), it can be confusing. * '''''If''''' template {{tl|subjects}}, on the main page of a book,is given the name of a subject that has been set up just the way expected by our semi-automation, the template automatically lists the book under the named subject and all the ancestors of that subject. For example, I've now set up a [[Subject:Christianity]], so putting {{tlx|subjects|Christianity}} on a book's main page will now cause it to be listed in that subject, and also in [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]], [[Subject:Religion]], and [[Subject:Humanities]]. * Creating a category for a topic, such as [[:Category:Anarchism]], doesn't automatically set up an associated subject. * There ''is'' a way to get assistance with setting up a category, though it sure would be nice to have more assistance than it gives. I used this assistance to set up [[Subject:Christianity]] a few minutes ago, and, as I say, I'll try to do [[Subject:Anarchism]] soon. The trick is to edit the book's main page, add parameter "{{!}}diagnose=true" to the {{tl|subjects}} template, and preview the page; there's no need to save the page. If there's a "subject" page there that hasn't been set up properly, the preview presents you with a bunch of buttons for setting up the needed infrastructure pages. --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:09, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :{{Ping|Pi zero}} I figured out how ''some'' of that was working by tinkering myself. Thanks. My only concern was that there were existing categories which are more refined and better for navigation which you were emptying it out of. If you think a category is ''too'' refined and should be upmerged (and you may not think this), then discussion would be better. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:12, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :: Yeah, it can be awkward to decide when something is worth creating a child subject for, and when it's better to simply list it in the parent subject. I suppose it depends on how well-defined the child subject is, and how naturally it fits into the existing hierarchy. It ''usually'' wouldn't make sense, for instance, to create a subject just so that a single book could be put in it. :: When a non-subject category is passed to {{tl|subjects}}, so that the template is unable to list the book in subjects as it's supposed to, the template puts out a call for help by adding the book to [[:Category:Attention needed (allbooks)]]. Every once in a while I remember to go look there, and fix all the problems it reports. Usually this consists of changing parameters to the template, to put the book in subjects that have been set up rather than ones that haven't been set up. However, sometimes the subject really ''should'' be set up. As, for example, [[Subject:Christianity]]. I got partway into shifting listings to [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]] before my higher reasoning caught up with me and said, wait a minute, there are already child subjects for Islam and Judaism, why on Earth wouldn't there be one for Christianity? (This is my laughing at myself.) --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:32, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Pi zero}} Exactly: there is and will be enough material to warrant a division but maybe not for Rastafarianism (at least not now or soon). By the way, thanks for all the work you do wb and wn--they don't get enough attention as WMF projects. I can tell that you really want to improve them. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:34, 12 September 2014 (UTC) == Fonts == @PeterEasthope: Can you show me the page that you are editing? : Justin, the problem is now solved with module [[Oberon/A2/Oberon.MediaWiki.Mod]]. The module pages in Oberon are produced by that module. Regards, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 15:29, 15 January 2018 (UTC) == Color gradient == Hi. What means square bracket in : "[S]eparate the calculation phase from the colouring phase"—Claude Heiland-Allen ? --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:13, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Adam majewski}} I don't know; I didn't add the quote. :/ It does seem unhelpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :: Yes, but you have add bracket : "Latest revision as of 18:04, 1 March 2020 (edit) (undo) (thank) Koavf (discuss | contribs) rollback 1 edit" --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:50, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Adam majewski}} Oh, you are just asking about the bracket? Sorry. I added that because in English, it is common to add brackets at the beginning of lines where you only have part of a quotation. The quotation here has no punctuation and doesn't seem to be a complete thought, so I just assumed that it's a quotation from mid-sentence. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:53, 2 March 2020 (UTC) == Mathematics(about lines ,areas and volumes) == Let's start with the notion of a point that is considered as the most fundamental thing of Eucledian geometry .what is a point? You heard that point has position but it has no length ,neither breadth nor width. Now let's discuss a little about unit(because it is must for further discussion). Now, what is unit ? You heard that when we measure a physical quantity, we have to a convenient part of the same quantity as documentary and this part is called unit. When measuring the quantity we only concern with the number of unit and specify the unit as letters or another symbols(say, a length of 3cm ,here 3 is the number of unit presented in the measurement and cm is the particular part that we take as unit).Remember this passage as it is helpful for further discussion. Now ,let's talk about lines . You heard that line is the combination of infinite points.But is this statement true? Hitherto we discussed about units ,there we take a unit as a convenient part of the same quantity. So ,is the property of line and point same? If we take the definition of line ,we heard line has length ,neither breadth nor width but a point has nothing but a position.so from definition their properties are not same ,the are different with their properties. Then ,how can a line be made of points? Now one can say, " One can find infinite points on line,then why shouldn't we take line as the combination of points?" It is also documentay. But we should think that from definition the point has no lenth then how can we form a length by combining points ?as one point has no length then how a few points can form a length? You will understand better by an example, take the shadow of an object ,will this shadow be thicker if we place the shadow of another object on it? No!! Then what is true ,a line is made of points or not? And if the line is not made of points then what is the connection between line and point? As we can find infinite points on a line. You should remember the whole discussion and relate this while compairing the line and area.in this also somebody say that area is made of infinite lines.This statement is controversial, too.As line has no breadth how lines make an area? And same controversy for volumes. You can think a point as a property of line at a position.And you should concern about this controversy. Thank you, for reading!! [[User:Debdut Guha|Debdut Guha]] ([[User talk:Debdut Guha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Debdut Guha|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) :Oh, okay. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) ==A new proposal== [[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|link=|alt=|left|48x48px]]Hi {{BASEPAGENAME}}, there is currently a proposal at [[: Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals]] for non-admins to be given the ability of <code> Suppress redirect</code> and <code> Move subpages</code>. Since you’ve been an active user on Wikibooks for the last thirty day, I thought you might join in by giving feedback/opinion or amendments. Thank you so much for your time [[User:Synoman Barris|Synoman Barris]] ([[User talk:Synoman Barris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Synoman Barris|contribs]]) 14:18, 14 September 2020 (UTC) == You should become an en.wiki admin. == Just curious why you are not. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:28, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Tgregtregretgtr}} I haven't been dedicated to this wiki in the past. No particular reason: it's a great idea and resource. There are just 24 hours in a day. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :: Koavf,I meant the English Wikipedia. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::Oh, well I had been nominated by others but displayed incompetence in the nominations. I also am blocked there at present for edit-warring. I'm hoping the community sees the value in me contributing in the future, but that's predicated on me having a clear plan for constructive editing that builds trust in other editors that I will act appropriately. Edit-warring is unacceptable, so I will have to show that I won't engage in it on en.wp and I haven't proven that to a sufficient amount yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:51, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::: On April 1st,Wikipedia will not make vandalism allowed. OK? [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 January 2022 (UTC) :::::It's never allowed. Were it allowed, it wouldn't be vandalism. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:06, 26 January 2022 (UTC) == Welcoming users == Hi, I see you left the welcome message in my user page back when I joined this wikimedia project. I’m interested in welcoming new users here. How do I go along doing that? Thanks in advance, -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 15:09, 18 January 2022 (UTC) :{{Ping|Gifnk dlm 2020}} I have only ever welcomed users as I've happened to find them, e.g. if a new user edits a page on my watchlist. If you want to make it a point to welcome new users, you can check [[Special:RecentChanges]] with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges?userExpLevel=newcomer&hidebots=1&hideWikibase=1&limit=1000&days=30&urlversion=2 these filters]. I generally only welcome someone who has actually made edits and not just anyone who creates an account, but you could do either. The {{tl|welcome}} template is helpful and particularly if you add some kind of personal message below substituting it. I'm glad you want to do outreach to others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:18, 18 January 2022 (UTC) ::Thank you very much! I will start welcoming users. -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 18:22, 18 January 2022 (UTC) == Recipe style guidelines == Hello! Your feedback would be welcome and appreciated at [[Cookbook_talk:Policy/Recipe_template#Style_guidelines]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:20, 24 November 2022 (UTC) == Hello == Hello to koavf.I read your comment and you suggested a few things. These were: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Craigslist, Fiver, Upwork, etc.* what are these [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 05:14, 2 September 2023 (UTC) :These are websites where you can list [[:w:en:want ads|want ads]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:19, 2 September 2023 (UTC) ::How to do it? [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 04:40, 3 September 2023 (UTC) :::The easiest to make a post on is https://craigslist.org/ I can't promise you will get any responses there either, but it's a little more likely than here at least. Good luck. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:44, 3 September 2023 (UTC) ::::Thank you,I really can't write my six books. [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 13:11, 3 September 2023 (UTC) == [[Special:Diff/4322625]] == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Sorry about that! I didn't realize that non-breaking spaces were important. I'm in the habit of removing odd/out of place characters. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:37, 6 September 2023 (UTC) :They're certainly helpful. Thanks for all you do, KC. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:50, 6 September 2023 (UTC) == Help bring a book over from the French wikibooks == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Since you contribute to many wmf-wikis as a functionary, I wonder if you can tell me what is the easiest way to bring the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over here from the French wikibooks. This book was written by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]] who : "holds a doctorate in political and social sciences, is a free-culture activist and is a lecturer in anthropology at UCLouvain University. He holds several administrative positions within the Wikimedia movement, which he has been observing in a participatory way since 2011. Before writing his doctoral thesis on the Wikimedia movement, he was the author of a master's thesis entitled [[Wikiversity:Fr:Culture fr Wikipedia|Culture fr Wikipedia]], in which he describes the organization of the free encyclopedia in French." Any help you can offer would be greatly appreciated. Thanks in advance, Also @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]], @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]], @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 19:12, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi {{re|Ottawahitech}}, it needs to be imported and then translated. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 20:19, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Mind if I take a look at it in a few days time? Sorry for the delay – uni exams rn are killing me. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 20:29, 12 March 2024 (UTC) ::It will need to be exported then imported using importupload (an XML file upload). It's not difficult, but you can find the session timing out if the file is particularly large. All admins have importupload rights here. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 22:40, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Always happy to help, but I don't have advanced permissions here. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:05, 13 March 2024 (UTC) : I guess others have answered the question. I would like to note that translation can also be done in userspace (By starting things at userspace or moving to there after import). Feel free to move to mainspace from userspace after translation is complete. Please also note that Wikibooks reviewers and admins can move pages without redirects (Please see [[special:UserGroupRights]] for details). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:28, 13 March 2024 (UTC) ::Thanks to all for contributing here. I am still fuzzy about the procedure for bringing the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over from the French wikibooks and translating it into English. ::I looked up [[Wikibooks:Requests for import]], is this where non-admin users are supposed to request help from an Admin (I guess importers cannot import books that are not written in English)? According to [[Help:Importing]], pages are imported to the ''Transwiki namespace'', but I am not sure what happens then, and where the translation from French to English is supposed to take place before the translated text can get merged into the existing skeleton set up by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]]. ::Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:26, 16 March 2024 (UTC) :::{{re|Ottawahitech}}, the process is as follows: :::* An admin or importer imports the book from fr.wikibooks (this must be done using external import aka importupload); users can request at [[WB:RFI]] among other venues. :::* the book now lives in the Transwiki namespace. This is an opportunity for the translation to take place. :::* Once the translation has taken place, the book is simply moved to namespace (or wherever the book is to be moved). :::[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 04:36, 17 March 2024 (UTC) == Re:Cats == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Just touching base re: [[Special:Diff/4480484]]—I didn't notice that you had just added that category when I removed it, so I hope it didn't come off as rude. The primary reason that page shouldn't have that category is because it's not a recipe page—it's an ingredient page. I'm also overhauling a bunch of cookbook categories in general to resolve several persistent issues that have cropped up over the years. Cheers! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:35, 8 March 2025 (UTC) :Not at all, KC. I saw that you were clearly removing entries from the category for deletion. I could never judge you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:37, 8 March 2025 (UTC) == I have a little problem :Linear Algebra and the C Language == I have a small problem with my book, can you help me? Thank you. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linear_Algebra_and_the_C_Language [[User:Xhungab|Xhungab]] ([[User talk:Xhungab|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xhungab|contribs]]) 08:38, 18 October 2025 (UTC) == Email == I sent you an email, feel free to take a look. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:34, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == The Elements Wikijunior book == I closed a discussion that there is no consensus–there was one in favor and one against, but there is no clear consensus to feature The Elements on the main page. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:20, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ogxogmbiigzgfgxh6cruxuvr3uv1fn0 4654048 4654045 2026-07-11T18:25:47Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* The Elements Wikijunior book */ reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4654048 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] to Wikibooks, Koavf!</div> <!-- FIRST COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7;"> <div style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Crystal Clear app kedit.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''First steps tutorial'''</div> <div style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> '''Wikibooks is for [[WB:AGF|collaborative]] development of free&nbsp;[[WB:WIW|textbooks]].''' You do not need technical skills to [[Using Wikibooks|contribute]]. You can [[WB:BOLD|easily change most books]]. Please [[WB:CHAT|introduce yourself]], and let us know what [[WB:PROJECTS|interests you]]. If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our [[Wikibooks:Wikibooks for Wikimedians|Wikimedia Orientation]] should quickly get you started. </div> </div> <div style="clear:both; padding-right:1em; text-align:right; font-size:smaller">(Would you like to provide [[Template talk:Bigwelcome|feedback]] on this message?)</div> </div> <!-- SECOND COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Icon apps query.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Getting help'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Read the [[Using Wikibooks]] book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our [[Help:Contents|help pages]] for more information. * You can get friendly help from the community in the [[WB:HELP|user assistance room]] or our [[irc:wikibooks|IRC channel]]. * Upload freely licensed files to [[commons:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]]. You may [[WB:RFP|request permission]] to upload [[w:fair use|fair use]] files locally. Please include author and source {{tl|information}} and a {{nowrap|{{tl|non-free use rationale}}}} for [[WB:FU|non-free]] files. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #14304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Nuvola filesystems trashcan full.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Made a mistake?'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * You can [[WB:REVERT|restore]] a previously saved version. * Pages should follow the [[WB:NP|<code>'''Book Title/Chapter Title'''</code>]] naming convention. * Need to rename a page? Use the ''move'' tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for [[WB:HELP|help]]). * To request a page be deleted, add {{tlx|delete|''your reason''}} to the top of the page. * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the [[WB:DP|deletion policy]], and check the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]] to find out why. Also check the [[WB:RFD|RFD]] archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at [[WB:RFU]], or ask the administrator who deleted the page. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible selected" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Transmission icon.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Goodies, tips and tricks'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Please fill in [[WB:ES|the edit summary]] and [[WB:PREVIEW|preview]] your edits before saving. * Sign your name on [[WB:TALK|discussion pages]] by typing &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the ''Gadgets'' tab of [[Special:Preferences|''my preferences'']]; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit ''save''! </div> </div> <div style="text-align:right; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em;">Thanks. [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC)</div> </div> <div style="clear:both;"> </div> I see you've been editing for years but nobody has said Hi, so Hi! [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC) == Our confusing subject/category hierarchy == The way we've got things set up is less than ideal; it's grown up over the years as we've tried to make do with the wiki software we've been given. I can try to fix up a Subject:Anarchism for you later today (anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours from now). Here's an attempt to explain generally how it all works: * Each book has a ''book category'', which contains all the pages in that book (and also any templates specific to that book). * Each subject has a ''subject category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name that subject. * Each subject has an associated ''allbooks category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name either that subject, or any of its subsections. There are a series of pages that (unfortunately) have to be set up just right in order to make all that happen; it's a bit tricky. We really ''should'' have a full-blown interactive wizard for managing it all, but while we're waiting for that (I'm working on tools for building wizards, over at [[n:Help:Dialog|English Wikinews]]), it can be confusing. * '''''If''''' template {{tl|subjects}}, on the main page of a book,is given the name of a subject that has been set up just the way expected by our semi-automation, the template automatically lists the book under the named subject and all the ancestors of that subject. For example, I've now set up a [[Subject:Christianity]], so putting {{tlx|subjects|Christianity}} on a book's main page will now cause it to be listed in that subject, and also in [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]], [[Subject:Religion]], and [[Subject:Humanities]]. * Creating a category for a topic, such as [[:Category:Anarchism]], doesn't automatically set up an associated subject. * There ''is'' a way to get assistance with setting up a category, though it sure would be nice to have more assistance than it gives. I used this assistance to set up [[Subject:Christianity]] a few minutes ago, and, as I say, I'll try to do [[Subject:Anarchism]] soon. The trick is to edit the book's main page, add parameter "{{!}}diagnose=true" to the {{tl|subjects}} template, and preview the page; there's no need to save the page. If there's a "subject" page there that hasn't been set up properly, the preview presents you with a bunch of buttons for setting up the needed infrastructure pages. --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:09, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :{{Ping|Pi zero}} I figured out how ''some'' of that was working by tinkering myself. Thanks. My only concern was that there were existing categories which are more refined and better for navigation which you were emptying it out of. If you think a category is ''too'' refined and should be upmerged (and you may not think this), then discussion would be better. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:12, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :: Yeah, it can be awkward to decide when something is worth creating a child subject for, and when it's better to simply list it in the parent subject. I suppose it depends on how well-defined the child subject is, and how naturally it fits into the existing hierarchy. It ''usually'' wouldn't make sense, for instance, to create a subject just so that a single book could be put in it. :: When a non-subject category is passed to {{tl|subjects}}, so that the template is unable to list the book in subjects as it's supposed to, the template puts out a call for help by adding the book to [[:Category:Attention needed (allbooks)]]. Every once in a while I remember to go look there, and fix all the problems it reports. Usually this consists of changing parameters to the template, to put the book in subjects that have been set up rather than ones that haven't been set up. However, sometimes the subject really ''should'' be set up. As, for example, [[Subject:Christianity]]. I got partway into shifting listings to [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]] before my higher reasoning caught up with me and said, wait a minute, there are already child subjects for Islam and Judaism, why on Earth wouldn't there be one for Christianity? (This is my laughing at myself.) --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:32, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Pi zero}} Exactly: there is and will be enough material to warrant a division but maybe not for Rastafarianism (at least not now or soon). By the way, thanks for all the work you do wb and wn--they don't get enough attention as WMF projects. I can tell that you really want to improve them. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:34, 12 September 2014 (UTC) == Fonts == @PeterEasthope: Can you show me the page that you are editing? : Justin, the problem is now solved with module [[Oberon/A2/Oberon.MediaWiki.Mod]]. The module pages in Oberon are produced by that module. Regards, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 15:29, 15 January 2018 (UTC) == Color gradient == Hi. What means square bracket in : "[S]eparate the calculation phase from the colouring phase"—Claude Heiland-Allen ? --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:13, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Adam majewski}} I don't know; I didn't add the quote. :/ It does seem unhelpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :: Yes, but you have add bracket : "Latest revision as of 18:04, 1 March 2020 (edit) (undo) (thank) Koavf (discuss | contribs) rollback 1 edit" --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:50, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Adam majewski}} Oh, you are just asking about the bracket? Sorry. I added that because in English, it is common to add brackets at the beginning of lines where you only have part of a quotation. The quotation here has no punctuation and doesn't seem to be a complete thought, so I just assumed that it's a quotation from mid-sentence. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:53, 2 March 2020 (UTC) == Mathematics(about lines ,areas and volumes) == Let's start with the notion of a point that is considered as the most fundamental thing of Eucledian geometry .what is a point? You heard that point has position but it has no length ,neither breadth nor width. Now let's discuss a little about unit(because it is must for further discussion). Now, what is unit ? You heard that when we measure a physical quantity, we have to a convenient part of the same quantity as documentary and this part is called unit. When measuring the quantity we only concern with the number of unit and specify the unit as letters or another symbols(say, a length of 3cm ,here 3 is the number of unit presented in the measurement and cm is the particular part that we take as unit).Remember this passage as it is helpful for further discussion. Now ,let's talk about lines . You heard that line is the combination of infinite points.But is this statement true? Hitherto we discussed about units ,there we take a unit as a convenient part of the same quantity. So ,is the property of line and point same? If we take the definition of line ,we heard line has length ,neither breadth nor width but a point has nothing but a position.so from definition their properties are not same ,the are different with their properties. Then ,how can a line be made of points? Now one can say, " One can find infinite points on line,then why shouldn't we take line as the combination of points?" It is also documentay. But we should think that from definition the point has no lenth then how can we form a length by combining points ?as one point has no length then how a few points can form a length? You will understand better by an example, take the shadow of an object ,will this shadow be thicker if we place the shadow of another object on it? No!! Then what is true ,a line is made of points or not? And if the line is not made of points then what is the connection between line and point? As we can find infinite points on a line. You should remember the whole discussion and relate this while compairing the line and area.in this also somebody say that area is made of infinite lines.This statement is controversial, too.As line has no breadth how lines make an area? And same controversy for volumes. You can think a point as a property of line at a position.And you should concern about this controversy. Thank you, for reading!! [[User:Debdut Guha|Debdut Guha]] ([[User talk:Debdut Guha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Debdut Guha|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) :Oh, okay. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) ==A new proposal== [[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|link=|alt=|left|48x48px]]Hi {{BASEPAGENAME}}, there is currently a proposal at [[: Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals]] for non-admins to be given the ability of <code> Suppress redirect</code> and <code> Move subpages</code>. Since you’ve been an active user on Wikibooks for the last thirty day, I thought you might join in by giving feedback/opinion or amendments. Thank you so much for your time [[User:Synoman Barris|Synoman Barris]] ([[User talk:Synoman Barris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Synoman Barris|contribs]]) 14:18, 14 September 2020 (UTC) == You should become an en.wiki admin. == Just curious why you are not. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:28, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Tgregtregretgtr}} I haven't been dedicated to this wiki in the past. No particular reason: it's a great idea and resource. There are just 24 hours in a day. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :: Koavf,I meant the English Wikipedia. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::Oh, well I had been nominated by others but displayed incompetence in the nominations. I also am blocked there at present for edit-warring. I'm hoping the community sees the value in me contributing in the future, but that's predicated on me having a clear plan for constructive editing that builds trust in other editors that I will act appropriately. Edit-warring is unacceptable, so I will have to show that I won't engage in it on en.wp and I haven't proven that to a sufficient amount yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:51, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::: On April 1st,Wikipedia will not make vandalism allowed. OK? [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 January 2022 (UTC) :::::It's never allowed. Were it allowed, it wouldn't be vandalism. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:06, 26 January 2022 (UTC) == Welcoming users == Hi, I see you left the welcome message in my user page back when I joined this wikimedia project. I’m interested in welcoming new users here. How do I go along doing that? Thanks in advance, -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 15:09, 18 January 2022 (UTC) :{{Ping|Gifnk dlm 2020}} I have only ever welcomed users as I've happened to find them, e.g. if a new user edits a page on my watchlist. If you want to make it a point to welcome new users, you can check [[Special:RecentChanges]] with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges?userExpLevel=newcomer&hidebots=1&hideWikibase=1&limit=1000&days=30&urlversion=2 these filters]. I generally only welcome someone who has actually made edits and not just anyone who creates an account, but you could do either. The {{tl|welcome}} template is helpful and particularly if you add some kind of personal message below substituting it. I'm glad you want to do outreach to others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:18, 18 January 2022 (UTC) ::Thank you very much! I will start welcoming users. -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 18:22, 18 January 2022 (UTC) == Recipe style guidelines == Hello! Your feedback would be welcome and appreciated at [[Cookbook_talk:Policy/Recipe_template#Style_guidelines]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:20, 24 November 2022 (UTC) == Hello == Hello to koavf.I read your comment and you suggested a few things. These were: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Craigslist, Fiver, Upwork, etc.* what are these [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 05:14, 2 September 2023 (UTC) :These are websites where you can list [[:w:en:want ads|want ads]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:19, 2 September 2023 (UTC) ::How to do it? [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 04:40, 3 September 2023 (UTC) :::The easiest to make a post on is https://craigslist.org/ I can't promise you will get any responses there either, but it's a little more likely than here at least. Good luck. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:44, 3 September 2023 (UTC) ::::Thank you,I really can't write my six books. [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 13:11, 3 September 2023 (UTC) == [[Special:Diff/4322625]] == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Sorry about that! I didn't realize that non-breaking spaces were important. I'm in the habit of removing odd/out of place characters. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:37, 6 September 2023 (UTC) :They're certainly helpful. Thanks for all you do, KC. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:50, 6 September 2023 (UTC) == Help bring a book over from the French wikibooks == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Since you contribute to many wmf-wikis as a functionary, I wonder if you can tell me what is the easiest way to bring the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over here from the French wikibooks. This book was written by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]] who : "holds a doctorate in political and social sciences, is a free-culture activist and is a lecturer in anthropology at UCLouvain University. He holds several administrative positions within the Wikimedia movement, which he has been observing in a participatory way since 2011. Before writing his doctoral thesis on the Wikimedia movement, he was the author of a master's thesis entitled [[Wikiversity:Fr:Culture fr Wikipedia|Culture fr Wikipedia]], in which he describes the organization of the free encyclopedia in French." Any help you can offer would be greatly appreciated. Thanks in advance, Also @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]], @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]], @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 19:12, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi {{re|Ottawahitech}}, it needs to be imported and then translated. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 20:19, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Mind if I take a look at it in a few days time? Sorry for the delay – uni exams rn are killing me. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 20:29, 12 March 2024 (UTC) ::It will need to be exported then imported using importupload (an XML file upload). It's not difficult, but you can find the session timing out if the file is particularly large. All admins have importupload rights here. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 22:40, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Always happy to help, but I don't have advanced permissions here. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:05, 13 March 2024 (UTC) : I guess others have answered the question. I would like to note that translation can also be done in userspace (By starting things at userspace or moving to there after import). Feel free to move to mainspace from userspace after translation is complete. Please also note that Wikibooks reviewers and admins can move pages without redirects (Please see [[special:UserGroupRights]] for details). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:28, 13 March 2024 (UTC) ::Thanks to all for contributing here. I am still fuzzy about the procedure for bringing the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over from the French wikibooks and translating it into English. ::I looked up [[Wikibooks:Requests for import]], is this where non-admin users are supposed to request help from an Admin (I guess importers cannot import books that are not written in English)? According to [[Help:Importing]], pages are imported to the ''Transwiki namespace'', but I am not sure what happens then, and where the translation from French to English is supposed to take place before the translated text can get merged into the existing skeleton set up by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]]. ::Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:26, 16 March 2024 (UTC) :::{{re|Ottawahitech}}, the process is as follows: :::* An admin or importer imports the book from fr.wikibooks (this must be done using external import aka importupload); users can request at [[WB:RFI]] among other venues. :::* the book now lives in the Transwiki namespace. This is an opportunity for the translation to take place. :::* Once the translation has taken place, the book is simply moved to namespace (or wherever the book is to be moved). :::[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 04:36, 17 March 2024 (UTC) == Re:Cats == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Just touching base re: [[Special:Diff/4480484]]—I didn't notice that you had just added that category when I removed it, so I hope it didn't come off as rude. The primary reason that page shouldn't have that category is because it's not a recipe page—it's an ingredient page. I'm also overhauling a bunch of cookbook categories in general to resolve several persistent issues that have cropped up over the years. Cheers! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:35, 8 March 2025 (UTC) :Not at all, KC. I saw that you were clearly removing entries from the category for deletion. I could never judge you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:37, 8 March 2025 (UTC) == I have a little problem :Linear Algebra and the C Language == I have a small problem with my book, can you help me? Thank you. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linear_Algebra_and_the_C_Language [[User:Xhungab|Xhungab]] ([[User talk:Xhungab|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xhungab|contribs]]) 08:38, 18 October 2025 (UTC) == Email == I sent you an email, feel free to take a look. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:34, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == The Elements Wikijunior book == I closed a discussion that there is no consensus–there was one in favor and one against, but there is no clear consensus to feature The Elements on the main page. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:20, 11 July 2026 (UTC) : However, even though you implemented the book already to be featured, I wouldn't try to reverse it since it's done. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:25, 11 July 2026 (UTC) e20edsdx1g75u0psz8o5qgkvw1vtub0 4654049 4654048 2026-07-11T18:28:53Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* The Elements Wikijunior book */ edit reply ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4654049 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] to Wikibooks, Koavf!</div> <!-- FIRST COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7;"> <div style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Crystal Clear app kedit.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''First steps tutorial'''</div> <div style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> '''Wikibooks is for [[WB:AGF|collaborative]] development of free&nbsp;[[WB:WIW|textbooks]].''' You do not need technical skills to [[Using Wikibooks|contribute]]. You can [[WB:BOLD|easily change most books]]. Please [[WB:CHAT|introduce yourself]], and let us know what [[WB:PROJECTS|interests you]]. If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our [[Wikibooks:Wikibooks for Wikimedians|Wikimedia Orientation]] should quickly get you started. </div> </div> <div style="clear:both; padding-right:1em; text-align:right; font-size:smaller">(Would you like to provide [[Template talk:Bigwelcome|feedback]] on this message?)</div> </div> <!-- SECOND COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Icon apps query.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Getting help'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Read the [[Using Wikibooks]] book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our [[Help:Contents|help pages]] for more information. * You can get friendly help from the community in the [[WB:HELP|user assistance room]] or our [[irc:wikibooks|IRC channel]]. * Upload freely licensed files to [[commons:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]]. You may [[WB:RFP|request permission]] to upload [[w:fair use|fair use]] files locally. Please include author and source {{tl|information}} and a {{nowrap|{{tl|non-free use rationale}}}} for [[WB:FU|non-free]] files. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #14304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Nuvola filesystems trashcan full.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Made a mistake?'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * You can [[WB:REVERT|restore]] a previously saved version. * Pages should follow the [[WB:NP|<code>'''Book Title/Chapter Title'''</code>]] naming convention. * Need to rename a page? Use the ''move'' tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for [[WB:HELP|help]]). * To request a page be deleted, add {{tlx|delete|''your reason''}} to the top of the page. * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the [[WB:DP|deletion policy]], and check the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]] to find out why. Also check the [[WB:RFD|RFD]] archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at [[WB:RFU]], or ask the administrator who deleted the page. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible selected" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Transmission icon.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Goodies, tips and tricks'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Please fill in [[WB:ES|the edit summary]] and [[WB:PREVIEW|preview]] your edits before saving. * Sign your name on [[WB:TALK|discussion pages]] by typing &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the ''Gadgets'' tab of [[Special:Preferences|''my preferences'']]; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit ''save''! </div> </div> <div style="text-align:right; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em;">Thanks. [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC)</div> </div> <div style="clear:both;"> </div> I see you've been editing for years but nobody has said Hi, so Hi! [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC) == Our confusing subject/category hierarchy == The way we've got things set up is less than ideal; it's grown up over the years as we've tried to make do with the wiki software we've been given. I can try to fix up a Subject:Anarchism for you later today (anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours from now). Here's an attempt to explain generally how it all works: * Each book has a ''book category'', which contains all the pages in that book (and also any templates specific to that book). * Each subject has a ''subject category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name that subject. * Each subject has an associated ''allbooks category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name either that subject, or any of its subsections. There are a series of pages that (unfortunately) have to be set up just right in order to make all that happen; it's a bit tricky. We really ''should'' have a full-blown interactive wizard for managing it all, but while we're waiting for that (I'm working on tools for building wizards, over at [[n:Help:Dialog|English Wikinews]]), it can be confusing. * '''''If''''' template {{tl|subjects}}, on the main page of a book,is given the name of a subject that has been set up just the way expected by our semi-automation, the template automatically lists the book under the named subject and all the ancestors of that subject. For example, I've now set up a [[Subject:Christianity]], so putting {{tlx|subjects|Christianity}} on a book's main page will now cause it to be listed in that subject, and also in [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]], [[Subject:Religion]], and [[Subject:Humanities]]. * Creating a category for a topic, such as [[:Category:Anarchism]], doesn't automatically set up an associated subject. * There ''is'' a way to get assistance with setting up a category, though it sure would be nice to have more assistance than it gives. I used this assistance to set up [[Subject:Christianity]] a few minutes ago, and, as I say, I'll try to do [[Subject:Anarchism]] soon. The trick is to edit the book's main page, add parameter "{{!}}diagnose=true" to the {{tl|subjects}} template, and preview the page; there's no need to save the page. If there's a "subject" page there that hasn't been set up properly, the preview presents you with a bunch of buttons for setting up the needed infrastructure pages. --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:09, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :{{Ping|Pi zero}} I figured out how ''some'' of that was working by tinkering myself. Thanks. My only concern was that there were existing categories which are more refined and better for navigation which you were emptying it out of. If you think a category is ''too'' refined and should be upmerged (and you may not think this), then discussion would be better. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:12, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :: Yeah, it can be awkward to decide when something is worth creating a child subject for, and when it's better to simply list it in the parent subject. I suppose it depends on how well-defined the child subject is, and how naturally it fits into the existing hierarchy. It ''usually'' wouldn't make sense, for instance, to create a subject just so that a single book could be put in it. :: When a non-subject category is passed to {{tl|subjects}}, so that the template is unable to list the book in subjects as it's supposed to, the template puts out a call for help by adding the book to [[:Category:Attention needed (allbooks)]]. Every once in a while I remember to go look there, and fix all the problems it reports. Usually this consists of changing parameters to the template, to put the book in subjects that have been set up rather than ones that haven't been set up. However, sometimes the subject really ''should'' be set up. As, for example, [[Subject:Christianity]]. I got partway into shifting listings to [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]] before my higher reasoning caught up with me and said, wait a minute, there are already child subjects for Islam and Judaism, why on Earth wouldn't there be one for Christianity? (This is my laughing at myself.) --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:32, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Pi zero}} Exactly: there is and will be enough material to warrant a division but maybe not for Rastafarianism (at least not now or soon). By the way, thanks for all the work you do wb and wn--they don't get enough attention as WMF projects. I can tell that you really want to improve them. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:34, 12 September 2014 (UTC) == Fonts == @PeterEasthope: Can you show me the page that you are editing? : Justin, the problem is now solved with module [[Oberon/A2/Oberon.MediaWiki.Mod]]. The module pages in Oberon are produced by that module. Regards, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 15:29, 15 January 2018 (UTC) == Color gradient == Hi. What means square bracket in : "[S]eparate the calculation phase from the colouring phase"—Claude Heiland-Allen ? --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:13, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Adam majewski}} I don't know; I didn't add the quote. :/ It does seem unhelpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :: Yes, but you have add bracket : "Latest revision as of 18:04, 1 March 2020 (edit) (undo) (thank) Koavf (discuss | contribs) rollback 1 edit" --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:50, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Adam majewski}} Oh, you are just asking about the bracket? Sorry. I added that because in English, it is common to add brackets at the beginning of lines where you only have part of a quotation. The quotation here has no punctuation and doesn't seem to be a complete thought, so I just assumed that it's a quotation from mid-sentence. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:53, 2 March 2020 (UTC) == Mathematics(about lines ,areas and volumes) == Let's start with the notion of a point that is considered as the most fundamental thing of Eucledian geometry .what is a point? You heard that point has position but it has no length ,neither breadth nor width. Now let's discuss a little about unit(because it is must for further discussion). Now, what is unit ? You heard that when we measure a physical quantity, we have to a convenient part of the same quantity as documentary and this part is called unit. When measuring the quantity we only concern with the number of unit and specify the unit as letters or another symbols(say, a length of 3cm ,here 3 is the number of unit presented in the measurement and cm is the particular part that we take as unit).Remember this passage as it is helpful for further discussion. Now ,let's talk about lines . You heard that line is the combination of infinite points.But is this statement true? Hitherto we discussed about units ,there we take a unit as a convenient part of the same quantity. So ,is the property of line and point same? If we take the definition of line ,we heard line has length ,neither breadth nor width but a point has nothing but a position.so from definition their properties are not same ,the are different with their properties. Then ,how can a line be made of points? Now one can say, " One can find infinite points on line,then why shouldn't we take line as the combination of points?" It is also documentay. But we should think that from definition the point has no lenth then how can we form a length by combining points ?as one point has no length then how a few points can form a length? You will understand better by an example, take the shadow of an object ,will this shadow be thicker if we place the shadow of another object on it? No!! Then what is true ,a line is made of points or not? And if the line is not made of points then what is the connection between line and point? As we can find infinite points on a line. You should remember the whole discussion and relate this while compairing the line and area.in this also somebody say that area is made of infinite lines.This statement is controversial, too.As line has no breadth how lines make an area? And same controversy for volumes. You can think a point as a property of line at a position.And you should concern about this controversy. Thank you, for reading!! [[User:Debdut Guha|Debdut Guha]] ([[User talk:Debdut Guha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Debdut Guha|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) :Oh, okay. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) ==A new proposal== [[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|link=|alt=|left|48x48px]]Hi {{BASEPAGENAME}}, there is currently a proposal at [[: Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals]] for non-admins to be given the ability of <code> Suppress redirect</code> and <code> Move subpages</code>. Since you’ve been an active user on Wikibooks for the last thirty day, I thought you might join in by giving feedback/opinion or amendments. Thank you so much for your time [[User:Synoman Barris|Synoman Barris]] ([[User talk:Synoman Barris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Synoman Barris|contribs]]) 14:18, 14 September 2020 (UTC) == You should become an en.wiki admin. == Just curious why you are not. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:28, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Tgregtregretgtr}} I haven't been dedicated to this wiki in the past. No particular reason: it's a great idea and resource. There are just 24 hours in a day. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :: Koavf,I meant the English Wikipedia. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::Oh, well I had been nominated by others but displayed incompetence in the nominations. I also am blocked there at present for edit-warring. I'm hoping the community sees the value in me contributing in the future, but that's predicated on me having a clear plan for constructive editing that builds trust in other editors that I will act appropriately. Edit-warring is unacceptable, so I will have to show that I won't engage in it on en.wp and I haven't proven that to a sufficient amount yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:51, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::: On April 1st,Wikipedia will not make vandalism allowed. OK? [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 January 2022 (UTC) :::::It's never allowed. Were it allowed, it wouldn't be vandalism. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:06, 26 January 2022 (UTC) == Welcoming users == Hi, I see you left the welcome message in my user page back when I joined this wikimedia project. I’m interested in welcoming new users here. How do I go along doing that? Thanks in advance, -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 15:09, 18 January 2022 (UTC) :{{Ping|Gifnk dlm 2020}} I have only ever welcomed users as I've happened to find them, e.g. if a new user edits a page on my watchlist. If you want to make it a point to welcome new users, you can check [[Special:RecentChanges]] with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges?userExpLevel=newcomer&hidebots=1&hideWikibase=1&limit=1000&days=30&urlversion=2 these filters]. I generally only welcome someone who has actually made edits and not just anyone who creates an account, but you could do either. The {{tl|welcome}} template is helpful and particularly if you add some kind of personal message below substituting it. I'm glad you want to do outreach to others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:18, 18 January 2022 (UTC) ::Thank you very much! I will start welcoming users. -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 18:22, 18 January 2022 (UTC) == Recipe style guidelines == Hello! Your feedback would be welcome and appreciated at [[Cookbook_talk:Policy/Recipe_template#Style_guidelines]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:20, 24 November 2022 (UTC) == Hello == Hello to koavf.I read your comment and you suggested a few things. These were: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Craigslist, Fiver, Upwork, etc.* what are these [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 05:14, 2 September 2023 (UTC) :These are websites where you can list [[:w:en:want ads|want ads]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:19, 2 September 2023 (UTC) ::How to do it? [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 04:40, 3 September 2023 (UTC) :::The easiest to make a post on is https://craigslist.org/ I can't promise you will get any responses there either, but it's a little more likely than here at least. Good luck. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:44, 3 September 2023 (UTC) ::::Thank you,I really can't write my six books. [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 13:11, 3 September 2023 (UTC) == [[Special:Diff/4322625]] == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Sorry about that! I didn't realize that non-breaking spaces were important. I'm in the habit of removing odd/out of place characters. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:37, 6 September 2023 (UTC) :They're certainly helpful. Thanks for all you do, KC. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:50, 6 September 2023 (UTC) == Help bring a book over from the French wikibooks == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Since you contribute to many wmf-wikis as a functionary, I wonder if you can tell me what is the easiest way to bring the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over here from the French wikibooks. This book was written by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]] who : "holds a doctorate in political and social sciences, is a free-culture activist and is a lecturer in anthropology at UCLouvain University. He holds several administrative positions within the Wikimedia movement, which he has been observing in a participatory way since 2011. Before writing his doctoral thesis on the Wikimedia movement, he was the author of a master's thesis entitled [[Wikiversity:Fr:Culture fr Wikipedia|Culture fr Wikipedia]], in which he describes the organization of the free encyclopedia in French." Any help you can offer would be greatly appreciated. Thanks in advance, Also @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]], @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]], @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 19:12, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi {{re|Ottawahitech}}, it needs to be imported and then translated. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 20:19, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Mind if I take a look at it in a few days time? Sorry for the delay – uni exams rn are killing me. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 20:29, 12 March 2024 (UTC) ::It will need to be exported then imported using importupload (an XML file upload). It's not difficult, but you can find the session timing out if the file is particularly large. All admins have importupload rights here. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 22:40, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Always happy to help, but I don't have advanced permissions here. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:05, 13 March 2024 (UTC) : I guess others have answered the question. I would like to note that translation can also be done in userspace (By starting things at userspace or moving to there after import). Feel free to move to mainspace from userspace after translation is complete. Please also note that Wikibooks reviewers and admins can move pages without redirects (Please see [[special:UserGroupRights]] for details). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:28, 13 March 2024 (UTC) ::Thanks to all for contributing here. I am still fuzzy about the procedure for bringing the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over from the French wikibooks and translating it into English. ::I looked up [[Wikibooks:Requests for import]], is this where non-admin users are supposed to request help from an Admin (I guess importers cannot import books that are not written in English)? According to [[Help:Importing]], pages are imported to the ''Transwiki namespace'', but I am not sure what happens then, and where the translation from French to English is supposed to take place before the translated text can get merged into the existing skeleton set up by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]]. ::Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:26, 16 March 2024 (UTC) :::{{re|Ottawahitech}}, the process is as follows: :::* An admin or importer imports the book from fr.wikibooks (this must be done using external import aka importupload); users can request at [[WB:RFI]] among other venues. :::* the book now lives in the Transwiki namespace. This is an opportunity for the translation to take place. :::* Once the translation has taken place, the book is simply moved to namespace (or wherever the book is to be moved). :::[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 04:36, 17 March 2024 (UTC) == Re:Cats == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Just touching base re: [[Special:Diff/4480484]]—I didn't notice that you had just added that category when I removed it, so I hope it didn't come off as rude. The primary reason that page shouldn't have that category is because it's not a recipe page—it's an ingredient page. I'm also overhauling a bunch of cookbook categories in general to resolve several persistent issues that have cropped up over the years. Cheers! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:35, 8 March 2025 (UTC) :Not at all, KC. I saw that you were clearly removing entries from the category for deletion. I could never judge you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:37, 8 March 2025 (UTC) == I have a little problem :Linear Algebra and the C Language == I have a small problem with my book, can you help me? Thank you. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linear_Algebra_and_the_C_Language [[User:Xhungab|Xhungab]] ([[User talk:Xhungab|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xhungab|contribs]]) 08:38, 18 October 2025 (UTC) == Email == I sent you an email, feel free to take a look. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:34, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == The Elements Wikijunior book == I closed a discussion that there is no consensus–there was one in favor and one against, but there is no clear consensus to feature The Elements on the main page. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:20, 11 July 2026 (UTC) : However, since you implemented the functions to feature the book, I wouldn't try to reverse or fight against it since it's done. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:25, 11 July 2026 (UTC) mwscqotnrt93q3xzla52i2zdu1popk1 4654052 4654049 2026-07-11T18:52:06Z Koavf 16549 /* The Elements Wikijunior book */ Reply 4654052 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] to Wikibooks, Koavf!</div> <!-- FIRST COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7;"> <div style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Crystal Clear app kedit.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''First steps tutorial'''</div> <div style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> '''Wikibooks is for [[WB:AGF|collaborative]] development of free&nbsp;[[WB:WIW|textbooks]].''' You do not need technical skills to [[Using Wikibooks|contribute]]. You can [[WB:BOLD|easily change most books]]. Please [[WB:CHAT|introduce yourself]], and let us know what [[WB:PROJECTS|interests you]]. If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our [[Wikibooks:Wikibooks for Wikimedians|Wikimedia Orientation]] should quickly get you started. </div> </div> <div style="clear:both; padding-right:1em; text-align:right; font-size:smaller">(Would you like to provide [[Template talk:Bigwelcome|feedback]] on this message?)</div> </div> <!-- SECOND COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Icon apps query.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Getting help'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Read the [[Using Wikibooks]] book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our [[Help:Contents|help pages]] for more information. * You can get friendly help from the community in the [[WB:HELP|user assistance room]] or our [[irc:wikibooks|IRC channel]]. * Upload freely licensed files to [[commons:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]]. You may [[WB:RFP|request permission]] to upload [[w:fair use|fair use]] files locally. Please include author and source {{tl|information}} and a {{nowrap|{{tl|non-free use rationale}}}} for [[WB:FU|non-free]] files. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #14304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Nuvola filesystems trashcan full.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Made a mistake?'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * You can [[WB:REVERT|restore]] a previously saved version. * Pages should follow the [[WB:NP|<code>'''Book Title/Chapter Title'''</code>]] naming convention. * Need to rename a page? Use the ''move'' tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for [[WB:HELP|help]]). * To request a page be deleted, add {{tlx|delete|''your reason''}} to the top of the page. * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the [[WB:DP|deletion policy]], and check the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]] to find out why. Also check the [[WB:RFD|RFD]] archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at [[WB:RFU]], or ask the administrator who deleted the page. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible selected" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Transmission icon.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Goodies, tips and tricks'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Please fill in [[WB:ES|the edit summary]] and [[WB:PREVIEW|preview]] your edits before saving. * Sign your name on [[WB:TALK|discussion pages]] by typing &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the ''Gadgets'' tab of [[Special:Preferences|''my preferences'']]; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit ''save''! </div> </div> <div style="text-align:right; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em;">Thanks. [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC)</div> </div> <div style="clear:both;"> </div> I see you've been editing for years but nobody has said Hi, so Hi! [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC) == Our confusing subject/category hierarchy == The way we've got things set up is less than ideal; it's grown up over the years as we've tried to make do with the wiki software we've been given. I can try to fix up a Subject:Anarchism for you later today (anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours from now). Here's an attempt to explain generally how it all works: * Each book has a ''book category'', which contains all the pages in that book (and also any templates specific to that book). * Each subject has a ''subject category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name that subject. * Each subject has an associated ''allbooks category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name either that subject, or any of its subsections. There are a series of pages that (unfortunately) have to be set up just right in order to make all that happen; it's a bit tricky. We really ''should'' have a full-blown interactive wizard for managing it all, but while we're waiting for that (I'm working on tools for building wizards, over at [[n:Help:Dialog|English Wikinews]]), it can be confusing. * '''''If''''' template {{tl|subjects}}, on the main page of a book,is given the name of a subject that has been set up just the way expected by our semi-automation, the template automatically lists the book under the named subject and all the ancestors of that subject. For example, I've now set up a [[Subject:Christianity]], so putting {{tlx|subjects|Christianity}} on a book's main page will now cause it to be listed in that subject, and also in [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]], [[Subject:Religion]], and [[Subject:Humanities]]. * Creating a category for a topic, such as [[:Category:Anarchism]], doesn't automatically set up an associated subject. * There ''is'' a way to get assistance with setting up a category, though it sure would be nice to have more assistance than it gives. I used this assistance to set up [[Subject:Christianity]] a few minutes ago, and, as I say, I'll try to do [[Subject:Anarchism]] soon. The trick is to edit the book's main page, add parameter "{{!}}diagnose=true" to the {{tl|subjects}} template, and preview the page; there's no need to save the page. If there's a "subject" page there that hasn't been set up properly, the preview presents you with a bunch of buttons for setting up the needed infrastructure pages. --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:09, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :{{Ping|Pi zero}} I figured out how ''some'' of that was working by tinkering myself. Thanks. My only concern was that there were existing categories which are more refined and better for navigation which you were emptying it out of. If you think a category is ''too'' refined and should be upmerged (and you may not think this), then discussion would be better. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:12, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :: Yeah, it can be awkward to decide when something is worth creating a child subject for, and when it's better to simply list it in the parent subject. I suppose it depends on how well-defined the child subject is, and how naturally it fits into the existing hierarchy. It ''usually'' wouldn't make sense, for instance, to create a subject just so that a single book could be put in it. :: When a non-subject category is passed to {{tl|subjects}}, so that the template is unable to list the book in subjects as it's supposed to, the template puts out a call for help by adding the book to [[:Category:Attention needed (allbooks)]]. Every once in a while I remember to go look there, and fix all the problems it reports. Usually this consists of changing parameters to the template, to put the book in subjects that have been set up rather than ones that haven't been set up. However, sometimes the subject really ''should'' be set up. As, for example, [[Subject:Christianity]]. I got partway into shifting listings to [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]] before my higher reasoning caught up with me and said, wait a minute, there are already child subjects for Islam and Judaism, why on Earth wouldn't there be one for Christianity? (This is my laughing at myself.) --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:32, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Pi zero}} Exactly: there is and will be enough material to warrant a division but maybe not for Rastafarianism (at least not now or soon). By the way, thanks for all the work you do wb and wn--they don't get enough attention as WMF projects. I can tell that you really want to improve them. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:34, 12 September 2014 (UTC) == Fonts == @PeterEasthope: Can you show me the page that you are editing? : Justin, the problem is now solved with module [[Oberon/A2/Oberon.MediaWiki.Mod]]. The module pages in Oberon are produced by that module. Regards, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 15:29, 15 January 2018 (UTC) == Color gradient == Hi. What means square bracket in : "[S]eparate the calculation phase from the colouring phase"—Claude Heiland-Allen ? --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:13, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Adam majewski}} I don't know; I didn't add the quote. :/ It does seem unhelpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :: Yes, but you have add bracket : "Latest revision as of 18:04, 1 March 2020 (edit) (undo) (thank) Koavf (discuss | contribs) rollback 1 edit" --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:50, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Adam majewski}} Oh, you are just asking about the bracket? Sorry. I added that because in English, it is common to add brackets at the beginning of lines where you only have part of a quotation. The quotation here has no punctuation and doesn't seem to be a complete thought, so I just assumed that it's a quotation from mid-sentence. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:53, 2 March 2020 (UTC) == Mathematics(about lines ,areas and volumes) == Let's start with the notion of a point that is considered as the most fundamental thing of Eucledian geometry .what is a point? You heard that point has position but it has no length ,neither breadth nor width. Now let's discuss a little about unit(because it is must for further discussion). Now, what is unit ? You heard that when we measure a physical quantity, we have to a convenient part of the same quantity as documentary and this part is called unit. When measuring the quantity we only concern with the number of unit and specify the unit as letters or another symbols(say, a length of 3cm ,here 3 is the number of unit presented in the measurement and cm is the particular part that we take as unit).Remember this passage as it is helpful for further discussion. Now ,let's talk about lines . You heard that line is the combination of infinite points.But is this statement true? Hitherto we discussed about units ,there we take a unit as a convenient part of the same quantity. So ,is the property of line and point same? If we take the definition of line ,we heard line has length ,neither breadth nor width but a point has nothing but a position.so from definition their properties are not same ,the are different with their properties. Then ,how can a line be made of points? Now one can say, " One can find infinite points on line,then why shouldn't we take line as the combination of points?" It is also documentay. But we should think that from definition the point has no lenth then how can we form a length by combining points ?as one point has no length then how a few points can form a length? You will understand better by an example, take the shadow of an object ,will this shadow be thicker if we place the shadow of another object on it? No!! Then what is true ,a line is made of points or not? And if the line is not made of points then what is the connection between line and point? As we can find infinite points on a line. You should remember the whole discussion and relate this while compairing the line and area.in this also somebody say that area is made of infinite lines.This statement is controversial, too.As line has no breadth how lines make an area? And same controversy for volumes. You can think a point as a property of line at a position.And you should concern about this controversy. Thank you, for reading!! [[User:Debdut Guha|Debdut Guha]] ([[User talk:Debdut Guha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Debdut Guha|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) :Oh, okay. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) ==A new proposal== [[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|link=|alt=|left|48x48px]]Hi {{BASEPAGENAME}}, there is currently a proposal at [[: Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals]] for non-admins to be given the ability of <code> Suppress redirect</code> and <code> Move subpages</code>. Since you’ve been an active user on Wikibooks for the last thirty day, I thought you might join in by giving feedback/opinion or amendments. Thank you so much for your time [[User:Synoman Barris|Synoman Barris]] ([[User talk:Synoman Barris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Synoman Barris|contribs]]) 14:18, 14 September 2020 (UTC) == You should become an en.wiki admin. == Just curious why you are not. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:28, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Tgregtregretgtr}} I haven't been dedicated to this wiki in the past. No particular reason: it's a great idea and resource. There are just 24 hours in a day. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :: Koavf,I meant the English Wikipedia. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::Oh, well I had been nominated by others but displayed incompetence in the nominations. I also am blocked there at present for edit-warring. I'm hoping the community sees the value in me contributing in the future, but that's predicated on me having a clear plan for constructive editing that builds trust in other editors that I will act appropriately. Edit-warring is unacceptable, so I will have to show that I won't engage in it on en.wp and I haven't proven that to a sufficient amount yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:51, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::: On April 1st,Wikipedia will not make vandalism allowed. OK? [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 January 2022 (UTC) :::::It's never allowed. Were it allowed, it wouldn't be vandalism. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:06, 26 January 2022 (UTC) == Welcoming users == Hi, I see you left the welcome message in my user page back when I joined this wikimedia project. I’m interested in welcoming new users here. How do I go along doing that? Thanks in advance, -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 15:09, 18 January 2022 (UTC) :{{Ping|Gifnk dlm 2020}} I have only ever welcomed users as I've happened to find them, e.g. if a new user edits a page on my watchlist. If you want to make it a point to welcome new users, you can check [[Special:RecentChanges]] with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges?userExpLevel=newcomer&hidebots=1&hideWikibase=1&limit=1000&days=30&urlversion=2 these filters]. I generally only welcome someone who has actually made edits and not just anyone who creates an account, but you could do either. The {{tl|welcome}} template is helpful and particularly if you add some kind of personal message below substituting it. I'm glad you want to do outreach to others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:18, 18 January 2022 (UTC) ::Thank you very much! I will start welcoming users. -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 18:22, 18 January 2022 (UTC) == Recipe style guidelines == Hello! Your feedback would be welcome and appreciated at [[Cookbook_talk:Policy/Recipe_template#Style_guidelines]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:20, 24 November 2022 (UTC) == Hello == Hello to koavf.I read your comment and you suggested a few things. These were: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Craigslist, Fiver, Upwork, etc.* what are these [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 05:14, 2 September 2023 (UTC) :These are websites where you can list [[:w:en:want ads|want ads]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:19, 2 September 2023 (UTC) ::How to do it? [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 04:40, 3 September 2023 (UTC) :::The easiest to make a post on is https://craigslist.org/ I can't promise you will get any responses there either, but it's a little more likely than here at least. Good luck. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:44, 3 September 2023 (UTC) ::::Thank you,I really can't write my six books. [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 13:11, 3 September 2023 (UTC) == [[Special:Diff/4322625]] == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Sorry about that! I didn't realize that non-breaking spaces were important. I'm in the habit of removing odd/out of place characters. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:37, 6 September 2023 (UTC) :They're certainly helpful. Thanks for all you do, KC. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:50, 6 September 2023 (UTC) == Help bring a book over from the French wikibooks == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Since you contribute to many wmf-wikis as a functionary, I wonder if you can tell me what is the easiest way to bring the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over here from the French wikibooks. This book was written by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]] who : "holds a doctorate in political and social sciences, is a free-culture activist and is a lecturer in anthropology at UCLouvain University. He holds several administrative positions within the Wikimedia movement, which he has been observing in a participatory way since 2011. Before writing his doctoral thesis on the Wikimedia movement, he was the author of a master's thesis entitled [[Wikiversity:Fr:Culture fr Wikipedia|Culture fr Wikipedia]], in which he describes the organization of the free encyclopedia in French." Any help you can offer would be greatly appreciated. Thanks in advance, Also @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]], @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]], @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 19:12, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi {{re|Ottawahitech}}, it needs to be imported and then translated. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 20:19, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Mind if I take a look at it in a few days time? Sorry for the delay – uni exams rn are killing me. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 20:29, 12 March 2024 (UTC) ::It will need to be exported then imported using importupload (an XML file upload). It's not difficult, but you can find the session timing out if the file is particularly large. All admins have importupload rights here. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 22:40, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Always happy to help, but I don't have advanced permissions here. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:05, 13 March 2024 (UTC) : I guess others have answered the question. I would like to note that translation can also be done in userspace (By starting things at userspace or moving to there after import). Feel free to move to mainspace from userspace after translation is complete. Please also note that Wikibooks reviewers and admins can move pages without redirects (Please see [[special:UserGroupRights]] for details). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:28, 13 March 2024 (UTC) ::Thanks to all for contributing here. I am still fuzzy about the procedure for bringing the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over from the French wikibooks and translating it into English. ::I looked up [[Wikibooks:Requests for import]], is this where non-admin users are supposed to request help from an Admin (I guess importers cannot import books that are not written in English)? According to [[Help:Importing]], pages are imported to the ''Transwiki namespace'', but I am not sure what happens then, and where the translation from French to English is supposed to take place before the translated text can get merged into the existing skeleton set up by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]]. ::Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:26, 16 March 2024 (UTC) :::{{re|Ottawahitech}}, the process is as follows: :::* An admin or importer imports the book from fr.wikibooks (this must be done using external import aka importupload); users can request at [[WB:RFI]] among other venues. :::* the book now lives in the Transwiki namespace. This is an opportunity for the translation to take place. :::* Once the translation has taken place, the book is simply moved to namespace (or wherever the book is to be moved). :::[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 04:36, 17 March 2024 (UTC) == Re:Cats == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Just touching base re: [[Special:Diff/4480484]]—I didn't notice that you had just added that category when I removed it, so I hope it didn't come off as rude. The primary reason that page shouldn't have that category is because it's not a recipe page—it's an ingredient page. I'm also overhauling a bunch of cookbook categories in general to resolve several persistent issues that have cropped up over the years. Cheers! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:35, 8 March 2025 (UTC) :Not at all, KC. I saw that you were clearly removing entries from the category for deletion. I could never judge you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:37, 8 March 2025 (UTC) == I have a little problem :Linear Algebra and the C Language == I have a small problem with my book, can you help me? Thank you. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linear_Algebra_and_the_C_Language [[User:Xhungab|Xhungab]] ([[User talk:Xhungab|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xhungab|contribs]]) 08:38, 18 October 2025 (UTC) == Email == I sent you an email, feel free to take a look. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:34, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == The Elements Wikijunior book == I closed a discussion that there is no consensus–there was one in favor and one against, but there is no clear consensus to feature The Elements on the main page. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:20, 11 July 2026 (UTC) : However, since you implemented the functions to feature the book, I wouldn't try to reverse or fight against it since it's done. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:25, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::Oh boy, yeesh. What a screw up. Let me fix that immediately. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:52, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ra7ad6jjkfor64vna83dvx1i0hsr2ix 4654058 4654052 2026-07-11T18:54:40Z Koavf 16549 /* The Elements Wikijunior book */ Reply 4654058 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align:center; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[Wikibooks:Welcome|Welcome]] to Wikibooks, Koavf!</div> <!-- FIRST COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7;"> <div style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Crystal Clear app kedit.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''First steps tutorial'''</div> <div style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> '''Wikibooks is for [[WB:AGF|collaborative]] development of free&nbsp;[[WB:WIW|textbooks]].''' You do not need technical skills to [[Using Wikibooks|contribute]]. You can [[WB:BOLD|easily change most books]]. Please [[WB:CHAT|introduce yourself]], and let us know what [[WB:PROJECTS|interests you]]. If you already contribute at other Wikimedia projects, our [[Wikibooks:Wikibooks for Wikimedians|Wikimedia Orientation]] should quickly get you started. </div> </div> <div style="clear:both; padding-right:1em; text-align:right; font-size:smaller">(Would you like to provide [[Template talk:Bigwelcome|feedback]] on this message?)</div> </div> <!-- SECOND COLUMN --> <div style="width:49.5%; float:left; margin:0em; padding:0em;"> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Icon apps query.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Getting help'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Read the [[Using Wikibooks]] book for a friendly introduction to the project, or our [[Help:Contents|help pages]] for more information. * You can get friendly help from the community in the [[WB:HELP|user assistance room]] or our [[irc:wikibooks|IRC channel]]. * Upload freely licensed files to [[commons:Wikimedia Commons|Wikimedia Commons]]. You may [[WB:RFP|request permission]] to upload [[w:fair use|fair use]] files locally. Please include author and source {{tl|information}} and a {{nowrap|{{tl|non-free use rationale}}}} for [[WB:FU|non-free]] files. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #14304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Nuvola filesystems trashcan full.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Made a mistake?'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * You can [[WB:REVERT|restore]] a previously saved version. * Pages should follow the [[WB:NP|<code>'''Book Title/Chapter Title'''</code>]] naming convention. * Need to rename a page? Use the ''move'' tab (is available once your account is 4 days old - until then, ask for [[WB:HELP|help]]). * To request a page be deleted, add {{tlx|delete|''your reason''}} to the top of the page. * Was a page you made deleted? Please read the [[WB:DP|deletion policy]], and check the [[Special:Log/delete|deletion log]] to find out why. Also check the [[WB:RFD|RFD]] archives if applicable. You can request undeletion at [[WB:RFU]], or ask the administrator who deleted the page. </div> </div> <div class="collapsible selected" style="margin:0.2em; border:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#f4eed7; text-align:left;"> <div class="title" style="border-bottom:1px solid #15304f; background-color:#89b5e7; padding:0.2em 0.5em; font-size:110%; font-weight:bold;">[[File:Transmission icon.png|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Goodies, tips and tricks'''</div> <div class="NavContent" style="padding:0.4em 1em 0.3em 1em;"> * Please fill in [[WB:ES|the edit summary]] and [[WB:PREVIEW|preview]] your edits before saving. * Sign your name on [[WB:TALK|discussion pages]] by typing &#126;&#126;&#126;&#126; * User scripts can make many tasks easier. Look at the ''Gadgets'' tab of [[Special:Preferences|''my preferences'']]; check off the boxes for the scripts you want, and hit ''save''! </div> </div> <div style="text-align:right; padding:0.2em 0.5em 0.2em 0.5em;">Thanks. [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC)</div> </div> <div style="clear:both;"> </div> I see you've been editing for years but nobody has said Hi, so Hi! [[User:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#E66C2C">'''QU'''</span>]] <sup>[[User talk:QuiteUnusual|<span style="color:#306754">TalkQu</span>]]</sup> 08:04, 19 April 2012 (UTC) == Our confusing subject/category hierarchy == The way we've got things set up is less than ideal; it's grown up over the years as we've tried to make do with the wiki software we've been given. I can try to fix up a Subject:Anarchism for you later today (anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours from now). Here's an attempt to explain generally how it all works: * Each book has a ''book category'', which contains all the pages in that book (and also any templates specific to that book). * Each subject has a ''subject category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name that subject. * Each subject has an associated ''allbooks category'', which contains the main pages of all the books that explicitly name either that subject, or any of its subsections. There are a series of pages that (unfortunately) have to be set up just right in order to make all that happen; it's a bit tricky. We really ''should'' have a full-blown interactive wizard for managing it all, but while we're waiting for that (I'm working on tools for building wizards, over at [[n:Help:Dialog|English Wikinews]]), it can be confusing. * '''''If''''' template {{tl|subjects}}, on the main page of a book,is given the name of a subject that has been set up just the way expected by our semi-automation, the template automatically lists the book under the named subject and all the ancestors of that subject. For example, I've now set up a [[Subject:Christianity]], so putting {{tlx|subjects|Christianity}} on a book's main page will now cause it to be listed in that subject, and also in [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]], [[Subject:Religion]], and [[Subject:Humanities]]. * Creating a category for a topic, such as [[:Category:Anarchism]], doesn't automatically set up an associated subject. * There ''is'' a way to get assistance with setting up a category, though it sure would be nice to have more assistance than it gives. I used this assistance to set up [[Subject:Christianity]] a few minutes ago, and, as I say, I'll try to do [[Subject:Anarchism]] soon. The trick is to edit the book's main page, add parameter "{{!}}diagnose=true" to the {{tl|subjects}} template, and preview the page; there's no need to save the page. If there's a "subject" page there that hasn't been set up properly, the preview presents you with a bunch of buttons for setting up the needed infrastructure pages. --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:09, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :{{Ping|Pi zero}} I figured out how ''some'' of that was working by tinkering myself. Thanks. My only concern was that there were existing categories which are more refined and better for navigation which you were emptying it out of. If you think a category is ''too'' refined and should be upmerged (and you may not think this), then discussion would be better. Thanks. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:12, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :: Yeah, it can be awkward to decide when something is worth creating a child subject for, and when it's better to simply list it in the parent subject. I suppose it depends on how well-defined the child subject is, and how naturally it fits into the existing hierarchy. It ''usually'' wouldn't make sense, for instance, to create a subject just so that a single book could be put in it. :: When a non-subject category is passed to {{tl|subjects}}, so that the template is unable to list the book in subjects as it's supposed to, the template puts out a call for help by adding the book to [[:Category:Attention needed (allbooks)]]. Every once in a while I remember to go look there, and fix all the problems it reports. Usually this consists of changing parameters to the template, to put the book in subjects that have been set up rather than ones that haven't been set up. However, sometimes the subject really ''should'' be set up. As, for example, [[Subject:Christianity]]. I got partway into shifting listings to [[Subject:Abrahamic religions]] before my higher reasoning caught up with me and said, wait a minute, there are already child subjects for Islam and Judaism, why on Earth wouldn't there be one for Christianity? (This is my laughing at myself.) --[[User:Pi zero|Pi zero]] ([[User talk:Pi zero|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Pi zero|contribs]]) 15:32, 12 September 2014 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Pi zero}} Exactly: there is and will be enough material to warrant a division but maybe not for Rastafarianism (at least not now or soon). By the way, thanks for all the work you do wb and wn--they don't get enough attention as WMF projects. I can tell that you really want to improve them. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 15:34, 12 September 2014 (UTC) == Fonts == @PeterEasthope: Can you show me the page that you are editing? : Justin, the problem is now solved with module [[Oberon/A2/Oberon.MediaWiki.Mod]]. The module pages in Oberon are produced by that module. Regards, ... [[User:PeterEasthope|PeterEasthope]] ([[User talk:PeterEasthope|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/PeterEasthope|contribs]]) 15:29, 15 January 2018 (UTC) == Color gradient == Hi. What means square bracket in : "[S]eparate the calculation phase from the colouring phase"—Claude Heiland-Allen ? --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:13, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :{{Ping|Adam majewski}} I don't know; I didn't add the quote. :/ It does seem unhelpful. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:14, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :: Yes, but you have add bracket : "Latest revision as of 18:04, 1 March 2020 (edit) (undo) (thank) Koavf (discuss | contribs) rollback 1 edit" --[[User:Adam majewski|Adam majewski]] ([[User talk:Adam majewski|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Adam majewski|contribs]]) 16:50, 2 March 2020 (UTC) :::{{Ping|Adam majewski}} Oh, you are just asking about the bracket? Sorry. I added that because in English, it is common to add brackets at the beginning of lines where you only have part of a quotation. The quotation here has no punctuation and doesn't seem to be a complete thought, so I just assumed that it's a quotation from mid-sentence. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:53, 2 March 2020 (UTC) == Mathematics(about lines ,areas and volumes) == Let's start with the notion of a point that is considered as the most fundamental thing of Eucledian geometry .what is a point? You heard that point has position but it has no length ,neither breadth nor width. Now let's discuss a little about unit(because it is must for further discussion). Now, what is unit ? You heard that when we measure a physical quantity, we have to a convenient part of the same quantity as documentary and this part is called unit. When measuring the quantity we only concern with the number of unit and specify the unit as letters or another symbols(say, a length of 3cm ,here 3 is the number of unit presented in the measurement and cm is the particular part that we take as unit).Remember this passage as it is helpful for further discussion. Now ,let's talk about lines . You heard that line is the combination of infinite points.But is this statement true? Hitherto we discussed about units ,there we take a unit as a convenient part of the same quantity. So ,is the property of line and point same? If we take the definition of line ,we heard line has length ,neither breadth nor width but a point has nothing but a position.so from definition their properties are not same ,the are different with their properties. Then ,how can a line be made of points? Now one can say, " One can find infinite points on line,then why shouldn't we take line as the combination of points?" It is also documentay. But we should think that from definition the point has no lenth then how can we form a length by combining points ?as one point has no length then how a few points can form a length? You will understand better by an example, take the shadow of an object ,will this shadow be thicker if we place the shadow of another object on it? No!! Then what is true ,a line is made of points or not? And if the line is not made of points then what is the connection between line and point? As we can find infinite points on a line. You should remember the whole discussion and relate this while compairing the line and area.in this also somebody say that area is made of infinite lines.This statement is controversial, too.As line has no breadth how lines make an area? And same controversy for volumes. You can think a point as a property of line at a position.And you should concern about this controversy. Thank you, for reading!! [[User:Debdut Guha|Debdut Guha]] ([[User talk:Debdut Guha|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Debdut Guha|contribs]]) 03:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) :Oh, okay. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:20, 15 July 2020 (UTC) ==A new proposal== [[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|link=|alt=|left|48x48px]]Hi {{BASEPAGENAME}}, there is currently a proposal at [[: Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals]] for non-admins to be given the ability of <code> Suppress redirect</code> and <code> Move subpages</code>. Since you’ve been an active user on Wikibooks for the last thirty day, I thought you might join in by giving feedback/opinion or amendments. Thank you so much for your time [[User:Synoman Barris|Synoman Barris]] ([[User talk:Synoman Barris|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Synoman Barris|contribs]]) 14:18, 14 September 2020 (UTC) == You should become an en.wiki admin. == Just curious why you are not. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:28, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :{{ping|Tgregtregretgtr}} I haven't been dedicated to this wiki in the past. No particular reason: it's a great idea and resource. There are just 24 hours in a day. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :: Koavf,I meant the English Wikipedia. [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:42, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::Oh, well I had been nominated by others but displayed incompetence in the nominations. I also am blocked there at present for edit-warring. I'm hoping the community sees the value in me contributing in the future, but that's predicated on me having a clear plan for constructive editing that builds trust in other editors that I will act appropriately. Edit-warring is unacceptable, so I will have to show that I won't engage in it on en.wp and I haven't proven that to a sufficient amount yet. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:51, 17 January 2022 (UTC) :::: On April 1st,Wikipedia will not make vandalism allowed. OK? [[User:Tgregtregretgtr|T. Gregtregretgtr]] ([[User talk:Tgregtregretgtr|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Tgregtregretgtr|contribs]]) 23:57, 25 January 2022 (UTC) :::::It's never allowed. Were it allowed, it wouldn't be vandalism. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:06, 26 January 2022 (UTC) == Welcoming users == Hi, I see you left the welcome message in my user page back when I joined this wikimedia project. I’m interested in welcoming new users here. How do I go along doing that? Thanks in advance, -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 15:09, 18 January 2022 (UTC) :{{Ping|Gifnk dlm 2020}} I have only ever welcomed users as I've happened to find them, e.g. if a new user edits a page on my watchlist. If you want to make it a point to welcome new users, you can check [[Special:RecentChanges]] with [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:RecentChanges?userExpLevel=newcomer&hidebots=1&hideWikibase=1&limit=1000&days=30&urlversion=2 these filters]. I generally only welcome someone who has actually made edits and not just anyone who creates an account, but you could do either. The {{tl|welcome}} template is helpful and particularly if you add some kind of personal message below substituting it. I'm glad you want to do outreach to others. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:18, 18 January 2022 (UTC) ::Thank you very much! I will start welcoming users. -[[User:Gifnk dlm 2020|Gifnk dlm 2020]] <span style="color:purple;">From Middle English Wikipedia</span> 📜📖💻 ([[User talk:Gifnk dlm 2020|talk]]) 18:22, 18 January 2022 (UTC) == Recipe style guidelines == Hello! Your feedback would be welcome and appreciated at [[Cookbook_talk:Policy/Recipe_template#Style_guidelines]]. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:20, 24 November 2022 (UTC) == Hello == Hello to koavf.I read your comment and you suggested a few things. These were: <nowiki>*</nowiki>Craigslist, Fiver, Upwork, etc.* what are these [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 05:14, 2 September 2023 (UTC) :These are websites where you can list [[:w:en:want ads|want ads]]. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:19, 2 September 2023 (UTC) ::How to do it? [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 04:40, 3 September 2023 (UTC) :::The easiest to make a post on is https://craigslist.org/ I can't promise you will get any responses there either, but it's a little more likely than here at least. Good luck. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:44, 3 September 2023 (UTC) ::::Thank you,I really can't write my six books. [[User:Germany Poul Ah|Germany Poul Ah]] ([[User talk:Germany Poul Ah|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Germany Poul Ah|contribs]]) 13:11, 3 September 2023 (UTC) == [[Special:Diff/4322625]] == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Sorry about that! I didn't realize that non-breaking spaces were important. I'm in the habit of removing odd/out of place characters. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:37, 6 September 2023 (UTC) :They're certainly helpful. Thanks for all you do, KC. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 04:50, 6 September 2023 (UTC) == Help bring a book over from the French wikibooks == Hi {{PAGENAME}}, Since you contribute to many wmf-wikis as a functionary, I wonder if you can tell me what is the easiest way to bring the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over here from the French wikibooks. This book was written by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]] who : "holds a doctorate in political and social sciences, is a free-culture activist and is a lecturer in anthropology at UCLouvain University. He holds several administrative positions within the Wikimedia movement, which he has been observing in a participatory way since 2011. Before writing his doctoral thesis on the Wikimedia movement, he was the author of a master's thesis entitled [[Wikiversity:Fr:Culture fr Wikipedia|Culture fr Wikipedia]], in which he describes the organization of the free encyclopedia in French." Any help you can offer would be greatly appreciated. Thanks in advance, Also @[[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]], @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]], @[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]], @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]], @[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]], @[[User:Xania|Xania]], @[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 19:12, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Hi {{re|Ottawahitech}}, it needs to be imported and then translated. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 20:19, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Mind if I take a look at it in a few days time? Sorry for the delay – uni exams rn are killing me. --[[User:SHB2000|SHB2000]] ([[User talk:SHB2000|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB2000|contribs]]) 20:29, 12 March 2024 (UTC) ::It will need to be exported then imported using importupload (an XML file upload). It's not difficult, but you can find the session timing out if the file is particularly large. All admins have importupload rights here. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 22:40, 12 March 2024 (UTC) :Always happy to help, but I don't have advanced permissions here. :/ —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:05, 13 March 2024 (UTC) : I guess others have answered the question. I would like to note that translation can also be done in userspace (By starting things at userspace or moving to there after import). Feel free to move to mainspace from userspace after translation is complete. Please also note that Wikibooks reviewers and admins can move pages without redirects (Please see [[special:UserGroupRights]] for details). [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 01:28, 13 March 2024 (UTC) ::Thanks to all for contributing here. I am still fuzzy about the procedure for bringing the book [[The Wikimedia movement]] over from the French wikibooks and translating it into English. ::I looked up [[Wikibooks:Requests for import]], is this where non-admin users are supposed to request help from an Admin (I guess importers cannot import books that are not written in English)? According to [[Help:Importing]], pages are imported to the ''Transwiki namespace'', but I am not sure what happens then, and where the translation from French to English is supposed to take place before the translated text can get merged into the existing skeleton set up by [[User:Lionel Scheepmans]]. ::Thanks in advance, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 17:26, 16 March 2024 (UTC) :::{{re|Ottawahitech}}, the process is as follows: :::* An admin or importer imports the book from fr.wikibooks (this must be done using external import aka importupload); users can request at [[WB:RFI]] among other venues. :::* the book now lives in the Transwiki namespace. This is an opportunity for the translation to take place. :::* Once the translation has taken place, the book is simply moved to namespace (or wherever the book is to be moved). :::[[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 04:36, 17 March 2024 (UTC) == Re:Cats == Hi @[[User:Koavf|Koavf]]! Just touching base re: [[Special:Diff/4480484]]—I didn't notice that you had just added that category when I removed it, so I hope it didn't come off as rude. The primary reason that page shouldn't have that category is because it's not a recipe page—it's an ingredient page. I'm also overhauling a bunch of cookbook categories in general to resolve several persistent issues that have cropped up over the years. Cheers! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 23:35, 8 March 2025 (UTC) :Not at all, KC. I saw that you were clearly removing entries from the category for deletion. I could never judge you. —[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''vf</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:37, 8 March 2025 (UTC) == I have a little problem :Linear Algebra and the C Language == I have a small problem with my book, can you help me? Thank you. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Linear_Algebra_and_the_C_Language [[User:Xhungab|Xhungab]] ([[User talk:Xhungab|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Xhungab|contribs]]) 08:38, 18 October 2025 (UTC) == Email == I sent you an email, feel free to take a look. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 02:34, 3 July 2026 (UTC) == The Elements Wikijunior book == I closed a discussion that there is no consensus–there was one in favor and one against, but there is no clear consensus to feature The Elements on the main page. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:20, 11 July 2026 (UTC) : However, since you implemented the functions to feature the book, I wouldn't try to reverse or fight against it since it's done. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 18:25, 11 July 2026 (UTC) ::Oh boy, yeesh. What a screw up. Let me fix that immediately. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:52, 11 July 2026 (UTC) :::Yikes. This is what happens when I decide as soon as I wake up, "I'll help!". Reading comprehension is important. Thanks/sorry. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 18:54, 11 July 2026 (UTC) 3v114o1nw2lyjco8nul84v0piqkesnt 2 290008 4654001 4647669 2026-07-11T13:51:10Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654001 wikitext text/x-wiki [[User:TonOpenVMSbooks/Sandbox/RapidEdit|*]] - [[User:TonOpenVMSbooks/Sandbox/Embedded C++|+]]- [[User:TonOpenVMSbooks/Sandbox/ShareMemory|&]] - '''Tools:[http://tools.wikimedia.de/~dapete/catgraph/ Catgraph] - [[Special:Collection|Collections]] - [[Special:PrefixIndex|PrefixIndex]] - [http://stats.wikimedia.org/wikibooks/EN/Wikibooks_EN.htm Statistics per Wikibook]<br>[http://toolserver.org/~vvv/ ToolServer Sysops' statistics & Yet Another Edit Counter]''' ---- {| cellspacing="3" |- valign="top" |width="75%" style="border: 1px solid #000000; color: #000; background-color: #c0c0ff"| <div style="padding: .4em .9em .9em"> ;'''Wikibooks''': To me a Wikibook is sharing and enhancing knowledge. ---- ;'''Like''': Maintaining and developing knowledge, Computing in the broadest sense, ICT Architecture, Italian language and food, All things SciFi (including literature)... ---- ;'''Dislike''': War ... ---- ;'''Life Philosophy''': Listen and think, reflect and selfreflect ---- ;'''Social order''': It depends... ---- '''At this moment I'm mostly interested in organizing Open Source porting ...'''<br> Sustainable Technologies [ [[w:Permaculture|Permaculture]] ] ---- ;'''Wikimedia projects''' None ---- '''Other Cool Wikibooks projects''' {{SideBox|[http://stats.grok.se/en.b/{{CURRENTYEAR}}{{CURRENTMONTH}}/{{FULLPAGENAMEE}} page traffic for this month.]}} </div> |width="30%" style="border: 1px solid #000000; color: #000; background-color: #ffc0c0"| <div style="padding: .4em .9em .9em"> <h1>Me, Myself and I...</h1> <small> [http://www.oooovms.dyndns.org My WEB (Urls/Booksmarks) at oooovms]</small> ---- <h2>What I know about...</h2> {| WIDTH="100%" | style="background-color: #ffc20f; border: solid 1px #ffeaa5; padding: 1em; margin: auto;" valign=top|'''Programming & Languages''' ASM (8080, z80) BASIC (many tastes GWBasic) C/C++ DCL Fortran HTML, PHP MYSQL |} {| WIDTH="100%" | style="background-color: #f0ad00; border: solid 1px #ffeaa5; padding: 1em;" valign=top|'''Operating Systems''' CPM, MSDOS, (Open)VMS, UNIX & Linux and flavors of Windows. |}</div> <div style="padding: .4em .9em .9em"> '''Books I'm an author at Wikibooks'''<br> #[[Porting Opensource to OpenVMS]] '''Other books I will attempt to provide content at Wikibooks'''<br> any of the OpenVMS related titles ... ---- </div> | |- |colspan="2" width="100%" style="border: 1px solid #000000; color: #000; background-color: #c0ffc0"| = <small><small><small>Public Postings [[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/User:TonOpenVMSbooks/Archive Archive]]</small></small></small> = <div style="text-align: center;"> ---- </div> {{Userpage}} |} qzmnkgt9ys9ryuk8833d6akbgu1l0hr 0 303750 4653989 4645930 2026-07-11T12:27:59Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653989 wikitext text/x-wiki <br> <div style="text-align: center;"> [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Elementary_Spanish/Unit5.1 Go Back!] </div> <center> <div style="font-size:12pt"> {| class="wikitable" width ="75%" border = 1 font-size="12pt" |+ <h2> Guided Practice: Informal Future Tense</h2> !<br>In this section, we will begin to create and identify more sentences that use the future tense. {| class="wikitable" width ="100%" border = 1 font-size="12pt" ! <div style="text-align: center; margin: auto;"><h2>Future Tense Activities</h2></div> |- | {| class="wikitable" width = "100%" border = 1 font-size="12pt" ! width="50%"|<h3>Future Tense Practice</h3> |- | [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Elementary_Spanish/Unit5_Grammar_InformalFuture Grammar Review 5] <br> <hr> For some quick examples of the informal future, and a short breakdown of the structural components, go to this grammar review. |- | [http://wikiotics.org/en/ElementarySpanish/Unit5.2_InformalFuture Activity 1] <br> Here, try to correctly identify the sentence for the informal future example. |- | [http://wikiotics.org/en/ElementarySpanish/Unit5.2_FormalFuture Activity 2] <br> Now, try to relate the informal future and formal future to one another. Match the sentences that have the same meaning. |- | [http://wikiotics.org/en/ElementarySpanish/Dialogue5.2 Dialogue: Listening for Future Tense]<br> In this dialogue, you'll hear a conversation between a mother and her son. They are discussing a birthday party for her other son. |} |} |} <br> [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Elementary_Spanish/Unit5_Sec3 Go to the Next Section!] </div></center> {{BookCat}} 0qb0d8bpdimryp0dcdod7gdykse7lpm 4653991 4653989 2026-07-11T12:55:43Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4653989|4653989]] by [[Special:Contributions/TenshiBot|TenshiBot]] ([[User talk:TenshiBot|discuss]]) Errant bot edit 4653991 wikitext text/x-wiki <br> <div style="text-align: center;"> [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Elementary_Spanish/Unit5.1 Go Back!] </div> <center> <div style="font-size:12pt"> {| class="wikitable" width ="75%" border = 1 font-size="12pt" |+ <h2> Guided Practice: Informal Future Tense</h2> !<br>In this section, we will begin to create and identify more sentences that use the future tense. <center> {| class="wikitable" width ="100%" border = 1 font-size="12pt" ! <div style="text-align: center;"><h2>Future Tense Activities</h2></div> |- | {| class="wikitable" width = "100%" border = 1 font-size="12pt" ! width="50%"|<h3>Future Tense Practice</h3> |- | [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Elementary_Spanish/Unit5_Grammar_InformalFuture Grammar Review 5] <br> <hr> For some quick examples of the informal future, and a short breakdown of the structural components, go to this grammar review. |- | [http://wikiotics.org/en/ElementarySpanish/Unit5.2_InformalFuture Activity 1] <br> Here, try to correctly identify the sentence for the informal future example. |- | [http://wikiotics.org/en/ElementarySpanish/Unit5.2_FormalFuture Activity 2] <br> Now, try to relate the informal future and formal future to one another. Match the sentences that have the same meaning. |- | [http://wikiotics.org/en/ElementarySpanish/Dialogue5.2 Dialogue: Listening for Future Tense]<br> In this dialogue, you'll hear a conversation between a mother and her son. They are discussing a birthday party for her other son. |} |}</center> |} <br> [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Elementary_Spanish/Unit5_Sec3 Go to the Next Section!] </div></center> {{BookCat}} 0z23z39tohn6gycp0uo6hmxbi9cxwdq 110 310259 4654190 4540317 2026-07-12T04:43:38Z DoctorDizzy 3483611 /* punctuation fixes*/ 4654190 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Header}} [[File:National emblem of Indonesia Garuda Pancasila.svg|thumbnail|right|National emblem of Indonesia]] '''[[wikipedia:Indonesia|Indonesia]]''' ([[Wikijunior:Languages/Indonesian|Indonesian]]: ''Republik Indonesia''), officially the '''Republic of Indonesia''', is a country located in Southeast Asia. Indonesia is an archipelago, which means it is made up of thousands of islands. Indonesia is the biggest archipelago (group of islands) in the world. It is the largest country in Southeast Asia and the fourth most populous country in the world, with a population of over 270 million people. The earliest known civilization in Indonesia was the Kingdom of Tarumanegara (3rd to 7th century), that was influenced by Indian culture and religion. The kingdom was known for its trade, agriculture, and metalworking, and it is thought to have had a complex system of government led by a group of rulers (instead of a single ruler). It was later conquered by Srivijaya kingdoms from the 7th to the 14th century. The Srivijaya empire was ruled by a king, who was advised by a council of nobles. It was centered in the city of Palembang, on the island of Sumatra (nowadays Indonesia).The empire was known for its advanced system of government, which included a bureaucracy and a system of laws. The Srivijaya empire was also known for its cultural achievements, including the construction of beautiful temples and palaces. One of its famous ruler is Sri Indravarman, whom is known for his military campaigns and for his construction of the temple complex at Borobudur. The Srivijaya empire declined in the 14th century and was eventually conquered by the Majapahit empire, from the 14th to the 16th century. Majapahit empire was a Hindu-Buddhist empire that existed from the 14th to the 16th century. had a powerful military that was able to conquer and control a large territory. The Majapahit empire was centered in the city of Trowulan, on the island of Java. The empire was known for its naval power, and it was able to maintain control over its territory through a combination of military force and diplomacy. Also the control of trade routes (Malacca Straits) and its wealth of natural resources makes the empire wealthy. The Majapahit empire declined in the 16th century and was eventually conquered by the Dutch, who established a colony in Indonesia. The Dutch first arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century, when the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established a trading post on the island of Java. One of the main reasons the Dutch were interested in colonizing Indonesia was to access the wealth of rare spices that were grown there. Indonesia is known for its abundance of spices, including cloves, nutmeg, and pepper, which were highly prized in Europe and were in high demand during the colonial era. The Dutch established a system of trade in Indonesia that focused on the export of spices, and it established a monopoly over the spice trade in the region, and by the 19th century, they had established a colony in Indonesia that included most of the country. The Dutch implemented a system of forced labor in Indonesia, which required many Indonesians to work on Dutch-owned plantations and mines. This system was abusive and exploitative, and it led to widespread suffering among the Indonesian population. The Dutch also implemented a system of education in Indonesia that was designed to train Indonesians to work in the Dutch colonial system. However, this education system was largely limited to a small elite group of Indonesians, and it did not provide equal access to education for all Indonesians. During the early 20th century, a movement for independence began to emerge in Indonesia. This movement was led by a group of Indonesian nationalists, who were inspired by the independence movements in other parts of the world. Some of the main organizations and parties involved in the nationalist movement included the Indonesian National Party (PNI), the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and others. During World War II, Indonesia declared its independence from the Netherlands. However, the Dutch colonial authorities returned to Indonesia after the war and attempted to maintain their control over the country. In response, the PNI and other Indonesian nationalist groups launched a guerrilla war against the Dutch, with the goal of forcing them to withdraw from Indonesia. The warfare involved a range of tactics, including sabotage, ambushes, and hit-and-run attacks. In 1949, Indonesia succeeded and they gained their independence. Sukarno took the title of president from 1967 to 1998. The first fully free parliamentary election, since 1955, took place in 1999. == Where is Indonesia? == Indonesia is located in Southeast Asia, bordering Papua New Guinea and [[Wikijunior:Asia/Malaysia|Malaysia]]. It is an archipelago , meaning it is made up of over 17,000 islands, only which 6,000 are inhabited by people. The largest and most well-known of these islands are Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. The capital of Indonesia is Nusantara, which is located on the island of Borneo, and other major cities include Surabaya, Medan, and Bandung. Indonesia's main islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (Kalimantan), Bali, Sulawesi (Celebes)and the Nusa Tenggara islands, the Moluccas Islands, and Irian Jaya (also called West Papua). Other neighboring countries include [[Wikijunior:Asia/Singapore|Singapore]], the [[Wikijunior:Asia/Philippines|Philippines]], and Australia. Indonesia, as stated above, consists of more than 17,000 islands, with 6,000 of them inhabit by people. Malaysia and Indonesia are split in the Borneo Island. Indonesia is surrounded by two major oceans, the Pacific Ocean (East and North) and the Indian Ocean (West and South).<gallery> File:Location Indonesia ASEAN.svg|Location of Indonesia in ASEAN File:Sumatra regions map.png|Maps of Sumatra File:Java regions map.svg|Maps of Java File:Sulawesi Regions map.svg|Maps of Sulawesi File:Bali regions map.png|Maps of Bali File:Kalimantan regions map.png|Maps of Kalimantan File:East Nusa Tenggara regions map.png|Maps of Nusa Tenggara File:Maluku Islands en.png|Maps of Maluku (Molucas) File:West Papua map-fr.svg|Maps of West Papua </gallery> == How many people live in Indonesia? == Indonesia Census 2020 have tallied that 270.20 million lived in Indonesia. The population of Indonesia will be shrinking as 23.33% populations are between 0-14 years old, 70.72% are between 15-64 years old and 5.95% are 65 years old and above. Population distribution is differ from island to island with the largest population in Java Island (56.20%) , followed by Sumatra Island (21.68%), Sulawesi (7.36%), Kalimantan (6.15%), Nusa Tenggara (5.54%) and Maluku + West Papua (3.17%). The largest city of Indonesia is Jakarta (with 10.5 million peoples). The second and third most populated cities in Indonesia are Surabaya (with 2,.77 million people) and Bekasi (with 2.54 million people). == What are the most common languages in Indonesia? == The official language of [[Wikijunior:Languages/Indonesian|Indonesia]] is Indonesian. Both Indonesian and Malay are spoken by 210 million people throughout the country (2010). Sundanese and Javanese are the 3rd and 2nd most spoken languages in Indonesia respectively. Sundanese is spoken by 34.0 million (as of 2000) and is mainly spoken in Banten and West Java. Javanese is spoken by 84.3 million people (as of 2000) and is mainly spoken in Northern Banten, Northern West Java, Yogyakarta, Central Java and East Java. Most Indonesians speak more than 700 indigenous languages. Seeing that Indonesia has a large population, while most of the large population speak Indonesian, Indonesian is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world (in 14th place in the list of languages by number of native speakers). Indonesian is also spoken in [[Wikijunior:Asia/Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[Wikijunior:Asia/Brunei|Brunei]] and [[Wikijunior:Asia/Singapore|Singapore]]. == What is the most common religion in Indonesia? == [[File:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg|thumbnail|Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, in Aceh Province]] Indonesia is a diverse and multicultural country, and it has a long history of religious tolerance in most part of Indonesia. The main religions practiced in Indonesia are '''Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism''', and there are also many indigenous religions that are practiced in the country. The most common religion of Indonesia is [[Wikijunior:World Religions/Islam|Islam]] (87.18%),they follow the Sunni tradition, and Islam has a strong influence on Indonesian culture and society. Islam is believed to have first arrived in Indonesia in the 13th century, brought by Arab traders who were spreading the religion throughout the region. Islam initially spread slowly in Indonesia, but it gained greater prominence in the 16th century, when the Dutch East India Company (VOC) established a monopoly over the spice trade in the region. The VOC encouraged the spread of Islam as a way to establish its control over the local population by supporting the construction of mosques and madrasah (Islamic schools), by promoting the study of Islam, and by offering incentives to convert to Islam. [[Wikijunior:World Religions/Christianity|Christianity]] is the second largest religion in Indonesia, and it is estimated that around 9.87% of the Christian practitioner , third largest is [[Wikijunior:World Religions/Hinduism|Hinduism]] (1.69%) which are mainly concentrated in Bali islands, [[Wikijunior:World Religions/Buddhism|Buddhism]] (0.77%), and other indegenious religions (0.13%). [[File:IMG-20190426-WA0099.jpg|thumb|Jerampingan Archery]] == What is the sport of Indonesia? == [[File:Atraksi_Beladiri_Warisan_Dunia_Dari_Indonesia.jpg|alt=Atraksi Beladiri Warisan Dunia Dari Indonesia|thumb|Silat Pencak]] The sports in Indonesia is different from island to island but these are a few : (i) '''Jemparingan''' - It is a traditional archery sport primarily in Java. It originated during the Yogyakarta Sultanate and popularised by Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono I to train the civilians to have 'heart of the warriors'. Jemparingan is played with a bow (known as ''gandewa'') and arrow, and it involves shooting at a target from a distance. The target itself is called a ''wong-wongan'' which is in the form of an upright cylinder / pendulum( which shaped to be like a human ) with a height of approximately 30 cm and a diameter of 3 cm. Wong-wongan consists of three parts. The head for the top has a height of about 5 cm and is colored red. Body parts are white. Meanwhile, the part of the neck that is between the body and the head, with a height of approximately 1 cm, is colored yellow. Each of these parts has a value that has been agreed during a match. At the bottom of the pendulum there is a small ball, where the archer who hits the ball will get a reduction in value. Meanwhile, at the top there is a small bell that will ring if an arrow hits the cradle. It requires the archer to sit down cross-legged. Moreover, the archer does not just aim in plain sight, but rather position the bow in front of his or her stomach. Players try to shoot their arrows as close to the center of the target as possible, and points are awarded based on the accuracy of their shots. [[File:Tradisi_lompat_batu_foto_oleh_Iggoy.jpg|alt=Tradisi lompat batu foto oleh Iggoy|thumb|Fahombo stone wall event in Nias]] (ii) '''Silat Pencak''' - It is an indigenous martial art that has a long history in the region, and it is an integral part of the cultural heritage of Indonesia. It is popular sport in Indonesia and also other parts of Southeast Asia. Although many regions of Indonesia have their own style of pencak silat, the Minangkabau ethnic group in West Sumatra incorporates all the moves of pencak silat and this style is recognized across the globe. It is a full-body fighting style which, in addition to the use of traditional weapons such as keris, pedang and sticks; highlights elements like punching, kicking, and grappling. In this martial art, every part of the body can used to attack or be a target of attacks. Practiced for self-defense and psychological benefits, this competitive sport made its debut at the Southeast Asian Games in 1987. (iii) '''Fahombo''' - It is traditional stone wall vaulting sport in Indonesia, primarily in South Nias provinces. Fahombo involves vaulting over a stone wall or other obstacle using a running or jumping technique, and it is often performed as a test of agility and skill. It originated during the tribal-war era in Nias. At that time, each village had its own fort to guard its territory, and it took strength and agility to jump over these forts. Hence, the people used to train themselves by jumping over tall piles of stones. == What are some important sights? == [[File:Masjid demak.jpg|thumbnail|right|Great Mosque of Demak]] [[File:Ampera Bridge, Palembang.jpg|thumbnail|right|Ampera Bridge, Palembang]] *'''Tana Toraja''' in South Sulawesi, shows the cultural and rituals by the natives of Tana Toraja. When travelers come, travelers are usually stunned by the tongkonan, the houses with a boat shaped roof. This area will show travelers about the natives of Tana Toraja's culture, with different ways in representing their social hierarchical system. Sulawesi Experience arranges tours here in Tana Toraja, in which will enlighten travelers about the History of Tana Toraja, and their change in culture after Dutch Colonization. *'''Sangrian''', located in Central Java, is where 50 fossils of Meganthropus palaeo (name given to several large jaw and skull fragments found in Sangrian) and Pithecanthropus erectus/Homo erectus (Java Men). This UNESCO Historical Site is a key site for the understanding/learning of human evolution. In 1934, Sangrian was examined by anthropologist Gustav Heinrich Ralph von Koenigswald, in which the fossils of the Pithecanthropus erectus were found. More than 60 fossils were found later while under examination. In 1996, UNESCO listed Sangiran as a World Heritage Site. Sangrian was visited by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono with 11 cabinet members on February 2012. *'''Borobudur Temple Compounds''' are three Buddhist temples (named Borobudur, Mendut, and Pawon) located in Kedu Valley, Central Java, Indonesia. Borobudur Temple Compounds were added in as a UNESCO site in 1991. These temples are located in a straight "line", and is believed to have been built in the 8th–9th centuries in the Sailendra dynasty. They are as well two museums in the Borobudur Temple Compounds, which are Karmawibhangga Museum and Samudra Raksa Museum. The Borobudur Temple Compounds were as well known as one of the great Buddhists Monuments in the World. Borobudur Temple Compounds are an outstanding resemble of architecture for Indonesia in the 8th to 9th centuries and appealing. *'''Masjid Agung Demak''', or the ''Great Mosque of Demak'', located in Demak, Central Java, Indonesia, is one of the oldest mosques in Indonesia. The Great Mosque of Demak also shows a fascinating chapter in Indonesia's religious history. This mosque is believed to be built in the 15th Century by Sunan Kalijaga. Krakatoa Tours provides a tour of this mosque, and a brief summary of Indonesia's Islamic History. The Great Mosque of Demak is the usual Javanese mosque. The main entrance are 2 doors with plants, crowns, and vases. As well as an animal with an open-wide toothed mouth. Unlike most mosques in the Middle East, it is made from timber. *'''Palembang''' is the capital city of South Sumatra. Palembang is one of the oldest Indonesian cities in Indonesia, while also featuring several attractions, as well as a must see entrance, the Ampera Bridge. Palembang's history can be seen at the Museum Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II. == References == # https://www.bps.go.id/publication/2021/01/21/213995c881428fef20a18226/potret-sensus-penduduk-2020-menuju-satu-data-kependudukan-indonesia.html {{WikijuniorAsia}} 9t6f4qrnm1me71ail82gt45erywn910 0 360048 4654010 2956093 2026-07-11T14:57:47Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654010 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navlist/Top}} {|cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;width:99%;background-color:inherit" |- |style="background-color:#bbd2e1;border:1px solid #999999;-moz-border-radius:8px" align="center"| <big>'''Introduction to Breton'''<br /><br />'''Breton Pronunciation'''</big> |} {|cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;width:99%;background-color:inherit" |- |style="background-color:#bbd2e1;border:1px solid #999999;-moz-border-radius:8px" align="left"| '''Introduction:''' this is an introductory lesson.<br /> It should teach students how to pronounce Breton and how to write Breton.<br /> Near the end of this lecture, you will find a dictionary and place for global discussions. == Universal keyboard == This link allows to type [http://www.lexilogos.com/clavier/latin_alphabet.htm all accentuated letters]. == Pronunciation == ==='''Listen first !'''=== * Gerioù kentañ e Brezhoneg (First words in Breton) [[Image:E_Brezhoneg.ogg]] * Some stories told by Breton native speakers **[http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=V60o8-cJsIo&NR=1 Ar sakrist hag ar marc'hadour-lousoù] (The sacristan and the herbs remedies seller) **[http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=d8a7spwI-yM&feature=related Roched un den eürus] (the shirt of a happy man) <br /> ==='''Pronunciation rules'''=== [http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=Qm0f03tzTGY&feature=related '''The Breton alphabet'''] A simplified notation of the International Phonetic Alphabet is used, accordingly to the one chosen in «&nbsp;''Grammaire bretonne''&nbsp;» from Roparz Hemon (Al Liamm - 1984). {|align="center" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="text-align:center;border-collapse:collapse; margin: auto;" |+align="center"|'''Breton pronunciation''' |-style="background:#EEEEEE;color:#800000" !Simplified IPA!!Breton spelling!!English spelling!! Other |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[a] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a (k'''a'''rr = ''car'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|a (c'''a'''r) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[b] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|b ('''b'''ara = ''bread'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|b ('''b'''old) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[d] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|d ('''d'''or = ''door'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|d ('''d'''oor) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[e] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|e (goud'''e''' = ''after'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|e (r'''e'''d) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[f] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|f ('''f'''ur = ''wise'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|f ('''f'''oot) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[g] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|g ('''g'''er = ''word'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|g ('''g'''ear) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[h] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|h ('''h'''ir = ''long'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|h ('''h'''ouse) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[i] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|i (l'''i'''stri = ''ships'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|i (eng'''i'''ne) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[j] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|y ('''y'''ar = ''hen'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|y ('''y'''atagan) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[k] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|k ('''k'''ein = ''back'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|k ('''k'''eel) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[l] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|l ('''l'''aer = ''thief'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|l ('''l'''ong) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[l’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|lh (di'''lh'''ad = ''clothes'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|ll (Spanish : '''''ll'''ano'') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[m] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|m ('''m'''ab = ''son'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|m ('''m'''ore) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[n] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|n ('''n'''aon = ''hunger'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|n ('''n'''ight) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[n’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|gn (pign = ''climb'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''None'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|gn (French: ''gagne'') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[n~] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|n (sa'''n'''ket = ''sunk'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|ng (si'''ng''') |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[o] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|o (t'''o'''st = ''close'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|o (p'''o'''t) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[o’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|eu (neb'''eu'''t = ''few'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|eu (French: s'''eu'''l) |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[p] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|p ('''p'''ark = ''field'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|p ('''p'''ark) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[r] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|r ('''r'''ann = ''part'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|r (French: '''r'''i'''r'''e) |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[s] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|s ('''s'''amm = ''load'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|s ('''s'''on) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[s’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|ch ('''ch'''om = ''stay'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|sh ('''sh'''ark) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[t] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|t ('''t'''i = ''house'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|t ('''t'''ea) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[u] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|ou (p'''ou'''ll = ''pool'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|oo (p'''oo'''l) |style="background:#FFFFFF"|ou (French: t'''ou'''t) |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[u’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|u (r'''u'''st = ''rude'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|u (French: cr'''u''') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[v] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|v ('''v'''oulouz = ''velours'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|v ('''v'''ictory) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[w] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|w (g'''w'''an = ''weak'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|w (t'''w'''in) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[w’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|u (m'''u'''i = ''more'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|u (French: ''n'''u'''it'') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[x] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|c’h (sa'''c’h''' = ''bag'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|ch (German: ''Na'''ch'''t'') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[z] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|z (e'''z'''el = ''member'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|z ('''z'''one) |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[z’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|j (ni'''j'''al = ''to fly'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|s (plea'''s'''ure) |style="background:#FFFFFF"|j (French: '''''j'''oli'') |- |style="background:#FFFFFF" colspan="4"|&nbsp; |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[ã] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|añ (sk'''añ'''v = ''ill'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|an (French: ''cr'''an''''') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[ẽ] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|eñ (kreñv = ''strong'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|in (French: ''f'''in''''') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[ĩ] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|iñ (biñs = ''bolt'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|in (Portuguese: '''''im'''portância'') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[õ] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|oñ (skaoñ = ''bench'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|on (French: ''m'''on''''') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[õ’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|euñ (bleuñv = ''flower'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|un (French: ''br'''un''''') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[ũ] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|ou (p'''oun'''ner = ''heavy'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|um (Portuguese: ''com'''um''''') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[ũ’] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|uñ (p'''uñ'''s = ''pit'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"| |- |colspan="4"|[[Image:Breton Pronunciation.ogg]] |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[ei] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|ei (Br'''ei'''zh ''Brittany'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|ey (H'''ey''') |style="background:#FFFFFF"|eil (French: ''par'''eil''''') |- |style="background:#FFCCCC"|[ai] |style="background:#FFCBA4"|ai (a r'''ai'''o = ''will do'') |style="background:#CCCCFF"|''(none)'' |style="background:#FFFFFF"|ahi (French: ''tr'''ahi''''') |} '''Note :''' the letter “v” in final is pronounced “o” or “u” ; this may also be the case within a word. For instance: * « war-sav » (stand up) is pronounced “war-sao” * « levr » (book) is pronounced “leor”. '''Here write down your own explanation of the pronunciation if you feel it different from that one up:'''<br /> "gn" /n´/ as: ñ (Spanish: "español") |} {|cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;width:99%;background-color:inherit" |- |style="background-color:#bbd2e1;border:1px solid #999999;-moz-border-radius:8px" align="left"| == Different spelling systems == {| ! Peurunvan ! Skolveurieg ! Etrerannyezhel ! English translation |- | GLAV || GLAO || GLAW || rain |- | PIV || PIOU || PIW || who |- | LEVR || LEOR || LEVR || book |- | UR || EUR || UR || one |- | EVIT || EVID || EWID || for |- | GANT || GAND || GAND || with |- | ANEZHI || ANEZI || ANEZHI || to her |- | OUZHPENN || OUSPENN || OUZHPENN || more, on top of something |- | BRAVAÑ || BRAVA || BRAVAÑ || nicest |- | ASANTIÑ || ASANTI || ASANTIÑ || to accept |- | PELEC’H || PELEH || PELEC’H || where |- | AR C’HI || AR HI || AR C’HI || the dog |- | BLOAVEZH || BLOAVEZ || BLOAWEZH || year |} |} {|cellspacing="5" cellpadding="10" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;width:99%;background-color:inherit" |- |style="background-color:#bbd2e1;border:1px solid #999999;-moz-border-radius:8px" align="center"| == Basic dictionary == {{Phonetics|language1=br|language2=en | karr | car | kar | bara | bread | bara | dor | door | dor | goude | after | gude | fur | wise | fu’r | ger | word | ger | hir | long | hir | listri | ships | listri | yar | hen | jar | kein | back | kein | laer | thief | laer | dilhad | clothes | dil’ad | mab | son | mab | naon | hunger | naon | unan | one | unan | ti<br />ker | House<br />Town | ti<br />ker }} |} |} {{Navlist/Bottom}} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} gdhyxno3u1baa76nw9bw8tzd2tslmco 0 360067 4654007 3823592 2026-07-11T14:50:36Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654007 wikitext text/x-wiki {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: #87e990; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == The Present Tense, Continuous Tense & Situation Tense == === Irregular verb - "To be" / "Bezañ" === ==== Personal form & impersonal form ==== The Present Tense and the Continuous Tense have two forms : <br />the personal form and the impersonal form. These two forms allow to insist upon either the subject (impersonal form) or the complement, the attribute, the object (personal form). For example : The english sentence "''I am wise''" may be translated in two ways : * '''Me a zo fur''' (impersonal form) to insist upon the subject (''Me''). Since the subject already gives the notion of person, it is useless to give a personal form to the verb. Therefore the verb is invariant (here : ''a zo'') and this form is called the impersonal form. * '''Fur ez on''' (personal form) to insist upon the attribute (''Fur''). Here the verb varies according to the person since the notion of person is not present otherwise. ==== Continuous Tense ==== The Continuous Tense is used for repetitive or continued actions. If we take the same example : * '''Fur ez vezan''' means "''I am usually wise''". When translating from Breton to English allow your native language instinct to sort out in which case the simple present (I speak Breton) or the present continuous (I am speaking Breton) is more appropriate and idiomatic.<br /> ==== Situation Tense ==== The Situation Tense is used to indicate the place (in space or time) where the subject is or, in a wider meaning, its position (social, etc.). Example : * '''Er skol emaon''' means "''I am at school''". <br /> ==== Impersonal passive ==== This mode is used when the subject is not known or not precisely defined. In English, this would often be translated by "they". For instance, <span style="color:blue;">"e oar"</span> would give "they are". <br /> <br /> ==== Table ==== {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Verb Bezañ (''To be'') - Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Personal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Situation Tense!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ez on |style="background:#82C46C"|me a zo |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vezan |style="background:#FF5E4D"| me a vez |style="background:Orange"| emaon |style="background:LightBlue"|I am |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ez out |style="background:#82C46C"|te a zo |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vezez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| te a vez |style="background:Orange"| emaout |style="background:LightBlue"|You are (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ez eo |style="background:#82C46C"|eñ a zo |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| eñ a vez |style="background:Orange"| emañ |style="background:LightBlue"|He is |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ez eo |style="background:#82C46C"|hi a zo |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| hi a vez |style="background:Orange"| emañ |style="background:LightBlue"|She is |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ez omp |style="background:#82C46C"|ni a zo |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vezomp |style="background:#FF5E4D"| ni a vez |style="background:Orange"| emaomp |style="background:LightBlue"|We are |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ez oc'h |style="background:#82C46C"|c'hwi a zo |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vezit |style="background:#FF5E4D"| c'hwi a vez |style="background:Orange"| emaoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|You are (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ez int |style="background:#82C46C"|int a zo |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vezont |style="background:#FF5E4D"| int a vez |style="background:Orange"| emaint |style="background:LightBlue"|They are |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|oar, eur |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| e vezer |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:Orange"| emeur |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> === Regular verb - "To write" / "Skrivañ" === ==== Personal form & impersonal form ==== The Present Tense and the Continuous Tense have two forms : the personal form and the impersonal form. These two forms allow to insist upon either the subject (impersonal form) or the complement, the attribute, the object (personal form). ==== Auxiliary form ==== A verb can also be used with an auxiliary (most often the verb '''Ober''' to do) to insist upon the action itself. For instance, '''skrivañ a ran ul levr''' (I write a letter) will be used to insist upon the verb '''skrivañ''' (to write). <br /> <br /> ==== Table ==== <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Regular Verb Skrivañ (''To write'') - Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skrivan |style="background:#82C46C"|me a skriv ul levr |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a ran ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|I write a book |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skrivez |style="background:#82C46C"|te a skriv ul levr |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a rez ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|You write a book (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skriv |style="background:#82C46C"|eñ a skriv ul levr |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a ra ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|He writes a book |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skriv |style="background:#82C46C"|hi a skriv ul levr |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a ra ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|She writes a book |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skrivomp |style="background:#82C46C"|ni a skriv ul levr |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a reomp ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|We write a book |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skrivit |style="background:#82C46C"|c'hwi a skriv ul levr |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a rit ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|You write a book (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skrivont |style="background:#82C46C"|int a skriv ul levr |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a reont ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|They write a book |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ul levr a skriver |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| skrivañ a reer ul levr |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> [[Image:01 Skriv.ogg]] <br /> == Progressive Form == <br /> To create the progressive form, add the continuous particle '''o''' (H!). Careful it causes hard mutation:<br /> <br /> <br /> (H!) Hard Mutation Following letters are affected:<br /> '''B''' becomes '''P'''<br /> '''D''' becomes '''T'''<br /> '''G''' becomes '''K'''<br /> <br /> <br /> Here are some verbal nouns: <br /> '''kaozeal''' ''speak/ing''<br /> '''komz''' ''chat/ting, speak/ing''<br /> '''skrivañ''' ''write/ing''<br /> '''ober''' ''work/ing''<br /> '''chom''' ''dwell/ing''<br /> '''gwerzhañ''' ''sell/ing''<br /> '''mond''' ''go/ing''<br /> '''kemer''' ''take/ing''<br /> '''degemer''' ''receive/ing''<br /> '''deskiñ''' ''learn/ing''<br /> '''kas''';'''daveiñ''' ''send/ing''<br /> <br /> <br /> Now all you need to do is put them together following this pattern:<br /> <br /> {present of '''bezañ'''} + {'''o''' (H!)} + {verbal noun}<br /> '''ez on o kaozeal Brezhoneg.'''<br /> ''I speak Breton./I am speaking Breton.''<br /> <br /> '''ez on o skriva ul lizer.'''<br /> ''You'' (sg.) ''write a letter./You are writing a letter.''<br /> <br /> '''emañ eñ o teskiñ Kembraeg.'''<br /> ''He learns Welsh./He is learning Welsh.''<br /> <br /> <br /> '''Caution :''' The progressive form may not always be translated by the construction "o" + (verbal noun). In some cases, other constructions are more appropriate : 1/ To mark intention : Dre + (verbal noun) *Dre lenn kalz a levriou mad e teui eur maout war ar yez.<br />''By reading lots of good books, will you become a "champion" in Breton language.'' *Dre soubañ va biz enni am-bije merzet ne oa ket evid beza lonket ken buan ha tra.<br />''By dipping my finger in the soup, I would have understood that I had to wait before eating it.'' 2/ Unexpected result : En eur + (verbal noun) *En eur lenn al levr-se am-eus merket e oa an oberour eun den a-zoare.<br />''When reading this book, I noticed that the writer was a good man.'' *En eur lonka va soubenn am-eus merket e oa tomm bero.<br />''When eating my soup, I noticed that the soup was boiling hot.'' 3/ Evolution : Mont war + (verbal noun) / To go toward + verbal noun In the following sentences, this yields : war ''(verbal noun)'' ez a ... :war = toward :ez a = goes *War gresk ez a ar prizioù.<br />''Prices are increasing.'' *War fallaad ez a en amzer.<br />''The weather is getting worse.'' <br /> == Negations == Since you want to be able to make negative statements as well as ask questions, here’s what you need to do: Take the long present tense of bezañ (to be) and replace the particle ez with ne (or ''ned'' or ''n''' before a vowel) and add ket after the verb in order to make a negative statement:<br /> <br /> *'''ez on''' ''I am'' *'''ned on ket''' ''I am not'' * or '''n'on ket''' *'''n'out ket''' ''you (sg.) are not''<br /> <br /> The 3rd person singular in negative statements has two special verb forms:<br /> *'''n'eus ket ...''' ''there is not ...''<br /> *'''n'eo ket ...''' ''he (she) is not ...''<br /> *'''ar c'hi n'eo ket ...''' ''the dog is not ...''<br /> *'''ar vugale n'int ket ...''' ''the children are not ...''<br /> <br /> *'''n'omp ket''' ''we are not''<br /> *'''n'oc'h ket''' ''“you (pl.) are not''<br /> *'''n'int ket''' ''they are not''<br /> <br /> <br /> <br /> Now put the sentences together according to the template given above:<br /> '''N'on ket o komz Brezhoneg.''' <br /> ''I don’t speak Breton./I am not speaking Breton.''<br /> <br /> '''N'out ket o skrivañ ul lizer.''' <br /> ''You (sg.) don’t write a letter./You are not writing a letter.''<br /> <br /> '''N'eo ket o teskiñ Kembraeg.''' <br /> ''He is not learning Welsh.'' <br /> <br /> <br /> == Questions == <br /> To formulate a question simply use the affirmation form :<br /> '''ez on?''' ''am I?''<br /> '''ez out?''' ''are you (sg.)?''<br /> '''ez eus? ''' ''is there?''<br /> '''ez eo?''' ''is he?''<br /> '''ez eo?''' ''is she?''<br /> '''ez eo ar c'hi?''' ''is the dog?''<br /> '''ez omp?''' ''are we?''<br /> '''ez oc'h?''' ''are you (pl.)?''<br /> '''ez int?''' ''are they?''<br /> '''ez int ar vugale?''' ''are the children?''<br /> '''Ez on o komz Brezhoneg?''' <br /> ''Do I speak Breton?/Am I speaking Breton?''<br /> <br /> Sometimes, a question will be preceded by "'''Ha'''" (''And'') or even, when insisting, by "'''Daoust ha'''" (equivalent to "''Is is true that ...''"). '''Ha''' is replaced by '''Hag''' before a vowel. '''Hag ez out o skrivañ ul lizer?''' <br /> ''Do you write a letter?/Are you writing a letter?''<br /> <br /> '''Daoust hag ez eo o teskiñ Kembraeg?''' <br /> ''Does he learn Welsh?/ Is he learning Welsh?'' <br /> <br /> To ask a negative question use the same principles:<br /> <br /> '''Ha n'on ket o komz Brezhoneg?''' <br /> ''Don’t I speak Breton?/Am I not speaking Breton?''<br /> <br /> '''Ha n'out ket o skrivañ ul lizer?''' <br /> ''Don’t you write a letter?/Are you not writing a letter?''<br /> <br /> '''Ha n'eo ket o teskiñ Kembraeg?'''<br /> ''Doesn’t he learn Welsh?/ Is he not learning Welsh?''<br /> ==Exercises/Ober== === Self training === * Listen to the following dialogs which shows : ** Imperative form ** Auxiliary form ** Progressive form [[File:Diviz.ogv]] * Let's continue Now you have seen how its done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from [[Breton/Level 2/Lesson 1|Level 2]] and write them down if you haven't already.<br /><br /> Now change them into their Present tense.<br /> Now underneath, make some sentences up for each verb. EG. ''Me a zesk kembraeg er skol'' (I learn Welsh in school).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz|Go to the Quiz]] |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} 8vdgnz165udqxql6dk23lwze6utw7re 0 360070 4654025 2949598 2026-07-11T15:52:02Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654025 wikitext text/x-wiki {{status|25%}} {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: #87e990; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | = Lesson 6/Kentel C'hwec'h : Araogennoù (Prepositions) = Prepositions are combined with the personal pronoun when relevant. Eg. "Evid" (for) gives "Brezhoneg zo mat '''evidon'''." (Breton is good '''for me'''). === Preposition "From" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Preposition "A" (''From'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ac'hanon |style="background:LightBlue"|From me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ac'hanout |style="background:LightBlue"|From you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Anezhañ |style="background:LightBlue"|From him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Anezhi |style="background:LightBlue"|From her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ac'hanomp |style="background:LightBlue"|From us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ac'hanoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|From you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Anezho |style="background:LightBlue"|From them |- |} </center> <br /> [[Image:01 Achanon.ogg]] <br /> === Preposition "For" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Preposition "Evid" (''For'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Evidon |style="background:LightBlue"|For me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Evidout |style="background:LightBlue"|For you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Evitañ |style="background:LightBlue"|For him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Eviti |style="background:LightBlue"|For her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Evidomp |style="background:LightBlue"|For us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Evidoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|For you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Evito |style="background:LightBlue"|For them |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 Evid.ogg]] --> <br /> '''Prepositions from the same type :''' :Davet (toward) : Davedon<br /> :Eget (than) : Egedon<br /> :Estreget (other than) : Estregedon<br /> :Evel (as) : Eveldon<br /> :Hep (without) : Hepdon<br /> :Nemet (but for) : Nemedon<br /> :Panevet (if it hadn't been for) : Panavedon<br /> <br /> === Preposition "Upon" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Preposition "War" (''Upon'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Warnon |style="background:LightBlue"|Upon me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Warnout |style="background:LightBlue"|Upon you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Warnañ, warnezhañ |style="background:LightBlue"|Upon him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Warni, warnezhi |style="background:LightBlue"|Upon her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Warnomp |style="background:LightBlue"|Upon us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Warnoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|Upon you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Warno, warnezho |style="background:LightBlue"|Upon them |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 War.ogg]] --> <br /> '''Prepositions from the same type :''' :Diwar (of) : Diwarnon<br /> <br /> === Preposition "In" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Preposition "E (en)" (''In'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ennon |style="background:LightBlue"|In me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ennout |style="background:LightBlue"|In you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ennañ |style="background:LightBlue"|In him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Enni |style="background:LightBlue"|In her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ennomp |style="background:LightBlue"|In us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ennoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|In you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Enno |style="background:LightBlue"|In them |- |} <br /> Ne sonjan nemet '''ennoc'h''' ! I only think of you ! (Song from Nolwenn Korbell)<br /> <!-- [[Image:01 en.ogg]] --> <br /> '''Prepositions from the same type :''' :Dindan (under) : Dindanon<br /> <br /> === Preposition "By" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Preposition "Dre" (''By'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Drezon |style="background:LightBlue"|By me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Drezout |style="background:LightBlue"|By you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Drezañ |style="background:LightBlue"|By him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Drezi |style="background:LightBlue"|By her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Drezomp |style="background:LightBlue"|By us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Drezoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|By you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Drezo |style="background:LightBlue"|By them |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 by.ogg]] --> <br /> '''Prepositions from the same type :''' :A-raog (before) : Araozon<br /> :Dirak (in front of) : Dirazon<br /> :Kenetre (between) : Kenetrezomp<br /> :Eme (said I, said he, etc.) : Emezon<br /> :Etre (between) : Etrezomp<br /> :Hep (without) : Hepzon<br /> :Hervez (According to) : Hervezon<br /> :Rak (before) : Razon<br /> === Preposition "To" / "Toward" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Preposition "Da" (''Toward'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Din |style="background:LightBlue"|Toward me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Dit |style="background:LightBlue"|Toward you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Dezhañ |style="background:LightBlue"|Toward him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Dezhi |style="background:LightBlue"|Toward her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Dimp, Deomp |style="background:LightBlue"|Toward us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Deoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|Toward you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Dezho |style="background:LightBlue"|Toward them |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 Da.ogg]] --> <br /> <br /> === Preposition "Against" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Preposition "Ouzh" (''Against'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ouzhin |style="background:LightBlue"|Against me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ouzhit |style="background:LightBlue"|Against you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Outañ |style="background:LightBlue"|Against him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Outi |style="background:LightBlue"|Against her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ouzhimp |style="background:LightBlue"|Against us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ouzhoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|Against you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Outo |style="background:LightBlue"|Against them |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:01 Against.ogg]]--> <br /> '''Prepositions from the same type :''' :A-zioc'h (above) : Aziouzhin<br /> :Diouzh (from) : Diouzhin<br /> <br /> === Preposition "With" === <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Preposition "Gant" (''With'')''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Brezhoneg!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ganin |style="background:LightBlue"|With me |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ganit |style="background:LightBlue"|With you (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Gantañ |style="background:LightBlue"|With him |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ganti |style="background:LightBlue"|With her |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ganimp, Ganeomp |style="background:LightBlue"|With us |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ganeoc'h |style="background:LightBlue"|With you (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ganto |style="background:LightBlue"|With them |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 With.ogg]] --> <br /> '''Prepositions from the same type :''' :Digant (from) : Diganin<br /> <br /> |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} 0459fns55ncq447glj2lxilslotkn7i 0 360074 4654024 4567215 2026-07-11T15:51:20Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654024 wikitext text/x-wiki {{status|50%}} {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: #c9a0dc; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | =Brezhoneg Tri/Lesson 2= ==You will learn== *How to ask where something is *How to tell someone where something is *How to tell someone something isn't there ==Position== You use these to describe where an object is: {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ Position |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Breton!! English |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|e-barzh |style="background:LightBlue"|inside |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|er-maezh |style="background:LightBlue"|outside |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|dirak |style="background:LightBlue"|in front |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a-dreñv |style="background:LightBlue"|behind |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|e-kichen |style="background:LightBlue"|beside |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|etre |style="background:LightBlue"|between |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|e-kreiz |style="background:LightBlue"|in the center |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|aze |style="background:LightBlue"|here |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|amañ |style="background:LightBlue"|there |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a-us |style="background:LightBlue"|above |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|en-traoñ |style="background:LightBlue"|in the bottom |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|en-nec'h |style="background:LightBlue"|in the top |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|dindan |style="background:LightBlue"|below |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|war |style="background:LightBlue"|upon |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|diwar |style="background:LightBlue"|(coming) from |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|gant |style="background:LightBlue"|with |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|digant |style="background:LightBlue"|without |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|uhel |style="background:LightBlue"|high |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|izhel |style="background:LightBlue"|low |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a-gleiz |style="background:LightBlue"|to the left |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a-zehoù |style="background:LightBlue"|to the right |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|ouzh |style="background:LightBlue"|at |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|diouzh |style="background:LightBlue"|from |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a-led |style="background:LightBlue"|horizontal |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a-sonn |style="background:LightBlue"|vertical |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|eus |style="background:LightBlue"|from |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|da |style="background:LightBlue"|to |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|a-hed |style="background:LightBlue"|?? |- |style="background:#FFCBA4"|war-eeun |style="background:LightBlue"|straight ahead |- |} ==Position : Questions & answers== This is the basic format for a question:<br /> '''Ez eus''' _____? - ''Is there'' ____?<br /> '''Emañ''' _____? - ''Is there'' ____?<br /> '''Eo''' _____? - ''Is there'' ____?<br /> Eg.<br /> '''Ez eus ur c'harr er karrdi?'''<br /> '''Ez eus ur gador dirag an daol?'''<br /> '''N'emañ ket ur c'hi en ti?'''<br /> This is the basic format for a positive answer:<br /> '''Ez eus, emañ _____.''' - ''There is!(=Yes), there is ____.''<br /> '''Geo, emañ _____.''' - ''There is!(=Yes), there is ____.''<br /> <br /> Examples : '''Ez eus, emañ ur c'harr er karrdi.'''<br /> '''Ez eus ur gador dirag an daol.'''<br /> '''Geo, emañ ur c'hi en ti.'''<br /> A negative question '''N'eus ket ... ?''' ''Isn't it?'' is answered as follows: *the positive answer is '''Geo, ...''' *the negative answer is '''N'eus ket ...'''.<br /> <br /> A negative question '''N'eo ket ... ?''' ''Isn't it?'' is answered as follows: *the positive answer is '''Geo, ...''' *the negative answer is '''N'eo ket ...'''.<br /> <br /> In the case of asking of a position. You give the position afterwards.<br /> '''Eus ar c'har dirag an ti?'''<br /> '''N'eus ket, n'eo ket ar c'har dirag an ti. Emañ ar c'harr er karrdi.'''<br /> <br /> ''Is the car in front of the house? No, the car isn't in front of the house. The car is in the garage.''<br /> Note:<br /> When giving answers about yourself (eg. '''Laouenn out?''' ''Are you happy?''). The positive answer is the appropriate personal form of the same verb. The negative is preceded by the negative particle '''Ne''', eg.: '''Laouenn out?''' = "Eo, Laouenn on." or "N'on ket, trist on."<br /> <br /> =='''Geriadur''' ''Vocabulary''== '''Emañ''' - ''there is''<br /> <br /> '''N'eus ket''' - ''there isn't''<br /> <br /> '''Eus!''' - ''There is!'' (Yes)(a)<br /> <br /> '''en''' - ''in the''<br /> <br /> '''N'eo ket ...?'''<br /> ''Isn't there...?'' <br /> '''Ez eus ...?''' (used with an indefinite noun)<br /> ''Is there a ...?'' <br /> ==Muioc'h skoueroù/More Examples== Eg. 1.<br /> '''Ez eus ur karr er karrdi?'''<br /> '''Eus. Emañ ur karr er karrdi.'''<br /> ''Is there a car in the garage?'' <br /> ''Yes/there is. There is a car in the garage.'' Eg. 2.<br /> '''Emañ ar c'haz dre an tan?'''<br /> '''N'eo ket. N'emañ ket ar c'haz dre an tan. Emañ ar c'haz er kegin.'''<br /> ''Is a cat by the fire?'' <br /> ''No. The cat isn't by the fire. The cat is in the kitchen.''<br /> Eg. 3.<br /> '''Ha n'eus ket un daol en ty ker?'''<br /> '''Ez eus. Emañ un daol en ty ker!'''<br /> ''Isn't there a table in the town hall?''<br /> ''Yes. There is a table in the town hall.''<br /> ==Poelladennoù/Exercises== ====Poelladenn unan==== Using vocabulary you have learnt from the previous courses, make at least 10 sentences. Form a negative and positive option for each sentence. <br /> Eg.: '''Ez eus ur den er stal?'''<br /> '''Eus. Emañ ur den er stal.'''<br /> '''Nann. N'eus ket ur den er stal.'''<br /> |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} i2p5x8a9gadbpgycmhrnzmxtyajbt42 0 360079 4654011 4648290 2026-07-11T14:58:44Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654011 wikitext text/x-wiki {{status|50%}} {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: #f7ff3c; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | === Rimadelloù / Rhymes === ==== Petra 'ra ma dorn ? - What does my hand ? ==== Skrabat a ra, skrab, skrab, skrab<br /> Flourañ 'ra, flour, flour, flour<br /> Piñsañ 'ra, aioù ! aioù ! aioù !<br /> Skeiñ 'ra, pan ! pan ! pan!<br /> Hilligat a ra, guili, guili, guili !<br /> Lavarout 'ra, kenavo ! kenavo !<br /> Ha kuitaat a ra... ''It scratches, scratch, scratch, scratch,<br />It caresses, caress, caress, caress,<br />It pinches, aioù ! aioù ! aioù !<br />It taps, pan ! pan ! pan!<br />It tickles, guili, guili, guili !<br />It says goodbye ! goodbye !<br />And it goes away ...'' [http://pharouest.ac-rennes.fr/e220664C/Kanaouenou.html#ancre110910 Source] <br /> |} {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: #f7ff3c; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | === Barzhonegoù / Poems === |- | style="width: 50%; background-color: #f7ff3c; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" <!--rowspan="2"--> | <div style="text-align: center;"><h2>Brezhoneg</h2></div> '''Lagad an Heol''' — Heol ! Perak out ken diwezhat o tiblouz ? Ha perak eo ken ruz da lagad ? Ha bet ac’h eus en noz-mañ ur gwall-hunvre, En deus graet dit leñvañ dre da hun ? <br /> <br /> <br /> — Na hun na hunvre na fall na mat. Beilhet am eus an noz-pad… Tra ma kouske ar c’hornôg dibled war ludu louet e lore me ’m eus graet tro an Douar. Ha gwelet am eus tud o vervel gant an naon. Gwelet ’m eus tud o vervel gant ar riv. Gwelet tud o vervel gant an dic’hoanag. Gwelet am eus tud o lazhañ tud, breudeur o ’n em dagañ. Gwelet ’m eus pobloù mac’het. Gwelet ur penntiern meur o kouezhañ dindan boled ur foll. Gwelet forzh tud o leñvañ : Ha chomet on bepred digas… Gwelet ’m eus, avat, tud o c’hoarzhin goap ouzh ar re zo er boan, Ouzh ar re zo en dienez Ouzh ar re zo dindan ar yev. Ha neuze am eus ranket leñvañ, Ma ’z eo ruz c’hoazh va lagad. <br /> <br /> <br /> — Heol ! Sec’h bremañ da zaeroù ! Mor-Breizh, emberr, a vo dous D’az lagad ruz hag entanet… Ur beure goañv 1964 [http://www.breizh.net/anjela/barzhonegou/57.php Orin] | rowspan="2" style="width: 50%; background-color: #f7ff3c; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" | <div style="text-align: center;"> <h2>English</h2></div> '''The sun's eye''' — Sun, why are you so late getting up? And why is your eye so red? Did you have a nightmare And weep in your sleep? — I've neither slept nor dreamt. During the night I've kept watch, While the West slept without a care On the grey ashes of its laurels, I took a trip around the World. — Sun! What did you see on your way? — I saw people dying of cold. I saw people dying of hunger. Saw people dying in despair. Saw people killing people, brothers striking each other. Saw people oppressed. Saw a great leader falling under a madman's bullets. Saw I don't know how many people weeping. And I still remained indifferent. I saw people jeer at their afflicted brother, At those in need, At those under the yoke. Then, however, I had to weep, So that my eye is still red. — Sun! Stop your weeping now. Very soon in the Breton Sea, You will soak your inflamed eye. May 1964. [http://www.breizh.net/anjela/saozneg/index.php Source] |- |} {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: #f7ff3c; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="1" | == Geriadur / Vocabulary == {|width="100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="background:transparent;border-collapse:collapse; margin: auto;" |- !width="30%"|Brezhoneg!!width="30%"|English |- | Lagad | Eye |- | Diblouz | |- | Ruz | Red |- | Gwall-hunvre | Nightmare |- |} == Exercises == Go to the [[/Quiz| Quiz]] |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} jmd5tgqpybompsloixmwzsyu8u1c7jz 0 360091 4654015 2949637 2026-07-11T15:04:22Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654015 wikitext text/x-wiki {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: PapayaWhip; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == Irregular verbs / The Imperative Tense == === "To have" / "Kaout" or "Endevout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Endevout / Kaout (''To have'') - Imperative''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Imperative Tense<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Am bezet |style="background:LightBlue"|Have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Az pez |style="background:LightBlue"|Let you have (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|En defet |style="background:LightBlue"|Let him have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|He defet |style="background:LightBlue"|Let her have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Hor bezet |style="background:LightBlue"|Let us have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Ho pet |style="background:LightBlue"|Let you have (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|o defent |style="background:LightBlue"|Let them have |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> <!-- [[Image:01b Kaout.ogg]] --> === "To know" / "Gouzout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Gouzout (''To know'') - Imperative''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Imperative Tense<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:LightBlue"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouez |style="background:LightBlue"|Let you know Breton (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezet |style="background:LightBlue"|Let him know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezet |style="background:LightBlue"|Let her know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezomp |style="background:LightBlue"|Let us know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezit |style="background:LightBlue"|Let you know Breton (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezent |style="background:LightBlue"|Let them know Breton |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01b Gouzout.ogg]] --> === "To go" / "Mont" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Mont (''To go'') - Imperative''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Imperative Tense<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:LightBlue"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Kae da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Aet da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Let him go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Aet da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Let her go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Deomp da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Let us go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Kit da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Let you go to Kemper (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Aent da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Let them go to Kemper |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01b Mont.ogg]] --> === "To do" / "Ober" === <br /> <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Irregular Verb Ober (''To do'') - Imperative''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Imperative Tense<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:LightBlue"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Gra trouz |style="background:LightBlue"|Let you make noise (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Graet trouz |style="background:LightBlue"|Let him make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Graet trouz |style="background:LightBlue"|Let her make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Greomp trouz |style="background:LightBlue"|Let us make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Grit trouz |style="background:LightBlue"|Let you make noise (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Graent trouz |style="background:LightBlue"|Let them make noise |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01b Ober.ogg]] --> == Exercises/Ober == === Self training === Now , you have seen how it's done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from this lesson and write their Imperative tense.<br /><br /> Now underneath , make some sentences up , for each verb. Eg. ''Me a oar kembraeg'' (I know welsh).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz2|Go to the Quiz]] |} {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: PapayaWhip; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == Irregular verbs / The Present Tense == === "To have" / "Kaout" or "Endevout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Endevout / Kaout (''To have'') - Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Personal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Impersonal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|em eus |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|am bez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ac'h eus |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|az pez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You have (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|en deus |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|en devez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He has |- |style="background:LightGreen"|he deus |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|he devez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She has |- |style="background:LightGreen"|hon eus |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|hor bez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|hoc'h eus |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|ho pez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You have (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|o deus |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|o devez |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They have |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 Kaout.ogg]] --> === "To know" / "Gouzout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Gouzout (''To know'') - Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouzon |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a oar brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a ran brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|I know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouzout |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a oar brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rez brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You know Breton (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oar |style="background:#82C46C"|En a oar brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a ra brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|He knows Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oar |style="background:#82C46C"|He a oar brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a ra brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|She knows Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouzomp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a oar brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a reomp brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|We know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouzoc'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a oar brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rit brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You know Breton (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouzont |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a oar brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a reont brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|They know Breton |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouzer |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a reer brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 Gouzout.ogg]] --> === "To go" / "Mont" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Mont (''To go'') - Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez an |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a ya da Gemper /<br /> Me ac'h a da Gemper[[[wikt:br:a_ya]]] |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a ran da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|I go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ez |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a ya da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rez da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You go to Kemper (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez a |style="background:#82C46C"|En a ya da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a ra da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|He goes to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez a |style="background:#82C46C"|He a ya da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a ra da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|She goes to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez eomp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a ya da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a reomp da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|We go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez it |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a ya da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rit da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You go to Kemper (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez eont |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a ya da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a reont da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|They go to Kemper |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez eer |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a reer da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 Mont.ogg]] --> === "To do" / "Ober" === <br /> <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Irregular Verb Ober (''To do'') - Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a ran |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rez |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You make noise (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a ra |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He makes noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a ra |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She makes noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a reomp |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rit |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You make noise (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a reont |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They make noise |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a reer |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:01 Ober.ogg]] --> == Exercises/Ober == === Self training === Now , you have seen how it's done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from this lesson and write their present tense.<br /><br /> Now underneath , make some sentences up , for each verb. Eg. ''Me a oar kembraeg'' (I know Welsh).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz|Go to the Quiz]] |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} fx74zzwzvx0mrwo4djh28bk9crt1y22 0 360092 4654018 2949641 2026-07-11T15:09:37Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654018 wikitext text/x-wiki {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: PapayaWhip; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == Irregular verbs / The Past Tense == === "To have" / "Kaout" or "Endevout" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Endevout / Kaout (''To have'') - Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Personal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Impersonal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|am boa |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|am beze |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|az poa |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|az peze |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You had (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|en doa |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|en deveze |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|he doa |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|he deveze |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|hor boa |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|hor beze |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ho poa |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|ho peze |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You had (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|o doa |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"|o deveze |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They had |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> <!-- [[Image:02 Kaout.ogg]] --> === "To know" / "Gouzout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Gouzout (''To know'') - Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouien |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a ouie Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raen Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|I knew German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouies |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a ouie Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raes Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You knew German (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouie |style="background:#82C46C"|En a ouie Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rae Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|He knew German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouie |style="background:#82C46C"|He a ouie Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rae Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|She knew German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouiemp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a ouie Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raemp Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|We knew German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouiec'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a ouie Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raec'h Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You knew German (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouient |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a ouie Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raent Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|They knew german |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouied |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raed Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:02 Gouzout.ogg]] --> === "To go" / "Mont" === [[wikt:br:mont|Troioù lavar / Usual expressions]] <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Mont (''To go'') - Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aen |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a yae da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raen da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|I went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aes |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a yae da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raes da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You went to Kemper (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ae |style="background:#82C46C"|En a yae da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rae da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|He went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ae |style="background:#82C46C"|He a yae da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rae da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|She went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aemp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a yae da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raemp da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|We went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aec'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a yae da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raec'h da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You went to Kemper (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aent |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a yae da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raent da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|They went to Kemper |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raed da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:02 Mont.ogg]] --> === "To do" / "Ober" === <br /> <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Irregular Verb Ober (''To do'') - Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raen |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raes |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You made noise (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rae |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rae |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raemp |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raec'h |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You made noise (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raent |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They made noise |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:02 Ober.ogg]] --> == Exercises/Ober == === Self training === Now , you have seen how it's done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from this lesson and write their Past tense.<br /><br /> Now underneath , make some sentences up , for each verb. Eg. ''Me a oar kembraeg'' (I know Welsh).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz|Go to the Quiz]] |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} 6c2lmx28ymlriqo98yk40hnct69acgc 0 360093 4654020 2949643 2026-07-11T15:41:22Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654020 wikitext text/x-wiki {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: PapayaWhip; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == Irregular verbs / The Preterit Tense == === "To have" / "Kaout" or "Endevout" === {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Endevout / Kaout (''To have'') - Preterit''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Preterit Tense<br />Personal form!! Preterit Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Personal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Impersonal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|am boe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I had once |- |style="background:LightGreen"|az poe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You had once (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|en doe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He had once |- |style="background:LightGreen"|he doe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She had once |- |style="background:LightGreen"|hor boe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We had once |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ho poe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You had once (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|o doe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They had once |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> <!-- [[Image:03 Kaout.ogg]] --> === "To know" / "Gouzout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Gouzout (''To know'') - Preterit''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Preterit Tense<br />Personal form!! Preterit Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouezis |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a ouezas Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a ris Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|I knew once German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouejout |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a ouezas Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rejout Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You knew German (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouezas |style="background:#82C46C"|En a ouezas Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a reas Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|He knew German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouezas |style="background:#82C46C"|He a ouezas Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a reas Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|She knew German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouejomp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a ouezas Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rejomp Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|We knew German |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouejoc'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a ouezas Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rejoc'h Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You knew German (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouejont |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a ouezas Alamaneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rejont Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|They knew german |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Alamaneg a ouejod |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rejod Alamaneg |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:03 Gouzout.ogg]] --> === "To go" / "Mont" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Mont (''To go'') - Preterit''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Preterit Tense<br />Personal form!! Preterit Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez is |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a ris da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|I went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejout |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rejout da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You went to Kemper (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez eas |style="background:#82C46C"|En a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a reas da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|He went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ae |style="background:#82C46C"|He a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a reas da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|She went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejomp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rejomp da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|We went to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejoc'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rejoc'h da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You went to Kemper (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejont |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rejont da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|They went to Kemper |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejod |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rejod da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:03 Mont.ogg]] --> === "To do" / "Ober" === <br /> <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Irregular Verb Ober (''To do'') - Preterit''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Preterit Tense<br />Personal form!! Preterit Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a ris |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rejout |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You made noise (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a reas |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a reas |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rejomp |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rejoc'h |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You made noise (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rejont |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They made noise |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rejod |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!-- [[Image:03 Ober.ogg]] --> == Exercises/Ober == === Self training === Now you have seen how it's done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from this lesson and write their Preterit tense.<br /><br /> Now underneath make some sentences up for each verb. Eg. ''Me a oar kembraeg'' (I know Welsh).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz|Go to the Quiz]] |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} bf6kqddmxf2g2oi8ojqob2ykbbzerif 0 360094 4654014 2949644 2026-07-11T15:03:00Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654014 wikitext text/x-wiki {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: PapayaWhip; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == Irregular verbs / The Future Tense == === "To have" / "Kaout" or "Endevout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Endevout / Kaout (''To have'') - Future''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Future Tense<br />Personal form!! Future Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Personal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Impersonal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|am bo |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I shall have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|az po |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You will have (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|en devo |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He will have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|he devo |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She will have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|hor bo |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We shall have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ho po |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You will have (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|o devo |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They will have |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> <!--[[Image:04 Kaout.ogg]]--> === "To know" / "Gouzout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Gouzout (''To know'') - Future''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Future Tense<br />Personal form!! Future Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezis |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a ouezo Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rin Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|I will know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouejout |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a ouezo Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a ri Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You will know Breton (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezo |style="background:#82C46C"|En a ouezo Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raio Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|He will know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezo |style="background:#82C46C"|He a ouezo Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raio Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|She will know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezimp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a ouezo Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raimp Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|We will know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouiot |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a ouezo Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a reot Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You will know Breton (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezint |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a ouezo Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a raint Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|They will know Breton |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouezor |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a reor Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:04 Gouzout.ogg]]--> === "To go" / "Mont" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Mont (''To go'') - Future''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Future Tense<br />Personal form!! Future Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez is |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rin da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|I will go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejout |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a ri da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You will go to Kemper (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez eas |style="background:#82C46C"|En a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raio da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|He will go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ae |style="background:#82C46C"|He a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raio da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|She will go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejomp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raimp da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|We will go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejoc'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a reot da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You will go to Kemper (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejont |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a yeas da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raint da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|They will go to Kemper |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ejod |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a reor da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:04 Mont.ogg]]--> === "To do" / "Ober" === <br /> <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Irregular Verb Ober (''To do'') - Future''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Future Tense<br />Personal form!! Future Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rin |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I will make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a ri |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You will make noise (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raio |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He will make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raio |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She will make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raimp |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We will make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a reot |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You will make noise (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raint |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They will make noise |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a reor |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:04 Ober.ogg]]--> == Exercises/Ober == === Self training === Now , you have seen how it's done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from this lesson and write their Future tense.<br /><br /> Now underneath , make some sentences up , for each verb. Eg. ''Me a oar kembraeg'' (I know Welsh).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz|Go to the Quiz]] |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} hzn0j10b9ke82maqd3uekgs56tds0cg 0 360095 4654008 3185373 2026-07-11T14:56:27Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654008 wikitext text/x-wiki {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: PapayaWhip; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == Irregular verbs / The Conditional Present Tense == === "To have" / "Kaout" or "Endevout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Endevout / Kaout (''To have'') - Conditional Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Personal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Impersonal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|am befe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I would have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|az pefe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|en defe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He would have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|he defe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She would have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|hor befe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We would have |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ho pefe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|o defe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They would have |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> <!--[[Image:05 Kaout.ogg]]--> === "To know" / "Gouzout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Gouzout (''To know'') - Conditional Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufen |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a oufe Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafen Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|I would know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufes |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a oufe Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafes Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You would know Breton (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufe |style="background:#82C46C"|Eñ a oufe Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafe Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|He would know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufe |style="background:#82C46C"|He a oufe Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafe Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|She would know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufemp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a oufe Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafemp Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|We would know Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufec'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a oufe Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafec'h Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You would know Breton (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufent |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a oufe Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafent Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|They would know Breton |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a oufed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Gouzout a rafed Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:05 Gouzout.ogg]]--> === "To go" / "Mont" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Mont (''To go'') - Conditional Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afen |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a yafe da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafen da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|I would go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afes |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a yafe da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafes da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You would go to Kemper (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afe |style="background:#82C46C"|Eñ a yafe da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafe da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|He would go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afe |style="background:#82C46C"|He a yafe da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafe da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|She would go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afemp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a yafe da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafemp da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|We would go to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afec'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a yafe da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafec'h da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You would go to Kemper (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afent |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a yafe da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafent da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|They would go to Kemper |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez afed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rafed da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:05 Mont.ogg]]--> === "To do" / "Ober" === <br /> <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Irregular Verb Ober (''To do'') - Conditional Present''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Present Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Present Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafen |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I would make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafes |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would make noise (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He would make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafe |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She would make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafemp |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We would make noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafec'h |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would make noise (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafent |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They would make noise |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rafed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:05 Ober.ogg]]--> == Exercises/Ober == === Self training === Now , you have seen how it's done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from this lesson and write their Conditional Present tense.<br /><br /> Now underneath , make some sentences up , for each verb. Eg. ''Me a oar kembraeg'' (I know welsh).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz|Go to the Quiz]] |} {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="5" style="width: 99%; background-color: inherit; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto" | style="background-color: PapayaWhip; border: 1px solid #777777; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px;" colspan="2" | == Irregular verbs / The Conditional Past Tense == === "To have had" / "Kaout" or "Endevout" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Endevout / Kaout (''To have had'') - Conditional Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Personal form!! Continuous Tense<br />Impersonal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|am bije |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I would have had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|az pije |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have had (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|en dije |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He would have had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|he dije |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She would have had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|hor bije |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We would have had |- |style="background:LightGreen"|ho pije |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have had (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|o dije |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They would have had |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"| |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#FEC3AC"| |style="background:#FF5E4D"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} </center> <br /> <!--[[Image:06 Kaout.ogg]]--> === "To have known" / "go" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb go (''To have known'') - Conditional Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouijen |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a ouije Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a rajen Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|I would have known Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouijes |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a ouije Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a rajes Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have known Breton (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouije |style="background:#82C46C"|Eñ a ouije Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a raje Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|He would have known Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouije |style="background:#82C46C"|He a ouije Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a raje Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|She would have known Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouijemp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a ouije Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a rajemp Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|We would have known Breton |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouijec'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a ouije Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a rajec'h Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have known Breton (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouijent |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a ouije Brezhoneg |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a rajent Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|They would have known Breton |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Brezhoneg a ouijed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"|Gouzout a rajed Brezhoneg |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:06 Gouzout.ogg]]--> === "To have gone" / "Mont" === <br /> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%; margin: auto;" |+ '''Irregular Verb Mont (''To have gone'') - Conditional Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ajen |style="background:#82C46C"|Me a yaje da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rajen da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|I would have gone to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ajes |style="background:#82C46C"|Te a yaje da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rajes da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have gone to Kemper (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aje |style="background:#82C46C"|Eñ a yaje da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raje da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|He would have gone to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez aje |style="background:#82C46C"|He a yaje da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a raje da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|She would have gone to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ajemp |style="background:#82C46C"|Ni a yaje da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rajemp da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|We would have gone to Kemper |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ajec'h |style="background:#82C46C"|C'hwi a yaje da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rajec'h da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have gone to Kemper (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ajent |style="background:#82C46C"|Int a yaje da Gemper |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rajent da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|They would have gone to Kemper |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Da Gemper ez ajed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| Mond a rajed da Gemper |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:06 Mont.ogg]]--> === "To do" / "Ober" === <br /> <center> {| cellpadding="10" cellspacing="2" style="text-align:center; font-size:100%" |+ '''Irregular Verb Ober (''To do'') - Conditional Past''' |-style="background:LightGrey; color:Brown" ! Conditional Past Tense<br />Personal form!! Conditional Past Tense<br />Impersonal form!! With auxiliary<br />Personal form!! English meaning |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rajen |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|I would have made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rajes |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have made noise (sg.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raje |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|He would have made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a raje |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|She would have made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rajemp |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|We would have made noise |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rajec'h |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|You would have made noise (pl.) |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rajent |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|They would have made noise |- |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |style="background:White"| |- |style="background:LightGreen"|Trouz a rajed |style="background:#82C46C"| |style="background:#F0E36B"| |style="background:LightBlue"|Impersonal <br />passive |- |} <br /> <!--[[Image:06 Ober.ogg]]--> == Exercises/Ober == === Self training === Now , you have had seen how it's done.<br /><br /> Take the verbs from this lesson and write their Conditional Past tense.<br /><br /> Now underneath , have made some sentences up , for each verb. Eg. ''Me a oar kembraeg'' (I have known welsh).<br /><br /> === Quiz === [[/Quiz2|Go to the Quiz]] |} {{BookCat|filing=deep}} 0b8k4vi3rld8yxus0o5qodzsglkoao5 0 361112 4654073 4449350 2026-07-11T19:11:03Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654073 wikitext text/x-wiki {{navigation|previous=Table of contents|next=materials_and_methods}} == Testate amoebae == [[w:Testate amoebae|Testate amoebae]], [[w:thecamoebians|thecamoebians]], or testaceans are a polyphyletic group of unicellular [[w:Amoeba|ameboid]] [[w:Protist|protists]]. Under the current taxonomy, testate amoebas are classified in the group of amoeboid protozoans in the classes [[w:Lobosea|Lobosea]] and [[Filosea]] in the Superclass Rhizopoda.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|url = |title = A preliminary investigation into the use of testate amoebae for the discrimination of forensic soil samples|last = G. T. Swindles|first = |date = 2008|journal = Science and Justice|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> === Biology and ecology === They are found in many habitats such as mosses, soils, peatlands, lakes, rivers and estuarine environments around the world.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Soil organisms beneath a cadaver - a tool for estimating the time of death|last = I. Szelecz|first = |date = 2010|journal = MSc Thesis|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> In soils, the main factors explaining their abundance and community structure are the moisture content and water chemistry. Amoebae require the presence of humidity because, as aquatic organisms, a they have to live constantly in water. If conditions become less favorable, especially if the soil dries out, they have the ability to form cysts to avoid desiccation.<ref name=":12"/> [[w:Microbial cyst|Encystment]] in these species allows also dissemination.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Histoire naturelle des Protozoaires Thecamoebiens|last = D. Chardez|first = |date = 1967|journal = Les Naturalistes Belges|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> These protozoa can tolerate a wide temperature range depending on the species, thus they can be found in the tropics and in the polar regions. It has been also shown that the distribution of testate amoebae on earth is also limited by [[w:PH|pH]]. Some species can live in [[w:Moorland|acid moors]] and other in [[w:Alkali soil|alkaline soils]], while a smaller number of species can even tolerate both kinds of habitats.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book|title = An atlas of freshwater testate amoebae|last = C. G. Ogden & R. H. Hedley|first = |publisher = British Museum (Natural History)|year = 1980|isbn = 0 19 858502 0|location = |pages = }}</ref> As their name suggests, the feature of this group of amoebae is the presence of a test that is lacking in [[w:Amoebidae|naked amoebae]]. This test is constituted by various elements.<ref name=":11"/> Each species of testate amoeba has a specific test morphology and composition that allows to recognize and classify them. Even after the death of the amoebae, the tests remain in soils, sometimes for hundreds of years. As they are very sensitive to disturbances of environments they can be a good [[w:Bioindicator|bioindicator]] in various research fields (ecology, paleoecology, paleolimnology, paleoclimatology, peatland regeneration, soil and air pollution monitoring and ecotoxicology).<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Can soil testate amoebae be used for estiamting the time since death? A field experiment in a deciduous forest|last = I. Szelecz et al.|first = |date = 2014|journal = Forensic Science International|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Their size varies between 10 and 500 micrometers. Most have a size between 20 and 200 micrometers but larger individuals have been observed with a size of up to 2000 micrometers. Testate amoebae move and feed through its [[w:Pseudopodia|pseudopods]]. Smaller species are essentially bacterivorous. However larger species can also use other sources of food such as protists, including other testate amoebae or naked amoebae, [[w:Fungus|fungi]], small [[w:Animal|metazoans]], algae and detrital organic particles.<ref name=":10"/> The reproduction mode, still little known, is by replication of the parent by asexual binary fission. The doubling time of the population, under natural conditions, is estimated between six and eleven days.<ref name=":10"/> === Classification === The two main criteria for classifying testate amoebas are the test structure and the pseudopod morphology. The type of test can be divided into three main groups according to its composition: * A protein test that is organic and made of composite structural proteins either blocks or homogenous layers. * An agglutinated test which comes from exogenous collected materials such as mineral particles of [[w:Diatom|Diatoms]] or silica platelets of Euglyphida. * A siliceous or calcareous tests made of rods, nails or plates that are produced by the organisms themselves. Testate amoebae can be separated into two groups according to the shape of their pseudopodia. Lobose testate amoebae are grouped within the phylum Amoebozoa and are characterized by lobed or finger-shape pseudopodia. Filose testate amoebae are grouped within the phylum [[w:Cercozoa|Cercozoa]] and are characterized by thin pseudopodia. The development of new molecular methods [[w:Molecular phylogenetics|molecular classifications]] now allows to reassessing the classification based on pseudopodia morphology.<ref name=":1"/> === Diversity === The two main testate amoebae orders are [[w:Arcellinida|Arcellinida]] and [[w:Euglyphida|Euglyphida]]. The order of Arcellinida belongs to the lobed testate amoebae and are the most numerous. They represent approximately three quarters of all known species of testate amoebae. The order of Euglyphida belongs to the filose testate amoebae. == Forensic sciences == {{wikipediacat|Forensics}} Forensic sciences is the use of scientific knowledge and methodology in order to resolve criminal investigations. The estimation of the [[w:Post-mortem interval|'''post-mortem interval''']] '''(PMI)''' is one of the major purpose in forensic sciences because it is fundamental in solving criminal cases. Indeed, it allows, among other things, to restore order in which events occurred. Nowadays, there are two main possibilities to determine it: # '''Medical techniques:''' These techniques allow the post [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datation_des_cadavres mortem dating]. It uses, for example, the temperature of the body or the rigor mortis. It allows to estimate the PMI from a couple of hours to approximately three days. After that amount of time, medical methods are no longer possible. # '''[[w:Forensic entomology|Forensic entomology]]:''' By the observation of [[w:Larva|larval]] stages of [[w:Fly|flies]] and [[w:Beetle|beetles]], [[w:Forensic entomology|forensic entomologists]] are able to estimate the PMI after several weeks.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Response of forest soil euglyphid testate amoebae (Rhizaria: Cercozoa) to pig cadavers assessed by high-throughput sequencing|last = C. V. W. Seppey et al.|first = |date = 2015|journal = IntJ Legal Med|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> For a longer PMI, these techniques are no longer precise enough. Therefore, in the last decades, seeing that a cadaver alter visibly the surrounding environment, scientists have been interested in the influence of a cadaver on the [[w:Soil|soil]] components in order to discover new techniques allowing the PMI determination. Studies have been made on the effect of a cadaver on soil [[w:Nutrient|nutrients]], [[w:PH|pH]] and [[w:Fungus|fungi]] and [[w:Microorganism|microbial]] communities. It has been shown that phosphorus, carbon and nitrogen concentrations (amoung others) as well as the pH level increases strongly in a soil below a cadaver.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|url = |title = The biochemical alteration of soil beneath a decomposing carcass|last = L. A. Benninger et al.|first = |date = 2008|journal = Forensic Science International|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|url = |title = The role of carrion in maintaining biodiversity and ecological processes in terrestrial ecosystems|last = P. S. Barton et al.|first = |date = 2012|journal = Oecologia|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> These enhancements persist two years after a corpse has been laid on the ground.<ref name=":8"/> Populations of bacteria and fungi also increase strongly in the presence of a cadaver.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":5"/> Therefore scientists have assumed that these major environmental changes beneath a cadaver could strongly influence the composition of testate amoebae communities, which are very sensitive, among others, to moisture rate, pH, nutrients and prey community changes.<ref name=":1"/> == Testate amoebae in forensic sciences == Testate amoebae is a group of [[w:Protist|protist]] which is frequently used as [[w:Bioindicator|'''bioindicators''']]. A bioindicator is an organism that can be used for the detection and quantitative characterization of a certain [[w:Environmental factor|environmental factor]] or a complex of environmental factors. For example, testate amoebae seems to be the best agricultural bioindicator, as they are highly sensitive to pesticide treatments.<ref name=":1"/> Testate amoebae can be used as bioindicators, because they own characteristics that make them ideally suited to this type of study:<ref name=":1"/> # Their test is conserved even after the death of the organism and can even fossilize in peatlands (in other environments, the test is not conserved for a long time after death). # They are present in a wide range of habitats and are very abundant. # They are easy to find and identify (even if it is time-consuming and if the [[w:Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] isn't complete yet). # They are strongly sensitive to abiotic and biotic environmental changes and their response can be observed very quickly, discernible by '''morphological adaptations''' and '''community structure changes'''.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Testate amoebae analysis in ecological and paleoecological studies of wetlands: past, present and future|last = E. A. D. Mitchell et al.|first = |date = 2008|journal = Biodiversity and Conservation|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> # They can encyst and excyst under stressful circumstances. A study interested in the influence of a cadaver on testate amoebae communities has shown that a cadaver strongly decrease the diversity and the abundance of testate amoebae beneath the body. Observations showed that after 22 to 33 days no living amoebae was still present under the corpse.<ref name=":9"/> A recovery of the amoebae community occurred after the end of the active decay phase, which is from one month up to two months,<ref name=":8"/> but still after 10 months, recovery was not entirely completed.<ref name=":9"/> The decrease may be caused by several motifs. An additional study showed that it was correlated with an important nitrogen and organic carbon input in the soil beneath the cadaver. The decrease might have occurred because of the anoxic conditions or because of the direct high nitrogen concentration.<ref name=":8"/><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Structure of microbial communities in Sphagnum peatlands and effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide enrichment|last = E. A. D. Mitchell|first = |date = 2003|journal = Microbial ecology|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Furthermore, the large nutrients input and pH variations (caused by the intake of ammonium ions <ref name=":6"/>) produces big changes in the bacterial abundance and community structure.<ref name=":8"/> Bacteria are the main diet of testate amoebae and it is likely that some species are very specialized in a type of prey. It is therefore possible that any change in the prey community results in a change in the amoebae community.<ref name=":8"/><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Response of testate amoebae (protozoa) to N and P fertilization in an arctic wet sedge tundra|last = E. A. D. Mitchell et al.|first = |date = 2004|journal = Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Le régime alimentaire des Thécamoebiens (Protista, Sarcodina)|last = D. Gilbert et al.|first = |date = 2000|journal = L'Année biologique|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Indeed, it has been proven in several studies that testate amoebae are strongly linked to '''[[w:Water content|moisture rate]]''', '''pH''', '''temperature''', '''prey availability''', and '''nutrients changes''', by direct or indirect effects.<ref name=":1"/> The changes that occur in community structure, following a chronological pattern, could be used as a tool to determine the [[w:Post-mortem interval|PMI]]. In conclusion, using testate amoebae for forensic purposes, with a focus on testate amoebae '''community structure''', '''recovery time''' and '''succession pattern,''' is totally appopriate.<ref name=":9"/> Even if the taxonomy is still incomplete and the species identification time-consuming,<ref name=":1"/> improvements in molecular approaches are likely to make the use of testate amoebaes in forensic sciences more accessible. == The cadaver impact on soil == === A cadaver in the ecosystem === The [[w:Decomposition|decomposition]] process is a central point in the energy and matter [[w:Biogeochemical cycle|cycles]]. Indeed,  Philip S. Barton wrote: ''« Up to 90 % of organic matter generated by plants is not consumed when living and enters the detritus pool. Animals consume the remaining 10 %, incorporate this into new tissue for growth and development, and eventually return these nutrients to the detritus pool as excreta and carrion”''.<ref name=":5"/> The arrival of a cadaver in an ecosystem leads to important changes. Indeed, its '''fast decomposition process''', its '''[[w:Nutrient|nutrient]] richness''' and its '''patchy influence''' make him a fundamental hotspot of biological and chemical activity (compared to plants).<ref name=":5"/> Furthermore, it brings a large increase in the biodiversity, caused by the attraction of insects, microorganisms, scavengers and predators for this unusual source of food. A carrion decomposition, controlled by temperature and moisture rate, affects and accelerates the temporal and the spatial dynamic of the ecosystem and its communities. The spatial dynamic is influenced by the '''energy and nutrients flows''' and the temporal dynamic is influenced by the '''species succession'''.<ref name=":5"/> The microbes are fundamental in the recycling process because they mineralize the fundamental nutrients and make them available for plants, which are the initial link of the [[w:Food chain|food chain]]. Arthropods and scavengers disperse the nutrients in an horizontal direction. At the end, all animal, predator or prey, will re-enter the decomposition cycle upon its death.<ref name=":5"/> ==== Ecological succession theory ==== '''[[w:Ecological succession|Ecological succession]]''' is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over time. The time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years after a mass extinction.<ref name="SahneyBenton2008">{{cite journal | url=http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/275/1636/759.full.pdf | author=Sahney, S. and Benton, M.J. | year=2008 | title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological | doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 | volume = 275 | pages = 759–65|format=PDF | pmid=18198148 | issue=1636 | pmc=2596898}}</ref> For a cadaver, it can be counted in days. The community begins with relatively few '''pioneering''' '''plants and animals''' and develops through increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as a climax community. The ʺengineʺ of succession, the cause of ecosystem change, is '''the impact of established species upon their own environments'''. A consequence of living is the sometimes subtle and sometimes overt alteration of one's own environment.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Virtual Nature Trail at Penn State New Kensington|url=http://www.psu.edu/dept/nkbiology/naturetrail/succession.htm|publisher=The Pennsylvania State University|accessdate=Oct 10, 2013}}</ref> The difference between a succession in plant ecology and in carrion ecology is that once the resource is exhausted, the carrion ecosystem does not reach a climax.<ref name=":5"/> Nevertheless, lots of studies have demonstrated that different communities of organisms (especially arthropods) follow each other through time, in parallel with the progress of the various decomposition stages (The composition of the cadaver changes quickly during the decomposition process, providing various sort of food.). It allows, for example, the use of insects to evaluate the PMI. It is possible that this theory could entirely be applicated to testate amoebae.<ref name=":1"/> === Cadaver impact on soil nutrients, moisture, pH and bacteria and fungal communities === A cadaver has a fast, huge and localised impact on soil also called « '''Cadaver Decomposition Island (CDI)''' ».<ref name=":6"/> It releases a large amount of nutrients like nitrogen, carbon or phosphorous. The release of ammonium ions leads to an increasement of the pH.<ref name=":6"/> This changes follow a predictable temporal pattern correlated with the mass loss of the cadaver.<ref name=":5"/> The release of body fluids and its nutrients in the soil strongly increases the microbial biomass and activity. Indeed, fungal and bacterial abundance and diversity are directly linked with the nutrient content of the soil.<ref name=":6"/> Furthermore, in the edges of the CDI, '''<nowiki/>'''the soil is more fertile and has a broader biodiversity and biomass production. === Decomposition stages === Five general stages are used to describe the process of decomposition in vertebrate animals: '''fresh''', '''bloat''', '''active''' and '''advanced decay''', and '''dry/remains'''.<ref name= Payne>{{cite journal|doi= 10.2307/1934999|last= Payne|first= J.A.|title= A summer carrion study of the baby pig sus scrofa Linnaeus|journal= Ecology|volume=46|issue= 5| pages=592–602|year=1965}}</ref> The general stages of decomposition are coupled with two stages of chemical decomposition: [[w:Autolysis (biology)|'''autolysis''']] and [[w:Putrefaction|'''putrefaction''']].<ref name=Forbes>{{cite book |last=Forbes | first=S.L. |editor= M. Tibbett, D.O. Carter |title=Soil Analysis in Forensic Taphonomy|publisher=CRC Press |year=2008 |pages=203–223 |chapter=Decomposition Chemistry in a Burial Environment |isbn=1-4200-6991-8}}</ref> These two stages contribute to the [[w:Chemical process of decomposition|chemical process of decomposition]], which breaks down the main components of the body. # The “'''fresh'''” stage starts at the cessation of the heart and depletion of internal oxygen. Without oxygen, the aerobic metabolism stops and the enzymatic digestion of cells ('''autolysis''') starts. The flies lay eggs and the maggot starts to eat the tissues. Bacterial populations grow up within 24h. # The “'''bloated'''” stage is caused, after 48 hours, by the lack of oxygen which promotes the anaerobic bacteria, which transform sugar and lipids into organic acids like propionic or lactic acid. This is the '''putrefaction''' stage. The gas pressure push the fluids out of the body by the orifices (mouth, nose, anus). # The “'''active''' '''decay'''” stage starts when seepage and maggots cause rips in the body skin, which make oxygen come back and maggot and aerobic activity increases again. At this stage, the mass loss is huge. # The “'''advanced''' '''decay'''” stage occurs with the transformation of maggots into pupae. At this stage, the increase of carbon, nutrient and pH of the soil is not linked with a positive effect on soil biology. Indeed, the vegetation and most organisms like collembolan and acari die for many reasons like nitrogen toxicity and suffocation. # The “'''dry'''” and “'''remains'''” stages are the last stages of the decomposition process. The “'''dry'''” stage is characterized by an increase of vegetation around the CDI. The “'''remains'''” stage is characterized by an increase of vegetation inside the CDI. The nutrients and moisture are depleted quickly, because easily accessible, but the concentrations of nutrients in soil doesn’t decrease. Collembolan and acari populations decrease and fungi form fruiting structures due to the high nitrogen level. <ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Cadaver decomposition in terrestrial ecosystem|last = D. O. Carter et al.|first = |date = 2006|journal = Naturwissenschaften|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> <gallery class="center"> File:Example of a pig carcass in the fresh stage of decomposition.jpg|A pig carcass in the '''fresh''' stage of decomposition File:Example of a pig carcass in the bloat stage of decomposition.jpg|A pig carcass in the '''bloat''' stage of decomposition File:Example of a pig carcass in the active decay stage of decomposition.jpg|A pig carcass in the '''active decay''' stage of decomposition File:Example of a pig carcass in the advanced decay stage of decomposition.jpg|A pig carcass in the '''advanced decay''' stage of decomposition File:Example of a pig carcass in the dry decay stage of decomposition.jpg|A pig carcass in the '''dry/remains''' stage of decomposition </gallery> == Purposes, hypothesis and realization of the experiment == === Purposes === Further to ancient studies on the impact of a cadaver on testate amoebae soil communities,<ref name=":9"/> our study has to verify if the observed variations are really due to the cadaver in its entirety or to its body fluids only. Thus the study will compare the effect of pig cadaver, pig blood and cow manure. Blood and manure can be important in the determination of the PMI because if the body is missing, they are the only elements that remain at the crime scene. Furthermore, their impact on testate amoebae communities is still unknown. The final aims of this study are to confirm that using testate amoebae in forensic sciences is founded and to broaden the scarce knowledge in this new scientific field. === Realization of the experiment === To achieve our purposes, three treatments will be set up and applicated to soil and litter: '''pigs heads''', '''pig blood''', and '''cow manure'''. A '''control''' composed only of soil and litter will be set up too. The follow-up of treatments lasts four weeks, and sampling days take place once per week (so in total four times). The pigs heads treatment has been imagined in order to imitate the cadaver impacts son soil, although the blood and manure allow to test body fluids impacts. To analyze the treatments impacts on soil communities, three parameters will be measured: [[w:Respirometry|'''respirometry''']], [[w:PH|'''pH''']] and the [[w:Species diversity|'''species diversity''']] and '''relative abundance of living and dead testate amoebae (living/dead ratio)'''. * The '''species diversity''' and the '''relative abundance of living and dead testate amoebae''' are naturally analyzed because these organisms respond very well to disturbances, implying that a change in the community can be used as a tool for the PMI determination. * The '''respirometry''' allows to measure the metabolic activity of the soil organisms. An increase in the CO<sub>2</sub> flow measured by the respirometer means an increase in the soil metabolic activity, but not necessary an increase in testate amoebae community. These data could help to determine a potential correlation between an increase of the soil metabolic activity (bacteria, fungi...) and an increase in amoebae abundance. Indeed, testate amoebae eat bacteria and fungi and an increase in the prey abundance should usually increases the predator abundance, but testate amoebae being very sensitive to a change of prey or abiotic environment, this will not necessarily be observed. * The '''pH''' is measured because testate amoebae are very sensitive to this so a change in the pH should be correlated to a change in the amoebae community. This would confirm previous studies. === Hypothesis === Testate amoebae being very versatils creatures, their short reproductive cycle should allow to observe evolutions of populations through the four treatments and time. They are sensitive to dryness and pH. Thus, different panels of amoebae species and different living/dead ratio are expected to be found in each treatment pot through time. The three treatments should influence differently moisture and pH, which are both determining factors of testate amoebae communities structure.<ref name=":1"/> Indeed, an increase in the moisture rate should increase the amoebae [[w:Species diversity|species diversity]], because they live in the soil water and depend on it. Contrariwise, a variation of the pH should decrease the amoebae species diversity because they are strongly "pH-dependant". The pH and the moisture rate should have direct and an indirect influences. The direct influences may be caused by a change in the abiotic conditions and the indirect influences may be caused by changes in species diversity of prey community.<ref name=":1"/> The presence of the pig head and the cow manure on the litter should cause a higher soil humidity rate than in control and blood treatments, which should lead to an increase in living testate amoebae species diversity. The presence of the pig head and blood should increase the pH to more basic conditions, which should lead to a decrease in living testate amoebae species diversity. The manure should decrease the pH to more acidic conditions, which should also lead to a decrease in living testate amoebae species diversity. The [[w:Nutrient|nutrient]] content of the soil also has a huge impact on soil communities. An increase in nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorous could drastically change the soil communities composition, by, for example totally modify the bacterial flora composition. Indeed, the nutrients can have an impact because of their role of nutritive element but also because they can change the pH (ammonium ions for example) or be toxic (too much nitrate for example). According to these predictions, the control treatment samples should be the driest and have the smallest pH variations. Thus the testate ameobae community shouldn't change through time, except because of dry or wet weather conditions. The cow manure treatment samples should be a little more wet because the dung forms a waterproof layer and keeps the humidity in the litter. Through this we expect to see an acidification of the soil and the acidophilic amoebae species, such as ''Arcella sp.'', ''Assulina muscorum'', ''Corythion dubium'', ''Difflugia lucida'', ''Euglypha sp.'', ''Nebela collaris'' and ''Nebela tincta'', should become more abundant.<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":10"/><nowiki> </nowiki>The manure decomposition process is quiet long so its influence on the nutrient content of the soil should not be seen the first two weeks.<ref name=":10"/> Then the nutrient introduction in the soil by the [[w:Decomposer|decomposers]] should change the prey communities and decrease the species diversity of living testate amoebae. The blood treatment samples should be as dry as the control ones but the blood should affect the pH and the nutrient content of the soil, so some communities evolution should be visible. The changes in prey communities<nowiki> </nowiki>should negatively affect the species diversity of the living testate amoebae community, which are quite specific predators. The pig head treatment samples should be affected by pH variations. The first two weeks, the pH should increase and reach a slightly basic level. Then it should go back to a neutral level. This should affect the amoebae communities and allow basidophilic species to spread, such as ''Centropyxis aerophila'', ''Nebela bohemica'' and ''Nebela lageniformis''.<ref>Lamentowicz et al. (2005), "The ecology of testate amoebae (protists) in Sphagnum in north-western Poland in relation to peatland ecology", ''Microbial Ecology.''</ref><nowiki> </nowiki>The moisture level should be higher than in the other samples because of the influence of cadaveric fluids and the head shadow. It should be positive for the reproduction rate.<ref name=":10"/><nowiki> </nowiki>The nutrient content of the soil should increase and have a negativ impact on the living testate amoebae community, like for the blood treatment. {{navigation|previous=Table of contents|next=materials_and_methods}} == References == {{Reflist}} 0pf0i6wdetgr7l9z2hw1j60vo1xxbh3 0 361131 4654090 3355411 2026-07-11T19:17:40Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654090 wikitext text/x-wiki {{navigation|previous=materials and methods|next=Conclusion}} ==Testate amoebea observed== <gallery class="center"> File:Collection Pénard MHNG Specimen 686-1-2.tif|Arcella File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 73-9-2 Assulina seminulum.tif|Assulina File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 691-1-1 Centropyxis aculeata.tif|Centropyxis File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 386-1-1 Euglypha alveolata.tif|Euglypha </gallery> <gallery class="center"> File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 746-1-5 Heleopera cyclostoma.tif|Heleopera File:Collection Pénard MHNG Specimen 757-1-7.tif|Nebela File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 564-7-1 Plagiopyxis callida.tif|Plagiopyxis File:Collection Penard MHNG Specimen 612-1-1 Trinema enchelys.tif|Trinema </gallery> ==Respiration: Released CO2 flow== [[File:Respiro.png|centre|thumb|Released CO<sub>2</sub> flow in function of treatments and time.|300x300px]] This graph shows the evolution of the CO<sub>2</sub> flow released by soil organisms (usually through respiration process) for the three treatments (blood, manure, pig). The control is used as standard in order to minimise the external variables influences. Moreover, our interest was differences between treatments and control samples, thus absolute values are not interesting in those results. Following our hypothesis, the control should be stable. The pig and the blood should have the highest released CO<sub>2</sub> flow because they bring a lot of nutrients in soil, which is known to increase bacterial activity.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|url = |title = The biochemical alteration of soil beneath a decomposing carcass|last = L. A. Benninger et al.|first = |date = 2008|journal = Forensic Science International|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> The manure curve should be situated under the blood and pig because its decomposition process is long, so less nutrients are brought to the soil at the beginning of the experiment,<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Cadaver decomposition in terrestrial ecosystem|last = D. O. Carter et al.|first = |date = 2006|journal = Naturwissenschaften|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> which is less favorable for the bacterial activity. Our results match with the hypothesis. Indeed, we can see very different results between treatments. On one side the manure is very similar to the control. It could be explained by the dryness of the samples, which were stored in a greenhouse by hot and dry weather conditions. The dryness of the manure didn't allow the nutrients flow to be established through the decomposition process because dryness is not good for decomposers activity. On the other side, the blood and pig treatment show highest respiration rates at each sample times (except T0, which is normal) and the pig sample has the highest one. It could be explained by the presence of a lot of necrophageous maggots remaining on the litter during the measurement. An additional explanation could be the release of cadaver fluids, which contain a lot of bacteria and nutrients, which increases the bacterial activity in soil.<ref name=":6"/> The blood sample follows a similar curve as the pig one, but is characterized by lower values. This could be explained by the fact that blood only releases nutrient to the soil, which increases the soil bacterial activity but does not import new bacteria and maggots as the pig treatment does. No measurement was made at T3, because the respirometer was broken. An ANOVA and a Tukey test were made in order to test if the treatments and time impacts, and the interaction between this two variables, on the released CO<sub>2</sub> flow were significant. The results shows that : *Time has a significant influence on the released CO<sub>2</sub> flow : p-value = 1.692*10-5. *Treatments have a significant influence on the released CO<sub>2</sub> flow: p-value = 1.863*10-6. *There is a significant interaction between treatment and time on the released CO<sub>2</sub> flow : p-value= 0.0001. (Cf. datas and statistical analysis in [[Forensic sciences: Effects of stress and perturbations on soil communities/Appendices|Appendices]]) ==pH== [[File:Variations of pH in function of treatments and time.png|centre|thumb|pH variations in function of treatments and time.|300x300px]] This graph shows the standardized values ​​of pH according to the control for each treatment. The standardization is done for two reasons. In first place, we have a drop in values ​​for each treatment at T3, that may be due to improper calibration of pH meter or dryness. The standardization removes the uncontrolled variables impact. Secondly, the important values are the relative values between control and treatments, and not the absolute ones. At T0, all treatments have a pH close to the control one, which is logic because the treatments were not applied yet. After application of the blood treatment, the pH rises sharply. Then, it stabilizes at 1.5, the highest standardized value of each sample. The increase of blood treatment pH may be explained, among other, by the release of ammonium ions.<ref name=":6"/> Results for pig treatment are irregular. At T1, the difference with the control is relatively high. Then, after 18 days, it decreases and stabilizes at the same pH than the control. The presence of a cadaver basify the medium for the same reason as the blood does. However, changes are less significant and long lasting, because the pig cadaver is less concentrated in nutrients than the blood. As for blood treatment, adding manure durably increases the difference of pH with the control, but less strongly than the blood treatment. The highest difference with the control treatment pH is 0.5. This results are quite surprising. This treatment should have acidified the soil pH.<ref name=":0">A. Siegenthaler et al. (1999). "Auswirkung hoher Gaben von Klärschlamm und Schweinegülle". ''Umwelt''</ref> This results may be explained by the weather conditions because samples were stored in a greenhouse and there has not been an adequate intake of water to allow the decomposition of the manure and exchanges of nutrients with the soil. An ANOVA and a Tukey test were made in order to test if the treatments and time impacts, and the interaction between this two variables, on the pH ratio were significant. In general, the p-values are significant (<0.05) for the influence of treatment, time and the interaction of this two variables. *Time has a significant influence on the pH : p-value = 4.657e-14. *Treatments have a significant influence on the pH : p-value = 1.743e-10. *There is a significant interaction between treatment and time on the pH : p-value= 1.155e-05. (Cf. datas and statistical analysis in [[Forensic sciences: Effects of stress and perturbations on soil communities/Appendices|Appendices]]) ==Living/dead amoebae ratio== [[File:Livingdeadratio.png|centre|thumb|Living/dead ratio in function of treatments and time.|300x300px]] Hypothetically, treatments and time should have an impact on the living/dead ratio of testate amoebae.<ref name=":1" /> Indeed, treatments change the moisture rate, the nutrient content and the pH of soil and this should evolve through time.<ref name=":6"/> Following our hypothesis, the living/dead ratio should be quiet similar for each treatment at T0 and should decrease afterwards for the pig, blood and manure treatments, but should stay stable for control. Decreases should be caused by changes in moisture rate, nutrient content, pH and specific preys availability. On the graph, we can see that, at T0 and T1, there is no difference for the living/dead ratio of each treatment and there are almost no living amoebae (ratio closed to 0). This can be easily explained. Indeed, the Rose Bengal coloration (to stain living cells) didn’t work well for the T0 and T1 samples and it was our first encounter with testate amoebae. Thus, this is logical that no difference is seen between the two first treatments and that sudden variations happens at T2 and T3. Indeed, at T2 and T3 the coloration worked, therefore it is logical that more living amoebae have been observed. Seeing the graph, we could believe that between T2 and T3, there is a decrease of the living/dead ratio for the pig, manure and control treatments and an increase for the blood treatment. The decrease could be explain by a negative impact of treatments or weather conditions (The weather was very hot and dry between T2 and T3 and the amoebae depend a lot from the moisture rate), and the increase (blood) could be explained by a positive impact of the treatment. However, seeing the large error bars for each treatment at T2 and T3, we can not affirm that this results are reliable. Indeed, large variations between treatments and between replicates can be explained by the low number of amoebae identified (20 per replicate only), thus only one more living amoebae identified can greatly change the ratio. An ANOVA and a Tukey test were made in order to test if the treatments and time impacts, and the interaction between this two variables, on the living/dead ratio were significant. Obviously, the time has a significant impact (p-value = 0.002) but this is only because the coloration didn’t work at T0 and T1, so the living/dead ratio suddenly increases at T2, when the living amoebae were finally able to be identified. Indeed, between T0/T1 and T2/T3, p-values are generally significant (>0.05), but no more between T0 and T1 and T2 and T3. P-values for the impact of treatment and the interaction between treatment and time are not significant. (Cf. datas and statistical analysis in [[Forensic sciences: Effects of stress and perturbations on soil communities/Appendices|Appendices]]) ==Evolution of communities through time for each treatment== [[File:Communities.png|thumb|500x500px|Evolution of the three main genders through time in function of treatments.]] Previous studies showed that time and treatments influence the amoebae communities structure.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Soil organisms beneath a cadaver - a tool for estimating the time of death|last = I. Szelecz|first = |date = 2010|journal = MSc Thesis|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Indeed, these communities are very sensitive to environmental changes, which are consistently modified by treatments. The species should success each other, according to abiotic and biotic conditions of their environment ([[w:Ecological succession|Ecological Succession theory]]). That hasn't been confirmed by our results. On the graphs, we can see the abundance variation of the three more abundant testate amoebae genders through time, for each treatment. These genders are: * [[w:Centropyxis|Centropyxis]] * [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyclopyxis&veaction=edit Cyclopyxis] * [[w:Arcella|Arcella]] Other genders are included in the category "other", because of their trivial presence. The results seem quite chaotic and can not be interpreted. An ANOVA and a Tuckey test were made in order to test if the treatments and time impacts, and the interaction between this two variables on samples [[w:Species diversity|species diversity]], were significant. The species diversity of each sample is represented by a Shannon index. In general, the impact of time and treatments on testate amoebae species diversity are not significant (for pig, blood, manure and control treatments: p-value > 0.05). These unexpected results may be explained by many hypothesis : *The experiment duration : A longer experiment could show a significant difference on communities. *No reliable methods of identification : It was our first contact with testate amoebae, so our lack of experience makes results not reliable. We also tended to always identify the same well-known species. *The weak number of individuals : We only identified twenty amoebae in each sample. It’s probably not enough to get reliable results. So for future studies, we advise to count more individuals to have significant results. *Moisture rate : Our treatment pots were under a greenhouse, so they quickly dried up and we did not immediately water them. The testate amoebae don’t like the drought, so our results are probably biased. (Cf. datas and statistical analysis in [[Forensic sciences: Effects of stress and perturbations on soil communities/Appendices|Appendices]]) ==Correlation between living/dead amoebae ratio and pH and correlation between Shannon index and pH== The presence of the pig head and blood increased the pH to more basic conditions, which should lead to a decrease in living testate amoebae abundance and specific richness. A Pearson's correlation test have been made in order to test if the living/dead ratio and the Shannon index are correlated with the pH variations but the correlation coefficients are respectively -0.206 and -0.064. Thus there is no significant correlation between the living dead/ratio or the Shannon index and the pH of the samples (p-value are respectively 0.159 and 0.662). (Cf. datas and statistical analysis in [[Forensic sciences: Effects of stress and perturbations on soil communities/Appendices|Appendices]]) {{navigation|previous=materials and methods|next=Conclusion}} ==References== {{Reflist}} ozmddspslclrrjlx62fptn9kftukjki 0 364959 4654141 4449445 2026-07-11T21:03:18Z Thedj955 3363344 /* Vokabular: Lektionen 001 to 025 */ Added a T, the word "fastest" was previously spelled "fastes" 4654141 wikitext text/x-wiki :[[Deutschkurs für Anfänger|Table of Contents]] :{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; margin-left: 10px" |- ! colspan="10"| lección |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 001|001]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 002|002]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 003|003]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 004|004]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 005|005]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 006|006]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 007|007]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 008|008]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 009|009]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 010|010]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 011|011]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 012|012]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 013|013]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 014|014]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 015|015]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 016|016]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 017|017]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 018|018]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 019|019]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 020|020]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 021|021]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 022|022]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 023|023]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 024|024]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 025|025]] |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 004a|004a]] |} == Vokabular: Lektionen 001 to 025 == # ab jetzt - en: from now on # ab und zu - en: from time to time # abbeißen - en: to bite off # abbiegen - en: to turn # abbilden - en: to depict # abends - en: in the evening # Abendzeitung, die - en: evening newspaper # aber - en: but # abfahren - en: to depart; to leave # abgeben - en: to leave; to hand over; to submit; to deposit # abholen - en: to collect; to pick up; to fetch; to reclaim # abkürzen - en: to cut short; to take a shorter route; to abbreviate # Abkürzung, die - en: abbreviation; acronym; shortcut # Absatz, der - en: paragraph; section # abschneiden - en: to cut off # Abschnitt, der - en: paragraph; section; part # Abteil, das - en: compartment # Abteilung, die - en: department # Abteilungsleiter, der - en: head of department; department manager # Affe, der - en: monkey # ähnlich - en: similar; like # Akademie, die - en: academy # Aktentasche, die - en: briefcase # Algerien - en: Algeria # alle - en: all # allein - en: alone # allein sein - en: to be alone # allerletzter - en: the very last # Allgemeinmedizin, die - en: general medicine # Alpen, die (only Plural) - en: the Alps # alphabetisch - en: alfabetical; alfabetically # also - en: so; therefore; thus # alt - en: old # alt genug - en: old enough # Alte, die (= meine Frau) - en: the old lady (= my wife) # Alter, das - en: age # Altstadt, die - en: old town; historical center # am besten - en: best; the best would be # am dicksten - en: the thickest # am dümmsten - en: the most stupid # am Ende - en: finally; at the end # am langsamsten - en: the most slowly # am leichtesten - en: most easily # am schlechtesten - en: the worst # am schnellsten - en: the fastest # am schwersten - en: the heaviest; most heavy # am schwierigsten - en: the most difficult # an - en: at; on; about # an wen? - en: to whom? # Ananas, die - en: pineapple # anbieten - en: to offer # andere - en: other # anderthalb = eineinhalb = ein und ein halbes - en: one and a half # Anfang, der - en: the beginning; the start # anfangen = beginnen - en: to begin; to start # Anfänger, der - en: beginner # angenehm - en: pleasant; enjoyable # Angst, die - en: fear # anmachen = aufreißen - en: to chat up; to pick up; to turn on # Anmachspruch, der; Plural: Anmachsprüche - en: pick-up line; chat-up line; catch line # annehmen - en: to accept # Anorak, der - en: anorak # anrufen - en: to call (by phone) # ansehen - en: to look at; to view # anstrengend - en: exhausting; tiring # Antonym, das - en: antonym # Antwort, die - en: answer # Antworte! - en: Answer! (to your friend) # antworten - en: to answer; to respond # Antworten Sie! - en: Answer! (to your boss) # anziehen - en: to wear; to get dressed # Anzug, der - en: suit # Apfel, der; Plural: Äpfel - en: apple # Apotheke, die - en: pharmacy # Apothekerin, die - en: pharmacist (woman) # Appetit, der - en: appetite # Arbeit, die - en: work # arbeiten - en: to work # Arbeiter, der - en: worker # Arbeitsanzug, der - en: work clothes; overall; coverall # Arbeitsplatz, der - en: place of employment; workplace # Ärger, der - en: anger; annoyance # arm - en: poor # Arm, der - en: arm # Ärmelkanal, der - en: English Channel # Arzt, der (Plural: Ärzte) - en: doctor; physician # Arzthelferin, die - en: medical assistant # Ärztin, die (Plural: Ärztinnen) - en: doctor (woman); lady-doctor # atmen - en: to breathe # Atom, das - en: atom # Atomkraftwerk, das - en: nuclear power station # Atomphysik, die - en: atomic physics; nuclear physics # Aubergine, die - en: eggplant; aubergine # auch - en: also # auch nicht - en: neither; also not; not either # auch noch - en: also; too; on top of that; also still; even # auf - en: on # Auf dein Wohl! - en: Cheers! (non-polite form); To your health! (non-polite form) # Auf dem Rückflug - en: on the return flight # auf dem Weg nach Hause - en: on the way home # auf Englisch - en: in English # auf gar keinen Fall - en: absolutely no way; definitely not; by no means # Auf Ihr Wohl! - en: Cheers! (polite form); To your health! (polite form) # auf keinen Fall - en: no way; unter no circumstances; in no case # Auf Wiederhören! - en: goodbye! (at telephone) # Auf Wiedersehen! - en: Good bye! # Aufenthalt, der - en: stay # aufessen - en: to eat up (everything) # Aufforderung, die - en: invitation; request; demand # Aufgabe, die - en: exercise; job; task; math problem # aufhören - en: to stop; to discontinue; to cease; to terminate # aufklappen - en: unfold # aufmerksam - en: attentive; carefully # aufmerksam machen - en: to draw attention; to pay attention; to make somebody to pay attention; to point out # aufräumen - en: clean up; clear up; tidy up # aufstehen - en: to get up; to stand up; to rise # Auftrag, der - en: order; assignment; job; task; mission # Auftraggeber - en: client; customer # auftreten - en: to occur; to appear # Auge, das - en: eye # Augenfarbe, die - en: color of eyes # aus - en: from # ausdrücken - en: to express # auseinandernehmen ([aus-ein-ander-nehmen]) - en: disassemble # Ausgang, der - en: exit # ausgezeichnet - en: excellent; outstanding; exquisite # Ausgleich, der - en: compensation # Ausguck, der - en: crows nest; look-out (ship) # Ausland, das - en: foreign countries # Ausländer, der - en: foreigner # Ausnahme, die - en: exception # ausnahmsweise - en: as a special exception # ausrechnen - en: to calculate # Aussage, die - en: statement; testimony; message; declaration # ausschlagen - en: to blow out # aussehen - en: to look like # außen - en: outside # außer – en: except # außerdem - en: also; as well; furthermore; moreover; in addition # außerhalb - en: outside # Aussicht, die - en: view; perspective; prospect # Aussprache, die - en: pronunciation # ausstellen - to exhibit; to show; to display # Ausstellung, die - en: exhibition # Ausstrahlung, die - en: aura # austauschen = tauschen - en: to exchange # Auswahl, die - en: selection; choise # auswendig lernen - en: learn by heart # Auto, das - en: car # Avocado, die - en: avocado # Bach, der - en: creek # backen - en: to bake # Bäcker, der - en: baker # Bahn, die - en: train; railway # Bahnhof, der - en: railway station; train station # bald - en: soon # Ball, der - en: ball # Bauch, der - en: belly; stomach # bauen - en: to build # bauen - en: to build # Bauer, der - en: farmer # Baum, der; Plural: Bäume - en: tree # Baumarkt, der - en: hardware store; Do-It-Yourself supermarket # Bäumchen, das - en: little tree; small tree # bayerisch - en: Bavarian # Bayern - en: Bavaria (federal state) # Beamer, der = der Projektor - en: beamer # beben - en: to shake; to quake # Becher, der - en: mug; tumbler; glass # Bedarf, der - en: demand; requirement; need # bedeuten - en: to signify # Bedeutung, die - en: meaning # Bedingung, die - en: condition # beenden = aufhören - en: to end; to finish; to terminate # Befehl, der - en: order; command; instruction # begeistert - en: enthusiastic; excited; thrilled # Beginn, der - en: the beginning; the start # beginnen = anfangen - en: to begin; to start # begleiten - en: to accompany; to escort # begraben - en: bury; buried # begründen - en: to justify; to give reasons for # begrüßen - en: to greet # bei - en: with; in the house of # bei + dem = beim - en: at the # bei Bedarf - en: as the need arises # Beichte, die - en: confession # beide - en: both # Bein, das - en: leg # Beispiel, das - en: example # beißen - en: to bite # bekannt - en: famous; known; well-known # Bekanntschaft, die - en: acquaintance # bekommen - en: to get; to receive # bellen - en: to bark # Benzintank, der - en: fuel tank # Benzinverbrauch, der - en: fuel consumption # beobachten - en: to observe; to watch # bequem - en: comfortable # beraten - en: to advise # Bereich, der - en: area; region; zone # Berg, der - en: mountain; hill # Bericht, der - en: report; account; story # Berliner, der - en: a resident of Berlin # Beruf, der - en: profession # Berufsbekleidung, die - en: professional clothing # beschäftigen - en: to employ; to occupy; to give work # Beschäftigung - en: employment; job; activity # Bescheid sagen - en: to give the word; to inform; to let somebody know; to say # beschreiben - en: to describe # Beschreibung - en: description # besetzt - en: taken; occupied # besichtigen - en: to visit; to see; to tour # Besichtigung, die - en: sightseeing; tour # besoffen = betrunken - en: to be drunk # besonders - en: especially; particularly # besonders gern - en: to like particularly # besonders gern - en: with most pleasure # besorgen - en: to get; to buy; to organize; to procure; to steal; to borrow # besorgen = beschaffen - en: to get; to obtain; to buy; to borrow; to steal # besser – en: better; (it is) better # besser als - en: better than # bestellen - en: to order # bestimmen - en: to determine # bestimmt = sicherlich - en: surely; certainly # besuchen - en: to visit # betonen - en: to accentuate # Betrieb, der - en: company; firm # Betriebswirtschaftslehre, die (BWL; Betriebs-wirtschafts-lehre) - en: business studies; business administration # betrunken - en: drunk; intoxicated # Bett, das - en: bed # Bettwäsche, die - en: bedlinen # bevorrechtigt - en: privileged; preferred # bezahlen - en: to pay # Bibliothek, die = die Bücherei - en: library # Bier, das - en: beer # Bild, das - en: picture; image # Bildchen, das - en: little picture; small picture # bilden - en: to form # billig - en: cheap # Birne, die - en: pear # bis - en: till; until # bis jetzt - en: until now; till now # bitte - en: please # bitten - en: to ask; to request; to beg # blau - en: blue # Blech, das - en: sheet metal # Blei, das - en: lead # bleiben - en: to stay; to remain; to last # Bleistift, der - en: pencil # Blick, der - en: view; look; sight; glimpse # blind - en: blind # Block, der - en: block (notepad) # Blockschrift, die - en: block capitals; block letters; print # blöd - en: stupid; idiotic # blond - en: blond # Blondine, die - en: blonde; blond girl; blond woman # Blümchen, das - en: little flower # Blume, die - en: flower # Bluse, die - en: blouse # Blut, das - en: blood # Boden, der - en: floor; bottom # Boot, das - en: boat # borgen - en: to borrow; to lend # Bote, der - en: messenger; courier; herald # Botschaft, die - en: embassy; news # Brauch, der - en: custom; tradition # brauchen - en: to need # braun - en: brown # brechen - en: to break # breit - en: broad; wide # Brief, der - en: letter # Brille, die - en: glasses; eyeglasses # bringen - en: to bring # Brot, das - en: bread # Brötchen, das - en: (bread) roll # Bruder, der - en: brother # Brust, die - en: breast # Buch, das; Plural: Bücher - en: book # Buchstabe, der - en: character; letter # buchstabieren - en: to spell # Bund, der = die Bundesrepublik Deutschland - en: Federal Republic of Germany # Bus, der = (alt: der Autobus) = Omnibus - en: bus; coach # Busfahrt, die - en: bus ride # Butter, die - en: butter # BWL [Be We El] - en: business studies; business administration # Café, das - en: café # Champignon, der - en: mushroom # Champion, der - en: champion # Chaos, das - en: chaos # Charakter, der - en: character; personality # Charisma, das - en: charisma # chatten - en: to chat # Check, der - en: check; control # checken - en: to check; to control # Chemie, die - en: chemistry # Chinese, der - en: Chinese people # Chip, der - en: chip # Chirurgie, die - en: surgery # Chlor, das - en: chlorine # Cholesterin, das - en: cholesterol # Chor, der - en: chorus; choir # Christen - en: Christians # Christus - en: Christ; Christian # Chrom, das - en: chrome # da - en: there; then; here! # Da beißt die Maus keinen Faden ab. - en: Put [or stick] that in your pipe and smoke it. # Da liegt der Hase im Pfeffer. - en: that's the real cause; that's the crux of the matter; there's the rub # Da liegt der Hund begraben. - en: that's the crux of the matter; that's what's behind it # Dach, das - en: roof # dagegen - en: against; contra # Däne, der - en: the Dane (a man from Denmark) # daneben - en: next to; beside # Dänemark - en: Denmark # Dänen, die - en: the Danes (men from Denmark) # Dänin, die - en: the Dane (a woman from Denmark) # Däninnen, die - en: the Danes (women from Denmark) # dänisch - en: Danish # Dänisch - en: Danish language # dänische Sprache - en: Danish language # danken - en: to thank; to say thanks; to express one's thanks # dann - en: then # dann - en: then; afterwards; later; so # dann und wann - en: now and then; now and again # Darf ich bitten? = Darf ich zum Tanz bitten? - en: May I have a dance? # Darf ich? - en: May I? # darum - en: that's why # das Auge - en: eye # Das ist aber ... - en: But this is ... # das ist mir scheißegal (VULGÄR) - en: I do not care; I do not give a shit # das ist schade - en: what a pity; that's too bad; this is a pity # Das Leben ist kein Ponyhof - en: Life is no walk in the park. Life is not a bowl of cherry. # Das macht nichts! = kein Problem - en: No problem!; It doesn't matter!; It's all right. = Macht nichts! # Das meine ich nicht - en: I do not mean that # das passt mir - en: it fits me; this is OK for me # das stimmt = das ist richtig - en: this is correct; this is right; this is true # Das stimmt nicht. - en: This is not correct. (This is not right.) # Das war eine einmalige Ausnahme. - en: That was a one-time exception. # Dauer, die - en: duration # dauern - en: to last; to take; to take time # dauernd - en: constantly # Daumen, der - en: thumb # davon - en: from this # dein - en: your # den Tisch decken - en: to set the tabel; to lay the table # denken - en: to think # Denken, das - en: the thinking # denn - en: because # der Vater - en: father # deshalb - en: therefore; that's why; hence # deutlich - en: clear; clearly; distinctly; legible; obvious # deutsch - en: German # Deutschkurs für Anfänger - en: German cours for beginners # Deutschkurs, der - en: German course # Diapositiv, das - en: slide # dicht - en: close # dicht daneben schießen - en: to miss the target a little bit; to hit almost the target # dick - en: thick; big; fat # dicker - en: thicker # Die Zeit ist wie im Flug vergangen. - en: The time has flown by. # Die Zeit vergeht wie im Flug. - en: Time flies like in flight. # Dieb, der - en: thief # Dienst, der - en: duty; service; work # Dienstag, der - en: Tuesday # diesmal = dieses mal - en: this time # Diktat, das - en: dication # Ding, das - en: thing # Disko, die - en: disco; dance disco; club; dance club # doch - en: but; all the same; anyway; nevertheles; after all; yes; yes?! # Dolch, der - en: dagger # Donnerstag, der - en: Thursday # doppelt - en: double # Dorf, das - en: village # Dörfchen, das - en: little village; hamlet # dort - en: there # dort drüben - en: over there # dort hinten - en: at the back; over there in the back # dort vorn - en: over there; there at the front side # dorther - en: from there # dorthin - en: (to) there; up to there; thereto # dorthin gehen - en: to go there # draußen - en: outside # drei - en: three – 3 # Dreier, der = der flotte Dreier - en: threesome # dringend - en: urgent # drinnen - en: inside # drüben - en: over there; on the other side # du - en: you (to close people; to a friend; addressing to equals) # du bist - en: you are # Du hast Recht. - en: You are right. # du heißt - en: your name is # du siehst gut aus - en: you are looking good # dumm = doof = blöd – en: stupid; dumb; goofy; foolish; silly # dumm anmachen - en: to chat you up stupidly # dümmer - en: dumber, stupider # Dummheit, die - en: stupidity; foolishness; ignorance # dunkel - en: dark # dunkelbraun - en: dark brown # Dunkelheit, die - en: darkness # dünn - en: thin # durch - en: through # durchlassen - en: to let through; to let pass # dürfen - en: to be allowed; may; you can; to be permitted # Durst, der - en: thirst # Dutzend, das - en: dozen # eben - en: to live # ebendig - en: alive # echt - en: real; natural; not artificial # egal - en: no matter; the same; all the same; identical; this doesn't make a difference # Ehemann, der - en: husband # eher = zeitiger = früher - en: earlier # ehrlich - en: honest # Ei, das - en: egg # eicht - en: easy; lightweight # Eierbecher, der - en: eggcup # Eifer, der – en: eagerness; zeal # Eifersucht, die - en: jealousy # Eigen; eigene; eigenes - en: own # Eigenschaft, die - en: property; attribute; quality # eigentlich - en: actually; really; true; as a matter of fact # ein - en: one # ein mal - en: one time # ein paar - en: some; a few # ein paar Sachen - en: some things # ein Stück - en: a little bit; a piece; a portion; a stretch # ein Stück Kuchen - en: a piece of cake # einander - en: each other; one another # Eindruck, der - en: impression # eine - enː one; a # eine Bedingung stellen - en: to impose a condition; to lay down a condition # eine Glatze haben - en: to be bald # einen Vortrag halten - en: to give a lecture # einfach - en: simply # Einheit, die - en: unit; unity # einige - en: some; a few; several # Einkauf, der - en: purchase; buying; shopping # einladen - en: to invite # Einladung, die - en: invitation # einmal - en: once; someday # einmalig - en: unique; single # einsteigen - en: to enter; to get in; to board # Eintritt, der - en: entry fee # einverstanden sein - en: to agree; to accept # einzige - en: the only; the sole # Eis, das - en: ice cream # Eisbecher, der - en: sundae (with ice-cream) # Eisenbahn, die - en: railroad # Elch, der - en: elk; moose # elf - en: eleven - 11 # empfehlen - en: to recommend # Empfehlung, die - en: recommendation # Ende, das - en: end # Endspiel, das - en: final # Energiesparlampe, die ([Energie-Spar-Lampe]) - en: low-energy bulb; energy-saving electric bulb # eng - en: closely; narrow; tight # Ente, die - en: duck # entfernt - en: away # Entfernung, die - en: distance # Entscheidung, die - en: decision # Entschuldigen Sie sich! - en: Excuse yourself! # Entschuldigung, die - en: excuse # Entschuldigung! - en: Excuse me! Sorry! # entwickeln - en: to develop # Entwicklung, die - en: development # er hält einen Vortrag - en: he gives a lecture # er hat Angst - en: he is afraid # er passt gut - en: it fits well # Er weiß auch nicht, wieso. - en: He also doesn't know why. # Erdbeben, das - en: earthquake # Erde, die - en: earth # Erdgeschoss, das - en: ground floor # ergänzen - en: to complete # Ergebnis, das - en: result # erinnern - en: to remember; to recall; to remind # Erinnerung, die - en: memory; recollection # erklären - en: to explain # Erkrankung, die - en: illness; disease # erlauben - en: to allow; to permit # erledigen - en: to make; to carry out; to finish; to complete # ernst - en: serious # ernten - en: to harvest # erst - en: not until; only # erst heute - en: not until today; only today; just today # erst morgen = morgen erst - en: not until tomorrow; tomorrow; only tomorrow # erst vor kurzem - en: quite recently # erste - en: first # erste Mal, das - en: for the first time # erster; erste - en: first # erwarten - en: to await; to expect # erwünscht - en: wanted; desirable; welcome # erzählen - en: to tell; to narrate; to retell # es geht - en: it is possible; is goes; it's all right # es geht nicht = es ist nicht möglich - en: it is not possible; it is impossible # es gibt - en: there is; there are # es ist - en: it is # es ist bald - en: it is soon # Es tut mir leid. - en: I am sorry. # Eselsbrücke, die - en: a mnemonic # essen - en: to eat # Essen, das - en: food; meal # Essstäbchen, das - en: chopsticks # Esswaren, die - en: edibles; food; provisions # etwas - en: something # etwas weiter - en: slightly further; a little bit further # euer, eure - en: your # eventuell - en: possibly; perhaps # Fach, das - en: compartment; pocket; subject; field; shelf # Fachbuch, das - en: textbook; technical book; specialist book # Faden, der - en: thread; filament # fähig - en: able; capable # Fähigkeit, die - en: ability; capability; skill # Fahne, die - en: flag # fahren - en: go (in means of transport with wheels); to drive # fahren nach - en: go to (with car, bus, train etc.); travel to # Fahrgast, der - en: passenger # Fahrkarte, die - en: ticket # Fahrplan, der - en: timetable; schedule # Fahrt, die - en: ride; trip; yourney # Fahrzeit, die - en: driving time; travel time # Fahrzeug, das - en: vehicle; car; vessel # Fahrziel, das - en: destination # Fall, der - en: case # fallen - en: to fall # fallend - en: decreasing pitch # Fallschirm, der - en: parachute # falsch - en: false; incorrect; wrong; wrongly # Familie, die - en: family # Familienname, der - en: last name; surname # fangen - en: to catch # Farbe, die - en: color; paint # Fass, das - en: barrel # fast - en: almost # Faust, die - en: fist # fechten- en: to fence # Feder, die - en: feather # Federball = Badminton - en: badminton # fehlen - en: to be missing; to miss # Fehler, der - en: mistake; error # Feier, die - en: party; celebration; ceremony # feiern - en: to celebrate # Feind, der - en: enemy # feindlich - en: hostile # Feindschaft, die - en: hostility; animosity # Fenster, das - en: window # Ferienlager, das - en: holiday camp # fertig - en: finished; ready; done # Fertigkeit, die - en: skill; craftmanship; skillfulness # fest - en: solid; hard # fett - en: fat; (rich) # feucht - en: humid; damp # Feuer, das - en: fire # Feuerzeug, das - en: cigarette lighter # Fieber, das - en: fever; temperature # filmen - en: to film # finden - en: to find; I think # Finger, der - en: finger # Finne, der - en: the Finn (a man from Finland) # Finnen, die - en: the Finns (men from Finland) # Finnin, die - en: the Finn (a woman from Finland) # Finninnen, die - en: the Finns (women from Finland) # finnisch - en: Finnish # finnische Sprache - en: Finnish language # Finnland - en: Finland # Fisch, der - en: fish # Fitness-Studio, das - en: gym; fitness center # Flasche, die - en: bottle # flechten - en: to plait # Fleisch, das - en: meat # fliegen - en: to fly # Flirten, das = flirten - en: flirting; to flirt # Floh, der - en: flea # Flug, der - en: flight # Flugzeug, das - en: airplane # Fluss, der - en: river # Flüsschen, das - en: little river; creek # flüssig - en: liquid; fluid; fluent # Flüssigkeit, die - en: fluid; liquid # folgen - en: to follow # Forderung, die - en: demand; requirement # Forscher, der - en: investigator # Forschung, die - en: investigation # Forschungsabteilung, die - en: research division; research department # Fotoapparat, der - en: camera # Frage, die - en: question # Frage! - en: Ask! (to your friend) # fragen - en: to ask # Fragen Sie! - en: Ask! (to your boss) # Frankreich - en: France # Franzose, der - en: Frenchman # Französin, die - en: Frenchwoman # Französinnen, die - en: Frenchwomen # Französischunterricht, der - en: French lessons # Frau, die - en: woman; Ms. # frech - en: naughty; cheeky; impertinent # frei - en: available; free # Freitag, der - en: Friday # Freizeit, die - en: leisure time # fremd - en: alien; (stranger) # fremdbestimmt - en: nonautonomous; directed by others; externally determined # fressen - en: to devour; to eat # Freude, die - en: joy; fun; pleasure # Freund, der - en: friend # Freundin, die - en: girlfriend # freundlich - en: friendly; kind # Freundschaft, die - en: friendship # frisch - en: fresh # früher - en: earlier; before; previously # früher schon - en: earlier on; already before # Frühling, der - en: spring # führen - en: to lead # Führerschein, der - en: driver's license # fünf - en: five - 5 # fünfte = 5. - en: fifth; 5th # fünfzig - en: fifty - 50 # für - en: for # für meine Mutter - en: for my mother # für mich - en: for me # für sich - en: for herself; for themselves # für wen? - en: for whom? # Fuß, der - en: foot # Fußball - en: football # Fußgänger, der - en: pedestrian # Gabel, die - en: fork # ganz - en: absolutely; very # ganz frisch - en: very fresh # ganz neu - en: absolutely new # gar nicht - en: not at all # Gardine, die - en: net curtain # Garten, der - en: garden # Gast, der; Plural: Gäste - en: guest # Gasthof, der = das Restaurant mit kleinem Hotel - en: restaurant # Gaststätte, die = das Restaurant - en: restaurant # Gastwirtschaft, die = die Gaststätte - en: restaurant # gebaut - en: built # geben - en: to give # Gebirge, das - en: mountains; mountain range # geboren - en: to be born # Gebot, das - en: commandment # Geburt, die - en: birth # Geburtstag, der - en: birthday # Gedächtnis, das - en: memory; memorial # Gedächtniskirche, die - en: Memorial Church # Gedanke, der - en: thought; idea # gefährlich - en: dangerous # gefallen - en: to like # Gefängnis, das - en: prison; jail # Gefecht, das - en: battle # Gefühl, das - en: feeling # gegen - en: against; contra # Gegenstand, der - en: object; subject # gegenüber - en: towards; opposite # Geh weg! - en: Go away!; Leave me alone! # Geheimnis, das - en: secret # gehen - en: to go (on foot), to walk # gehl = gelb - en: yello # gehören - en: to belong # geht aber lieber - en: he prefers to go # geht durch - en: goes through # gelb - en: yellow # Geld, das - en: money # Gelegenheit, die - en: opportunity # gelegentlich - en: occasionally # Gemälde, das - en: painting; picture # gemeinsam = zusammen - en: together; joint; jointly; together # Gemeinschaft, die - en: community # Gemüse, das - en: vegetable # genau - en: exact; precisely # genauso viel - en: just as much; as much; the same amount of # Gentleman, der - en: gentleman # genug - en: enough; sufficient # Gepäck, das - en: luggage # Gepäckaufbewahrung, die - en: left-luggage office; luggage storage # gerade - en: a second ago; just; equals; straight; in this moment # gerade gekauft - en: just bought; gerade - en: just; a secon ago # geradeaus - en: straight; straight ahead # gern = gerne - en: with pleasure # gern haben - en: to like # Geschäft, das - en: shop # Geschenk, das - en: gift; present # Geschichte, die - en: history; story # Geschlecht, das - en: gender; sex # geschlossen - en: closed # Geschmack, der - en: taste # Gesetz, das - en: law # Gesicht, das - en: face # Gestank, der - en: stench # gestern - en: yesterday # gesund - en: healthy; well # Gesundheit, die - en: health # gewiss - en: certainly; for sure; defenitely; no doubt # gibt es? - en: is there?; are there # Glas, das - en: glass # Glatze, die - en: bald head # Glaube, der - en: faith; religion; belief # glauben - en: to think; to believe # gleich - en: equal; immediately; in a moment; very soon; just now; just; in a second; right now # gleich = sofort - en: immediately # gleich hier - en: right here; straight away # gleich morgen - en: tomorrow; immediately tomorrow; promptly tomorrow # gleichfalls - en: likewise; also; and the same to you # Gleichung, die - en: equation # Glück haben - en: to be lucky # Glück, das - en: happiness; luck; joy # glücklich - en: happy # Glühbirne, die - en: (electric) light bulb # glühen - en: to glow # Glühlampe, die - en: incandescent lamp; filament lamp; electric light bulb # Gold, das - en: gold # Gott, der - en: God # Graben, der - en: ditch # gratulieren - en: to congratulate # groß - en: big; great # Größe, die - en: size # größer - en: bigger # grün - en: green # gründlich - en: thoroughly; carefully; profound; extensively # Grüppchen, das - en: small group # grüßen - en: to greet; to say hallo # Guck mal! - en: Have a look! # Guckloch, das - en: peephole # Gummibärchen, das - en: jelly bear; gummy bear # gut - besser - am besten – en: good - better - the best # gut - en: good # gut passen - en: to fit well # Gute Besserung! - en: Get well soon! # Guten Morgen! - en: Good morning! (between 5 and 9 a.m) # Guten Tag! - en: How do you do? # Guten Tag! - enː I wish you a good day; how do you do? # Haar, das - en: hair # haben - en: to have # halb - en: half # Halbmond, der - en: crescent; crescent moon; half moon # Hals, der - en: throat; neck # Halsschmerzen, die - en: sore throat # halten - en: to hold; to stop; to give a lecture # halten - en: to last; to stick # halten - en: to think; to consider; to regard # halten für - en: to consider # Hammer, der - en: hammer # Hand, die - en: hand # Hand, die; Plural: Hände - en: hand # Händchen, das - en: little hand; knack # Handtuch, das - en: towel # Handy, das - en: cellular phone; mobile phone # hängen - en: to hang # hart - en: hard # Hase, der - en: hare # hast du Lust ... ? - en: do you feel like ... ? # hat ... gekauft - en: has bought # Häufchen, das - en: little pile; small heap # häufig - en: often; frequently # Häufigkeit, die - en: frequency; incidence # Haupt- - en: „main-“ # Hauptbahnhof, der - en: central station; main station # Hauptgebäude, das - en: main building # Hauptmann, der - en: captain # Hauptstadt, die - en: capital # Hauptstraße, die - en: main street # Hauptwort, das - en: noun # Haus, das - en: house # Hausapotheke, die - en: medicine chest # Hausarzt, der - en: family doctor; GP # Hausaufgabe, die - en: homework # Hausfrau, die - en: housewife # Hausschuh, der - en: slipper # Haut, die - en: skin # Hecke, die - en: hedge # Heft, das - en: exercise book; notebook # heilbar - en: curable # heilen - en: to heal; to cure # heilig - holy; sacred # Heilige, der - the Saint (person), Saint ... # heiligen = rechtfertigen - en: to sanctify; to justify # heiß - en: hot # heißen - en: to be called; to be named # helfen - en: to help # hell - en: fair; light; bright # Hemd, das - en: shirt # herausgeben - en: to publish; to issue # Herbst, der - en: autumn # Herr Ober - en: waiter # herrlich - en: gorgeous; marvelous; wonderful # Herz, das - en: heart # heucheln - en: to be hypocritical; to play the hypocritical # heute - en: today # heute noch = noch heute - en: still today; even today # heute schon = schon heute - en: already today # Hey, du siehst nett aus! - en: Hey, you look nice! # hier - en: here # hierher - en: (to) here # Hilfe, die - en: help # Himmel, der - en: sky # hin und wieder - en: occasionally; every now and then # Hinfahrt, die - en: one way; outward journey # Hinflug, der - en: outward flight; the flight leg towards the destination # Hingucker, der - en: eyecatcher # hinten - en: at the back; at the end; behind; over there # hinter - en: behind # hoch - en: to go up # hochfahren - en: go up (in means of transportation - with wheels) # hochgehen - en: go up (walking) # Hochschule, die - en: college; university # höchstwahrscheinlich - en: most likely; very probably # Hof, der - en: courtyard; yard # hoffentlich - en: hopefully; I hope so # Hoffnung, die - en: hope # hoffnungslos – en: hopeless; without hope # höflich - en: polite; courteous # holen - en: to get; to fetch; to go for something; to get; to take; to go for # Hölle, die - en: hell # homosexuell - en: gay # hop! - en: Jump!; Alez Hop! # hören - en: to hear # Hören Sie bitte! - en: Please, listen to me! (to your boss) # hübsch = schön - en: beautiful # Huhn, das - en: chicken; hen # hui - en: super; elegant # Hund, der - en: dog # Hündchen, das - en: little dog # Hündin, die - en: female dog # Hunger, der - en: hunger # Husten, der - en: cough # Hut, der - en: hat # ich - en: I # Ich bin blond. - en: I am blond. (and stupid) # Ich gehe nicht mit. - en: I will not go with you. # ich habe gemacht - en: I have made # Ich habe keine Zeit. - en: I have no time. # Ich habe keinen Bock. - en: I do not feel like it. I have no desire. # Ich habe wenig geschlafen - en: I have not slept much # Ich kann Franziska nicht leiden. - en: I can not stand Franziska. # ich möchte gern - en: I would like; I would like to take # Ich möchte ihn gern in grau. - en: I would like him in gray. # ich war es nicht - en: it was not me # ich würde machen - en: I would make # ihm - en: him; for him; to him # ihr - en: her; to her # ihr - en: their # Ihr - en: your # Imbiss, der - en: snack # Imbissraum, der - en: snack room; cafeteria; canteen # immer - en: always # immer wieder - en: again and again; repeatedly # in - en: in; after # in - en: in; inside # in + das = ins - en: into + the # in der Nähe - en: nearby; close by; in the vicinity # in festen zeitlichen Abständen - en: at fixed time intervals; at fixed intervals # in Ordnung - en: okay; all right; in order # informiert sein - en: to be informed # innen - en: inside # innere - en: inner # innerhalb - en: inside; within # Instanz, die - en: authority; instance # Institut, das - en: institute; language school # interessant - en: interesting # Internat, das - en: boarding school # irgendwann - en: sometime; sometimes; someday # irgendwer - en: somebody # irgendwo - en: somewhere # irgendwoher - en: from somewhere # ist - en: is # Ist Ihnen das Recht? - en: Is this OK for you? # ist weg - en: is gone; has gone; away # ja - enː yes # Jahr, das - en: year # Jahreszeit, die - en: season; season of the year # Jahreszeit, die - en: seasons (of the year) # jährlich - en: every year # Jakobsweg, der - en: Way of St. James # jede - en: every # jemand - en: someone # jetzt - en: now # jeweils - en: respectively; in each case # Jugendherberge, die - en: youth hostel # Jugendliche - en: young person; adolescent # Junge, der - en: boy # Kaffee, der - en: coffee # Kakao, der - en: chocolate milk; hot chocolate; cocoa # kalt - en: cold # Kammgarn, das - en: combed yarn; worsted # Kaninchen, das - en: rabbit # Kannst du mir das bitte kurz erklären? - en: Can you explain me that briefly, please? # Kanone, die - en: cannon # Kantine, die - en: canteen # Kapstadt - en: Cape Town # Karre, die = das Auto = der Wagen - en: car; cart # Karte, die - en: map; ticket; card; postcard # Kartoffel, die - en: potato # Käse, der - en: cheese # Käseplatte, die - en: chees plate; cheeseboard # Kasse, die - en: cash desk; cash register # Kasten, der - en: box # Kauf, der - en: buying # kaufen - en: to buy # Käufer, der - en: buyer; purchaser # Käuferin, die - en: buyer (female) # Kaufhaus, das - en: department store # Kaufmann, der - en: businessman # kaum - en: barely; hardly # kein - en: no, not # kein; keine - en: no; (kein = no + ein) # keine Zeit - en: no time # keinem - en: no # keiner = niemand - en: nobody; no one # keinesfalls - en: under no circumstances # Kellner, der - en: waiter (male) # Kellnerin, die - en: waiter (female) # kennen - en: to know # Kerze, die - en: candle # Kette, die - en: necklace; chain # keuchen - en: to puff; to pant # Kilogramm, das (kg) - en: kilogram # Kind, das - en: child # Kindergarten, der - en: kindergarten # Kinderstation, die - en: children's ward; pediatric ward # Kindheit, die - en: childhood # Kippen = Zigaretten - en: cigarette # Kirche, die - en: church # Klappe, die - en: flap # Klasse, die - en: class; course # Klassenfahrt, die - en: school trip; class trip; excursion of the class # Klavier, das = das Piano - en: piano # Kleid, das - en: dress # klein - en: small; little # kleine Finger, der - en: pinky finger; little finger # kleiner - en: smaller # Kleingeld, das - en: change (money) # kleinste - en: smallest # klingeln - en: to ring # klug - en: intelligent; wise; clever; smart # klüger - en: wiser # Klügere, der - en: the wiser # Kneipe, die - en: pub # Knoblauch, der - en: garlic # Koch, der - en: cook # kochen - en: to cook # Kodex, der - en: codex; [moral] code # Koffer, der - en: suitcase # Kokosnuss, die - en: coconut # Kollege, der - en: colleague # komisch - en: strange # Komma, das - en: comma # kommen - en: to come # Kommilitone, der - en: fellow student # Konferenz, die - en: conference; meeting # König, der - en: king # Königin, die - en: queen # können - en: can (ability); to be able to do something; to be capable; to be permitted # Kontrolle, die - en: control # Kontrolluntersuchung, die - en: control examination; check-up # Konzern, der - en: company; firm; corporation # Konzert, das - en: concert # Kopenhagen - en: Copenhagen # Kopf, der - en: head # Köpfchen, das - en: little head; brains # Korn, das - en: grain; corn # korrigieren - en: to correct # Krach, der - en: noise # Kraft, die - en: force # krank - en: ill # Krankenhaus, das - en: hospital # Krankenstation, die - en: infirmary; hospital ward # Krankheit, die - en: illness; disease; sickness # Kratzer, der - en: cratch # Kraut, das; Plural: Kräuter - en: herb # Kreis, der - en: circle # Kreuz, das - en: cross # Kreuzfahrt, die - en: cruise # kriechen - en: to crawl # Krone, die - en: crown # krumm - en: bent; crooked # Kuchen, der - en: cake; pie; cupcake # Kugelschreiber, der - en: pen; ballpoint pen; biro # Kunde, der - en: customer; client # Kundin, die - en: customer (woman); client (woman) # Kundinnen, die - en: customers (women); clients (women) # Kundschaft, die - en: customers # Kunst, die - en: art # Künstler, der - en: artist # Kunstwerk, das - en: artwork # Kurve, die - en: curve; turn # kurz - en: short # kürzen - en: to shorten; to make shorte; to reduce # Kuss, der - en: kiss # Labor, das - en: laboratory; lab # lachen - en: to laugh # Lachen, das - en: laughter # Laden, der - en: shop # Lage, die - en: situation # Lager, das - en: camp # Lampe, die - en: lamp # Land, das - en: country; land # Land, das = das Bundesland - en: federal state # landen - en: to land; to touch down # Landkarte, die - map # Landkreis, der - en: county; administrative district # Landschaft, die - en: countryside; scenery; landscape; scene # lang - en: long # lange - en: a long time; for a long time # lange überlegen - en: to think a long time # länger - en: longer; more time # Langfinger = Dieb - en: thief # langsam - en: slow; slowly # langsamer - en: slower # langsamer als - en: slower than # langweilig - en: boring; dull # lass uns - en: let's # laufen = gehen - en: to walk; to go; to run; to play a movie # laut - en: aloud; loud; loudly; noisey # laut lesen - en: read loudly # Laut, der - en: tone; noise # lauter - en: a bunch of; these are all # lauwarm - en: lukewarm # Leben, das - en: life # Lebensmittel, das; meist Plural: die Lebensmittel - en: foodstuff # LED-Lampe, die - en: Led lamp # Lehrbuch, das; Plural: Lehrbücher - en: textbook # Lehrer, der - en: teacher # leicht - en: easy; lightweight # Leid, das - en: suffering; pain; sorrow; grief # leiden - en: to suffer # Leiden, das – en: suffering; grief # Leidenschaft, die - en: passion; emotion # leidenschaftlich - en: passionate; passionalety; emotional # leider - en: unfortunately # leider nicht - en: I’m afraid not; no, unfortunately; unfortunately not # leise - en: quiet # leiten - en: to manage; to be in charge; to manage; to lead; to run; to organize # Leiter, der - en: head; director; boss # Leiter, die - en: ladder # Leitung, die - en: management; leadership; guidance; cable; line # lenken - en: to steer; to guide; to manage # Lerne die Vokabeln! - en: Learn the vocabulary! (to your friend) # lernen - en: to learn # Lernen Sie die Vokabeln! - en: Learn the vocabulary! (to your boss) # lesbisch - en: lesbian # lesen - en: to read # letzes Jahr - en: last year # letzte - en: last # letzte, letzter - en: last # leuchten - en: to shine; to glow; to give light # Leuchtröhre, die - en: light tube; fluorescent tube # Leuchtstofflampe, die - en: fluorescent light; fluorescent lamp # Leuchtstoffröhre, die - en: fluorescent tube; fluorescent lamp; luminous tube # Leute, die - en: people; folk; men # Lexikon, das - en: encyclopaedia # Licht, das - en: light # lieb - en: dear # Liebe, die - en: love # lieben - en: to love # lieber - en: to prefer # lieber als - en: rather than; better than # lieber fahren - en: to prefer to go (by tramway, bus, train, car) # Lied, das - en: song # liegen - en: to lie; to be (laying) # Limonade, die - en: soda; lemonade; soft drink # Limonade, die - en: soda; soft drink; lemonade (no lemon juice) # Lineal, das - en: ruler # links - en: left; at the left side; to the left # links neben - en: to the left of # Lippe, die - en: lip # Lippenstift, der - en: lipstick # LKW-Fahrer, der - en: truck driver; lorry driver # LKW, der - en: truck; lorry # loben - en: to praise # Loch, das - en: hole; cavity; opening # Löffel, der - en: spoon # Lunge, die - en: lungs # Lust, die - en: desire; pleasure # mach! - en: do it! # machen - en: to make # Macho, der - en: macho; macho male # Mädchen, das - en: girl # mal - enː times # malen - en: to paint # Maler, der - en: painter; artist # manchmal - en: sometimes # Mann, der - en: man # Mantel, der - en: coat; cloak; overcoat # Marokko - en: Morocco # Maschine, die - en: machine # Maschinenbau, der - en: mechanical engineering; machine construction # Maßeinheit, die - en: unit of measurement # Mathematik, die - en: mathematics; (no Plural in German) # Maus, die - en: mouse # Mechanik, die - en: mechanics # Medikament, das - en: medicine; drug; medication # Mehl, das - en: flour # mehr - en: more # Mehrheit, die - en: majority # mehrmalig - en: several times; multiple times # mehrmals - en: several times; multiple times # mein - en: my # mein Herr - en: Mister; (My Lord) # meine neue Freundin - en: my new girlfriend # meinen - en: to think; to believe; to mean # meinetwegen - en: I agree; on my behalf; for my sake; I have no problems with this # Meinung, die - en: opinion # meist = meistens - en: mostly; for the most part; in general # meistens - en: mostly # Mensa, die - en: student food court (in a university); refectory; canteen; cafeteria # Mensch, der; Plural: Menschen = Leute - en: human being; man; human # Menschheit, die - en: mankind; human race; mankind # merken = bemerken - en: to notice # Messbecher, der - en: measuring cup; measuring jug # Messe, die - en: fair; exhibition # messen - en: to measure # Messer, das - en: knife # Metall, das - en: metal # Miete, die - en: rent # Mietwagen, der - en: rental car # Milch, die - en: milk # Million, die - en: 1,000,000 # Minderheit, die - en: minority # mindern - en: to reduce; (mindern = verringern = reduzieren) # mindestens = minimum - en: at least # minus - enː minus # Minute, die - en: minute # mir - en: me; to me # Mist, der - en: crap; manure # mit - en: with # mit absoluter Sicherheit - en: with absolute certainty # mit allem Pipapo - en: with all gimmicks; with the whole enchilada # mit gehen - en: go along; walk with # mitnehmen - en: to take; to take along; to give a lift; to take with you # Mittag, der - en: noon; lunchtime # Mittagessen, das - en: lunch; dinner (at midday; at noon) # Mitte, die - en: center; midpoint; middle # Mittel, das - en: means; medicine # Mittelfinger, der - en: middle finger # Mittwoch, der - en: Wednesday # mitunter - en: from time to time # möchten - en: to want (week form); would like; may # möchten - enː would like; to want # modern [mo'de:rn] - en: modern # mögen - en: to want; to like (week form) # möglich - en: possible # möglicherweise - en: possibly; perhaps # Möglichkeit, die - en: possibility # monatlich - en: every month # Mond, der - en: moon # Montag, der - en: Monday # Montage, die - en: assembly # montieren - en: to assemble # Moral, die - en: moral # Moralkodex, der - en: code of ethics # morgen - en: tomorrow # morgen erst = erst morgen - en: not until tomorrow; only tomorrow # morgen früh - en: tomorrow morning # Morgen, der - en: morning (4.00 a.m - 9.00 a.m.) # Morgenstunde, die - en: morning hours # Motor, der - en: motor # Mund, der - en: mouth # Münze, die - en: coin # Museum, das - en: museum # Musik, die - en: music # müssen - en: have to; must (strong form); need # Mutter, die - en: mother # nach einer Weile - en: after a while # nach Hause - en: back home # Nachbarschaft, die - en: neighbourhood # nachgeben - en: to give in; to yield # nachher = später - en: afterwards; later; later on; after (this); not now # Nachmittag, der - en: afternoon (12.00 p.m. - 17.00 p.m.) # Nachrichten, die - en: news; message # Nacht, die - en: night # nachts ist es dunkel - en: at night it is dark # Nagel, der - en: nail # nahe bei - en: close to; nearby # Nähe, die - en: proximity; vicinity # nähen – en: to sew; to stitch # Nahrung, die - en: food # Nahrungsmittel, das - en: foodstuff # Naja, nicht ganz blond. - en: Well, not quite blond. # Name, der - en: name # Namenstag, der - en: name day; saint's day # nass - en: wet # natürlich - en: of course, naturally; natural # neben - en: besides; next to; alongside # nebeneinander - en: side by side # Negation, die [negaˈtsjo:n] - en: negation # nehmen - en: to take # nein - en: no # nein danke - en: no, thanks # nennen - en: to call something/somebody; to name something/somebody # Neon-Röhre, die - en: Neon Light # Neonlampe, die - en: neon lamp; neon light # Nerv, der - en: nerve # nett = liebenswürdig - en: kind; friendly # neu - en: new # neugierig - en: curious # neun - en: nine – 9 # nicht - en: not # nicht gern - en: I don't like # nicht leiden können - en: can not stand; dislike; hate # nicht mehr - en: no longer; no more; not any more; not any longer # nicht reichen - en: not enough # nichts - en: nothing # nichts mehr - en: no more; nothing more # nie - en: never # nie und nimmer - en: never ever # niemals - en: never; no way; not ever # niemand - en: nobody # niesen - en: to sneeze # noch - en: any more; still; also; in addition; even more; is still left; more # noch besser - en: even better # noch ein - en: another; one more # noch einmal - en: once more # Noch einmal bitte! - en: Once again, please! # noch etwas - en: anything else; something else; something more # noch etwas? - en: Something else? Something more? # noch mal - en: once again; (repeat to me once more) # noch nicht - en: not yet; still not # Norden, der - en: the north # nördlich von - en: north of # Nordpol, der - en: North Pole # Norwegen - en: Norway # Norweger, der - en: Norwegian (a man from Norway) # Norwegerin, die - en: Norwegian (a woman from Norway) # Norwegerinnen - en: Norwegians (women from Norway) # norwegisch - en: Norwegian # Norwegisch - en: Norwegian language # norwegische Sprache - en: Norwegian language # Not, die - en: emergency; distress # Notaufnahme, die - en: emergency room # nötig - en: necessary; needed # notwendig - en: necessary # Notwendigkeit, die - en: need; necessity # Nudel, die - en: noodle # Null, die - en: zero # nun - en: now; then; well # nur - en: only; just # nur zu einem sehr geringen Grad - en: only at a very minimal degree # Nuss, die - en: nut # ob - en: if # oben - en: at the top; upstairs; up; at the top # Oberkellner, der - en: head waiter # objektiv - en: objective; objectively # Obst, das - en: fruits # oder - en: or # oder so was - en: or something like that # Ofen, der - en: oven # offen - en: open # öffentlich - en: public; in public # Öffentlichkeit, die - en: the public; the general public # öffnen - en: to open # oft - en: often; frequently # ohne - en: without # Ökonom, der - en: economist # Oma, die - en: grandmother # Onkel, der - en: uncle # Oper, die - en: opera # ordnen - en: to arrange; to order # Ordnung, die - en: order # Ort, der - en: place; village o small town # Orthographie, die = die Rechtschreibung - en: spelling; orthography # Ortschaft, die - en: village o small town # Osten, der - en: the east # Österreich - en: Austria # östlich von - en: east of # Overall, der - en: overall # paar (ein paar) = einige - en: some # Paar, das (= 2) - en: pair; couple # packen - en: to pack # Paket, das - en: parcel; package # Pappe, die - en: cardboard # Park, der - en: park # Partner, der - en: partner # Partnerin, die - en: partner (woman) # Partnerschaft, die - en: partnership # passen - en: to match; to fit; to be convinient; to suit # Passt es Ihnen? - en: Does it fit you? # passt sehr gut - en: fits very well # Pause, die - en: pause # Pech, das - en: bad luck # peinlich - en: embarrassing # Person, die - en: person # Pfadfindern, der - en: scouts; boy scouts # Pfeffer, der - en: pepper # pfeifen - en: to whistle # Pfeil, der - en: arrow # Pferd, das - en: horse # Pflanze, die - en: plant # Pflaume, die - en: plum # Pflaumenbaum, der - en: plum tree # Pflaumenmus, der - en: plum jam # Pflicht, die - en: obligation # pflichtig - en: to be obliged # pfui - en: bad # Physik, die - en: physics # Platz nehmen - en: to take a seat; to take place; to sit down # Platz, der; Plural: Plätze - en: seat; place # plumps! - en: Thud! (a sound from falling); Plop! # plus - enː plus # Po, der - en: bottom; bum; behind; backside # Polizei, die - en: police # Polizeihund, der - en: police dog # Polizist, der - en: policeman # Ponyhof, der - en: pony club center # Post, die - en: mail; post # Präparat, das - en: drug # Preis, der - en: price # Pullover, der - en: sweater; pullover; jersey; jumper # Punkt, der - en: point # pünktlich - en: in time; punctual; puntually # Puppe, die - en: doll # Qualität, die - en: quality # Quatsch, der - en: nonsense; rubbish; crap # Quelle, die - en: source # Rabe, der - en: raven # Rad, das - en: wheel # Radio, das - en: radio # Rand, der - en: edge; border; margin; periphery # Rat, der = der Ratschlag - en: advice; recommendation # Rathaus, das - en: town hall; city hall # Ratte, die - en: rat # Rauch, der - en: smoke # rauchen - en: to smoke # rauf - en: to get up # Raum, der - en: room # raus - en: to get out # Recherche, die - en: investigation; enquiry # rechnen - en: to calculate # Rechnung, die - en: bill; check; invoice # Recht haben - en: to be right; to have righ # Recht, das - en: right; law; legislation # rechts - en: right; at the right side; to the right # rechts neben - en: to the right of # reden = sprechen - en: to speak # regelmäßig - en: regularly; periodically # Regen, der - en: rain # Regenschirm, der - en: umbrella # Regierung, die - en: government # regnen - en: to rain # reich - en: rich # reichen - en: to be enough # reicht das Geld nicht - en: do not have enough money # Reihe, die - en: row # Reim, der - en: rhyme # rein - en: to get in # Reis, der - en: rice # Reise, die - en: journey; trip; tour; voyage # reiten - en: to ride # Reiter, der - en: rider # Resultat, das - en: result # retten - en: to save; to rescue # Rettung, die - en: salvation; rescue # Rezept, das - en: prescription # Rhein, der - en: Rhine (river) # richtig - en: correct; right # riechen - en: to smell; to stink # Rindenmulch, der - en: bark mulch # Ring, der - en: the ring # Ringfinger, der - en: ring finger # Röhre, die - en: tube # Rom - en: Rom (the capital of Italy) # röntgen - en: to have an X-ray taken; to x-ray somebody/something # Rose, die - en: rose # rot - en: red # rotbraun - en: reddish brown # rothaarig - en: red-haired; to have red hairs # Rotwein, der - en: red wine # Rückfahrt, die - en: return journey # Rückflug, der - en: return flight; the flight leg rom the destination # rufen - en: to call # Rührei - en: scrambled eggs # runter - en: to get down # runtergehen - en: go down # S-Bahn, die = die Stadt-Bahn = die Schnell-Bahn = die Stadtschnellbahn - en: commuter train, city train; rail rapid transit # Saal, der - en: hall # Sache, die - en: thing # Sache, die - en: thing; object; article # Sachen, die - en: clothes; closing (only Plural for clothes); things # Safran, der - en: safran; saffron # sagen - en: to say # Salz, das - en: salt # sammeln - en: to collect # Samstag, der - en: Saturday # Satz, der; Plural: Sätze - en: sentence # Satzstruktur, die - en: structure of the sentence # sauber - en: clean # sauber machen - en: to clean up; to clean # Sauberkeit, die - en: cleanness; cleanliness # saufen - en: to booze; to drink (alcohol) # Sauna, die - en: sauna # Schach - en: chess # schade - en: what a pity; that's too bad # Schade! - en: Too bad! What a shame! Pity! # Schaden, der - en: damage # schaffen - en: to create # Schallplatte, die - en: record; LP; gramophone record # Schein, der - en: certificate; paper # scheinbar - en: seemingly # scheinen - en: to shine # Scheiße, die - en: shit; fuck # schenken - en: to present; to give; to make a gift # Schere, die - en: scissors # scheuchen - en: to drive animals (cattle, sheep, horses); to chase # schicken - en: to send # schieben - en: to shove; to push (a longer time - not only an impulse) # Schiff, das - en: ship # Schinkenplatte, die - en: ham platter # Schirm, der = der Regenschirm - en: umbrella # Schlaf, der - en: sleep # schlafen - en: to sleep # schlafen gehen - en: to go to bed; to go to sleep # Schlag, der - en: the hit; blow; stroke # schlagen - en: to hit; to strike; to blow; to beat # Schlange, die - en: queue; snake # Schlauch, der - en: hose # schlecht - en: bad; badly # schlechter - en: worse # schlechter als - en: worse than # schleichen - en: to creep; to sneak # schließen - en: to close # Schloss, das - en: palace; castle # Schluss, der - en: end # Schlüssel, der; Plural: die Schlüssel - en: key; # schmal - en: narrow # Schmalz, das - en: lard # schmecken - en: to taste; to taste good; to enjoy # Schmerz, der - pain # Schnäppchen, das - en: bargain; good deal # Schnaps, der - en: booze; liquor; drink; (Whisky; Wodka; Brandy) # Schnecke, die - en: snail # schneiden - en: to cut # schneien - en: to snow # schnell - en: fast # schneller - en: faster # schneller als - en: faster than # Schokolade, die - en: chocolate # schon - en: already # schön - en: beautiful; nice; pretty # schon lange - en: already for a long time; a long time # Schönheit, die - en: beauty # Schönheitsschlaf, der - en: beauty sleep # Schottland - en: Scotland # Schrank, der - en: wardrobe # Schrecken, der = der Schreck - en: fright; horror; terror # schreiben - en: to write # Schreiben Sie die Hausaufgabe! - en: Write the homework! # Schreiben Sie die Übung 6, Seite 11! - en: Write exercise 6, page 11. # Schreibschrift, die - en: script; cursive writing; hand written script # Schreibtisch, der - en: desk; writing desk # Schreibwaren, die - en: stationary # schreien - en: to cry; to scream # Schrift, die - en: writing; scrip # schüchtern - en: shy; timid # Schuld, die - en: guilt; fault; blame # Schule, die - en: school # Schüler, der - en: pupil # schütteln - en: to shake # schwanger - en: pregnant # Schwangerschaft, die - en: pregnancy # schwarz - en: black # Schwede, der - en: the Swede (a man from Sweden) # Schweden - en: Sweden # Schweden, die - en: Swedes (people from Sweden) # Schwedin, die - en: the Swede (a woman from Sweden) # Schwedinnen, die - en: the Swedes (women from Sweden) # Schwedisch - en: Swedish (language) # schwedisch- en: Swedish # schwedische Gardinen - en: Swedish curtains = grids in prison; behind bars # schwedische Sprache - en: Swedish language # Schweiz, die - en: Switzerland # schwer - en: difficult; hard; heavy # Schwester, die - en: sister # schwimmen - en: to swim; to float # schwul - en: gay # sechs - en: six – 6 # See, der - en: lake # Segelboot, das - en: sailing boat # segeln - en: to sail # Segelschiff, das - en: sailing ship # sehen - en: to see # sehr - en: very # sehr gut - en: very good # sehr oft - en: very often # sehr schlecht - en: very bad # sehr schön - en: very good; very well; very nice; very beautiful # sehr viel Zeit - en: a lot of time # sehr wahrscheinlich - en: most likely; highly likely; highly probable # sehr wenig Zeit - en: very little time # seid ihr? - en: are you? # sein - en: his; its (neutrum; for instance: of the boy); to be # sein - en: to be # seit - en: since # seit drei Tagen - en: since three days # seit ein paar Tagen - en: since a couple of days # seit wann - en: since when # Seite, die - en: page # Sekunde, die - en: second # selber - en: oneself; myself; yourself; himself; herself # Selbstverständlich = natürlich - en: of course, naturally, self-evident # selten - en: seldom; rarely; infrequently # Sessel, der - en: armchair # setzen - en: to put (sitting); to set # Seuche, die - en: epidemic; plague # Sex, der - en: sex # sich bemühen - en: to try hard; to bother oneself # sich erinnern - en: to remember # sich freuen - en: to be pleased # sich merken - en: to memorize # sich treffen - en: to come together; to meet # sich umgeben - en: surround yourself; surround themselves # sich unterhalten - en: to chat; to have a conversation # sich unterhalten - en: to talk; to converse # sich verspäten - en: to be late # sich verstehen - en: to understand each other; to get along # sich wiederholen - en: to repeat; to recure # sicher - en: surely; certainly; for sure; defenitely # sicherlich - en: certainly; for sure; definitely # Sicht, die - en: view; vision; sight # Sie - enː you (Sir; Mam; polite form of addressing; addressing to more senior persons; or Plural) # sieben - en: seven – 7 # Silbe, die - en: syllable # Silber, das - en: silver # sind - enː are # sinken - en: to sink # sinkend - en: sinking # Sinn, der - en: sense; memory # Sitte, die - en: custom # sitzen - en: to sit # Skandinavien - en: Scandinavia # so - en: such a; so # So etwas ähnliches. - en: Something like this. # so gut wie gar nicht - en: almost never; almost not at all # so kalt - en: so cold # so tun, als ob - en: to pretend as if # Sofa, das - en: sofa # sofort - en: immediately # Sohn, der - en: son # sollen - en: have to; has to; must; shall; is supposed to do; somebody is to do something (order) # Sommer, der - en: summer # Sommerlager, das - en: summer camp # sondern - en: but; (instead; in contrary) # Sonnabend, der - en: Saturday # Sonne, die - en: sun # Sonnenschirm, der - en: sunshade # Sonntag, der - en: Sunday # sonntags und feiertags - en: Sundays and holidays # sonst - en: else; otherwise; normally; or; if not; alternatively # Sonst noch was? - en: Do you want something else? # Sorge, die - en: worry; concern # sparen - en: to save; to economize # Spargel, der - en: asparagus # Spaß, der - en: fun; enjoyment # spät - en: late # später - en: later; later on # Spatz, der - en: sparrow # spazieren gehen - en: to walk; to stroll # Specht, der - en: woodpecker # Spedition, die - en: forwarding agency; shipping # Speise, die = das Essen - en: food; meal; dish # Speisekarte, die - en: menu # Speisesaal, der - en: dining room # Spiegel, der - en: mirror # Spiegelei - en: fried egg # Spiel, das - en: the game; the play # spielen - en: to play # Spielfilm, der - en: motion pictures # Spielzeug, das - en: toy # Spion, der - en: spy # spitz - en: pointed; sharp # Spitze, die - en: point; top; end # Sportplatz, der - en: sports ground; sports field # Sprache - en: tongue # sprechen - en: to speak # Sprechstunde, die - en: surgery; office hours # Sprechzimmer, das - en: consulting room # Sprich bitte langsam! - en: Please speak slowly! # Sprich bitte nicht so schnell! - en: Please, don't speak so fast! # Spritze, die - en: syringe # Spruch, der; Plural: Sprüche - en: saying; aphosism; slogan # spüren - en: to feel # Stab, der - en: stick; rod; bar; wand # Stäbchen, das - en: chopsticks # Stadt, die; Plural: Städte - en: city # Städtepartnerschaft, die - en: city partnership; town partnership; city twinning # Stadtrand, der - en: outskirts # Stahl, der - en: steel # Stamm, der - en: trunk; tree-trunk # Stammkunde, der - en: regular customer # Stammtisch, der - en: table reserved for the regulars # stark - en: strongly # stechen - en: to sting; to pierce; to prick # stehen - en: to stand; to be (standing) # steigend - en: rising; increasing # Stein, der - en: stone # stellen - en: to put; to place; to stand # sterben - en: to die # Stift, der - en: stick; pen; pencil; pin # Stiftung, die - en: foundation # Stimmt das? - en: Is this correct? # stinken - en: to stink; to smell # Stipendium, das - en: scholarship; grant # Stock, der - en: stick # Strand, der - en: beach # Straße, die - en: street # Straßenbahn, die - en: tram; street car # Straßenverkehrs-Ordnung, die - en: road traffic regulations; road traffic laws; highway # Strauch, der - en: bush; shrub # Strecke, die - en: route; distance; stretch; section; way; track # Streichholz, das - match # streng - en: strict # Strich, der - en: stroke; dash # Stroh, das - en: straw # Struktur, die - en: structure # Strumpf, der; Plural: Strümpfe - en: stocking # Stück Kuchen - en: a piece of cake # Stück, das - en: piece # Student, der - en: student # Studentin, die - en: student (girl) # Studentinnen, die - en: students (girls; notː girls and boys) # Studienkollege, der - en: fellow student # studieren - en: to study (at a university) # Stuhl, der; Plural: Stühle - en: chair; seat # Stunde, die - en: hour # suchen - en: to seek; to search; to look for # Süden, der - en: the south # südlich von - en: south of # Sumpf, der - en: swamp # Supermarkt, der - en: supermarket # Suppe, die - en: soup # T-shirt, das - en: T-shirt # Tablette, die - en: pill; tablet # Tafel, die - en: black board # Tag, der - en: day # täglich = tagtäglich - en: every day; daily # tags ist es hell - en: at daytime there ist daylight # Tank, der - en: fuel tank # tanken - en: refuel (gasoline) # tanzen - en: to dance # Tasche, die - en: bag; (hand)bag; (shopping)bag # Tasche, die (an Hemd oder Hose) - en: pocket # Taschentuch, das - en: handkerchief; kleenex; tissue # Tasse, die - en: cup # tätig - en: active; employed; engaged; to work # Tätigkeit, die - en: activity; occupation # Tatort, der - en: crime scene # Taube, die - en: dove; pigeon # tauschen - en: to exchange # Taxi, das - en: taxi # Tee, der - en: tea # Teich, der - en: pond # Teigwaren, die - en: pasta; pastas # Teil, das - en: part (e.g. small part - of a machine; a member) # Teil, der - en: part (e.g. great part - of a city or of a country) # telefonieren - en: to telephone # Telefonnummer, die - en: phone number # Teller, der - en: plate # teuer - en: expensive # Text, der - en: text # Theater, das - en: theater # Theaterkarte, die - en: theatre ticket # Thema, das - en: theme; topic; subject # Tier, das - en: animal # Tiergeschichte, die - en: animal story; animal tale # Tisch, der - en: table # Tischdecke, die - en: tablecloth # Tischtennis - en: ping-pong; table tennis # Titel, der - en: title # Titelbild, das - en: cover picture; cover photo # Tochter, die - en: daughter # Tod, der - en: death # toll - en: great; fantastic; terrific # Ton, der - en: sound; (behavior) # Tonband, das - en: tape; audiotape # Tonhöhe, die - en: pitch # tot - en: dead # total - en: totally # Tote, der - en: the dead # töten - en: to kill # tragen - en: to carry; to bear # tragen - en: to carry; to bear; to take; to hold; to wear # Träne, die - en: tear # Traube, die - en: grape; bunch of grapes; cluster # Trauen = vertrauen - en: to trust; to believe # traurig - en: sad # treffen - en: to hit; to strike # treffen - en: to meet # trinken - enː to drink # Tritt, der - en: kick # trocken - en: dry # Tropfen, der - en: drop # trotzdem - en: despite of; nevertheless; notwithstanding; regardless of; anyhow # Tuch, das - en: cloth; scarf # tun = tuen = machen - en: to do; to make # Tunesien - en: Tunisia # Tür, die - en: door # Turm, der - en: tower # tut weh = wehtun = schmerzen - en: to hurt; to have pain; to ache # Tüte, die - en: bag (paper or plastic) # U-Bahn, die = Untergrundbahn - en: subway; metro # üben - en: to practice; to exercise # über - en: above # überall - en: everywhere; all over # überfüllen - en: to overfill # überlassen - en: to leave # überlegen - en: to think # übermorgen - en: the day after tomorrow # Übermut, der - en: high spirits; boisterousness # Überraschung, die - en: surprise # übersetzen - en: to tanslate # Übersetzen Sie! - en: Translateǃ # Übersetzung, die - en: translation # üblich - en: usual; normally; common practice # übrigens - en: by the way # Übung, die - en: exercise; practice # Uhr, die - en: clock; wrist-watch: o'clock # um - en: at # um ... zu - en: to # um immer bei dir zu sein - en: to be forever with you # umgeben - en: to surround; to encircle # Umgebung, die - en: environment # Umlaut, der - en: vowel mutation (a -> ä; o -> ö; u -> ü) # Umleitung, die - en: detour; diversion # Umstand, der - en: circumstance # umsteigen - en: to change; to change-over # und - en: and # Und was ist morgen? = Und morgen? - en: And what is tomorrow? # undeutlich - en: unclear; obscure; blurred; illegible # unfähig - en: uncapable; unfit; incompetent # Unfähigkeit, die - en: inability; incapacity # Ungarn - en: Hungary # ungefähr = circa = ca. - en: about; approximately; around; roughly # unheilbar - en: incurable # unmöglich - en: impossible # unser, unsere - en: our # unten - en: down; downstairs; bottom # unter - en: under # unter Umständen - en: under certain circumstances; in certain circumstances # unterbringen - en: to accommodate; to fit in # unterhalten - en: to maintain # Unterhaltung, die - en: talk; conversation; maintenance # Unterricht, der - en: lesson; class # unterstützen - en: to support # untersuchen - en: to examine # Untersuchung, die - en: examination # unwahrscheinlich - en: improbable; unlikely # Urlaub, der - en: holiday; vacation # Vase, die - en: vase # Vater, der - en: father # Veilchen, das - en: violet # verbieten - en: to forbid; to ban # verbinden - en: to connect # verdammt = verflucht - en: damned; bloody; cursed # verdienen - en: to earn # Verfasser, der = der Autor - en: author # verflixt - en: darn; darned # Vergangenheit, die - en: past # Vergangenheitsform, die - en: past tense # vergehen - en: to pass; to elapse # vergessen - en: to forget # vergesslich - en: to forget # Vergleich, der - en: comparison # vergleichen - en: to compare # verkaufen - en: to sell # Verkäufer, der - en: seller; vendor; sales assistant # Verkäuferin - en: saleswoman; female sales assistant # Verkehrsminister - en: Minister of Transport # Verkehrszeichen, das - en: traffic sign # Verlag, der - en: publishing company; publishing house # verlassen - en: to leave # verlieren - en: to lose # vermutlich - en: presumably # verpassen - en: to miss; to lose # verraten - en: to reveal # versäumen = verpassen - en: to miss; versäumen # verschenken - en: to give away; to give; to present; to make a gift # versetzen - en: to move; to shift; to transpose # Verspätung, die - en: delay; lateness; late arrival # versprechen - en: to promise # Versprechen, das - en: promise # verstehen - en: to understand # verstehendes Lesen - en: reading comprehension # Vertrag, der - en: contract # Verwaltung, die - en: administration; management # verwandt - en: related # Verwandte, der- en: relatives # Verwandtschaft, die - en: relatives; kinship # verwenden für - en: to use for # Verzeihung, die - en: excuse # viel - en: a lot; much; many # viel besser - en: much better than # viel langsamer - en: much slower than # viel schlechter als - en: much worse than # viel schneller als - en: much faster than # viel Zeit - en: very much time # viele - en: many # viele Male - en: many times # vielfach - en: in many cases; frequently # vielfach vorkommend - en: occurring frequently; occurring often # vielleicht - en: maybe; perhaps # Vielleicht scheint morgen die Sonne. - en: Maybe the sun will shine tomorrow. # vier - en: four – 4 # Viertel, das = das Stadtviertel - en: quarter; district; neighborhood # vierteljährlich - en: every thee month; quarterly # vierzig - en: forty - 40 # Vogel, der - en: bird # Vokabel, die - en: word (vocabulary) # Vokabular, das - en: vocabulary # Volk, das - en: nation; people # Volkshochschule, die (VHS) - en: Adult Education Centre # voll - en: full # Volleyball - en: volleyball # von - en: from; of # von Ihnen - en: from you # von mir - en: from me # von mir selber - en: by myself; from myself # von mir weg - en: away from me # von Zeit zu Zeit - en: from time to time # vor - en: in front of; before # vor drei Tagen - en: three days ago # vor kurzem - en: recently; lately # vorbei - en: past # vorbei laufen - en: walk by # vorbeischießen - en: to miss; to shoot past # vorbereiten - en: to prepare # Vorfahrt, die - en: right of way # Vorgehensweise, die - en: method; approach # vorgestern - en: the day before yesterday # vorlesen - en: to read out something; to read something to somebody # Vorlesung, die - en: lecture; course of lectures # vorletzte - en: before last; penulitmate # Vormittag, der - en: morning (8.00 a.m. - 12.00 a.m.) # vorn - en: over there; at the front # Vorname, der - en: first name; Christian name # vorne = vorn - en: at the front; over there; in front of # Vorrecht, das - en: privilege # Vorschlag, der - en: proposal; suggestion # vorschlagen - en: to propose; to suggest # Vorstellung, die - en: cinema presentation; theater performance # Vortrag, der - en: presentation; lecture; recitation # vorvorletzter - en: the ohe before before last; pen-penultimate # VWL [Vau We El] - en: economics # wachsen - en: to grow # Wagen, der - en: car; carriage # Wahl, die - en: choice; option # wählen - en: to choose; to select; to vote # wahr - en: true; real # wahrscheinlich - en: probably; likely # Wahrscheinlichkeit, die - en: probability; likelihood # Wald, der - en: wood; forest # Wäldchen, das - en: little forrest; grove; wood # Wange, die - en: cheek # wann? - en: when? # war - en: was # Ware, die - en: article; good; product; merchandise; commodity; ware; product # waren - en: were # Warenhaus, das - en: department store # warm - en: warm # warten - en: to wait # warten auf - en: to wait for # wartepflichtig - en: to be obligated to wait; to have to wait # Wartezimmer, das - en: waiting room # warum? - en: why? # Was bedeutet das? - en: What does that mean? # Was bedeutet dieses Wort? - en: What does that word mean? # was es auch ist - en: whatever it is # was für ein ... ? - en: what kind of ...? # was für eine Kälte! - en: What a cold! # Was guckst du so? - en: What are you looking so? # Was hältst du davon? - en: What do you think about this? How do you think about this? # Was ist das? - en: What is that? # Was soll man machen? - en: What can you do? # was? - en: what? # waschen - en: to wash # Wasser, das - en: water # Wassertank, der - en: water tank # Wechsel, der - en: change; exchange # wechseln - en: to switch; to change # Wecker, der - en: alarm clock # weg = verschwinden - en: away; to disappear; off; gone # Weg, der - en: way; path; road; route; distance # wegbringen - en: to bring away; to lead away # wegen - en: because of; due to # wegessen - en: to eat up # wegfahren - en: to drive away # weggeben - en: to give away # weggehen - en: give away # weglassen - en: to omit # weglaufen - en: to run away # wegnehmen - en: to take away # wegschicken - en: to send away # wegwerfen - en: to throw away # weh tun = schmerzen - en: to hurt # wehtun – en: to hurt; to be painful; to ache # weich - en: soft # Weihnachten - en: Christmas # Weihnachtsfeier, die - en: Christmas party # Weihnachtsgeld, das - en: Christmas bonus # Weile, die - en: while (eine Weile – en: a while) # Wein, der - en: wine # Weinberg, der - en: vineyard # Weinbergschnecke, die - en: edible snail # Weinbergschnecken mit Kräuterbutter - en: snails with herb butter # weinen - en: to cry (with tears) # Weinpflanze, die - en: grape (palnt); grapevine; (plant for wine) # Weinrebe, die - en: grapevine # Weintraube, die - en: grape (fruit) # weiß - en: white # Weißwein, der - en: white wine # weit - en: far # weit - en: wide; broad; far; distant # weit entfernt - en: far away # weiter - en: further; onward; go on; to continue # weiter als - en: further than; beyond # weiter entfernt = weiter weg - en: further away # weiterfahren - en: to continue; to drive on; to carry on driving # weitergehen - en: to proceed; to go on; to move on # weitermachen - en: to continue (to make something) # welche - en: which (femininum or Plural) # welchen - en: what; which # welcher - en: which (maskulinum) # welcher Tag? - en: which day? # welches - en: which (neutrum) # Welt, die - en: world # Weltliteratur, die - en: world literature # Wenig = wenige - en: little; a little bit; few # wenig Zeit - en: little time # weniger - en: less # wer? - en: who? # werfen - en: to throw # Werk, das - en: factory; company; firm # Wessen? - en: Whose? # Westen, der - en: the west # westlich von - en: west of # wichtig - en: important # wie - en: like # Wie alt bist du? - en: How old are you? # Wie geht es Ihnen? - en: How are you? # wie immer - en: like always; like everytime # wie lange? - en: how long? # Wie oft? - en: How often? # Wie spät ist es? - en: What time is it? # Wie viel kostet ...? - en: How much does it cost? Ho much is it? # Wie viel kostet das? - en: How much is it? # Wie viel macht das bitte? - en: How much is it? # Wie viel? - en: How much? How many? # wie? - en: how? # wieder - en: again # wieder einmal - en: once again; again; another time # wieder einmal = ein andermal - en: once again; at another time again # wieder hören - en: to hear again # wiederholen - en: to repeat # Wiederholen Sie den 1. Teil! - en: Repeat the first part. # wiederholt - en: repeatedly # Wiederholung, die - en: repetition # Wieso das? - en: Why this? # Wieso nicht? - en: Why not? # Wieso? - en: Why? # Winter, der - en: winter # wir - en: we # wir hören euch gut - en: we hear you well # wirklich = wahr - en: really; indeed; truly # Wirklichkeit, die = die Realität - en: reality # Wirt, der - en: innkeeper; restaurateur; barkeeper; landlord # Wirtin, die - en: innkeeper (woman) # Wirtschaft, die - en: economy; business; industry # wissen - en: to know # Wissen, das - en: knowledge # Wissenschaft, die - en: science # Wissenschaftler - en: scholar (academic); scientist; researcher # Wissenschaftlerin - en: scholar (woman); scientist (woman); researcher (woman) # Witz, der - en: joke # wo? - en: where? # woanders - en: somewhere else # Woche, die - en: week # Wochenende, das - en: weekend # wochentags; der Wochentag = der Werktag - en: workday # wöchentlich - en: every week # Wofür? - en: What for? For what? # Woher kommen Sie? (Plural) - en: Where do you come from? # Woher kommen Sie? (Singular) - en: Where do you come from? # woher? - en: where from? from where? # wohin? - en: whereto? where? # Wohl, das - en: the well; wellfare # wohnen - enː to live (in a house or apartment) # Wolke, die - en: cloud # wollen - en: to want (strong); to desire; to wish; to intend # womöglich - en: possibly; perhaps # Woran denkst du? - en: What are you thinking? # Woran denkt Karin? - en: What thinks Karin? # woran?- en: by which; on what; at what; what # Wort, das; Plural: Wörter, Worte - en: word # Wörterbuch, das - en: dicionary # wovon? - en: from what? # Wunde, die - en: wound # Wunsch, der - en: desire; wish # wünschen - en: to wish # würde machen - en: would make # Würfel, der = der Spielwürfel - en: dice; cube # Wurm, der - en: worm # Wurst, die; Plural: Würste - en: sausage; cold cuts; sliced cold sausage # Zahl, die; Plural: Zahlen - en: number # zählen - en: to count # zahlen = bezahlen - en: to pay # Zahn, der - en: tooth # Zahnschmerz, der - en: toothache # Zäpfchen, das - en: uvula; suppository # zehn - en: ten – 10 # Zeichen, das - en: sign; character # zeichnen - en: to draw # Zeichnung, die - en: drawing # Zeigefinger, der - en: index finger # zeigen - en: to show; to point # Zeile, die - en: (text) line # Zeit, die - en: time # zeitig = früh - en: early # zeitiger - en: earlier # Zeitpunkt, der - en: moment; time; point # Zeitschrift, die - en: magazine; journal; periodical # Zeitung, die - en: newspaper # Zelt, das - en: tent # Zeltlager, das - en: camp; tent camp # Zeppelin, der - en: zepellin # zerlegen - en: dismantle; decompose; dissect # ziehen - en: to pull; to extract # Ziel, das - en: goal; aim; target # Ziffer, die - en: digit # Zigarette, die - en: cigarette # Zigarre, die - en: cigar # Zimmer, das - en: room # Zirkus, der - en: circus # zu - en: too (too much) # zu billig - en: too cheap # zu früh - en: too early # zu Fuß - en: go (on foot) # zu hoch - en: too hight # zu keiner Zeit - en: at no time; not at any time # zu lang - en: too long (spacial distance); too long (time) # zu lange warten - en: to wait to long # zu mir her - en: here; into my direction # zu mir kommen - en: come to me # zu schnell - en: too fast # zu spät - en: to be late; too late # zu teuer - en: too expensive # zu Weihnachten - en: at Christmas # zu weit - en: too far # zu zweit - en: in twos; in pairs; two of you/us; two persons together # Zucker, der - en: sugar # zuerst - en: at first; initially; first; at the beginning # Zug, der - en: train # zuklappen - en: to close # zuletzt - en: last; at the end; finally # zum letzten Mal - en: last time # zum Wohl! - en: Cheers! (polite and non-polite form) # zurückbekommen - en: to get back; to recover # zusammen = gemeinsam - en: together # zusammengesetzt - en: composed; assembled # zusammengesetzte Substantive - en: compound nouns # zusammensetzen - en: to put together; to assemble; to compose # zuschauen - en: to watch # Zuschauer, der - en: viewer; spectator; audience # Zwang, der - en: force; pressure # zwanzig - en: twenty - 20 # Zweck, der - en: purpose; aim; end # zwei - en: two – 2 # zwei Schlüssel - en: two keys # zweimal jährlich - en:twice a year # Zwiebel, die - en: onion # zwingen - en: to force # zwingend - en: compellingly; compulsive; absolutely; mandatory # zwischen - en: between # zwischenlanden - en: to stop over # zwölf - en: twelve - 12 :[[Deutschkurs für Anfänger|Table of Contents]] :{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; margin-left: 10px" |- ! colspan="10"| lección |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 001|001]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 002|002]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 003|003]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 004|004]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 005|005]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 006|006]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 007|007]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 008|008]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 009|009]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 010|010]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 011|011]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 012|012]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 013|013]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 014|014]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 015|015]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 016|016]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 017|017]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 018|018]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 019|019]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 020|020]] |- | [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 021|021]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 022|022]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 023|023]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 024|024]] || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 025|025]] |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || [[Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Lektion 004a|004a]] |} {{BookCat}} [[ar:Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Vokabular]] [[ku:Deutschkurs für Anfänger/Vokabular]] 1lsd87ulqa6h35kh35lqq5j9xb1c6cg 0 367613 4654132 4048631 2026-07-11T19:23:39Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654132 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude> {{CPTPageNavigationP2| | Prev = Relationship between hardware and software | Next = System software}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:Fundamentals of computer systems: Classification of software}} </noinclude> You have probably used a lot of software over the years, here we are going to study the different classifications (types) of software that are out there. <gallery caption="Software can perform many different tasks" widths="60px" heights="65px" perrow="5" class="center"> File:Ccard_icon.png File:Nuvola_camera.svg File:Nuvola_apps_looknfeel.png File:Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg File:Nuvola_mimetypes_source.svg File:Gcalctool.svg File:Nuvola apps edu science.svg File:Nuvola apps package games strategy.png File:Nuvola apps kpovmodeler.svg File:Nuvola apps artsmidimanager.png </gallery> The two main classifications of software that all programs fit under are: * System software * Application software {{CPTAmbox|text=Whatever you do don't use brand names in answer questions about software types. Writing ''Microsoft Word'' will get you no marks, writing ''word processor'' will!}} [[File:CPT-Classification_of_Software_-_relationships.svg|thumb|center|250px]] Without software, most hardware would sit there doing nothing or perform specific tasks. To make most hardware run we need to use software, and your task here is to select the correct type of software for each job. == System software == {{Dbox|[[w:System software|System software]]|software designed to operate the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application software. }} [[File:Ubuntu_12.04_Final_Live_CD_Screenshot.png|thumb|center|An example of a modern GUI as used in [[w:Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]]]] Modern computers are complex machines involving many different parts. To keep it running well you will need system software. System software will handle the smooth running of all the components of the computer as well as providing general functionality for other programs to use, tools to speed up the computer, tools to develop new software and programs to keep you safe from attacks. There are several different types of system software that we will look at in more detail very shortly: * '''Operating Systems''' are a collection of programs that ''make the computer hardware conveniently available to the user'' and also ''hide the complexities of the computer's operation''. The Operating System (such as Windows 7 or Linux) interprets commands issued by application software (e.g. word processor and spreadsheets). The Operating System is also ''an interface between the application software and computer''. Without the operating system, the application programs would be unable to communicate with the computer. * '''Utility programs''' are small, powerful programs with a limited capability, they are usually operated by the user to maintain a smooth running of the computer system. Various examples include file management, diagnosing problems and finding out information about the computer etc. Notable examples of utility programs include copy, paste, delete, file searching, disk defragmenter, disk cleanup. However, there are also other types that can be separately installable from the Operating System. * '''Library programs''' are a compiled collection of subroutines (e.g. libraries make many functions and procedures available when you write a program) * '''Translator software''' (Assembler, Compiler, Interpreter) # '''Assembler''' translates assembly language programs into machine code (A binary code that a machine can understand). # '''Compiler''' translates high level language code into object code (which is the machine language of the target machine). # '''Interpreter''' analyses and executes a high-level language program a line at a time. Execution will be slower than for the equivalent compiled code as the source code is analyzed line by line. == Application software == {{Dbox|[[w:Application software|Application software]]|software designed to help the user to perform specific tasks}} [[File:GIMP 2.6 Anleitung Abs. 3 Ergebnis beschneiden.png|thumb|center|[[w:GIMP|GIMP]] is an example of photo editing general purpose application software]] Application software is designed for people like me and you to perform tasks that we consider useful. This might be the ability of a scientist to work out statistical information using a set of results, or someone who wants to play the latest computer game. There are several categories of Application software that we'll look into shortly: * General purpose application software. * Special purpose application software. * Bespoke application software {{CPTExample|title=Example: Software categories}} Place the following software into its correct category: * Computer Game - This is built for a human user, therefore it is application software * Virus Scanner - This is built to make the computer run better, therefore it is system software {{Robox/Close}} {{CPTExercise|title=Exercise: Software categories}} {{CPTQuestion|What are the two main categories of software?}} {{CPTAnswer| * System Software * Application software }} {{CPTQuestion|Why is software important for computer systems?}} {{CPTAnswer| Without software the tasks that hardware can perform is often fixed and limited }} {{CPTQuestion|For each of the two main classifications of software give three sub categories:}} {{CPTAnswer| * System software ** Operating system software ** Utility programs ** Library programs ** Translator software (Compiler, assembler, interpreter) * Application software ** General purpose application software. ** Special purpose application software. ** Bespoke application software }} {{CPTQuestion|Place each of these software products into its correct category (application or system): * Word processor * Operating system * Defragmenter * GPS mapping software * Music encoding library}} {{CPTAnswer| * Word processor (Application) * Operating system (System) * Defragmenter (System) * GPS mapping software (Application) * Music encoding library (System) }} {{CPTQuestion|Fill in the missing software categories: [[File:CPT-software-categories-ex.svg|450px]]}} {{CPTAnswer| [[File:CPT-software-categories.svg|left|450px]] }} {{Robox/Close}} {{BookCat}} cmkvc9t94tej9ke3pokgaj3es35w370 0 367712 4654123 3698168 2026-07-11T19:21:58Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654123 wikitext text/x-wiki <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:Practical Project: Picking a project}} </NOINCLUDE> So now it's time to start thinking about what sort of project you are going to make. This is an important decision as this will drive the rest of this coursework. Projects that I've marked in the past have included: *Cricket Player Management System based on a database that keeps track of matches and player scores *Database of children at a day care centre that deals with the billing for parents *A computer room booking database that allowed teachers to book rooms for different days and see other teacher's timetables graphically *A stock control database for a hardware shop that handles re-orders and sales *A web-based maths revision site that allowed for random papers to be created then automatically marked *An A-Level Maths revision maze game *A French revision side-scrolling adventure *Physics projectile modelling tool *A snake game where it asked you to eat the correct answers to maths questions *A helicopter flying game that asked you economics questions to get extra fuel *A computing revision program wrapped around a tetris clone *A chess game that enforces all the rules of the game and recognises when it's check mate *Phone based revision game for mathematics You have probably noticed that there is a lot of talk about databases and data manipulation. An easy way to tackle this project is to build a data processing system, i.e. a stock control system or a revision game, with a database in the back-end to store data. This is a strong sort of project and a way to getting top marks. However, you don't have to do something like this. If your code is complex enough then you don't have to store any data and the parts of the write up that talk about databases, you can skip. You might not be encouraged to make games, but if it is a game with a database or revision system behind it, or showing clever simulations of A-Level standard mathematics then you need to talk to your Computing teacher. == What is Data Processing == [[Image:IBM Electronic Data Processing Machine - GPN-2000-001881.jpg|thumb|150px|Data processing will require a database or other datastore]] Every system you make must involve data processing. This means taking data and adding, updating, deleting, interpreting and displaying it. This is very easy with a database, but you must get beyond the defaults of add, edit, delete, that something like Access gives you. Think about using complex queries and fancy ways to present your results. It could also be an XML file storing seating plans or student records, editing/deleting/adding questions to a revision game and recording the scores of different users. Whatever you do you must have data processing at the heart of it. Using a form of SQL (e.g MySQL) or similar (e.g MariaDB) is a good choice over Access because it easily integrates with a lot of programming languages. Also SQL is on the COMP3 syllabus so you will need basic SQL knowledge anyway. == How to pick a Complex problem == To get top marks the system has to be complex but what does that mean? There are a few things that you need to do and a few more things you need to do to stand a chance to get top marks. AQA's marks scheme says, to get in the top band for complexity, you need at least one of the following: * Non trivial algorithms, e.g Graph traversal or recursion. * Use of sophisticated features of your chosen programming language, e.g runtime created objects, sophisticated data structures, user defined classes * Time-based simulation * Use of network protocols (e.g TCP/IP) * Development for mobile devices * Complexity in the non-computing side of the problem (e.g using complex maths, if it's something in your A-level maths its complex enough) * Image processing or pattern recognition (e.g using regex Note: regex is in the COMP3 syllabus, so you'll be learning it anyway). If you can use more than one of these, you'll guarantee yourself these marks. Also having more will give you more to write about in your later sections. However, don't be too ambitious because you don't want to spend all your time on the coding or not finish the program. If you're using a database it can be harder to tell if your project is going to be complex. AQA has a document on this, but in short your database will need to be fully normalised and high volumes of data will get you more marks. If you can, try to implement one of the points above and you will get the marks. {{ExerciseRobox|title=Warning!}} Never create something in Access alone, you need to show real coding. Even if Access would be a simpler solution this will not allow you to get marks for a complex project. Always check with your teacher about complexity {{Robox/Close}} == Finding a Problem and a User == You probably have a few ideas running through your head already but you now need to find a user. Users aren't necessarily going to find you so if you are a member of a local sports club, church, drama society etc. try and think how a data processing system could help them out. For example, you could keep track of the members of a choir, which sessions they attended and whether they have paid their subscription. If you know someone who runs a small business could you write a system to keep track of when staff were on duty, how much stock they have, how many sales they make? Is there an area in your school / college that could be improved? Ask your teachers, maybe they still need to write reports manually, maybe they would want a revision tool for their subject, maybe they would like web based system to book out rooms, maybe they want a program writing that could simulate projectile motion to demonstrate something in class. Once you have found your user keep hold of them, they are going to be key to you completing every part of this project. <gallery caption="What will you do?" widths="60px" heights="65px" perrow="5" class="center"> File:Ccard_icon.png File:Nuvola_camera.svg File:Nuvola_apps_looknfeel.png File:Nuvola_apps_kmplot.svg File:Nuvola_mimetypes_source.svg File:Gcalctool.svg File:Nuvola apps edu science.svg File:Nuvola apps package games strategy.png File:Nuvola apps kpovmodeler.svg File:Nuvola apps artsmidimanager.png </gallery> If you're having trouble finding a user, try asking some of your teachers at school. If you want to do a simulation, your maths or physics teachers may be helpful. ==Workable projects?== Do the following sound complex enough? If not, how would you make them complex? Remember to check with your teacher about complexity. {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A database of shop sales that allows people to update stock and add new stock items. <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Probably not complex enough! If this is built around an Access Created database with wizards used to make all the forms and run the update queries it definitely won't be. You might get away with it by building it in mySQL with a web front end, but you should still be looking to include some of the more complex topics such as displaying graphs and statistical data on sales. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | An online revision site allowing students to log in and sit randomly made maths tests <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds reasonably complex, if you were planning on scripting the whole thing yourself in ASPX or PHP and not using a package such as Wordpress. You might want to throw in some nice features such as a messaging and mailing system. You might also want to get the program to create dynamic visual displays of the random questions being asked, such as creating triangles of the dimensions being tested. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A 2D F1 racing game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex, especially if you try and think about collision detection, AI etc. However, who is your user? You need a real life user, could you ask you Physics teacher to come up with a scenario to simulate? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A Four in a Row game <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; This sounds very complex with the graphical representation and AI element, but again, who is your user? Could you make this for a primary school? | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | 3D shooter <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Too complex, unless you want to write some code around something like Blender or the Unreal Engine. | &nbsp; |} {| class="collapsible collapsed" style="border: none;" | A photo album database <click> ! colspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" | &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; Not complex enough as it is currently written. You could certainly add features like placing it online and allowing for tagging of photos. Make sure you check with your teacher. | &nbsp; |} == How will you solve the problem? == Once you have a user and a problem how are you going to solve it? You aren't a multi-billion pound IT firm and you probably don't have much more than a years programming experience. You have got to be realistic about how you are going to solve this problem. Here are a couple of questions you need to start thinking about, write down your answers *What languages do you already know? What languages and skills do you need to learn? *Is it going to be web, phone or desktop application based? *Will you use a relational database or flat file data structure, or nothing at all? *Do you know how to normalise data tables or read from text/XML files? *Do you have enough time to do what you want to? *Is it complex enough to get you top marks? == Next Steps == Write all of this down somewhere, it's going to come in useful for your [[../Analysis/]]! {| class="wikitable" |- ! Question !! Answer |- | What is your idea? || |- | Is your idea complex enough? || |- | How will you deliver the complexity? || |- | Who is your end user? || |- | What programming languages do you know? || |- | How long do you have? || |- | Do you need to use a database or other data store? || |- | web based / phone app / desktop?|| |- | What do you need to learn? || |- | What web sites and books can help you? || |} {{BookCat}} <NOINCLUDE> {{CPTPageNavigationU4| | Prev = | Next = Analysis}} </NOINCLUDE> o1y1rvsqx0i0u9pcmuud0uo8we57ixc 2 372271 4654062 4593173 2026-07-11T19:05:14Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654062 wikitext text/x-wiki <H1> Chicago Community Pages Magnificent Mile I like to donate my page to the city of Chicago - Art.Saucedo My Wikipedia ID=artsunixlabs "unable to change my ID" </H1> <gallery caption="" widths=190px class="center"> File:Navy_pier.jpg |link=wikipedia:Navy_Pier </gallery> <gallery caption="" widths=195px> File:Lake_front_bike2.JPG |link=wikipedia:Chicago_Lakefront_Trail File:Chicago_River_5.jpg |link=wikipedia:Chicago_River File:Chicago_River_from_Lake_Street_bridge.jpg |link=wikipedia:River_North_Point File:Montrose_Beach.JPG |link=wikipedia:Tourism_in_Chicago File:Great_Lakes_from_space_crop_labeled.jpg |link=wikipedia:Great_Lakes File:Navy_Pier_Chicago.JPG |link=wikipedia:Chicago_Shakespeare_Theater File:Adler_external_1.jpg |link=wikipedia:Adler_Planetarium File:Field_Museum_of_Natural_History.jpg |link=wikipedia:Field_Museum_of_Natural_History File:JohnGSheddAquarium.jpg |link=wikipedia:Shedd_Aquarium </gallery> <pre> Look at the originals first </pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_Pier#/media/File:Navy_pier.jpg |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_Pier </pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Lakefront_Trail#/media/File:Lake_front_bike2.JPG |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Lakefront_Trail</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_River#/media/File:Chicago_River_5.jpg |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_River</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_North_Point#/media/File:Chicago_River_from_Lake_Street_bridge.jpg |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_North_Point</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_Chicago#/media/File:Montrose_Beach.JPG | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_Chicago</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes#/media/'''File:Great_Lakes_from_space_crop_labeled.jp'''g | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/'''Great_Lakes'''</pre> <pre> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Shakespeare_Theater#/media/File:Navy_Pier_Chicago.JPG |https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Shakespeare_Theater</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Point,_Chicago | https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Navy_Pier_Chicago.JPG</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adler_Planetarium#/media/File:Adler_external_1.jpg | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adler_Planetarium</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Museum_of_Natural_History|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_Museum_of_Natural_History#/media/File:Field_Museum_of_Natural_History.jpg</pre> <pre>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shedd_Aquarium|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_Campus#/media/File:JohnGSheddAquarium.jpg</pre> <H1> Welcome to add your Chicago best wikipedia additions can be included as long as they comply in length of current images - Art.Saucedo 08/28/2016 </H1> === Look at the code first and all you need is two components the picture.jpg a pipe (|) and a page name === lec33c4hnywpwhze553kji9b4tlo6ls 0 395663 4654198 3583034 2026-07-12T11:23:54Z ~2026-39259-73 3613802 /* A.03-4 BIOS Parameter Block (BPB) for a disk */ 4654198 wikitext text/x-wiki Appendices == A.01 PC's main data structures == Both BIOS and DOS store their important data in especially devoted areas of computer's memory. Data placement inside these areas is not fixed for ever and may depend on version of BIOS and DOS. Therefore data in system structures should not be addressed directly, but rather should be accessed via special functions, described in chapter 8 of this book. One more reason is that data can't be updated properly unless the corresponding service function is called for. Nevertheless direct access to system data structures may be necessary. It enables to get more information than you are allowed to know via service functions. For debugging purposes you may need to see data "as they were", without being updated. You may need to intervene, to change certain settings in order to provoke desirable consequences. Of course, each such action is done exclusively at your own risk, but it may give you a chance, which otherwise would be lost. === A.01-1. BIOS data area === Just when computer is switched on its BIOS system begins to gather data and arrange its data area. In AT-compatible computers the BIOS data area occupies 100h bytes at 0040:0000h–0040:00FFh. The table below gives general disposition of selected data items with references to separate data tables for floppy drives (A.08-1), video system (A.10-6), keyboard (A.02-3) and other hardware (A.11-1). {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Port COM-1 base I/O address |- | 02h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Port COM-2 base I/O address |- | 08h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Port LPT-1 base I/O address |- | 0Eh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Auxiliary BIOS data segment (0000h if absent) |- | 10h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Installed hardware word (A.11-1) |- | 12h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Status of POST self-test |- | 13h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Base memory size in kilobytes |- | 17h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 39 | style="text-align: left;" | Keyboard's buffer and flags (A.02-3) |- | 3Eh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 7 | style="text-align: left;" | Floppy drive status registers (A.08-1) |- | 49h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 22 | style="text-align: left;" | Current video mode data (A.10-6) |- | 67h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Restart address after CPU reset <sup id="note-A.12-1-4-ref2">[[#note-A.12-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.12-1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 6Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Timer ticks, counted since midnight |- | 70h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Count of days, reset after INT 1A\AH=00h call |- | 71h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Bit 7 set after Ctrl-Break keystroke |- | 72h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Prescribed action of POST test <sup id="note-A.01-1-1-ref1">[[#note-A.01-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 74h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | HDD's last operation error code (A.06-01) |- | 75h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of hard disk drives |- | 77h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Hard disk drive I/O port address |- | 78h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Port LPT-1 timeout counter |- | 7Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Port COM-1 timeout counter |- | 7Dh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Port COM 2 timeout counter |- | 80h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Keyboard buffer's start and end offsets (A.02-3) |- | 84h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 8 | style="text-align: left;" | Video control registers (A.10-6) |- | 8Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 3 | style="text-align: left;" | HDD controller's status registers |- | 8Fh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 7 | style="text-align: left;" | Floppy drive controller's information (A.08-1) |- | 96h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Keyboard's status bytes (A.02-3) |- | 98h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to wait-complete flag (INT 15\AX=8300h) |- | 9Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Timer's wait count in microseconds |- | style="vertical-align: top;" | A0h | style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left;" | System timer's flags: :bit 0: a call for INT 15\AH=86h has occurred :bit 7: waiting time has elapsed |- | CEh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Count of days since last boot |- | F0h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 16 | style="text-align: left;" | Intra-application communication area |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.01-1-1">'''^''' <sup>[[#note-A.01-1-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.01-1-1-ref2|'''''b''''']]</sup> After a reboot, initiated by a jump far to F000:FFF0h address,<sup id="note-A.12-1-4-ref3">[[#note-A.12-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.12-1&#93;]]</sup> POST test performance depends on contents, preserved in 0040:0072h memory cell : ::0000h – "cold" boot (full POST with memory test) ::1234h – "warm" boot (bypass memory test)</li> <li id="note-A.01-1-2">Since data disposition in BIOS data area may depend on BIOS version, it is for you to decide, whether the data item at any particular offset is indeed the one you expect to find there.</li> </ol> === A.01-2 Selected entries in DOS' list-of-lists === List-of-lists is the basic data structure, created by IO.SYS loader at start of DOS loading procedure. A pointer to first byte of DOS's list-of-lists is returned by INT 21\AH=52h function (8.02-59). Fig.10 (in appendix A.03-3) illustrates process of access to list-of-lists. Selected information about data items in DOS's list-of-lists is given in the following table. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: right;" | – 02h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Segment address of the first MSB (A.12-7) |- | style="text-align: right;" | 00h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || Pointer to the first DPB block <sup id="note-A.01-2-1-ref">[[#note-A.01-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: right;" | 04h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || Pointer to SFT (System File Table, A.01-4) |- | style="text-align: right;" | 0Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || Pointer to active CON (Console) device driver |- | style="text-align: right;" | 10h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Maximum bytes per sector on any drive |- | style="text-align: right;" | 16h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || Pointer to first record in CDS structure (A.03-3) |- | style="text-align: right;" | 20h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Number of registered drives (block devices) |- | style="text-align: right;" | 21h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Number of records in CDS structure (A.03-3) |- | style="text-align: right;" | 22h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 18 || Actual NUL device driver header <sup id="note-A.01-2-2-ref">[[#note-A.01-2-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: right;" | 34h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Number of virtual drives created by JOIN.EXE |- | style="text-align: right;" | 37h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || Pointer to SETVER's table (0000:0000h if none) |- | style="text-align: right;" | 3Dh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || PSP segment of the last executed program |- | style="text-align: right;" | 43h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Boot drive (01h = A:, 03h = C:, and so on) |- | style="text-align: right;" | 45h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Extended memory size (in kilobytes). |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.01-2-1">[[#note-A.01-2-1-ref|'''^''']] DPB blocks (Drive Parameter Blocks, A.03-1) are arranged in a chain, so that a pointer to the next DPB is at offset 19h in the previous DPB.</li> <li id="note-A.01-2-2">[[#note-A.01-2-2-ref|'''^''']] NUL device driver header at offset 22h is the first in a chain of driver headers. First dword in each header is a pointer to the next header. Another way to obtain a pointer to the second driver header is via INT 2F\AX=122Ch. Last header in the chain begins with word FFFFh.</li> </ol> === A.01-3. Selected items in DOS's swappable data area === Current address and size of DOS's swappable data area (SDA) are returned by INT 21\AX=5D06h function (8.02-70). SDA stores continuously updated data, including main DOS's system stacks. These data reflect ever changing DOS's status at each current moment. Total size of swappable area may be as large as several kilobytes, it depends on size of the stacks. The SDA area is named "swappable", because its swapping is the main mechanism of obtaining DOS's re-enterability, i.e. opportunity to call DOS's functions by TSRs and handlers, which themselves may be called while execution of previous DOS's function hasn't been finished. If interrupt handler reveals that either critical error flag (at offset 00h in SDA) or InDOS flag (at offset 01h in SDA) have a non-zero value, hence a call for this handler has interrupted execution of a DOS's function, and then the next call for any DOS's function can change data in SDA area so that a return back to proper resumption of the interrupted program will become impossible. Though sometimes resumption of interrupted program is possible (8.02-28, 8.02-87), nevertheless the most radical solution is to save contents of SDA before any DOS's function is called, and to restore SDA state afterwards on basis of the saved data. It also should be taken into account that INT 21\AX=5D06h function itself (8.02-70) is non-reentrant; therefore a call for SDA's address should be performed beforehand, during handler's initialization, so that at the moment of interrupt the handler may read a prepared SDA address without a new call for INT 21\AX=5D06h. The table below shows selected data items inside swappable data area {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size !! Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Critical error flag ("ErrorMode") |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || InDOS flag (INT 21\AH=34h, 8.02-28) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 02h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Drive, caused critical error, or FFh if no error |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Locus of the last error (A.06-4) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Extended code of the last error (A.06-1) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 06h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Suggested action after the last error (A.06-3) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 07h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Class of the last error (A.06-2) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 08h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || ES:DI pointer at the moment of last error |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || Current address of DTA (8.02-16) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 10h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Current program's PSP segment (process identifier) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 14h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Errorlevel value from last program's termination |- | style="text-align: center;" | 16h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Current logical disk number |- | style="text-align: center;" | 17h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || The BREAK flag (3.01, 4.02, 8.02-25) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Ah | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Flag of FAIL response to INT 24 (8.02-84) call |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Bh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Allowable INT 24 actions (8.02-84) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 30h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Day of month |- | style="text-align: center;" | 31h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Month |- | style="text-align: center;" | 32h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Year, counted from 1980 |- | style="text-align: center;" | 34h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Number of days since 01-01-1980 |- | style="text-align: center;" | 36h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Day of week (0 = Sunday) |} === A.01-4 System File Table structure === Associations between access handles and the corresponding "opened" objects are stored by DOS in a chain-like queue of tables, named SFT (System File Tables). This name is not quite correct, because "opened" objects may be not files only, but also allotted XMS areas, driver's access channels and other objects, known as "character devices". A pointer to the first SFT is at offset 04h in the list-of-lists (A.01-2). Each SFT begins at offset 00h with a dword pointer to the next SFT, except the last one, which is marked with word FFFFh at offset 00h. Such structure can easily be traced through from the first SFT to the last. A word at offset 04h in each SFT declares number of entries in this particular SFT. Each entry corresponds to one "opened" object. Total number of SFT entries is limited by FILES specification in CONFIG.SYS file (4.12). Numbers of SFT entries, which are "opened" to a given program, are stored in JFT at offset 18h inside PSP (A.07-1), belonging to this program. The corresponding "opened" objects are addressed to with handles (INT 21\AH=3Dh, 8.02-33), which identify SFT entries according to disposition order of their numbers in JFT. The number of SFT entry, corresponding to a given handle, can be found also with INT 2F\AX=1220h (8.03-11). Then INT 2F\AX=1216h function (8.03-09), being given the SFT entry number, returns a pointer to this entry. Some information about active SFT entries and corresponding objects can be obtained via INT 21\AX=4400h function (8.02-40). The first three SFT entry numbers have fixed default associations: 00h – AUX channel (COM1 port), 01h – the CON device (console), 02h – the PRN device (LPT1 port). These 3 SFT entry numbers are automatically written into JFT table of each program. Order of their disposition in JFT (01h, 01h, 01h, 00h, 02h) defines associated handles: 0000h – for STDIN channel, 0001h – for STDOUT channel, 0002h – for STDERR channel, 0003h – for COM1 port, 0004h – for LPT1 port. SFT entries for handles 0005h and on are created on requests by INT 21\AH=3Dh (8.02-33) and by INT 21\AX=6C00h (8.02-78) functions. The first entry in each SFT table starts at offset 06h. As far as each entry has fixed length 3Bh, start points of the following entries can be easily calculated. The table below specifies selected data items inside each entry with offsets counted from start point of that entry. The first column "CDE" of the table corresponds to "character device" entries, the second column "OFE" – to entries, associated with ordinary files. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! CDE !! OFE !! Size ! style="text-align: left; | Description |- | 00h || 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | Number of handles to the object (FFFFh if none) |- | 02h || 02h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left; | Access and sharing conditions (A.09-4) |- | &nbsp; || 03h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left; | Flags <sup id="note-A.01-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.01-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || 04h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left; | File's attributes (A.09-2) |- | 05h || 05h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | Object's info word (A.04-2 for files, A.05-2 for others) |- | 07h || 07h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left; | Pointer to DPB (A.03-1) for files or pointer to driver's header (A.05-1) for other objects |- | &nbsp; || 0Bh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | Starting cluster number (for local files only) |- | &nbsp; || 0Dh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | File's packed time (INT 21\AX=5700h, 8.02-63) |- | &nbsp; || 0Fh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | File's packed date (INT 21\AX=5700h, 8.02-63) |- | &nbsp; || 11h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left; | File's size |- | &nbsp; || 15h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left; | File's pointer position (INT 21\AH=42h, 8.02-38) |- | &nbsp; || 19h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | Relative number of the last cluster accessed |- | 19h || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left; | Pointer to IFS redirector records |- | &nbsp; || 1Bh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left; | Number of directory sector containing file's entry |- | &nbsp; || 1Fh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: left; | Number of file's entry in directory sector |- | 20h || 20h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 11 | style="text-align: left; | Name in FCB-format (A.09-5) of file or other object |- | &nbsp; || 31h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | Identifier (PSP segment) of file's owner process |- | &nbsp; || 35h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: left; | Absolute number of the last accessed cluster |- | 37h || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | style="text-align: left; | Pointer to IFS-driver or 0000:0000h for ordinary files |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.01-4-1">[[#note-A.01-4-1-ref|'''^''']] Flags byte at 03h includes all BH register settings, specified for INT 21\AX=6C00h function (8.02-78). Besides this, set state of bit 7 in flags byte marks files opened by means of FCB.</li> </ol> == A.02 Keyboard codes and national adaptation == === A.02-1 Key codes === User's control over PC via keyboard must be enabled always, even when operating system isn't loaded yet. Therefore motherboard's hardware and BIOS system are responsible for compatibility with different types of keyboards. Just when PC is switched on, its BIOS system loads INT 09 and INT 16 handlers, providing various keyboard functions. Keyboard signals are received and transformed by keyboard controller. It responds to each change of key's state (press or release) with preparing code for port 60h and sending a request via IRQ 01 interrupt request line. Request invokes the INT 09 handler. Some keys induce keyboard controller to send a succession of codes, so that INT 09 handler is invoked several times. The code, read by INT 09 handler from port 60h, is most often the scan code of some key, but it may be a service code. Codes from E0h to FFh, and also 00h and AAh are interpreted as service codes. Service codes, charged with a special keystroke identification mission, are known as prefixes : ::E0h – prefix for discrimination between those keys, which for the sake of compatibility with obsolete 84-key keyboards have been given identical scan codes. ::E1h – prefix for keys having a two byte scan code. In ordinary keyboards there is only one such key: Pause/Break.<sup id="note-A.02-1-6-ref1">[[#note-A.02-1-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> Reading of a prefix from port 60h makes INT 09 handler prepared to a specific interpretation of that scan code, which will be received by the next call for INT 09. In the second column (INT 09) of the table below hexadecimal scan codes of keystrokes are shown, read by INT 09 handler from port 60h. Key release codes are not shown in the table, because release codes can be easily derived from keystroke codes by making its 7th bit set. For example, key "A" sends keystroke (press) code 1Eh, hence its release code is 9Eh. But those scan codes, which are sent preceded by a prefix either E0h or E1h, are shown in the second table's column together with this prefix. Naturally, release codes of the same keys are preceded by the same prefix. "Raw" scan code, read from port 60h, is translated by INT 09 and INT 16 handlers into a new pair — a unified scan code and ASCII value, corresponding to the pressed (or released) key. Just this data pair will be presented to program, sending a request for keyboard input via INT 16. Unified scan-code most often is equal to press scan code, but may be altered, if at the same time a "functional" key is kept pressed: SHIFT, CTRL, or ALT. Each "functional" key has its own scan code (in second column of the table below). Scan codes of "functional" keys are taken into account by INT 09 handler, but are not stored in keyboard buffer. States of "functional" keys are expressed otherwise: via a status word, returned by INT 16\AH=12 function (8.01-85).The following table represents keys of the most widely used 104-key "enhanced" keyboard. The word "num" before a key name in the first table's column denotes keys of a numeric keypad at the right side of keyboard. The shown codes for such keys correspond to turned OFF state of NUMLOCK switch.<sup id="note-A.02-1-6-ref2">[[#note-A.02-1-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> Data order is defined by key's scan codes values in the second table's column. Hexadecimal numbers in columns 3–6 of the table below represent the data, returned in AX register by INT 16\AH=10h function (8.01-83). Left two digits in each number define unified scan-code, returned in AH register, and the right two digits — ASCII code of corresponding character, returned in AL register. Data in the 3rd column (AX) correspond to keystrokes, not accompanied by keeping pressed any "functional" key. Data in the 4th column (SHIFT) correspond to the case when SHIFT key is kept pressed, data in the 5th column (CTRL) — to the case of keeping pressed the CTRL key, data in the 6th column (ALT) — to the case of keeping pressed the ALT key. Blank space in place of any particular value means that corresponding key or key combination is sensed by BIOS, but isn't reported via INT 16 handler. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! colspan=2 | Keys ! style="text-align: center;" | INT09 ! style="text-align: center;" | AX !! SHIFT !! CTRL ! style="text-align: center;" | ALT !! Comments |- | colspan=2 | Esc | style="text-align: center;" | 01 || 011B | style="text-align: center;" | 011B || 011B || 0100 || <sup id="note-A.02-1-1-ref">[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 1 || ! | style="text-align: center;" | 02 || 0231 | style="text-align: center;" | 0221 || &nbsp; || 7800 |- | 2 || @ | style="text-align: center;" | 03 || 0332 | style="text-align: center;" | 0340 || 0300 || 7900 |- | 3 || # | style="text-align: center;" | 04 || 0433 | style="text-align: center;" | 0423 || &nbsp; || 7A00 |- | 4 || $ | style="text-align: center;" | 05 || 0534 | style="text-align: center;" | 0524 || &nbsp; || 7B00 |- | 5 || % | style="text-align: center;" | 06 || 0635 | style="text-align: center;" | 0625 || &nbsp; || 7C00 |- | 6 || ^ | style="text-align: center;" | 07 || 0736 | style="text-align: center;" | 075E || 071E || 7D00 |- | 7 || & | style="text-align: center;" | 08 || 0837 | style="text-align: center;" | 0826 || &nbsp; || 7E00 |- | 8 || * | style="text-align: center;" | 09 || 0938 | style="text-align: center;" | 092A || &nbsp; || 7F00 |- | 9 || ( | style="text-align: center;" | 0A || 0A39 | style="text-align: center;" | 0A28 || &nbsp; || 8000 |- | 0 || ) | style="text-align: center;" | 0B || 0B30 | style="text-align: center;" | 0B29 || &nbsp; || 8100 |- | – || _ | style="text-align: center;" | 0C || 0C2D | style="text-align: center;" | 0C5F || 0C1F || 8200 |- | = || + | style="text-align: center;" | 0D || 0D3D | style="text-align: center;" | 0D2B || &nbsp; || 8300 |- | colspan=2 | Backspace | style="text-align: center;" | 0E || 0E08 | style="text-align: center;" | 0E08 || 0E7F || 0E00 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | Tab | style="text-align: center;" | 0F || 0F09 | style="text-align: center;" | 0F00 || 9400 || A500 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.02-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | Q | style="text-align: center;" | 10 || 1071 | style="text-align: center;" | 1051 || 1011 || 1000 |- | colspan=2 | W | style="text-align: center;" | 11 || 1177 | style="text-align: center;" | 1157 || 1117 || 1100 |- | colspan=2 | E | style="text-align: center;" | 12 || 1265 | style="text-align: center;" | 1245 || 1205 || 1200 |- | colspan=2 | R | style="text-align: center;" | 13 || 1372 | style="text-align: center;" | 1352 || 1312 || 1300 |- | colspan=2 | T | style="text-align: center;" | 14 || 1474 | style="text-align: center;" | 1454 || 1414 || 1400 |- | colspan=2 | Y | style="text-align: center;" | 15 || 1579 | style="text-align: center;" | 1559 || 1519 || 1500 |- | colspan=2 | U | style="text-align: center;" | 16 || 1675 | style="text-align: center;" | 1655 || 1615 || 1600 |- | colspan=2 | I | style="text-align: center;" | 17 || 1769 | style="text-align: center;" | 1749 || 1709 || 1700 |- | colspan=2 | O | style="text-align: center;" | 18 || 186F | style="text-align: center;" | 184F || 180F || 1800 |- | colspan=2 | P | style="text-align: center;" | 19 || 1970 | style="text-align: center;" | 1950 || 1910 || 1900 |- | [ || { | style="text-align: center;" | 1A || 1A5B | style="text-align: center;" | 1A7B || 1A1B || 1A00 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | ] || } | style="text-align: center;" | 1B || 1B5D | style="text-align: center;" | 1B7D || 1B1D || 1B00 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | Enter | style="text-align: center;" | 1C || 1C0D | style="text-align: center;" | 1C0D || 1C0A || 1C00 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | num Enter | style="text-align: center;" | E0 1C || E00D | style="text-align: center;" | E00D || E00A || A600 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.02-1-3-ref">[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | Left Ctrl | style="text-align: center;" | 1D || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.02-1-4-ref">[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | Right Ctrl | style="text-align: center;" | E0 1D || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | A | style="text-align: center;" | 1E || 1E61 | style="text-align: center;" | 1E41 || 1E01 || 1E00 |- | colspan=2 | S | style="text-align: center;" | 1F || 1F73 | style="text-align: center;" | 1F53 || 1F13 || 1F00 |- | colspan=2 | D | style="text-align: center;" | 20 || 2064 | style="text-align: center;" | 2044 || 2004 || 2000 |- | colspan=2 | F | style="text-align: center;" | 21 || 2166 | style="text-align: center;" | 2146 || 2106 || 2100 |- | colspan=2 | G | style="text-align: center;" | 22 || 2267 | style="text-align: center;" | 2247 || 2207 || 2200 |- | colspan=2 | H | style="text-align: center;" | 23 || 2368 | style="text-align: center;" | 2348 || 2308 || 2300 |- | colspan=2 | J | style="text-align: center;" | 24 || 246A | style="text-align: center;" | 244A || 240A || 2400 |- | colspan=2 | K | style="text-align: center;" | 25 || 256B | style="text-align: center;" | 254B || 250B || 2500 |- | colspan=2 | L | style="text-align: center;" | 26 || 266C | style="text-align: center;" | 264C || 260C || 2600 |- | ; || : | style="text-align: center;" | 27 || 273B | style="text-align: center;" | 273A || &nbsp; || 2700 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | ' || " | style="text-align: center;" | 28 || 2827 | style="text-align: center;" | 2822 || &nbsp; || 2800 || <sup>[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | ` || ~ | style="text-align: center;" | 29 || 2960 | style="text-align: center;" | 297E || &nbsp; || 2900 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Left Shift | style="text-align: center;" | 2A || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | SysRq | style="text-align: center;" | E0 2A || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 7200 || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.02-1-5-ref">[[#note-A.02-1-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | \ || <nowiki>|</nowiki> | style="text-align: center;" | 2B || 2B5C | style="text-align: center;" | 2B7C || 2B1C || 2B00 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Z | style="text-align: center;" | 2C || 2C7A | style="text-align: center;" | 2C5A || 2C1A || 2C00 |- | colspan=2 | X | style="text-align: center;" | 2D || 2D78 | style="text-align: center;" | 2D58 || 2D18 || 2D00 |- | colspan=2 | C | style="text-align: center;" | 2E || 2E63 | style="text-align: center;" | 2E43 || 2E03 || 2E00 |- | colspan=2 | V | style="text-align: center;" | 2F || 2F76 | style="text-align: center;" | 2F56 || 2F16 || 2F00 |- | colspan=2 | B | style="text-align: center;" | 30 || 3062 | style="text-align: center;" | 3042 || 3002 || 3000 |- | colspan=2 | N | style="text-align: center;" | 31 || 316E | style="text-align: center;" | 314E || 310E || 3100 |- | colspan=2 | M | style="text-align: center;" | 32 || 326D | style="text-align: center;" | 324D || 320D || 3200 |- | , || < | style="text-align: center;" | 33 || 332C | style="text-align: center;" | 333C || &nbsp; || 3300 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | . || > | style="text-align: center;" | 34 || 342E | style="text-align: center;" | 343E || &nbsp; || 3400 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | / || ? | style="text-align: center;" | 35 || 352F | style="text-align: center;" | 353F || &nbsp; || 3500 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num / | style="text-align: center;" | E0 35 || E02F | style="text-align: center;" | E02F || 9500 || A400 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Right Shift | style="text-align: center;" | 36 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num * | style="text-align: center;" | 37 || 372A | style="text-align: center;" | 372A || 9600 || 3700 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Left Alt | style="text-align: center;" | 38 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Right Alt | style="text-align: center;" | E0 38 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Spacebar | style="text-align: center;" | 39 || 3920 | style="text-align: center;" | 3920 || 3920 || 3920 |- | colspan=2 | Caps Lock | style="text-align: center;" | 3A || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | F1 | style="text-align: center;" | 3B || 3B00 | style="text-align: center;" | 5400 || 5E00 || 6800 |- | colspan=2 | F2 | style="text-align: center;" | 3C || 3C00 | style="text-align: center;" | 5500 || 5F00 || 6900 |- | colspan=2 | F3 | style="text-align: center;" | 3D || 3D00 | style="text-align: center;" | 5600 || 6000 || 6A00 |- | colspan=2 | F4 | style="text-align: center;" | 3E || 3E00 | style="text-align: center;" | 5700 || 6100 || 6B00 |- | colspan=2 | F5 | style="text-align: center;" | 3F || 3F00 | style="text-align: center;" | 5800 || 6200 || 6C00 |- | colspan=2 | F6 | style="text-align: center;" | 40 || 4000 | style="text-align: center;" | 5900 || 6300 || 6D00 |- | colspan=2 | F7 | style="text-align: center;" | 41 || 4100 | style="text-align: center;" | 5A00 || 6400 || 6E00 |- | colspan=2 | F8 | style="text-align: center;" | 42 || 4200 | style="text-align: center;" | 5B00 || 6500 || 6F00 |- | colspan=2 | F9 | style="text-align: center;" | 43 || 4300 | style="text-align: center;" | 5C00 || 6600 || 7000 |- | colspan=2 | F10 | style="text-align: center;" | 44 || 4400 | style="text-align: center;" | 5D00 || 6700 || 7100 |- | colspan=2 | NumLock | style="text-align: center;" | 45 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Pause || E1 1D 45 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.02-1-6-ref3">[[#note-A.02-1-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | ScrollLock | style="text-align: center;" | 46 || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 7 | style="text-align: center;" | 47 || 4700 | style="text-align: center;" | 4737 || 7700 || 0007 || <sup id="note-A.02-1-7-ref">[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | Home | style="text-align: center;" | E0 47 || 47E0 | style="text-align: center;" | 47E0 || 77E0 || 9700 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 8 | style="text-align: center;" | 48 || 4800 | style="text-align: center;" | 4838 || 8D00 || 0008 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Arrow Up | style="text-align: center;" | E0 48 || 48E0 | style="text-align: center;" | 48E0 || 8DE0 || 9800 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 9 | style="text-align: center;" | 49 || 4900 | style="text-align: center;" | 4939 || 8400 || 0009 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | PgUp | style="text-align: center;" | E0 49 || 49E0 | style="text-align: center;" | 49E0 || 84E0 || 9900 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num &minus; | style="text-align: center;" | 4A || 4A2D | style="text-align: center;" | 4A2D || 8E00 || 4A00 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 4 | style="text-align: center;" | 4B || 4B00 | style="text-align: center;" | 4B34 || 7300 || 0004 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | LeftArrow | style="text-align: center;" | E0 4B || 4BE0 | style="text-align: center;" | 4BE0 || 73E0 || 9B00 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 5 | style="text-align: center;" | 4C || 4C00 | style="text-align: center;" | 4C35 || 8F00 || 0005 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 6 | style="text-align: center;" | 4D || 4D00 | style="text-align: center;" | 4D36 || 7400 || 0006 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | RightArrow | style="text-align: center;" | E0 4D || 4DE0 | style="text-align: center;" | 4DE0 || 74E0 || 9D00 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num + | style="text-align: center;" | 4E || 4E2B | style="text-align: center;" | 4E2B || 9000 || 4E00 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 1 | style="text-align: center;" | 4F || 4F00 | style="text-align: center;" | 4F31 || 7500 || 0001 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | End | style="text-align: center;" | E0 4F || 4FE0 | style="text-align: center;" | 4FE0 || 75E0 || 9F00 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 2 | style="text-align: center;" | 50 || 5000 | style="text-align: center;" | 5032 || 9100 || 0002 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | ArrowDown | style="text-align: center;" | E0 50 || 50E0 | style="text-align: center;" | 50E0 || 91E0 || A000 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 3 | style="text-align: center;" | 51 || 5100 | style="text-align: center;" | 5133 || 7600 || 0003 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | PgDn | style="text-align: center;" | E0 51 || 51E0 | style="text-align: center;" | 51E0 || 76E0 || A100 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num 0 | style="text-align: center;" | 52 || 5200 | style="text-align: center;" | 5230 || 9200 || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Ins | style="text-align: center;" | E0 52 || 52E0 | style="text-align: center;" | 52E0 || 92E0 || A200 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | num . | style="text-align: center;" | 53 || 5300 | style="text-align: center;" | 532E || 9300 || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Del | style="text-align: center;" | E0 53 || 53E0 | style="text-align: center;" | 53E0 || 93E0 || A300 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.02-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | F11 | style="text-align: center;" | 57 || 8500 | style="text-align: center;" | 8700 || 8900 || 8B00 || <sup id="note-A.02-1-8-ref">[[#note-A.02-1-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]</sup> |- | colspan=2 | F12 | style="text-align: center;" | 58 || 8600 | style="text-align: center;" | 8800 || 8A00 || 8C00 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | LeftWin | style="text-align: center;" | E0 5B || B6E0 | style="text-align: center;" | C2E0 || CEE0 || DAE0 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | RightWin | style="text-align: center;" | E0 5C || B7E0 | style="text-align: center;" | C3E0 || CFE0 || DBE0 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]} |- | colspan=2 | Menu | style="text-align: center;" | E0 5D || B8E0 | style="text-align: center;" | C4E0 || D0E0 || DCE0 || ^{[[#note-A.02-1-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.02-1-1">[[#note-A.02-1-1-ref|'''^''']] The INT16\AH=00h function doesn't respond to this keystroke when "functional" key ALT is kept pressed.</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-2">[[#note-A.02-1-2-ref|'''^''']] The INT16\AH=00h function doesn't respond to this keystroke when "functional" key CTRL is kept pressed.</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-3">[[#note-A.02-1-3-ref|'''^''']] The INT16\AH=00h function returns 00h instead of ASCII code E0h, except for two keystrokes : after "num /" it returns ASCII code 35h, after "num Enter" keystroke it returns ASCII code 1Ch.</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-4">[[#note-A.02-1-4-ref|'''^''']] Code of this key is not written into keyboard buffer, but it does affect translation of other key's codes by INT 09 handler.</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-5">[[#note-A.02-1-5-ref|'''^''']] Keyboard controller responds to SysRq keystroke with "E0 2A E0 37" codes succession, and to SysRq key release — with inverse succession "E0 B7 E0 AA". Some INT 16 handlers may return other response to CTRL-SysRq key combination.</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-6">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.02-1-6-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.02-1-6-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.02-1-6-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[../Configuration commands#note-4.23-1|'''''d''''']]} Release of Pause/Break key is not registered separately. After each Pause/Break keystroke its press code is immediately followed by release code, forming a succession "E1 1D 45 E1 9D C5". Having received such succession of codes, the INT 09 handler resets keyboard buffer and calls for INT 1B (8.01-95).</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-7">[[#note-A.02-1-7-ref|'''^''']] The shown codes for this key correspond to turned OFF state of Numlock switch. When NumLock switch is turned ON, codes shown in 3rd and in 4th columns of the table get exchanged.</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-8">[[#note-A.02-1-8-ref|'''^''']] The INT 16\AH=00h function gives no response to these keys.</li> <li id="note-A.02-1-9">Several models of keyboards have three auxiliary keys for power control : "Power", "Sleep" and "Wake Up". Corresponding scan codes for these keys are E0 5E, E0 5F, E0 63.</li> </ol> === A.02-2 Keyboard layouts and national codepages === The following table comprises data for MS-DOS&nbsp;7 national adaptation by those means, which are supplied in Microsoft's Windows&nbsp;95/98 release. These means include data file COUNTRY.SYS, three files with keyboard layouts (KEYBOARD.SYS, KEYBRD2.SYS and KEYBRD3.SYS), and four files with fonts for different codepages (EGA.CPI, EGA2.CPI, EGA3.CPI and ISO.CPI). The first column (Abbr) in this table contains literal country codes, the third column (ID) – keyboard layout identifiers. Both these items are needed for KEYB.COM driver's (5.02-04) command line composition. Layout identifier is necessary for those countries only, where more than one keyboard's layout is used, for other countries it may be omitted. The 4th column (Keyb) of the table specifies which file with keyboard layout should be loaded : digit 1 corresponds to KEYBOARD.SYS, digit 2 – to KEYBRD2.SYS, digit 3 – to KEYBRD3.SYS, word "Any" – to either of these three files. The 5th column (Code) of the table shows numeric country code, used for loading COUNTRY.SYS data file (5.02-01) with COUNTRY command (4.05). Last 7th column of the table shows codepages used in various countries. Number of a codepage is needed for MORE.COM utility (6.18), which has to select one font from a group of fonts in each *.CPI file (example in 9.01-02). The ISO.CPI file supplies fonts, recommended by International Standards Organization. Proprietary Microsoft's fonts are in EGA*.CPI files, about 5 fonts in each. Therefore 6th table's column (Ega*) specifies which one of EGA*.CPI files should be loaded: digit 1 corresponds to file EGA.SYS, digit 2 – to EGA2.CPI, digit 3 – to EGA3.CPI, word "Any" – to either of these files. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Abbr !! Country !! ID !! Keyb !! Code !! Ega* !! Codepage |- | style="text-align: center;" | GR || Austria || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 043 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | BE || Belgium || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,2 | style="text-align: center;" | 032 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | BG || Bulgaria || 442 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: center;" | 359 || 3 || CP855 |- | style="text-align: center;" | BR || Brazil || 274, 275 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,2 | style="text-align: center;" | 055 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | CF || Canada French || 058 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,2 | style="text-align: center;" | 002 || 1 || CP863 |- | style="text-align: center;" | CZ || Czech Republic || 243 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 042 || Any || CP852 |- | style="text-align: center;" | DK || Denmark || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,3 | style="text-align: center;" | 045 || 1 || CP865 |- | style="text-align: center;" | SU || Finland || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 358 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | FR || France || 120, 189 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,3 | style="text-align: center;" | 033 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | GR || Germany || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 049 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | GK || Greece || 319 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: center;" | 030 || 2 || CP737, 869 |- | style="text-align: center;" | HU || Hungary || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 036 || Any || CP852 |- | style="text-align: center;" | IS || Iceland || 161 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: center;" | 354 || 2 || CP861 |- | style="text-align: center;" | IT || Italy || 141,142 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 039 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | LA || Latin America || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: center;" | 003 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | NL || Netherlands || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,3 | style="text-align: center;" | 031 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | NO || Norway || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,2 | style="text-align: center;" | 047 || 1 || CP865 |- | style="text-align: center;" | PL || Poland || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 048 || Any || CP852 |- | style="text-align: center;" | PO || Portugal || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1 | style="text-align: center;" | 351 || 1 || CP860 |- | style="text-align: center;" | RO || Romania || 333 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: center;" | 040 || Any || CP852 |- | style="text-align: center;" | RU || Russia || 441 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 2,3 | style="text-align: center;" | 007 || 3 || CP866 |- | style="text-align: center;" | SL || Slovakia || 245 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 421 || Any || CP852 |- | style="text-align: center;" | SP || Spain || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,3 | style="text-align: center;" | 034 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | SV || Sweden || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 046 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | SF || Switzerland French || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 1,3 | style="text-align: center;" | 041 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | TR || Turkey || 440, 179 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: center;" | 090 || 2 || CP857 |- | style="text-align: center;" | UK || Britain + Ireland || 166, 168 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 044 || Any || CP850 |- | style="text-align: center;" | US || USA + Australia || | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 001 || 1,3 || CP437 |- | style="text-align: center;" | YC || Yugoslavia Cyrillic || 118 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | 2 | style="text-align: center;" | 038 || 3 || CP855 |- | style="text-align: center;" | YU || Yugoslavia Latin || 234 | style="padding-left: 0.5em;" | Any | style="text-align: center;" | 038 || Any || CP852 |} Note 1: KEYBOARD.SYS is the only file, which supports typewriter mode of keyboard layout. Note 2: Microsoft's files for national adaptation are not compatible with KEYRUS.COM driver (5.02-05). The latter uses internal code tables and keyboard layouts. Note 3: fonts for some other countries (China, Israel, Japan, etc.) are supplied exclusively with special national versions of Microsoft's operating systems. === A.02-3 Keyboard data fields in BIOS data area === The following table shows disposition of keyboard data in BIOS data area. All offsets are given relative to segment address 0040h, where BIOS data area starts. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 17h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Flags, returned in AX by INT 16\AH=12h (8.01-85) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 19h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Character input via ALT followed by ASCII code |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Ah | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Pointer to the next character in keyboard buffer |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Pointer to the first free cell in keyboard buffer |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Eh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 32 | colspan=2 | Keyboard's circular buffer |- | style="text-align: center;" | 71h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 | Flag: || bit 7 set if Ctrl-Break has been pressed |- | style="text-align: center;" | 80h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Keyboard buffer's start offset (normally 1Eh) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 82h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Keyboard buffer's END+1 offset (normally 3Eh) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 96h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Flags: || bit 0 set: last code read was E1h prefix |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 1 set: last code read was E0h prefix |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 2 set: right CTRL key has been pressed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 3 set: right ALT key has been pressed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 4 set: "enhanced" keyboard is installed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 6 set: 1st byte is received of 2-byte scan-code |- | style="text-align: center;" | 97h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Status: || bit 0 set: the Scroll Lock LED is switched ON |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 1 set: the Num Lock LED is switched ON |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 2 set: the Caps Lock LED is switched ON |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 7 set: keyboard has sent error flag |} Note 1: presented data disposition may depend on BIOS version (A.01-1). === A.02-4 National adaptation parameters block === Data block with currently active national adaptation parameters is returned by INT 21\AX=6501h function (8.02-74). Data block of the same structure is accepted by INT 21\AX=7002h function (note 3 to 8.02-74), defining national adaptation for MS-DOS&nbsp;7. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || = 01h on return <sup id="note-A.02-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.02-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Table size on return ^{[[#note-A.02-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Country code in hexadecimal form (A.02-2) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 05h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Hexadecimal codepage number (A.02-2) |- | style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;" | 07h | style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Date format: := 0000h – American (mm dd yy) := 0001h – European (dd mm yy) := 0002h – Japanese (yy mm dd) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 09h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 5 || ASCII currency name, ending with 00h byte |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Eh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Thousands separator for numbers |- | style="text-align: center;" | 10h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || Integer and fractional parts separator |- | style="text-align: center;" | 12h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || ASCII date separator character |- | style="text-align: center;" | 14h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || ASCII time separator character |- | style="text-align: center;" | 16h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || bit 0 set: currency symbol follows value (else precedes) |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 1 set: space between value and currency symbol |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 2 set: currency symbol replaces decimal point |- | style="text-align: center;" | 17h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || Number of digits after decimal point in currency |- | style="text-align: center;" | 18h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 1 || bit 1 set: 24-hour clock, else 12-hour clock |- | style="text-align: center;" | 19h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 4 || Entrance address of case map routine <sup id="note-A.02-4-2-ref">[[#note-A.02-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Dh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:0.5em;" | 2 || ASCII data-list separator character |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.02-4-1">[[#note-A.02-4-1-ref|'''^''']] When data block is sent to INT 21\AX=7002h function, then this item is ignored.</li> <li id="note-A.02-4-2">[[#note-A.02-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Case map routine translates national characters (with ASCII codes larger than 80h) into upper case and back. The case map routine should be called for with CALL FAR command (7.03-08). AL register is used for both sending ASCII code of the character to be translated and for returning the result back.</li> </ol> === A.02-5 Country-dependent restrictions for filenames === A pointer to this table is returned by INT 21\AX=6505h function (note 1 to 8.02-74). {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Table's size (this word shouldn't be counted) |- | 03h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Lowest permissible character value for filenames |- | 04h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Highest permissible character value for filenames |- | 06h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | First character's value of prohibited range |- | 07h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Last character's value of prohibited range |- | 09h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Number ("N") of filenames terminating codes |- | 0Ah || N | style="text-align: left;" | ASCII codes used to terminate filenames |} === A.02-6 Information about available code pages === The following table shows structure of DISPLAY.SYS (5.02-02) driver's data block ; a pointer to this block is returned by INT 2F\AX=AD03h function (8.03-27). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size !! Description |- | 00h || 2 || number M of codepages, specified by configuration |- | 04h || 2 || number N of codepages, loaded by default |- | 06h || 2N || identifiers of codepages, loaded by default |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 06h+2N || 2M || identifiers of codepages, specified by configuration (or = FFFFh if configuration isn't prepared yet) |} === A.02-7 Definition of "hot" keys in AMIS specification === Common practice for TSR programs is assignment of functions to predetermined "hot" keys irrespective to which keys have been charged yet with other missions by previously loaded TSR programs. The least harmful outcome of this practice is a loss of opportunities to invoke functions of previously loaded TSR programs and drivers. A real chance to prevent interception of "hot" key functions is suggested by AMIS specification (A.07-6). According to AMIS specification, resident modules must respond to calls for multiplex interrupt INT 2D with operation code AL = 05h, returning in DX:BX registers a pointer to a list of their active "hot" keys. Any program, which intends to arrange its own "hot" keys, should be given access to data about previous "hot" key assignments. The first byte, at offset 00h from the start of "hot" keys list, informs about "hot" calls interception method.<sup id="note-A.02-7-1-ref">[[#note-A.02-7-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> The second byte at offset 01h is a number of "hot" keys, kept active by responding resident module. This number also defines total length of the returned list, because after the second byte, starting at offset 02h, a group of "hot" key descriptors follows, each 6 bytes long. Structure of these descriptors is shown in table below. Offsets in the table are counted from start of each descriptor. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size !! Description !! Comments |- | 00h || 1 || Scan-code of the "hot" key || <sup id="note-A.02-7-2-ref">[[#note-A.02-7-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 01h || 2 || Required shift states || <sup id="note-A.02-7-3-ref">[[#note-A.02-7-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 03h || 2 || Disallowed shift states || <sup id="note-A.02-7-4-ref">[[#note-A.02-7-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 05h || 1 || Auxiliary key's flags || <sup id="note-A.02-7-5-ref">[[#note-A.02-7-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.02-7-1">[[#note-A.02-7-1-ref|'''^''']] Byte at offset 00h in "hot" keys list informs about "hot" calls interception method. Bit 7 in this byte must be cleared; other bits have the following meaning : ::bit 0 set : interception before INT 09 handler ::bit 1 set : interception after INT 09 handler ::bit 2 set : interception before INT 15\AH=4Fh ::bit 3 set : interception after INT 15\AH=4Fh ::bit 4 set : interception of INT 16\AH=00h,01h,02h calls ::bit 5 set : interception of INT 16\AH=10h,11h,12h calls ::bit 6 set : interception of INT 16\AH=20h,21h,22h calls.</li> <li id="note-A.02-7-2">[[#note-A.02-7-2-ref|'''^''']] If the most significant bit of scan-code is clear, hence actuation is registered when the key is pressed; if the most significant bit of scan code is set, hence actuation is registered when the key is released. If actuation is caused exclusively by a specific states combination of "functional" keys, then 00h or 80h values should be specified instead of scan code.</li> <li id="note-A.02-7-3">[[#note-A.02-7-3-ref|'''^''']] A word of required shift states is almost identical to the word of keyboard flags, returned by INT 16\AH=12h function (8.01-85). The only difference is the meaning of bit 7: in a word of required shift states it corresponds to keeping pressed either (left or right) SHIFT key. Set state of any bit in a word of required shift states specifies a necessary condition for "hot" key actuation.</li> <li id="note-A.02-7-4">[[#note-A.02-7-4-ref|'''^''']] Bits in a word of disallowed shift states have the same meaning, as in a word of required shift states,^{[[#note-A.02-7-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} but their set state expresses the opposite condition : prevention of "hot" key actuation. Combination of required and disallowed conditions helps to decrease probability of false actuations.</li> <li id="note-A.02-7-5">[[#note-A.02-7-5-ref|'''^''']] The last byte in each "hot" key descriptor is a byte of auxiliary flags. Bits 6 and 7 in this byte must be cleared; states of other bits have the following meaning : ::bit 0 set: – actuation before module's execution ::bit 1 set: – actuation after module's execution ::bit 2 set: – monitoring interception is allowed ::bit 3 set: – actuation is blocked by other keys ::bit 4 set: – role of this "hot" key is redefined ::bit 5 set: – actuation depends on execution conditions.</li> </ol> === A.02-8. ASCII service marks and commands === Positions 0–31 in American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) are devoted to service marks and commands. All DOS's codepages have inherited these 32 service codes. Under MS-DOS&nbsp;7 most part of these service codes is ignored, but some are executed as commands. Some service codes can be entered by key combinations, described in article 1.05. Another way to input service codes is by their decimal ASCII number (0–31) with keys in numeric keypad while the ALT key is kept pressed. First response to entered service code may be got from input module of the CON (console) device driver. Further response may be given by command interpreter. When a service code is sent to output, BIOS system enables to execute it as a command (8.01-21, 8.01-33) or to avoid its execution (8.01-17) as well. By default the output module of the CON (console) device driver doesn't attempt to avoid execution of some service codes. Such behavior may be altered by sending a parameters string (8.02-41) to the CON device driver, but there is no reason to do this because DOS programs are allowed to output data directly via desirable BIOS function(s). Sometimes ASCII service codes may be useful, but it must be known beforehand, where and how each particular service code will be interpreted. Therefore the following table shows a list of those service codes, which are active under MS-DOS&nbsp;7, with description of actions, associated with these codes. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Code !! Number ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 0 || End marker of interpreted lines, including lines with names and with environmental variable's values. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 3 || "End of Text" marker, terminates execution of command files (example in article 3.21). |- | style="text-align: center;" | 07h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 7 || "Beep" code. Being sent to output, it causes a short sound signal. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 08h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 8 || Shifts cursor one character cell leftwards. Being sent via CON device driver, erases the last character. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 09h | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 9 || Horizontal tabulation code. Being sent to display, it is automatically expanded into 8 spaces. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ah | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 10 || "Line feed" code, causes transition to the next line without cursor's return to start of line.<sup id="note-A.02-8-1-ref">[[#note-A.02-8-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ch | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 12 || Command "Eject Sheet" for printers. Both BIOS and CON device driver ignore this command. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Dh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 13 || "Carriage Return" code, returns cursor to start of a line. Also marks end of line in DTA region (8.02-16). |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Ah | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 26 || Optional end mark for textual files; at this mark copying of a file may be disrupted (3.06). |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Bh | style="text-align:right; padding-right:1.5em;" | 27 || "Escape" code is used as marker for commands, addressed to ANSI.SYS driver (if installed). |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.02-8-1">[[#note-A.02-8-1-ref|'''^''']] Service codes 0Dh 0Ah together are used as end-of-line marker in all textual files typed under DOS.</li> <li id="note-A.02-8-2">There is a non-zero probability to encounter resident modules, responding to some service codes, which are not shown here and normally are ignored under DOS.</li> </ol> == A.03 Disks access databases == === A.03-1. Structure of Drive Parameters Blocks (DPB) === DOS stores disk access parameters in DPB blocks – one per each available logical disk of any kind, and in one more copy of such block for default (current) drive. The INT 21\AX=7302h function (8.02-79) enables to copy any DPB block into a prepared buffer. Pointers to DPB blocks are returned by INT 21\AH=1Fh and by INT 21\AH=32h functions (8.02-24), documented in previous versions of DOS. In fig.8 below the whole access path to disk's C: DPB block is shown, including a call for INT 21\AH=32h function, reading block's address 00C9:13C0h from DS:BX registers and display of DPB block's dump. In the displayed dump at offset 19h there is address 00C9:13FDh of the next DPB block, related to next logical disk D:. A dump of DPB block for disk D: is also shown in fig.8. [[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot8.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 8]] The mentioned legal functions of access to DPB blocks automatically attempt to read the requested disk in order to update data in DPB block. This makes program's execution slower and sometimes can't be applied to removable media, which may be absent in the drive at that moment. Alternative is to read DPB block's address from a cell at offset 45h in CDS entry (A.03-3) of the same disk. All DPB blocks have the same structure as that shown below. Bytes up to offset 20h are the same as in previous DOS versions, but bytes beyond offset 20h are specific for extended DPB blocks in MS-DOS&nbsp;7. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Logical disk number (00h = A:, 02h = C:, and so on) |- | 01h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Disk's number in driver's list of disks |- | 02h || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Sector size (in bytes) |- | 04h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Highest sector number in a cluster |- | 05h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Shift count to convert clusters into sectors |- | 06h || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of reserved sectors (preceding FAT) |- | 08h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of FAT tables |- | 09h || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Maximum number of root directory entries |- | 0Bh || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of first sector containing user data |- | 0Dh || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Highest cluster number (number of clusters + 1) |- | 0Fh || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of sectors per FAT table |- | 11h || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Sector number of root directory first sector |- | 13h || 4 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to disk's driver header (A.05-1) |- | 17h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Media ID byte (INT 21\AH=1Ch, 8.02-17) |- | 18h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Flags (= 00h if disk was accessed, or = FFh if not) |- | 19h || 4 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to DPB block for the next disk |- | 1Dh || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Cluster at which to start search for free space |- | 1Fh || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of free clusters on disk (FFFFh if unknown) |- | 21h || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Most significant word of free cluster count |- | 23h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | – bits | style="text-align: left;" | 0–3 | style="text-align: left;" | : zero-based FAT number of active FAT |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | – bit | style="text-align: left;" | 7 | style="text-align: left;" | : don't copy active FAT to inactive FATs |- | 25h || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of FAT information sector&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-1-2-ref1">[[#note-A.03-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 27h || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Sector number of backup boot-sector |- | 29h || 4 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | First sector number of the first disk's cluster |- | 2Dh || 4 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of the last disk's cluster |- | 31h || 4 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of sectors occupied by FAT |- | 35h || 4 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Cluster number where root directory starts |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.03-1-1">Data in DPB block are translated from BPB block (A.03-4) of the same disk by means of INT 21\AH=53h function.</li> <li id="note-A.03-1-2">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.03-1-2-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.03-1-2-ref2|'''''b''''']]} A word FFFFh at offset 25h means that there is no FAT information sector on a requested disk. If FAT information sector is present, it contains at offset 00h a fixed double-word signature 61417272h, the second double word at offset 04h is number of free clusters (or FFFFFFFFh if unknown), the third double word at offset 08h is a number of the most recently allocated cluster.</li> </ol> === A.03-2 Disk data tables (DDT) === DDT tables represent a special database for block device drivers, integrated into DOS's core. DDT tables correspond to local disks, which are properly detected and supported by BIOS, including those emulated by BIOS from disk's images on bootable CD/DVD-ROMs. There are no DDT tables for IFS drives, dummy disks, RAM-disks and all other disks, opened for access by drivers, specified in configuration files. DDT tables are arranged as a chain-like queue of tables, each 96h bytes long. A pointer to the first table is returned by INT 2F\AX=0803h function (8.03-04). This is enough to trace the whole queue, since the first double word in each table is a pointer to DDT table for the next logical disk. The table having the first word FFFFh is the last one in the chain. [[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot9.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 9]] Fig.9 illustrates access to DDT tables for disks <code>A:</code>, <code>B:</code> and <code>C:</code>, including a call for INT 2F\AX=0803h function, reading the returned address (0B52:0000h) of the first DDT table from DS:DI registers, display of a partial dump of DDT table for disk A:, reading from the first 4 bytes of that dump the address (0B52:0096h) of DDT table for the next disk B:, display of a partial dump of DDT table for disk B:, and repetition of the last two operations relative to DDT table for disk C:. The table below shows data structure in one DDT table. The same data structure is accepted by INT 2F\AX=0801 function (8.03-02), appending a chain of DDT tables with a one more table for a new logical disk. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Pointer to next DDT table (or FFFFh if the last table) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Corresponding physical drive number : :from 00h and on for floppy disk drives :from 80h and on for hard (fixed) disk drives |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 05h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Logical disk number in a list of disks, accessed by DOS's core drivers. If disk's letter-names were not reassigned, then 00h = A:, 02h = C:, and so on. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 06h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 25 || Current disk's BPB block (up to offset 19h, A.03-4) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Bh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || – bit 6 : file system FAT-16, |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 7 : disk must return "Not Ready" to all appeals |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Counter of opened files belonging to this disk |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Eh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Device type (as byte at offset 01h in table A.04-3) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Fh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || – bit 0 : fixed hard disk |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 1 : door lock ("changeline") supported |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 2 : changes of current BPB are not allowed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 3 : all sectors in a track have the same size |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 4 : LUN number must be specified&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-2-1-ref1">[[#note-A.03-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 5 : several logical disks on that physical drive |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 6 : disk change detected |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 7 : disk's parameters were changed&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-2-2-ref">[[#note-A.03-2-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 8 : disk reformatted, media's BPB was changed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || – bit 9 : access ban flag&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-2-3-ref">[[#note-A.03-2-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 43h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 25 || Default disk's BPB (A.03-4) block&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-2-4-ref">[[#note-A.03-2-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 7Dh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 12 || 11-byte long volume label, terminated with 00h |- | style="text-align: center;" | 89h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Disk's serial number |- | style="text-align: center;" | 8Dh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 9 || File system type name, terminated with 00h. |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.03-2-1">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.03-2-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.03-2-1-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[../Selected drivers#USBASPI.SYS-1|'''''c''''']] [[../Selected drivers#USBASPI.SYS-2|'''''d''''']]} LUN (Logical Unit Number) is used for discrimination between devices, sharing the same number on a bus. In particular, this is necessary for optical DVD-RAM drives, which present themselves with different LUN numbers either as removable HDD or as CD/DVD-ROM disk. Flash card adapters also represent flash cards in different slots as disks with different LUN numbers.</li> <li id="note-A.03-2-2">[[#note-A.03-2-2-ref|'''^''']] If disk's parameters were changed, data in DDT table must be reset by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4840h function (8.02-46).</li> <li id="note-A.03-2-3">[[#note-A.03-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Access ban flag disables both reads and writes. It is applied to HDDs only, in particular, to other primary partitions beyond the first primary partition. Inverse state of access ban flag is reported by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4867h function and may be set anew by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4847h function (8.02-46).</li> <li id="note-A.03-2-4">[[#note-A.03-2-4-ref|'''^''']] The BPB data block (A.03-4) at offset 43h corresponds not to the current media, but to default type of removable media for this drive. Normally default media is the highest capacity media.</li> </ol> === A.03-3 Current Directory Structure (CDS) === CDS table is an array of data blocks (entries). Each CDS entry corresponds to one logical disk and specifies several parameters of that disk, including a path to the current (default) directory. A pointer to the first CDS entry is stored at offset 16h in DOS's list of lists (A.01-2). Just there a byte at offset 21h stores total number of entries in CDS table, defined by LASTDRIVE specification in CONFIG.SYS file (4.17). Each CDS entry is 58h bytes long. [[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot10.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 10]] Access to CDS table is illustrated by fig.10. The first step is a call for INT 21\AH=52h function (8.02-59), returning address of DOS's list-of-lists (00C9:0026h) in registers ES:BX. The next step is display of memory contents dump, starting at returned address. Length of the displayed dump is chosen so that the last 4 bytes at offsets 16h–19h show the address of CDS table (D203:0000h). Memory contents dump, starting at that address, presents CDS entry for disk A:. 58h bytes behind each previous CDS entry a next CDS entry follows, representing data for the next logical disk. Among CDS table entries there are dummy entries, having no corresponding logical disks. Dummy entries reserve letter-names for those logical disks, which may be created or become accessible later: RAM-disks, IFS disks, network disks, etc. CDS table is created by IO.SYS loader during commands interpretation in CONFIG.SYS file. Later CDS table can't be appended with new entries. Therefore a sufficient number of dummy entries must be ordered beforehand by means of LASTDRIVE command (4.17). Data structure of one CDS entry is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 67 | colspan=3 | Path to the current directory.<sup id="note-A.03-3-1-ref">[[#note-A.03-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.03-3-2-ref">[[#note-A.03-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 43h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=3 | Attribute word of this logical disk : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 7 || : hide disk's letter-name from assign-list |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 12 || : virtual disk created by SUBST.EXE&nbsp;^{[[#note-A.03-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 13 || : virtual disk created by JOIN.EXE&nbsp;^{[[#note-A.03-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 14 || : disk is on a physical drive&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-3-3-ref">[[#note-A.03-3-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.03-3-4-ref">[[#note-A.03-3-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 15 || : disk is accessed via network redirector&nbsp;^{[[#note-A.03-3-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 45h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=3 | Pointer to DPB block for this disk (A.03-1) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 49h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=3 | Starting cluster of current directory&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-3-5-ref">[[#note-A.03-3-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4Fh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=3 | Number of characters to hide&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-3-6-ref">[[#note-A.03-3-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 52h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=3 | pointer to redirector or to IFS driver (or zero if none) |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.03-3-1">[[#note-A.03-3-1-ref|'''^''']] For local disks a path to the current directory includes disk's letter-name, colon, backslash, and the rest part of path. End of path must be marked with byte 00h.</li> <li id="note-A.03-3-2">[[#note-A.03-3-2-ref|'''^''']] If either bit 12 or bit 13 in attribute word is set, then the path at offset 00h isn't a real path.</li> <li id="note-A.03-3-3">[[#note-A.03-3-3-ref|'''^''']] A zero value of both attribute bits 14 and 15 means that this entry is a dummy or is disabled. Such disks are kept hidden.</li> <li id="note-A.03-3-4">[[#note-A.03-3-4-ref|'''^''']] If both bits 14 and 15 in attribute word are set, hence this disk represents an IFS file system.</li> <li id="note-A.03-3-5">[[#note-A.03-3-5-ref|'''^''']] This cluster number is counted from the start of logical disk. Therefore for the root directory cluster number is 0000h. If disk hasn't been accessed yet, cluster field is filled with FFFFh.</li> <li id="note-A.03-3-6">[[#note-A.03-3-6-ref|'''^''']] DOS may report only the final part of the path to current directory, if a word at offset 4Fh defines a non-zero number of characters, which are to be hidden.</li> <li id="note-A.03-3-7">In early DOS versions CDS entry was 51h byte long; bytes 51h–57h have been added since MS-DOS&nbsp;4 for IFS and network drivers.</li> </ol> === A.03-4 BIOS Parameter Block (BPB) for a disk === BPB is a part of boot sector on disk media. When DOS starts, BPB data are used to fill internal DOS's tables: DPB (A.03-1) and DDT (A.03-2). This procedure is repeated each time a media change is detected, so that data are always kept updated. In disk's partitions with FAT-16 file system the BPB is 39h bytes long; its structure is shown in the first column ("F16") of the table below. BPB data inside DDT table have a slightly different "standard" structure, shown in third column ("STD"). Standard BPB blocks are accepted by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=0840h function and are returned by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=0060h function (8.02-46). Both these functions can be applied to disks with FAT-12 or FAT-16 file systems only. 0000-0001-5000-0007 to 0000-0003-5000-0001.<ref name="Structure" /> In disk's partitions with FAT-32 file system the BPB is 5Ah bytes long; its structure is shown in the second column ("F32") of the table below. The same data inside DDT table are arranged according to new "extended" structure, shown in the fourth column ("EXT") of the table. For these data structures MS-DOS&nbsp;7 provides other functions (8.02-46), which were not available in previous DOS versions: INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4840h to refresh BPB data in DDT and INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4860h to read BPB data in DDT. Both these new functions should be applied to disks formatted with FAT-32 file system. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! F16 !! F32 !! Std !! Ext !! Size ! colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 00h || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 3 | style="text-align: left;" | Jump command | style="text-align: left;" | EBh 3Ch 90h for FAT-16 |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right;" | or | style="text-align: left;" | EBh 5Ah 90h for FAT-32 |- | 03h || 03h || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | ID of program, which formed BPB block |- | 0Bh || 0Bh || 00h || 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Sector's size (in bytes) |- | 0Dh || 0Dh || 02h || 02h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Sectors per cluster (FFh if unknown) |- | 0Eh || 0Eh || 03h || 03h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Reserved sectors preceding first FAT |- | 10h || 10h || 05h || 05h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of FATs (normally 2) |- | 11h || 11h || 06h || 06h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of entries in the root directory |- | 13h || &nbsp; || 08h || 08h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | = 0000h&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.03-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 15h || 15h || 0Ah || 0Ah | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Media ID byte&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-4-2-ref">[[#note-A.03-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 16h || 16h || 0Bh || 0Bh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of sectors per FAT&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-4-3-ref">[[#note-A.03-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 18h || 18h || 0Dh || 0Dh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of sectors per track |- | 1Ah || 1Ah || 0Fh || 0Fh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of heads |- | 1Ch || 1Ch || 11h || 11h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Starting sector number&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-4-4-ref">[[#note-A.03-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 20h || 20h || 15h || 15h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Total number of sectors&nbsp;^{[[#note-A.03-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | &nbsp; || 24h || &nbsp; || 19h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of sectors per FAT&nbsp;^{[[#note-A.03-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | &nbsp; || 28h || &nbsp; || 1Dh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Same as word 23h in DPB ([[#A.03-1. Structure of Drive Parameters Blocks (DPB)|A.03-1]]) |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 1Fh || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of cylinders&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-4-5-ref">[[#note-A.03-4-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || 2Ah || &nbsp; || 1Fh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Version of file system |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 21h || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Device type (as byte 01h in A.04-3) |- | &nbsp; || 2Ch || &nbsp; || 21h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Root directory's first cluster number |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 22h || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Attributes (as word 02h in A.04-3) |- | 24h || 40h || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Physical drive number |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 25h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Information sector&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.03-1-2-ref2">[[#note-A.03-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.03-1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 26h || 42h || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Extended boot-sector signature (= 29h) |- | 27h || 43h || &nbsp; || 27h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Disk's serial number (in binary form) |- | 2Bh || 47h || &nbsp; || 2Bh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 11 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Volume's label (or "NO NAME ") |- | 36h || 52h || &nbsp; || 36h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | File system type name |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.03-4-1">[[#note-A.03-4-1-ref|'''^''']] For partitions smaller than 32 Mb a double word at offset 15h must be zero, the number of sectors in such partitions must be specified in a word at offset 08h.</li> <li id="note-A.03-4-2">[[#note-A.03-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Media ID byte corresponds to specification of INT 21\AH=1Ch function (8.02-17). If type of removable media is not identified, then the 00h value is assigned to media ID byte.</li> <li id="note-A.03-4-3">[[#note-A.03-4-3-ref|'''^''']] In "extended" BPB blocks a cell at offset 0Bh has 0000h value, and number of sectors, occupied by FAT table, is expressed by a double word value in a cell at offset 19h.</li> <li id="note-A.03-4-4">[[#note-A.03-4-4-ref|'''^''']] In BPBs of HDD's partitions the starting sector number is the same as that specified in corresponding partition's descriptor (A.13-5) at offset 08h.</li> <li id="note-A.03-4-5">[[#note-A.03-4-5-ref|'''^''']] A word at 1Fh and following bytes 21h, 22h of the standard BPB block are not included in extended BPB block and in BPB blocks inside DDT table (A.03-2).</li> </ol> == A.04 I/O control data tables == === A.04-1 Data block for IOCTL serial number functions === This data block is returned by functions INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4866h (8.02-46) and INT 21\AX=6900h (8.02-77), reading serial number from storage media. Data block of the same structure is accepted by functions INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4846h (8.02-46) and INT 21\AX=6901h (8.02-77) in order to assign new serial number to a disk. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || = 0000h |- | style="text-align: center;" | 02h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Disk's serial number (in binary form) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 06h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 11 || Disk's volume label (or "<code>NO&nbsp;NAME&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</code>", if none) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 11h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8 || On return only : filesystem type name <sup id="note-A.04-1-1-ref">[[#note-A.04-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.04-1-1">[[#note-A.04-1-1-ref|'''^''']] Name "<code>CDROM&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</code>" corresponds to High-Sierra CD-ROM file system, name "<code>CD001&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</code>" corresponds to ISO 9660 CD-ROM file system.</li> </ol> === A.04-2 File handle's information word === Handle's information word, read at offset 05h in SFT entry (A.01-4), is returned by INT 21\AX=4400h function (8.02-40). If specified handle refers to SFT entry, related to a non-file object, then returned information word should be interpreted according to table A.05-2. If specified handle refers to SFT entry, related to an opened file, then returned information word should be interpreted according to the table below. Distinctive feature of file handle's information word is clear state of its 7th bit. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Bits !! Description |- | 15 || File is not local, it is accessed via a redirector (network) |- | 14 || Don't set file date/time when file is closed |- | 11 || File is stored on a fixed (non-removable) media |- | 7 || Clear state of bit 7 is a distinctive feature of file's handle |- | 6 || Writing operation has not been performed yet |- | 5-0 || disk number (000000b = A:, 000001b = B:, 000010b = C:, and so on) |} === A.04-3 Data block for disk parameters specification === A pointer to this data block should be prepared in DS:DX registers before subfunction INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4840h (8.02-46) is called for in order to update BPB data in tables DPB (A.03-1) and DDT (A.03-2). Data block of the same structure is returned by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4860h subfunction (8.02-46). Buffer's address for the returned data block should be prepared in advance in DS:DX registers. A byte of flags at offset 00h is not returned, it defines request conditions and should be specified before the call. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Flags (bits 3–7 must be zero) : :bit 0 : apply operation to current BPB <sup id="note-A.04-3-1-ref">[[#note-A.04-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> :bit 1 : use track layout fields only <sup id="note-A.04-3-2-ref">[[#note-A.04-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> :bit 2 : sectors are of the same size ^{[[#note-A.04-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 01h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Device type : := 00h – 320 kb or 360 kb floppy drive := 01h – 1.2 Mb floppy drive := 02h – 720 kb floppy drive := 05h – fixed (hard) disk drive := 06h – tape drive storage device := 07h – other devices (including 1.44 Mb floppy) := 08h – optical disc drive := 09h – 2.88 Mb floppy drive |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 02h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Storage device attributes (bits 2–15 must be zero) : :bit 0 : device with non-removable medium :bit 1 : media change registration supported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Number of cylinders (or number of tracks) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 06h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Media flags : := 01h – 320kb/360kb diskette := F8h – compressed logical disk := 00h – all other types of media |- | style="text-align: center;" | 07h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 31 || BPB data block <sup id="note-A.04-3-3-ref">[[#note-A.04-3-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.04-3-1">[[#note-A.04-3-1-ref|'''^''']] If bit 0 in flag's byte is set, then updating or copying of BPB block (A.03-4) causes an attempt of access to physical storage media. But when bit 0 in flag's byte is clear, then access to physical storage media wouldn't be attempted: subject of operation will be a copy of BPB block inside DDT table (A.03-2) at offset 43h, which specifies the default type of storage media for this particular device.</li> <li id="note-A.04-3-2">[[#note-A.04-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Bits 1 and 2 in flag's byte specify interpretation of optional sub-table, defining sector allocation in a track. This sub-table up to 256 bytes long may start at offset 26h for subfunction CX=0840h and at offset 5Ch for subfunction CX=4840h. Media with non-equal sector sizes are not considered in this book, though. For subfunction CX=4860h bit 1 in flag's byte must be clear.</li> <li id="note-A.04-3-3">[[#note-A.04-3-3-ref|'''^''']] For subfunction CX=0840h the BPB table at offset 07h must have standard BPB structure (A.03-4). Final 6 bytes of BPB block are accepted by subfunction CX=0840h if flag's byte at offset 00h has its bit 0 set, otherwise bytes after offset 1Eh are ignored. For subfunction CX=4840h the BPB table at offset 07h must be 53 bytes long according to extended BPB structure (A.03-4).</li> </ol> === A.04-4 Structure of data block for read/write functions === A pointer to this data block is accepted by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4861h reading function and by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4841h writing function (8.02-46). These functions can't be executed inside "DOS box" under WINDOWS OS unless the addressed logical disk is locked in advance (8.01-58). {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | = 00h |- | 01h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Requested number of drive's head |- | 03h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Requested number of drive's cylinder |- | 05h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of the sector to start reading or writing |- | 07h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of sectors to be read or written |- | 09h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to a buffer with data or for data |} === A.04-5 Structure of data block for format/verify functions === A pointer to this data block is accepted by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4842h function for formatting and by INT 21\AX=440Dh\CX=4862h verifying function (8.02-46). These functions can't be executed inside "DOS box" under Windows OS unless the addressed logical disk is locked in advance (8.01-58). {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | bit 0 : query for status code, don't actually format |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" |bit 1 : format multiple tracks (for HDDs only) |- | 01h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Drive's head to be activated |- | 03h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | The cylinder where the heads should be driven |- | 05h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of tracks to be formatted or verified |} Note 1: for format function a word at 05h is ignored, if byte at offset 00h has its bit 1 clear: only one track would be formatted in this case. Note 2: for verification function a number of tracks in word 05h should correspond to no more than 255 sectors, bit 0 set in byte at offset 00h specifies verification of multiple tracks, bit 1 must be zero. Note 3: on return the byte at offset 00h is replaced with status code : ::00h – this function is supported by BIOS, ::01h – this function is not supported by BIOS, ::02h – given specifications don't suit for this logical disk, ::03h – there is no media in the drive. Returned status code 00h doesn't confirm successful outcome : success should be confirmed by returned clear state of CF flag. == A.05 Driver's data structures == === A.05-1 Driver's header structure === The table below shows data offsets for 3 types of DOS driver's headers : ::column "B" – for "block" devices, i.e. disk and tape storage drives ; ::column "C" – for 'character" devices, i.e. communication channels ; ::column "D" – for CD-ROM drivers, cooperating with MSCDEX.EXE. A pointer to disk driver header is given in a double word at offset 13h in Drive Parameter Block for the corresponding disk (A.03-1). "Character" device drivers may be identified by a signature at offset 0Ah in their header while tracing a chain of header's addresses. Tracing start address may be got at offset 22h in DOS's List-of-Lists (A.01-2), or else may be obtained by means of INT 2F\AX=122Ch function (8.03-12). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! B !! C !! D !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 00h || 00h | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Next driver's address field&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.05-1-1-ref">[[#note-A.05-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 04h || 04h || 04h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Driver's attributes (A.05-2) |- | 06h || 06h || 06h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Offset of strategy routine entry point |- | 08h || 08h || 08h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Offset of interrupt routine entry point |- | &nbsp; || 0Ah || 0Ah | style="text-align: center;" | 8 || Driver's signature field |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 14h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || First disk, controlled by the driver&nbsp;<sup id="note-A.05-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.05-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Ah || &nbsp; || 15h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Number of disks, controlled by driver |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.05-1-1">[[#note-A.05-1-1-ref|'''^''']] The next driver's address field must be initialized as FFFF:FFFFh; later DOS will fill this field with address of the next driver. If no next driver would be loaded, then remaining FFFFh value at start of current driver's header will signify the end of driver's addresses reference chain.</li> <li id="note-A.05-1-2">[[#note-A.05-1-2-ref|'''^''']] Byte at offset 14h must be initialized with 00h value. Later MSCDEX.EXE program (5.08-03) or SHSUCDX.EXE program (5.08-04) will replace initial zero value with number (note 1 to 8.02-17) of the first disk, controlled by this driver.</li> </ol> === A.05-2 Driver's attributes === Driver's attribute word is at offset 04h in driver's header (A.05-1). But meaning of most bits in attribute word is different for "character" device drivers (in second column of the table below) and for "block" devices drivers (in the third column). CD/DVD-ROM device drivers, cooperating with programs MSCDEX.EXE (5.08-03) or SHSUCDX.EXE (5.08-04), and also drivers of virtual disks, created by SUBST.EXE program (6.23), formally belong to "character" device drivers, as far as bit 15 in their attribute word is set. Character device driver's attribute word is used as a basis of channel handle's information word, which is stored at offset 05h in corresponding SFT entry (A.01-4) and is returned by INT 21\AX=4400h function (8.02-40) in response to channel handle requests (about file's handle requests in A.04-2). Differences between "character" device driver's attribute word and channel's handle information word evince themselves in bits 4–7 in the second column of the table below: these bits in "character" device driver's attribute word normally are clear. In channel handle's information words bit 7 is set: it is their main distinctive feature from file handle's information words. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Bit !! "Character" devices (channels) !! "Block" devices (disks, tapes) |- | 0 || STDIN channel <sup id="note-A.05-2-1-ref">[[#note-A.05-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> || = 0 (reserved) |- | 1 || STDOUT channel ^{[[#note-A.05-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} || 32-bit addresses support |- | 2 || NUL channel ^{[[#note-A.05-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} || = 0 (reserved) |- | 3 || CLOCK channel ^{[[#note-A.05-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} || = 0 (reserved) |- | 4 || Output via INT 29 supported || = 0 (reserved) |- | 5 || Raw output <sup id="note-A.05-2-2-ref">[[#note-A.05-2-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> || = 0 (reserved) |- | 6 || Channel adds EOF on input || IOCTL support <sup id="note-A.05-2-3-ref">[[#note-A.05-2-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 7 || = 1 (as a non-file handle) || IOCTL support <sup id="note-A.05-2-4-ref">[[#note-A.05-2-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 9 || = 0 (reserved) || No direct I/O <sup id="note-A.05-2-5-ref">[[#note-A.05-2-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | 11 || Lock support <sup id="note-A.05-2-6-ref">[[#note-A.05-2-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> || Lock support ^{[[#note-A.05-2-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]} |- | 12 || = 0 (reserved) || CD-ROM or remote device |- | 13 || Output until busy supported || Non-IBM's format |- | 14 || IOCTL support <sup id="note-A.05-2-7-ref1">[[#note-A.05-2-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]</sup> || IOCTL support ^{[[#note-A.05-2-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | 15 || = 1 – "character" device symptom || = 0 – "block" device symptom |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.05-2-1">[[#note-A.05-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Among attribute bits 0–3 for character device drivers one bit only may be set (or none).</li> <li id="note-A.05-2-2">[[#note-A.05-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Raw (binary) output means that neither of output characters is interpreted by driver as a command (as it is shown in A.02-8).</li> <li id="note-A.05-2-3">[[#note-A.05-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 6 signifies support for functions INT 21\AX=440Ch, 440Dh, 440Eh, 440Fh.</li> <li id="note-A.05-2-4">[[#note-A.05-2-4-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 7 signifies support for functions INT 21\AX=4410h, 4411h.</li> <li id="note-A.05-2-5">[[#note-A.05-2-5-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 9 means that disks, controlled by this driver, are inaccessible to functions of BIOS's INT 13 handler. Set state of bit 9 is typical for drivers, providing access to remote disks, to IFS disks and to disks with parameters, substituted by DRIVPARM command (4.09).</li> <li id="note-A.05-2-6">[[#note-A.05-2-6-ref|'''^''']] Set state of bit 11 means that driver is able to transfer slot lid lock signals for removable disk drives.</li> <li id="note-A.05-2-7">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.05-2-7-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.05-2-7-ref2|'''''b''''']]}Set state of bit 14 means that driver is able to cope with control parameters, sent via INT 21\AX=4403h and INT 21\AX=4405h functions (8.02-41).</li> <li id="note-A.05-2-8">Driver's attribute bits, not mentioned in this table, are considered reserved and normally must be clear.</li> </ol> === A.05-3 Selected requests to device drivers === Interaction between DOS and any device driver is performed by sending an address of request data block in ES:BX registers with a CALL FAR command to driver's strategy routine. The driver receives code of operation and initiates its execution. After some time DOS sends another call for driver's interrupt routine, which fills the same request data block with requested results of performed operation. DOS accepts the result, if successful termination of operation is confirmed by status byte in returned data block (A.05-4). The same forms of request data blocks are accepted by INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03), which implicitly sends requests to block device drivers, integrated into DOS's core. These drivers control logical disks, having parameters registered in corresponding DDT tables (A.03-2). Only these logical disks can be addressed by INT 2F\AX=0802h function. The first column of the table below specifies size of request data block, the second column – code of the requested operation, the fourth column shows which driver type this operation can be applied to. The fifth column shows whether the operation can be requested via INT 2F\AX=0802h function. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Size !! Code !! Operation !! Device type !! 802 !! Comments |- | 19h || 00h || Initialization || both types | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-5 |- | 0Fh || 01h || Media change check || "block" type | style="text-align: center;" | Y || <sup id="note-A.05-3-2-ref">[[#note-A.05-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 14h || 03h || Store IOCTL string || <sup id="note-A.05-3-1-ref">[[#note-A.05-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-7 |- | 1Eh || 04h || Read data || both types | style="text-align: center;" | Y || A.05-6 |- | 0Eh || 05h || Nondestructive read || character type | style="text-align: center;" | N || <sup id="note-A.05-3-3-ref">[[#note-A.05-3-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Dh || 06h || Input status request || character type | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-4 |- | 0Dh || 07h || Flush input buffer || character type | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-4 |- | 1Eh || 08h || Write (send) data || both types | style="text-align: center;" | Y || A.05-6 |- | 1Eh || 09h || Write to disk & verify || "block" type | style="text-align: center;" | Y || A.05-6 |- | 0Dh || 0Ah || Output status request || character type | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-4 |- | 0Dh || 0Bh || Flush output buffer || character type | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-4 |- | 14h || 0Ch || Receive IOCTL string || ^{[[#note-A.05-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-7 |- | 0Dh || 0Dh || Device open || both types | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-4 |- | 0Dh || 0Eh || Device close || both types | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-4 |- | 0Dh || 0Fh || Detect removable disk || "block" type | style="text-align: center;" | Y || A.05-4 |- | 14h || 10h || Send data until busy || character type | style="text-align: center;" | N || A.05-7 |- | 0Dh || 17h || Get disk's number || "block" type | style="text-align: center;" | Y || A.05-4 |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.05-3-1">[[#note-A.05-3-1-ref|'''^''']] Requests for sending or receiving IOCTL string can be addressed to those drives only (of either type), which have bit 14 set in their attribute word (A.05-2).</li> <li id="note-A.05-3-2">[[#note-A.05-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Command 01h (media check) accepts media identifier at offset 0Dh in request data block and returns in the same data block a status byte at offset 0Eh. Value of status byte should be interpreted as follows : ::FFh – media has not been changed; ::01h – media has been changed; ::00h – media change state can't be determined.</li> <li id="note-A.05-3-3">[[#note-A.05-3-3-ref|'''^''']] Command 05h (nondestructive read) returns one data byte at offset 0Dh in request data block, if BUSY bit in status byte at offset 04h (A.05-4) isn't set on return.</li> </ol> === A.05-4 Format of a request header === Presented header format is used in request data blocks, sent to drivers either with CALL FAR command (A.05-3) or via a call for INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03). In both cases a pointer to request data block must be in ES:BX registers. The header occupies bytes at offsets 00h–0Ch in request data block. For a number of operations (06h, 07h, 0Ah, 0Bh, 0Dh, 0Eh, 0Fh, 17h) the request data block is nothing else but a header. Structure of a header, common for all requests to drivers, is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size !! Description |- | 00h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Length of request block (table A.05-3, column 1) |- | 01h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Addressed logical disk's number <sup id="note-A.05-4-2-ref">[[#note-A.05-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 02h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Code of operation (table A.05-3, column 2) |- | 03h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Error code <sup id="note-A.05-4-3-ref">[[#note-A.05-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.05-4-4-ref">[[#note-A.05-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 04h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Returned status byte: :01h – operation is done successfully :02h – addressed device is busy :80h – error, operation has failed |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.05-4-1">If operation 0Fh (detect removable drive) returns status 02h (busy), this means the addressed drive is a fixed drive.</li> <li id="note-A.05-4-2">[[#note-A.05-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Here a logical disk is defined by its number in a list of disks, controlled by the addressed driver. When a request is sent via INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03), then these logical disk numbers are identical to absolute logical disk numbers: 00h = A:, 02h = C:, and so on, but for those logical disks only, which have their parameters specified in DDT tables (A.03-2).</li> <li id="note-A.05-4-3">[[#note-A.05-4-3-ref|'''^''']] Error code is returned only when status byte at offset 04h has the 80h value, i.e. confirms erroneous outcome. Then error code should be interpreted according to records for INT 2F in table A.06-1.</li> <li id="note-A.05-4-4">[[#note-A.05-4-4-ref|'''^''']] In case of success the 17h operation (Get disk number) returns absolute number of the requested logical disk at offset 03h. If requested number is beyond the list of logical disks, controlled by the addressed driver, then the 00h value is returned. In any case disk's type and media presence are not checked.</li> </ol> === A.05-5 Initialization request data block === Only once, just when driver is installed by IO.SYS loader, DOS sends to this driver a request for initialization procedure. Request is sent by CALL FAR command with a pointer to request data block in registers ES:BX. Code 00h of initialization procedure is specified in a header of request data block (A.05-03). Having accepted initialization request, the driver explores the available hardware it is responsible for. Some initial data as well as data, returned by the driver, are transferred in the rest part of request data block, beyond its header. Data disposition in this part of request data block (offsets 0Dh–18h) is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 | Description |- | 0Dh || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | On return: | style="text-align: left;" | number of logical disks controlled by this driver. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 0Eh || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | On call : | style="text-align: left;" | pointer to byte past the end of that memory space which may be occupied by this driver. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | On return: | style="text-align: left;" | pointer to the first free byte past the memory space actually occupied by TSR part of this driver. |- | 12h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | On call : | style="text-align: left;" | pointer to command line parameters. |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | On return for "block' device drivers only : pointer to BPB data array (A.03-4). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 16h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | On call : | style="text-align: left;" | zero based number of the first logical disk controlled by this driver (i.e. A: = 00h, C: = 02h and so on). |- | 17h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | On return: | style="text-align: left;" | error message flag <sup id="note-A.05-5-2-ref">[[#note-A.05-5-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.05-5-1">"character" device drivers must return zero in a double word at offset 12h.</li> <li id="note-A.05-5-2">[[#note-A.05-5-2-ref|'''^''']] Error message flag value 0000h at offset 17h doesn't cause error message display. But if driver returns error message flag value 0001h, then DOS displays message: "There is an error in your CONFIG.SYS file in line..."</li> </ol> === A.05-6 Structure of I/O request data block === I/O request data block is used for driver's data transfer operations called either directly with CALL FAR command (A.05-3) or via INT 2F\AX=0802h function (8.03-03). Address of request data block is presented in ES:BX registers, and header of this request data block specifies code of the requested operation: 04h, 08h or 09h. Data reading operation (code 04h) transfers data from a media into a prepared buffer in memory. Data writing operations (codes 08h and 09h) send data from buffer to disk or to output channel. All mentioned data transfer operations use request data block of the same structure, including a header (A.05-4) and the rest part with access parameters. Disposition of these parameters beyond the header is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size !! Description |- | 0Dh || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Media identifier (for block devices only) |- | 0Eh || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Address of buffer with data or for data |- | 12h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Length of data packet <sup id="note-A.05-6-1-ref">[[#note-A.05-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 14h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Starting sector number <sup id="note-A.05-6-2-ref">[[#note-A.05-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 16h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to volume identifier <sup id="note-A.05-6-6-ref">[[#note-A.05-6-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 1Ah || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | 32-bit starting sector number ^{[[#note-A.05-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.05-6-1">[[#note-A.05-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Length of data packet for channel drivers is counted in bytes. Length of data packet for disks ("block" device) drivers is expressed in number of sectors.</li> <li id="note-A.05-6-2">[[#note-A.05-6-2-ref|'''^''']] Some other DOS versions use another data format with a 4-byte starting sector number at offset 14h; a distinctive feature of this data format is length 18h of request data block, specified in the first byte of header (A.05-4). MS-DOS&nbsp;7 sends a 4-byte starting sector number to those drivers only, which declare their support for 32-bit addressing by setting bit 1 in driver's attribute word (A.05-2). Starting sector number for these drivers is specified at offset 1Ah, and then a cell at offset 14h is filled with FFFFh.</li> <li id="note-A.05-6-3">[[#note-A.05-6-3-ref|'''^''']] A pointer to volume identifier is returned by driver when error 0Fh occurs (improper change of media).</li> </ol> === A.05-7 Request data block for string operations === This data block is used for driver's byte string transfer operations called by CALL FAR command (A.05-3). Address of data block is specified in ES:BX registers, and header (A.05-4) of that data block specifies code of the requested operation: 03h, 0Ch or 10h. Operation with code 10h sends data string to a channel. Requests with operation codes 03h, 0Ch can be addressed to those drivers only, which declare IOCTL support by having bit 14 set in their attribute word.<sup id="note-A.05-2-7-ref2">[[#note-A.05-2-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.05-2&#93;]]</sup> Request with operation code 03h suggests to take into account new values of control parameters, sent via INT 21\AX=4403h or INT 21\AX=4405h function (8.02-41). Operation 0Ch is an offer to the driver to report its actual control parameters, requested either via INT 21\AX=4402h or via INT 21\AX=4404h function (8.02-41). Request data block for the mentioned operations must have the same structure, including a header (A.05-4) and the rest part; data disposition in this rest part of request data block is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 | Description |- | 0Dh || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Media identifier (for "block" device drivers only) |- | 0Eh || 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Address of buffer area (with data or for data) |- | 12h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | On call : || number of bytes to read or to write |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | On return : || actual number of bytes read or written |} == A.06 Error codes == === A.06-1 Summary table of error codes === After any fault both BIOS and DOS functions return error code. Functions of MS-DOS&nbsp;7 usually leave error code in AL. After BIOS's operations error code may be returned in AH. Interpretation of many error codes depends on which handler has left this error code. For convenience reasons the presented summary table comprises almost all error code interpretations, which may be encountered under MS-DOS&nbsp;7. Being given the whole variety of alternatives, you'll easily choose the appropriate one according to the handler, which has returned the error code. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Code !! Handler !! Description |- | 00h || INT 24-2F || write-protection violation attempt |- | &nbsp; || other || no error, successful completion of operation |- | 01h || INT 13 || invalid parameter or requested disk doesn't exist |- | &nbsp; || INT 15 || parity error |- | &nbsp; || INT 16 || keyboard buffer is full yet |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || disk number unknown to the driver |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid function number or operation number |- | 02h || INT 13 || address mark not found |- | &nbsp; || INT 15 || interrupt error |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || drive is not ready |- | &nbsp; || other || file not found |- | 03h || INT 13 || disk is write-protected |- | &nbsp; || INT 15 || address line A20 gating failed |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || command is unknown to the driver |- | &nbsp; || other || path error or path not found |- | 04h || INT 13 || sector not found or read error |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || data error (bad CRC) |- | &nbsp; || other || too many opened files (no place for more handles) |- | 05h || INT 13 || reset failed |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || bad length of request data block |- | &nbsp; || other || access denied |- | 06h || INT 13 || no media in the drive or media has been changed |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || seek error |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid handle |- | 07h || INT 13 || drive parameter activity failed |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || unknown media type |- | &nbsp; || other || memory control block (MCB) destroyed |- | 08h || INT 13 || DMA overrun |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || sector not found |- | &nbsp; || other || insufficient memory |- | 09h || INT 13 || DMA attempt across 64K or more than 80h sectors |- | &nbsp; || INT 15 || invalid identifier of APM device |- | &nbsp; || INT 24, 2F || printer is out of paper |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid memory block address |- | 0Ah || INT 13 || bad sector flag detected |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || write attempt failure |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid environment |- | 0Bh || INT 13 || bad track detected |- | &nbsp; || INT 15 || specified device is not under APM control |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || read fault |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid format |- | 0Ch || INT 13 || unsupported track format or invalid media |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || general failure |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid access mode |- | 0Dh || INT 13 || invalid number of sectors on format |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-26 || sharing violation |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid data |- | 0Eh || INT 13 || control data address mark detected |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || lock violation or media unavailable |- | 0Fh || INT 13 || DMA arbitration level out of range |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-2F || invalid disk change |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid drive |- | 10h || INT 13 || uncorrectable CRC or ECC error on read |- | &nbsp; || INT 24 || FCB is unavailable |- | &nbsp; || other || attempt to remove the current directory |- | 11h || INT 13 || data have been ECC-corrected |- | &nbsp; || INT 24-26 || sharing buffer overflow |- | &nbsp; || other || it is not the same device |- | 12h || INT 24 || code page mismatch |- | &nbsp; || other || no more files, file index is out of range |- | 13h || INT 24-26 || out of input |- | &nbsp; || other || disk is write-protected |- | 14h || INT 24, 26 || insufficient disk space |- | &nbsp; || other || unknown unit |- | 15h || &nbsp; || drive not ready |- | 16h || &nbsp; || unknown command |- | 17h || &nbsp; || data CRC error |- | 18h || &nbsp; || bad length of request data block |- | 19h || &nbsp; || seek error |- | 1Ah || &nbsp; || unknown media type (non-DOS disk) |- | 1Bh || &nbsp; || sector not found |- | 1Ch || &nbsp; || printer is out of paper |- | 1Dh || &nbsp; || write fault |- | 1Eh || &nbsp; || read fault |- | 1Fh || &nbsp; || general failure |- | 20h || INT 13 || controller failure |- | &nbsp; || other || sharing violation |- | 21h || &nbsp; || lock violation |- | 22h || &nbsp; || disk change invalid <sup id="note-A.06-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.06-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 23h || &nbsp; || FCB (File Control Block) unavailable |- | 24h || &nbsp; || sharing buffer overflow |- | 25h || &nbsp; || code page mismatch |- | 26h || &nbsp; || cannot complete file operation (out of input) |- | 27h || &nbsp; || insufficient disk space |- | 30h || INT 13 || drive has no media sensor |- | 31h || INT 13 || no media in the drive |- | 32h || INT 13 || non-default media |- | &nbsp; || other || network request not supported |- | 33h || &nbsp; || remote computer not listening |- | 34h || &nbsp; || duplicate name on network |- | 35h || &nbsp; || network name not found |- | 36h || &nbsp; || network is busy |- | 37h || &nbsp; || network device no longer exists |- | 38h || &nbsp; || network BIOS command limit exceeded |- | 39h || &nbsp; || network adapter hardware error |- | 3Ah || &nbsp; || incorrect response from network |- | 3Bh || &nbsp; || unexpected network error |- | 3Ch || &nbsp; || incompatible remote adapter |- | 3Dh || &nbsp; || print queue full |- | 3Eh || &nbsp; || queue not full |- | 3Fh || &nbsp; || not enough space to print file |- | 40h || INT 13 || seek failed |- | &nbsp; || other || network name was deleted |- | 41h || &nbsp; || access to network is denied |- | 42h || &nbsp; || network device type incorrect |- | 43h || &nbsp; || network name not found |- | 44h || &nbsp; || network name limit exceeded |- | 45h || &nbsp; || network BIOS session limit exceeded |- | 46h || &nbsp; || temporarily pause |- | 47h || &nbsp; || network request not accepted |- | 48h || &nbsp; || network print/disk redirection paused |- | 50h || &nbsp; || file exists |- | 52h || &nbsp; || cannot make directory |- | 53h || &nbsp; || fail on INT 24h |- | 54h || &nbsp; || too many redirections |- | 55h || &nbsp; || duplicate redirection |- | 56h || &nbsp; || invalid password |- | 57h || &nbsp; || invalid parameter |- | 58h || &nbsp; || network write fault |- | 59h || &nbsp; || this function is not supported on network |- | 5Ah || &nbsp; || required system component not installed |- | 60h || INT 15 || requested APM mode is unavailable (blocked) |- | 64h || Mscdex.exe || unknown error |- | 65h || Mscdex.exe || not ready |- | 66h || Mscdex.exe || EMS memory no longer valid |- | 67h || Mscdex.exe || not High Sierra or ISO-9660 format |- | 68h || Mscdex.exe || slot door is opened |- | 80h || INT 13 || timeout, no response (drive may be not present) |- | &nbsp; || INT 67 || internal error |- | &nbsp; || other || invalid command or function not implemented |- | 81h || INT 67 || hardware malfunction |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || VDISK driver was detected |- | 82h || Himem.sys || an A20 line error has occurred |- | 83h || INT 67 || invalid handle |- | 84h || INT 67 || undefined function requested by application |- | 85h || INT 67 || no more handles available |- | 86h || INT 67 || error in save or restore of mapping context |- | &nbsp; || other || requested function is not supported |- | 87h || INT 67 || insufficient number of memory pages is present |- | 88h || INT 67 || insufficient number of memory pages is available |- | 89h || INT 67 || zero number of pages requested |- | 8Ah || INT 67 || invalid logical page number encountered |- | 8Bh || INT 67 || invalid physical page number encountered |- | 8Ch || INT 67 || page-mapping hardware state save area is full |- | 8Dh || INT 67 || save of mapping context failed |- | 8Eh || INT 67 || restore of mapping context failed |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || a general XMS driver error |- | 8Fh || INT 67 || undefined subfunction |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || an unrecoverable XMS driver error |- | 90h || INT 67 || undefined attribute type |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || HMA does not exist or is not managed by XMS provider |- | 91h || INT 67 || this feature is not supported |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || HMA is already in use |- | 92h || INT 67 || success, but a portion of source region is overwritten |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || DX is less than the /HMAMIN parameter (5.04-01) |- | 93h || INT 67 || length of data exceeds space allocated to the handle |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || HMA is not allocated |- | 94h || INT 67 || conventional and expanded memory regions overlap |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || A20 line is still enabled |- | 95h || INT 67 || offset within logical page exceeds size of logical page |- | 96h || INT 67 || region length exceeds 1 Mb |- | 97h || INT 67 || source and destination have same handle and overlap |- | 98h || INT 67 || memory source or destination type undefined |- | 9Ah || INT 67 || specified map register or DMA register set not supported |- | 9Bh || INT 67 || all map register or DMA register sets are allocated |- | 9Ch || INT 67 || map register or DMA register sets not supported |- | 9Dh || INT 67 || undefined or unallocated map or DMA register sets |- | 9Eh || INT 67 || dedicated DMA channels not supported |- | 9Fh || INT 67 || specified dedicated DMA channel not supported |- | A0h || INT 67 || no such handle name |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || all extended memory is allocated |- | A1h || INT 67 || a handle found had no name, or duplicate handle name |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || all available extended memory handles are allocated |- | A2h || INT 67 || attempt to wrap around 1 M conventional address space |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || invalid handle |- | A3h || INT 67 || source array corrupted |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || source handle is invalid |- | A4h || INT 67 || operating system denied access |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || source offset is invalid |- | A5h || Himem.sys || destination handle is invalid |- | A6h || Himem.sys || destination offset is invalid |- | A7h || Himem.sys || length is invalid |- | A8h || Himem.sys || copy operation has an invalid overlap |- | A9h || Himem.sys || parity error occurred |- | AAh || INT 13 || drive not ready |- | &nbsp; || Himem.sys || block is not locked |- | ABh || Himem.sys || block is locked |- | ACh || Himem.sys || block lock count overflowed |- | ADh || Himem.sys || lock failed |- | B0h || Himem.sys || only a smaller UMB is available |- | &nbsp; || INT 13 || volume is not locked in drive |- | B1h || Himem.sys || no UMBs are available |- | &nbsp; || INT 13 || volume is locked in drive |- | B2h || Himem.sys || UMB segment number is invalid |- | &nbsp; || INT 13 || volume is not removable |- | B3h || INT 13 || volume is in use, write cache isn't empty |- | B4h || INT 13 || lock count has been exceeded |- | B5h || INT 13 || a valid eject request failed |- | B6h || &nbsp; || media is write-protected |- | BBh || INT 13 || undefined hard disk error |- | CCh || INT 13 || write fault on hard disk |- | E0h || INT 13 || status register error on hard disk |- | FFh || INT 13 || sense operation failed on hard disk |- | &nbsp; || INT 15 || error enabling address line A20 |- | &nbsp; || other || matching file not found, or no more files, or bad FCB. |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.06-1-1">If error code is returned in AX register, its most significant byte (in AH register) is zero.</li> <li id="note-A.06-1-2">[[#note-A.06-1-2-ref|'''^''']] Together with error code 22h, a pointer to media identifier is returned in ES:DI registers. This media identifier includes : ::at offset 00h – 12 bytes : disk's volume label, ending with 00h ; ::at offset 0Ch – 1 double word : disk's serial number (in binary form).</li> <li id="note-A.06-1-3">The HIMEM.SYS driver (5.04-01) returns error codes in BL register.</li> <li id="note-A.06-1-4">Error code, returned by the latest executed DOS's function, is stored in DOS's swappable data area SDA (A.01-3) at offset 04h. BIOS' functions write their error code into BIOS data area (A.01-1), most probably in cell 0040:0074h.</li> </ol> === A.06-2 Error class codes === Error class code, returned in BH register by INT 21\AH=59h function (8.02-65), is stored at offset 07h in DOS's swappable area SDA (A.01-3). Interpretation of error class codes is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 01h || out of resource (storage space or I/O channels) |- | 02h || temporary situation (file or record lock) |- | 03h || authorization (denied access) |- | 04h || internal (system software bug) |- | 05h || hardware failure |- | 06h || system failure (configuration file missing or incorrect) |- | 07h || application program error |- | 08h || object not found |- | 09h || bad format |- | 0Ah || object is locked |- | 0Bh || media error |- | 0Ch || object already exists |- | 0Dh || unknown error class |} === A.06-3 Codes of suggested action === Code of suggested action is returned in BL register by INT 21\AH=59h function (8.02-5) and is stored at offset 06h in DOS's swappable area SDA (A.01-3). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | Recommended action |- | 01h || retry |- | 02h || retry after some time |- | 03h || prompt user to reenter input |- | 04h || close opened files, delete temporary files and abort |- | 05h || immediate abort |- | 06h || ignore this error |- | 07h || retry after user intervention |} === A.06-4 Error locus codes === Error locus code is returned in CH register by INT 21\AH=59h function (8.02-65) and is stored at offset 03h in DOS's swappable area SDA (A.01-3). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | Probable locus of the error |- | 01h || unknown or not appropriate |- | 02h || block device (disk error) |- | 03h || network related |- | 04h || device connected to serial port (channel timeout) |- | 05h || memory related |} === A.06-5 I/O error status codes === Error status code is returned in AH register by INT 25 and INT 26 handlers (8.02-85). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 01h || invalid command |- | 02h || invalid address mark |- | 03h || disk is write-protected (for INT 26 only) |- | 04h || requested sector not found |- | 08h || DMA failure |- | 10h || data error (bad CRC) |- | 20h || controller failure |- | 40h || seek operation failure |- | 80h || device failed to respond (timeout) |} == A.07 Execution service structures == === A.07-1 Program Segment Prefix === When a program is loaded for execution into an allotted memory segment, executable code of the program is placed at offset 100h and on. Preceding part of the segment (offsets 00h–FFh) is known as PSP, i.e. Program Segment Prefix. It is filled with important service data, which are used by DOS functions and may be used by the program itself. By means of DEBUG.EXE that PSP can be peeped most easily, which is formed by COMMAND.COM interpreter for DEBUG.EXE itself. A procedure of displaying a part of that PSP is shown in fig.11. The rest part of that PSP is filled with zeros. [[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot11.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 11]] The program under test in fig.11 is file CJPEG.EXE. Parameters "-baseline" and "VC01.BMP" are transferred to program under test in order to present an example of filling the first and the second FCB blocks, starting at offsets 5Ch and 6Ch correspondingly. Contents of these and some other PSP data fields are explained in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || INT 20 command (for CP/M compatibility) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 02h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || First segment beyond memory allotted to the program |- | style="text-align: center;" | 06h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Size of executable code (for *.COM files) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ah | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Stored INT 22 termination address |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Eh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Stored INT 23 Control-Break handler address |- | style="text-align: center;" | 12h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Stored INT 24 critical error handler address |- | style="text-align: center;" | 16h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Segment of parent's PSP <sup id="note-A.07-1-1-ref">[[#note-A.07-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.07-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.07-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 18h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 20 || Job File Table (JFT)<sup id="note-A.07-1-3-ref1">[[#note-A.07-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Segment of environment for the current process |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Eh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Caller's SS:SP on entry to last INT 21 call |- | style="text-align: center;" | 32h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Number of entries in JFT (default is 20) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 34h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Pointer to JFT (default is PSP:0018h) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || = 00h (= 01h for hieroglyphical keyboards) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 40h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || DOS version to be reported by INT 21/AH=30h |- | style="text-align: center;" | 50h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || A call for the INT 21 functions dispatcher |- | style="text-align: center;" | 5Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 16 || First FCB area <sup id="note-A.07-1-4-ref1">[[#note-A.07-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 6Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 16 || Second FCB area ^{[[#note-A.07-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 80h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Length of command line tail <sup id="note-A.07-1-5-ref1">[[#note-A.07-1-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.07-1-6-ref">[[#note-A.07-1-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 81h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 127 || Command line tail or DTA area ^{[[#note-A.07-1-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.07-1-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.07-1-1">[[#note-A.07-1-1-ref|'''^''']] If segment address of the parent's PSP at offset 16h points at current PSP, then program is regarded as having no parent or, in other terms, as being its own parent. This is a distinctive feature of permanently loaded program, for example, of command interpreter. Permanently loaded programs can't be terminated by a call for INT 20 or for INT 21\AH=4Ch function.</li> <li id="note-A.07-1-2">[[#note-A.07-1-2-ref|'''^''']] In protected mode some PSP fields, including the "parent" segment field at offset 16h, may be overwritten. Therefore tracing a chain of PSP references may get confused, unless each candidate "parent" PSP segment confirms presence of typical signatures, for example, code CD20h (INT 20) at offset 00h or code CD21h at offset 50h.</li> <li id="note-A.07-1-3">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.07-1-3-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.07-1-3-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[../The command line#note-2.04-02-1|'''''c''''']]} When current program starts, its JFT (Job File Table, offset 18h) contains SFT (A.01-4) entry numbers — one byte each — for "opened" objects, which are inherited from the parent process. Free spaces in JFT are filled with FFh byte. Values 80h–FEh in JFT correspond to remote files, opened by network redirectors. Default size of JFT — 20 bytes — imposes a restriction on number of opened objects. The INT 21\AH=67h function (8.02-76) enables to overcome this restriction: it arranges a larger JFT outside PSP, replaces a pointer to JFT in PSP at offset 34h and a count of JFT entries at offset 32h. However, child processes in any case can't inherit from their parent process more than 20 "opened" objects.</li> <li id="note-A.07-1-4">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.07-1-4-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.07-1-4-ref2|'''''b''''']]} Areas at offsets 5Ch and 6Ch are filled as unopened FCBs (A.09-5) with parsed data from first and second command line parameters. Parameters are parsed with INT 21\AX=2901h function (8.02-19). Count of parameters includes those that can't be parsed.</li> <li id="note-A.07-1-5">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.07-1-5-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.07-1-5-ref2|'''''b''''']]} The "command tail" area 81h–FFh is filled with a copy of command line with all parameters, which follow command name. The filled part of command tail area is terminated by byte 0Dh. Length of the filled part is written at offset 80h. If the length is set to 7Fh, and byte at offset FFh is 0Dh, hence real length of command tail exceeds 126 bytes, and its non-truncated version should be found in value of CMDLINE environmental variable.</li> <li id="note-A.07-1-6">[[#note-A.07-1-6-ref|'''^''']] "command tail" area 80h–FFh is used as default DTA (data transfer area) by "find file" functions INT 21\AH=11h,12h,4Eh,4Fh. You may prevent overwriting of "command tail" by changing DTA address with INT 21\AH=1Ah function (8.02-16).</li> </ol> === A.07-2 Data block for loading a program === The table below shows structure of a data block, used by INT 21\AX=4B00h and INT 21\AX=4B01h functions (8.02-53) in order to load a program into memory for its further execution. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Environment segment for child process <sup id="note-A.07-2-1-ref">[[#note-A.07-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 02h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to command line <sup id="note-A.07-2-2-ref">[[#note-A.07-2-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 06h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to data for FCB at offset 5Ch <sup id="note-A.07-2-3-ref">[[#note-A.07-2-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Ah || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to data for FCB at offset 6Ch ^{[[#note-A.07-2-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | 0Eh || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | On return: stack top SS:SP for loaded program <sup id="note-A.07-2-4-ref">[[#note-A.07-2-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 12h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | On return: loaded program entrance point CS:IP ^{[[#note-A.07-2-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.07-2-1">[[#note-A.07-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Whole environment of the parent process will be copied into this segment. If child process should be given access not to a copy, but to parent's environment itself, then the 0000h value should be assigned to a word at offset 00h in this data block.</li> <li id="note-A.07-2-2">[[#note-A.07-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Command line must include all what is to be written into PSP of the child process starting at offset 80h.<sup id="note-A.07-1-5-ref2">[[#note-A.07-1-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.07-1&#93;]]</sup> Command line string must begin with a byte, specifying its length, and must end with byte 0Dh.</li> <li id="note-A.07-2-3">[[#note-A.07-2-3-ref|'''^''']] This data string will be copied into corresponding FCB block<sup id="note-A.07-1-4-ref2">[[#note-A.07-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.07-1&#93;]]</sup> inside PSP for the child process. Required structure of this data string is shown in the "N" column of table A.09-5. First 12 bytes should be filled, then 4 bytes 00h must follow. If FCB should be left empty, then its first byte must be 00h, and then 11 bytes 20h must follow.</li> <li id="note-A.07-2-4">[[#note-A.07-2-4-ref|'''^''']] Double words at offsets 0Eh and 12h are returned by INT 21\AX=4B01h function only. This function loads a program, but doesn't initiate its execution. Returned stack top and entrance point enable to start execution of the loaded program later.</li> </ol> === A.07-3 Execution state descriptor === The table below shows data structure in execution state descriptor, used by INT 21\AX=4B05h function (8.02-54). {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | = 0000h (reserved) |- | 02h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Flags : | style="text-align: left;" | bit 0 set : program is of *.EXE format |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 1 set : loaded code is an overlay |- | 04h || 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to program's name, ending with 00h byte |- | 08h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | PSP segment address of the loaded program |- | 0Ah || 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Entrance point CS:IP of the loaded program |- | 0Eh || 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Size of the loaded program (including PSP) |} === A.07-4 Data block for server function === As far as server function INT 21\AX=5D00h (8.02-68) enables to execute any INT 21 function as a separate process, this data block defines the states of all registers as required for execution of the selected function. Before this selected function is called for, all specified states will be copied from data block into registers automatically. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of AX register |- | 02h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of BX register |- | 04h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of CX register |- | 06h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of DX register |- | 08h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of SI register |- | 0Ah || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of DI register |- | 0Ch || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of DS register |- | 0Eh || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Required contents of ES register |- | 10h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | = 0000h (reserved) |- | 12h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Virtual machine identifier <sup id="note-A.07-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.07-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 14h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Process identifier (i.e. PSP segment address) |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.07-4-1">[[#note-A.07-4-1-ref|'''^''']] If selected function is to be executed under current MS-DOS&nbsp;7, then the 0000h value should be specified as virtual machine identifier.</li> <li id="note-A.07-4-2">[[#note-A.07-4-2-ref|'''^''']] When this data block is used in order to close a process by means of INT 21\AX=5D01h function (8.02-69), then words at offsets 12h and 14h only are taken into account, all other words are ignored.</li> </ol> === A.07-5 Interrupt sharing protocol === Many drivers and TSR programs load their interrupt handlers and have to write address of this handler into a certain cell of interrupt table. However, this certain cell may be occupied yet by an address of another handler, which has been loaded beforehand. If new handler has to replace the former one, then a problem arises how to release memory, occupied by the former handler. If new handler complements functions of the former one, then a problem arises how to arrange their interaction. In both cases a solution is that each resident module must provide data, necessary for other resident modules, which may be loaded later. The first step in arranging resident modules interaction was IBM's Interrupt Sharing Protocol (ISP), stipulating presence of 16-byte data block with fixed placement relative to call address for corresponding resident module. The ISP protocol enables to form a traceable chain of references to all the modules, sharing a common interrupt number. ISP protocol gives an opportunity to alter the order of references in the chain and to remove certain references from the chain. The latter is a necessary condition for unloading resident modules. According to ISP protocol the call address, written into interrupt table, must point at a command of a short jump 16 bytes ahead, where executable code of resident module starts. The jumped over 16 bytes is just a place for data block. Structure of this data block is shown in the table below. All offsets in the table are counted from resident module's call address. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Short jump command (EBh 10h) to executable code |- | 02h || 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Address of previous handler in handler's chain |- | 06h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Signature 4Bh 42h (= "KB") |- | 08h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | = 00h – this handler is not the first |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | = 80h – this handler is the first in the chain |- | 09h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to module unloading subroutine with RETF command at the end |- | 0Bh || 7 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Reserved (must be zeros) |} Note 1: many resident modules don't conform to ISP protocol. It may be intentionally ignored in order to prevent references chain tracing or resident module unloading. === A.07-6 Alternative Multiplex Interrupt Specification (AMIS) === Multiplex interrupt INT 2F, described in part 8.03, has a serious drawback: coincident identifiers sometimes are appointed to different TSR modules due to inconsistent decisions of their developers. In order to avoid such conflicts an idea has been suggested to assign identifiers not beforehand by the will of module's developers, but automatically just in course of module's loading. Authorship of this idea is known to belong to Ralf Brown. Idea has been institutionalized by Alternative Multiplex Interrupt Specification (AMIS) and has been implemented by multiplex interrupt INT 2D. Contents of this article are based on version 3.6 of AMIS specification. Besides that, each resident module using multiplex interrupt INT 2D must conform to IBM's Interrupt sharing protocol ISP (A.07-5). According to AMIS specification an identifier for resident module should be searched in a cycle of calls for multiplex interrupt INT 2D with operation code AL = 00h and with successive incrementation of candidate identifiers in AH register, starting from AH = 00h. If anyone of loaded resident modules considers a particular candidate identifier in AH register as its own, it must set AL = FFh, must return in CH:CL registers its version number and must return in DX:DI registers a pointer to a signature up to 80 bytes long, ending with byte 00h. Search cycle should terminate on condition of returned zero value in AL register: it means that neither loaded resident module has appropriated the last specified candidate identifier. Hence, the latter is free, and current resident module can assign this identifier to itself. A similar cycle, but with other termination condition, should be arranged in order to find out whether a particular resident module is loaded or not. For this purpose the main role belongs to signature, pointed at by address returned in DX:DI registers. 16 bytes of this signature must be sufficient for identification of resident module. First 8 bytes must specify company or developer's name, the following 8 bytes — a name of program or a driver, which has loaded the responding resident module. Abridged names are allowed. If a name is shorter than 8 bytes, it should be appended with spaces (bytes 20h). The rest part of signature beyond 16 bytes is optional, but it may specify version and other useful data. Signature check enables to prevent repetitive loading of the same resident modules. Search cycle for a signature check also reveals identifier, assigned to the requested resident module. When the identifier is known, then other functions of this resident module can be called for. As far as calls for multiplex interrupt imply a search through a chain of references and are performed slowly, hence repetitive calls for module's specific functions via INT 2D are not expedient (though are allowed with operation codes above 10h). Direct addressing to module's functions with a CALL FAR command (7.03-08) is preferable. In order to obtain direct address, the INT 2D interrupt should be called once with operation code AL = 01h and with particular module's identifier in AH register. Address for direct calls, returned in DX:BX registers, should be saved, and then later more calls for multiplex interrupt wouldn't be needed. Beside the mentioned operations with operation codes AL = 00h and AL = 01h, AMIS specification stipulates several other operations, listed in the table below. Unified codes of these operations, shown in the first column of the table, enable to apply identical services for all resident modules. Some operations are optional. If addressed resident module returns in AL register the status code value 00h, hence it doesn't support the requested operation. On the contrary, returned status code value FFh confirms that the requested operation is supported and is done successfully. Several operations may return other status code values, informing about specific features of resident module. These and some other peculiarities of AMIS operation execution are explained in notes after the following table. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Code !! Description !! Comments |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h || Installation check |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01h || Request for direct address || <sup id="note-A.07-6-1-ref">[[#note-A.07-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 02h || Uninstall resident module || <sup id="note-A.07-6-2-ref">[[#note-A.07-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03h || Request for TSR program activation || <sup id="note-A.07-6-3-ref">[[#note-A.07-6-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h || Report about chained interrupts || <sup id="note-A.07-6-4-ref">[[#note-A.07-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 05h || Request for a list of "hot" keys || <sup id="note-A.07-6-5-ref">[[#note-A.07-6-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 06h || Request for device driver information || <sup id="note-A.07-6-6-ref">[[#note-A.07-6-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |} <ol> <li id="note-A.07-6-1">[[#note-A.07-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Returned status value AL = 00h means that requested resident module can't be addressed with CALL FAR command. Validity of the address returned in DX:BX registers must be confirmed by returned status code value AL = FFh.</li> <li id="note-A.07-6-2">[[#note-A.07-6-2-ref|'''^''']] A request to uninstall resident module must supply in DX:BX registers an address for return after completion of uninstall operation, though resident module may ignore this address. Returned in AL register status code values (except 00h and FFh) have the following meaning : ::01 – uninstall attempt failure ; ::02 – uninstall operation will be completed later ; ::03 – module has no uninstaller and stays active ; ::04 – the same, as 03, but module is deactivated ; ::05 – uninstall attempt should be repeated later ; ::06 – module is deactivated, but can't be uninstalled ; ::07 – the same, as 03, plus driver unloading required. Return of status code values 03, 04 or 07 means a necessity to launch a special uninstaller program. For this program the addressed resident module must return in BX register that segment address, where its executable code is loaded.</li> <li id="note-A.07-6-3">[[#note-A.07-6-3-ref|'''^''']] Returned in AL register status code values (except 00h and FFh) have the following meaning : ::01 – activation attempt should be repeated later ; ::02 – program will be activated later ; ::03 – program is active yet ; ::04 – activation attempt has failed. After successful activation, confirmed by status code FFh, some programs may report extra information in BX register. After a failure, confirmed by status code 04h, extra information may be returned in BX and CX registers. If the cause of failure remains unknown, BX and CX registers should return zeros.</li> <li id="note-A.07-6-4">[[#note-A.07-6-4-ref|'''^''']] Requests for operation 04h must specify in BL register a number of that interrupt (except INT 2D), which is to be checked. Returned in AL register status code values (except 00h) have the following meaning : ::01 – check result can't be determined ; ::02 – specified interrupt has been intercepted ; ::03 – the same as 02 plus handler's address – in DX:BX ; ::04 – in DX:BX – pointer to a list of interceptions ; ::FF – specified interrupt is not intercepted. Status code value 04 means that interrupt number, specified in BL register, is ignored. Returned list is composed of 3-byte groups per each interrupt: the first byte, the interrupt number ; the following 2 bytes, the offset (inside DX segment) of that interrupt handler's entrance address. End of list is marked with code 2Dh in a place for interrupt number.</li> <li id="note-A.07-6-5">[[#note-A.07-6-5-ref|'''^''']] After successful outcome, confirmed by status code FFh, in DX:BX registers a pointer to a list of "hot" keys is returned. Structure of this list is described in appendix A.02-7.</li> <li id="note-A.07-6-6">[[#note-A.07-6-6-ref|'''^''']] Operation 06h returns in AL register number of drivers, installed by addressed resident module, and in DX:BX registers – a pointer to header of the first of these installed drivers (A.05-1). In AH register a byte of flags is returned; bits 3–7 in this byte are reserved and must be clear. Set state of the rest flags should be interpreted as follows: ::bit 0 – drivers can't be unloaded from memory; ::bit 1 – drivers are not included in DOS's drivers chain; ::bit 2 – installed drivers are not reenterable. If addressed TSR program didn't install drivers, it has to return AL = 00h value. On return the contents of AH, BX and DX registers may be arbitrary altered.</li> </ol> == A.08 Floppy drive's data structures == === A.08-1 Floppy drive's data in BIOS data area === The table presents that information in BIOS data area, which relates to floppy drive(s). All offsets are counted from segment address 0040h, i.e. from the start of BIOS data area. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=4 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 10h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Flags : || bit || 0 || : floppy is able to boot the PC |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bits || 6–7 || : number of floppy drives minus one |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Eh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Bit 7 set by IRQ6 handler marks completion of FDD's job |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Fh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Motor's status in floppy drive(s) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 40h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Floppy motor OFF timeout count |- | style="text-align: center;" | 41h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Status : || bits || 0–4 || : last operation error <sup id="note-A.08-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.08-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 5 || : general controller failure |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 6 || : seek error |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 7 || : drive isn't ready |- | style="text-align: center;" | 42h | style="text-align: center;" | 3 | colspan=4 | Registers of floppy drive controller |- | style="text-align: center;" | 8Bh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Floppy drive data rate control |- | style="text-align: center;" | 8Fh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Floppy drive registration : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 0 || : drive 0 supports 80 tracks |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 2 || : presence of drive 0 is confirmed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 4 || : drive 1 supports 80 tracks |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 6 || : presence of drive 1 is confirmed |- | style="text-align: center;" | 90h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Floppy drive 0 media status : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bits || 0–2 || =111b for 3.5" disks |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 3 || : diskette 2.88 Mb |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 4 || : media type has been determined |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bits || 6–7 || : current data transfer rate |- | style="text-align: center;" | 91h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Floppy drive 1 media status (just as for drive 0) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 94h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Floppy drive 0 current track number |- | style="text-align: center;" | 95h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Floppy drive 1 current track number |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.08-1-1">Data placement in BIOS data area may depend on BIOS version (A.01-1).</li> <li id="note-A.08-1-2">[[#note-A.08-1-2-ref|'''^''']] Particular values of last error byte at offset 41h should be interpreted as it is shown in table A.06-1 for INT 13.</li> </ol> === A.08-2 Access and formatting parameters === Computer's BIOS system stores access and formatting parameters for each floppy disk drive in separate 11-byte tables. A pointer to such table for any particular floppy drive can be obtained with INT 13\AH=00h function (8.01-49). Besides that, one more similar 11-byte table is created for the default ("current") floppy drive; a pointer to the latter table is stored in a cell 0000:0078h (also known as INT 1E) inside interrupt table. Access and formatting parameters can be changed by INT 13\AH=18h function (8.01-54), but the changes wouldn't come into effect until floppy controller is reset by a call for INT 13\AH=00h (8.01-44). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=4 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Parameters, first byte : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="width: 3em;" | &nbsp; || bits || 7–4 || : step rate of head shift |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bits || 3–0 || : head unload time (0Fh = 0.24 s) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Parameters, second byte : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bits || 7–1 || : head load time (01h = 0.004 s) |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit || 0 || : set state means data transfer via DMA |- | style="text-align: center;" | 02h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Delay until motor turned off (in clock ticks 1/18 s) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Bytes per sector : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =00h | style="text-align: center;" | – || 128 bytes, |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =01h | style="text-align: center;" | – || 256 bytes, |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =02h | style="text-align: center;" | – || 512 bytes, |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =03h | style="text-align: center;" | – || 1024 bytes. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Number of sectors per track |- | style="text-align: center;" | 05h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Gap length between sectors : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =2Ah | style="text-align: center;" | – || for diskettes 5.25", |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =1Bh | style="text-align: center;" | – || for diskettes 3.5". |- | style="text-align: center;" | 07h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Gap length between sectors for formatting : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =50h | style="text-align: center;" | – || for diskettes 5.25", |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || =6Ch | style="text-align: center;" | – || for diskettes 3.5". |- | style="text-align: center;" | 08h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Format filler byte (default is F6h) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 09h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Head settle time in milliseconds |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ah | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=4 | Motor start time in ticks (1 tick = 1/18 second) |} === A.08-3 Floppy drive types registered by BIOS === BIOS Setup program stores data about registered floppy drives in a cell 10h of CMOS memory. In order to read these data the cell address 10h has to be sent with OUT command (7.03-66) into port 70h, and after that the required data byte can be read by IN command (7.03-26) from port 71h (more about that in <span id="note-A.14-1-1-ref2">[[#note-A.14-1-1|note&nbsp;1&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.14-1]]</span>). The required data byte occurs in AL register; bits 4–7 in that byte specify features of the first floppy drive, bits 0–3 specify features of the second floppy drive, if it exists. Hexadecimal values, expressed by each of these 4-bit groups, should be interpreted independently according to the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! style="width: 4em;" | Value ! style="text-align: left;" | Type of floppy disk drive |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0 || Floppy disk drive isn't present |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Drive for 360 kb 5.25" diskettes |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Drive for 1.2 Mb 5.25" diskettes |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || Drive for 720 kb 3.5" diskettes |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Drive for 1.44 Mb 3.5" diskettes |- | style="text-align: center;" | 5 || Drive for 2.88 Mb 3.5" diskettes |} == A.09 Directories and file's data tables == === A.09-1 Directory records and file's data === Data concerning files, volume labels and subdirectories are stored in corresponding directory records. Data structure in ordinary 32-byte directory record for an object with a "short" name is shown in the first column "D" of the table below. DOS's "find file" functions INT 21\AH=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) read directory records and return the found data in DTA area (8.02-16); format of data, returned by these functions, is shown in second column "F4E" of the table below. Other "find file" functions INT 21\AH=11h (8.02-11) and INT 21\AH=12h (8.02-12) also return found data in DTA area, but in other formats. Third column "F1N" of the table below shows format of data, returned after a search request with normal FCB block (column "N" in appendix A.09-5). But when search request is presented in a form of extended FCB block (column "E" in appendix A.09-5), then the same functions return other data structure, which is shown in the fourth column "F1E" of the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! D !! F4E !! F1N !! F1E !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || = FFh – signature of extended FCB |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || 06h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Attributes for a search (A.09-2) |- | &nbsp; || 00h || 00h || 07h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Disk : 01h = A:, 03h = C:, &hellip;<sup id="note-A.09-1-1-ref">[[#note-A.09-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 00h || 01h || 01h || 08h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8 || Name, appended with spaces to 8 bytes |- | 08h || 09h || 09h || 10h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 3 || Suffix, appended with spaces to 3 bytes |- | &nbsp; || 0Ch || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Attributes for a search (A.09-2) |- | &nbsp; || 0Dh || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Ordinal number of directory record |- | &nbsp; || 0Fh || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Number of the first directory cluster |- | 0Bh || 15h || 0Ch || 13h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Actual attributes (A.09-2) of the object |- | 0Ch || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Auxiliary attribute byte <sup id="note-A.09-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.09-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.09-1-3-ref">[[#note-A.09-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Dh || &nbsp; || 0Eh || 15h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Time in 0.01-second units ^{[[#note-A.09-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 0Eh || &nbsp; || 0Fh || 16h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Object creation time ^{[[#note-A.09-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 10h || &nbsp; || 11h || 18h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Object creation date ^{[[#note-A.09-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 12h || &nbsp; || 13h || 1Ah | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Date of the last access |- | 14h || &nbsp; || 15h || 1Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Starting cluster number <sup id="note-A.09-1-4-ref">[[#note-A.09-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 16h || 16h || 17h || 1Eh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Time of the last update |- | 18h || 18h || 19h || 20h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Date of the last update |- | 1Ah || &nbsp; || 1Bh || 22h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Starting cluster number ^{[[#note-A.09-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | 1Ch || 1Ah || 1Dh || 24h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Object's size in bytes (binary form) |- | &nbsp; || 1Eh || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 13 || Object's name and suffix <sup id="note-A.09-1-5-ref">[[#note-A.09-1-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.09-1-1">[[#note-A.09-1-1-ref|'''^''']] Search functions INT 21\AX=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) return this byte with its 7th bit set, if disk is accessed via a network.</li> <li id="note-A.09-1-2">[[#note-A.09-1-2-ref|'''^''']] If object is created under DOS, then this data field is not filled. Copying procedures under DOS don't copy those data, which may be present in this field.</li> <li id="note-A.09-1-3">[[#note-A.09-1-3-ref|'''^''']] This data field is used by operating systems Windows-2000/XP, but the author has no information about role of these data.</li> <li id="note-A.09-1-4">[[#note-A.09-1-4-ref|'''^''']] Object's starting cluster number in FAT-16 volumes is a word at offset 1Ah; field at offset 14h is not used. But cluster number in FAT-32 volumes is a double word. The most significant two bytes of this double word are stored at offset 14h.</li> <li id="note-A.09-1-5">[[#note-A.09-1-5-ref|'''^''']] Search functions INT 21\AX=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) don't overwrite name search template at offset 01h; actual name of the found object, ending with 00h byte, is returned at offset 1Eh.</li> </ol> === A.09-2 Structure of attribute byte === Attribute byte at offset 0Bh in a directory record (A.09-1) defines class of the object, associated with this record. Bitfields of attribute byte are explained in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Bit !! Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0 || Read-only file |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Hidden file |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || System file |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || Volume label (must be zero for files and directories) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Directory (must be zero for files and volume labels) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 5 || File, which is to be stored in archive |- | 6,7 || Not used under MS-DOS, must be zero |} Note 1: the 0Fh value of attribute byte is regarded as a signature of LFN directory records, associated with files having "long" names (A.09-3). Such records are formed by Windows-95/98/ME operating systems. Note 2: states of bits 3 and 4 in attribute byte can't be changed by INT 21\AX=4301h function (8.02-39) or by ATTRIB.EXE utility (6.01). Note 3: file search functions INT 21\AX=4E00h (8.02-57) and INT 21\AH=4Fh (8.02-58) ignore states of bits 0 and 5 in attribute byte. Note 4: extended "file open" function INT 21\AX=6C00h (8.02-78) accepts in CX register an attribute word with clear bits 4 and 6-15. Role of other bits corresponds to that shown in table A.09-2. === A.09-3 Format of LFN directory records === Each "long" filename, accepted by Windows-95/98/ME operating systems, occupies at least several directory records of standard 32-byte size. Truncated version of "long" filename is stored in the last of these records; its structure corresponds to that shown in table A.09-1. But the rest records, associated with the same file, store unicode characters of "long" filename. These rest LFN records have other structure, shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Offset !! Size !! Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Ordinal number of LFN record <sup id="note-A.09-3-1-ref">[[#note-A.09-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 10 || First portion of "long" filename's characters |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Bh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || = 0Fh – signature of LFN record |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || = 00h (reserved) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Dh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Checksum for short filename <sup id="note-A.09-3-2-ref">[[#note-A.09-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 10h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 12 || Second portion of "long" filename's characters |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Ah | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || = 0000h for all LFN records |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || Third portion of "long" filename's characters |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.09-3-1">[[#note-A.09-3-1-ref|'''^''']] The last LFN record, associated with the same "long" filename, is marked by set state of bit 6 in the first byte.</li> <li id="note-A.09-3-2">[[#note-A.09-3-2-ref|'''^''']] The short filename checksum byte is calculated by adding up the eleven bytes of the short filename, with rotating the intermediate sum right one bit before adding each next character byte.</li> </ol> === A.09-4 Bitfields of access and sharing byte === While preparing an object for access, the INT 21\AH=3Dh (8.02-33) and INT 21\AX=6C00h (8.02-78) functions accept a byte of access conditions. This byte is written into a cell at offset 02h in corresponding SFT entry (A.01-4). Role of bitfields in access and sharing conditions byte is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Bits !! Description |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 1-0 || Access conditions: ::00b – for reading only ::01b – for writing only ::10b – for reading and writing ::11b – for execution and transfer |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || If set, prohibits updating file's last-access time |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || = 0b (reserved) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 6-4 || Sharing conditions: ::000b – compatibility mode ::001b – prohibit access for others ::010b – prohibit write access for others ::011b – prohibit read access for others ::100b – allow full access for others |- | style="text-align: center;" | 7 || If set, file's handle will not be inherited by child processes. |} Note 1: sharing conditions are ignored unless SHARE.EXE utility is loaded. Note 2: previous versions of MS-DOS require clear state of bit 2. === A.09-5 Unopened file control blocks === File control block (FCB) is an obsolete form of object's properties specification. It gives no access to objects beyond current directory and to disks with FAT-32 file system. Nevertheless some functions employ partially filled (unopened) FCBs just as a template of specification for object's search, renaming and deletion. Unlike operations with completely filled (opened) FCB blocks, operations with unopened FCBs (INT 21\AH=11h, 12h, 13h, 17h) are still used and can be applied to objects in the current directory on disks with FAT-32 file system. Unopened FCB's data structure is shown in the table below. In MS-DOS&nbsp;7 two forms of FCB blocks are allowed: normal FCB blocks up to 36 bytes long and extended FCBs up to 43 bytes long. A distinctive feature of extended FCB is FFh value of its first byte. Normal FCB blocks define files only, except those having "Hidden" and "System" attributes. Extended FSBs include search attributes specification and therefore may be applied to different objects: files, volume labels and subdirectories. Both normal and extended FCBs may be completely filled (opened) and partially filled (unopened). Column "N" of the table below shows data structure in unopened normal FCB blocks, column "E" shows the same for unopened extended FCB blocks. Those FCB bytes, which are not shown in the table below, must have the 00h value. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! N !! E !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | &nbsp; || 00h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || = FFh – signature of extended FCB |- | &nbsp; || 06h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Attributes specification for search (A.09-2) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 00h || 07h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Logical disk number: 00h = "current" disk, 01h = A:, 03h = C:, and so on (except the FFh value). |- | 01h || 08h | style="text-align: center;" | 8 || Object's name or its search mask <sup id="note-A.09-5-1-ref">[[#note-A.09-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 09h || 10h | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || Object's suffix or its search mask ^{[[#note-A.09-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | 0Ch || 13h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || On return: search attributes (from offset 06h) |- | 0Dh || 14h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || On return: object's record number in directory |- | 0Fh || 16h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || On return: current directory's cluster number |- | 11h || 18h | style="text-align: center;" | 8 || On call for INT 21\AH=17h: new name for file |- | 15h || 1Ch | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || On return: disk number (01h=A:, 03h=C:, and so on) |- | 19h || 20h | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || On call for INT 21\AH=17h: new suffix for file |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.09-5-1">[[#note-A.09-5-1-ref|'''^''']] In FCBs all characters of name and suffix must be in upper case. Name is appended with spaces (20h) to its nominal length 8 bytes, suffix is appended with spaces to its nominal length 3 bytes. If empty, both name and suffix fields must be filled with spaces. The mentioned and some other requirements to filling FCB fields can be met by means of INT 21\AH=29h function (8.02-19).</li> <li id="note-A.09-5-2">Being called for the first time, functions INT 21\AH=11h (8.02-11) and INT 21\AH=13h (8.02-13) require 00h values in all fields after offset 0Ch in normal FCB and after offset 13h in extended FCB. On return these fields contain data, which must be preserved intact from each previous search call to each next search call. In the same FCB fields the INT 21\AH=17h function (8.02-14) accepts new name for the renamed file, requiring buffer 28 bytes long for normal FCB and 35 bytes long for extended FCB.</li> <li id="note-A.09-5-3">Unopened FCB blocks are not subjected to restriction, imposed by FCBS command specification (4.10) in CONFIG.SYS file.</li> </ol> === A.09-6 Canonical structure of a CD directory record === High Sierra and ISO 9660 file systems implement slightly different data structures in CD directory records. Both these data structures can be translated by INT 2F\AX=150Fh function (8.03-19) to a common canonical form, which is shown below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 1 || Length of attribute record in logical blocks |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 4 || File's first logical block number |- | style="text-align: center;" | 05h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 2 || Size of file in logical blocks |- | style="text-align: center;" | 07h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 4 || File's length in bytes |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Bh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 7 || Date and time |- | style="text-align: center;" | 12h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 1 || Bit flags |- | style="text-align: center;" | 13h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 1 || Interleave size (for AVI files only) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 14h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 1 || Interleave skip factor (for AVI files only) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 15h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 2 || Volume set sequence number |- | style="text-align: center;" | 17h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 1 || Length of file name |- | style="text-align: center;" | 18h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 38 || Name of file, ending with 00h byte |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3Eh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 2 || File version number |- | style="text-align: center;" | 40h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 1 || Number of bytes in system data block |- | style="text-align: center;" | 41h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.3em;" | 220 || System data block |} == A.10 Video data tables == === A.10-1 Selected videomodes === Videomodes define screen appearance. Both BIOS and DOS use textual videomodes : color videomode 03h or monochrome videomode 07h. Each program is allowed to set the most appropriate video mode, either textual or graphic. Available videomodes depend on PC's hardware. During hardware evolution some videomodes have become common for the sake of compatibility. Later a subset of videomodes has acquired the status of a standard. The table below lists only those videomodes, which are almost certainly supported by any modern video card. Video cards with insufficient internal memory probably will not be able to support graphic videomodes with high resolution. Obsolete PC's produced before 1991 don't support SVGA videomodes at all. EGA and VGA videomodes are defined by one-byte code, specified in the first column of the table below. These videomodes may be set by INT 10\AH=00h function (8.01-10). SVGA video modes are defined by 2-byte hexadecimal code, which should be specified in BX register for INT 10\AX=4F02h function (8.01-37). The table below doesn't specify the most significant half-byte of SVGA videomode code, because this half-byte (bits 15–12) is charged with another mission. Its 12th and 13th bits must be cleared, the 14th bit enables linear frame buffer access, and the 15th bit forces to retain video memory contents. For example, you may specify BX=0102h, when you want video memory to be cleared, or BX=8102h if you want video memory contents to be preserved: in both cases you'll get the same videomode, which is specified as 102h in the first column of the table below. Codes of other SVGA videomodes are shown in the same way — without specification of the most significant half-byte. Codes of non-SVGA video modes may be specified for INT 10\AX=4F02h function in the least significant byte of BX register while its bits 15 and 14 are charged with the described missions, and bits 13–8 are made clear. Monochrome videomodes, both textual and graphic, are marked in the second column of the table as "b/w" (instead of colors number). Textual video modes are characterized in column 3 of the table below by number of characters in a row and by number of rows per screen height. For example, definition 80x25 means that you may address rows 0–24 and character cells 0–79 in each row. All listed textual modes accept 8x16 fonts. Graphic modes are characterized by their resolution in pixels, shown in the 4th column. For example, resolution 640x480 means that you are allowed to address screen lines 0–479 and pixels 0–639 in each line. The 5th column in the table shows video buffer starting address for those videomodes, which use fixed video buffer in UMB address space. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Videomode !! Colors !! Text !! Graphics !! Buffer !! Class |- | 01h || 16 || 40x25 || &nbsp; || B800 || VGA |- | 03h || 16 || 80x25 || &nbsp; || B800 || VGA |- | 06h || b/w || &nbsp; || 640x200 || B800 || EGA,VGA |- | 07h || b/w || 80x25 || &nbsp; || B000 || VGA |- | 0Eh || 16 || &nbsp; || 640x200 || A000 || EGA,VGA |- | 0Fh || b/w || &nbsp; || 640x350 || A000 || EGA,VGA |- | 10h || 16 || &nbsp; || 640x350 || A000 || VGA |- | 11h || b/w || &nbsp; || 640x480 || A000 || VGA |- | 12h || 16 || &nbsp; || 640x480 || A000 || VGA |- | 13h || 256 || &nbsp; || 320x200 || A000 || VGA |- | 100h || 256 || &nbsp; || 640x400 || *1 || SVGA |- | 101h || 256 || &nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA |- | 102h || 16 || &nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA |- | 103h || 256 || &nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA |- | 104h || 16 || &nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA |- | 105h || 256 || &nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA |- | 108h || 16 || 80x60 || &nbsp; || *1 || SVGA |- | 109h || 16 || 132x25 || &nbsp; || *1 || SVGA |- | 10Ah || 16 || 132x43 || &nbsp; || *1 || SVGA |- | 10Bh || 16 || 132x50 || &nbsp; || *1 || SVGA |- | 10Ch || 16 || 132x60 || &nbsp; || *1 || SVGA |- | 110h || 32k || &nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA |- | 111h || 64k || &nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA |- | 112h || 16M || &nbsp; || 640x480 || *1 || SVGA |- | 113h || 32k || &nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA |- | 114h || 64k || &nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA |- | 115h || 16M || &nbsp; || 800x600 || *1 || SVGA |- | 116h || 32k || &nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA |- | 117h || 64k || &nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA |- | 118h || 16M || &nbsp; || 1024x768 || *1 || SVGA |- | 119h || 32k || &nbsp; || 1280x1024 || *1 || SVGA |- | 11Ah || 64k || &nbsp; || 1280x1024 || *1 || SVGA |- | 11Bh || 16M || &nbsp; || 1280x1024 || *1 || SVGA |- | 120h || 256 || &nbsp; || 1600x1200 || *1 || SVGA |} Note 1: position and size of video memory access "windows" in address space for SVGA videomodes may depend on PC's hardware. Video memory access parameters should be determined by call for INT 10\AX=4F01h function (8.01-36, A.10-7). Note 2: when SVGA standard hasn't been adopted yet, then equivalent to SVGA's 102h videomode was 6Ah videomode (800x600x16). The 6Ah videomode still can be set by INT 10\AH=00h function (8.01-10). Note 3: SVGA standard reserves BX=81FFh code for special video mode, enabling unlimited direct access to video memory. === A.10-2 Information about video adapter status === The table below shows structure of 64-byte data block, returned by INT 10\AH=1Bh function (8.01-34). This block presents information about current status of video adapter. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Address of static functionality table (A.10-3) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Current video mode |- | style="text-align: center;" | 05h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Number of columns or of pixels along a line |- | style="text-align: center;" | 07h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Size of regeneration buffer in bytes |- | style="text-align: center;" | 09h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Starting address of regeneration buffer |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Bh | style="text-align: center;" | 16 || Cursor positions (2 bytes each) for pages 0–7 |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Bh | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Cursor's start and stop scan lines |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Dh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Active screen page |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Eh | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || CRT controller's port address |- | style="text-align: center;" | 20h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Last values sent to ports 03x8h and 03x9h |- | style="text-align: center;" | 22h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Number of rows (or screen lines) minus one |- | style="text-align: center;" | 23h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Number of bytes per font's character |- | style="text-align: center;" | 25h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Active video adapter code |- | style="text-align: center;" | 26h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Code of alternate video adapter (if it exists) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 27h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Number of videomode's colors (0000h = monochrome) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 29h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Number of screen pages supported by videomode |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Ah | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Active scan lines <sup id="note-A.10-2-1-ref">[[#note-A.10-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Bh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Character generator's primary font block |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Ch | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Character generator's secondary font block |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2Dh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Current status flags <sup id="note-A.10-2-2-ref">[[#note-A.10-2-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 31h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Video memory, 00h–03h correspond to 64,128,192,256k |- | style="text-align: center;" | 32h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Flags, just as at offset 0Eh in table A.10-3. |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.10-2-1">[[#note-A.10-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Number of active scan lines is defined by set state of one bit in a byte at offset 2Ah. Set state of bit 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 corresponds to numbers of lines 200, 350, 400, 480, 512, 600, 768.</li> <li id="note-A.10-2-2">[[#note-A.10-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Bits in flag's byte at offset 2Dh have the following meaning : ::bit 0 – no restrictions on videomode choice ::bit 1 – gray scale summing is on ::bit 2 – monochrome display attached ::bit 3 – default palette loading disabled ::bit 4 – cursor emulation enabled ::bit 5 – role of 7th bit in color byte (A.10-5) ::bit 6 – 9-dot wide fonts are not supported If 5th bit in flag's byte is cleared, then 7th bit in color byte defines brightness of background, otherwise it defines blinking.</li> </ol> === A.10-3 Format of static functionality table === Static functionality table informs about variety of capabilities, potentially supported by PC's video adapter. A pointer to static functionality table is returned by INT 10\AH=1Bh function (8.01-34) in current video adapter status table (A.10-2) at offset 00h. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: center;" | 7 || Bits 0–13h correspond to video modes 00h–13h ; if a bit is set, the corresponding video mode is supported. The rest bits are reserved for OEM videomodes. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 07h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Bits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 signify support to scan lines numbers 200, 350, 400, 480, 512, 600, 768. |- | style="text-align: center;" | 08h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Maximum number of fonts in textual videomodes |- | style="text-align: center;" | 09h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Maximum number of active fonts in textual videomodes |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ah | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Supported operations: :bit 0 – all modes on all displays supported :bit 1 – gray summing function supported :bit 2 – character font loading function supported :bit 3 – default palette loading enable/disable supported :bit 4 – cursor emulation function supported :bit 5 – internal EGA palette present :bit 6 – color palette present :bit 7 – color-register paging function supported :bit 8 – light pen supported (INT 10\AH=04h) :bit 9 – save/restore state function 1Ch supported :bit 10 – intensity/blinking switching supported (A.10-5) :bit 11 – more than one video adapter supported |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 0Eh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Fonts and palettes support: :bit 0 – 512-character sets supported :bit 1 – dynamic determination of save area supported :bit 2 – textual font override supported :bit 3 – graphics font override supported :bit 4 – palette override supported :bit 5 – video adapter code extensions supported |} === A.10-4 BIOS information about SVGA extensions === The table below shows selected data from a data block 512 bytes long returned by INT 10\AX=4F00 function (8.01-35). These data characterize software supplied in fixed storage chip(s) of video adapter. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Signature "VESA" or "VBE2" |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Version number of SVGA BIOS extensions |- | style="text-align: center;" | 06h | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to manufacturer's (OEM) name |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Eh | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to list of supported videomodes (end mark FFFFh) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 12h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Amount of video memory in 64 kb blocks |} === A.10-5 16-color codes === Though AT-compatible computer's hardware suggests a large variety of videomodes, the default videomode for both BIOS and MS-DOS&nbsp;7 is a 16-color 80x25 textual videomode 03h. For this videomode and for all other 16-color videomodes (A.10-1) colors are defined by a 4-bit code, shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" | 0000 || 0 || black || 1000 || style="text-align: right;" | 8 || gray |- | 0001 || 1 || blue || 1001 || style="text-align: right;" | 9 || bright blue |- | 0010 || 2 || green || 1010 || style="text-align: right;" | 10 || bright green |- | 0011 || 3 || cyan || 1011 || style="text-align: right;" | 11 || bright cyan |- | 0100 || 4 || red || 1100 || style="text-align: right;" | 12 || bright red |- | 0101 || 5 || magenta || 1101 || style="text-align: right;" | 13 || bright magenta |- | 0110 || 6 || brown || 1110 || style="text-align: right;" | 14 || yellow |- | 0111 || 7 || white || 1111 || style="text-align: right;" | 15 || bright white |} Color codes are used to compose color bytes, also known as display attribute bytes. Video memory in textual videomodes is filled with alternating color bytes and character bytes. In each color byte bits 3–0 define foreground (character's) color, and bits 6–4 define background color. By default the 7th bit defines character's blinking instead of background's brightness, but role of the 7th bit may be reprogrammed by INT 10\AX=1003h function (8.01-23), and then the most significant bits in both 4-bit groups will have the same mission. By default the 3rd bit defines foreground brightness, but this role also may be reprogrammed by INT 10\AX=1103h function (8.01-28), and then bit 3 will redirect character generator to another font block, thus enabling to display characters from two fonts at the same time. === A.10-6 Video data fields in BIOS data area === The table below shows those selected items in BIOS data area, which have relation to computer's video subsystem. All offsets in the table are counted from the start of BIOS data area (A.01-1) at segment address 0040h. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 10h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Bits 5–4 define initial video mode: |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00b | style="text-align: center;" | – || according to video adapter settings |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01b | style="text-align: center;" | – || 40x25 textual CGA color mode |- | style="text-align: center;" | 10b | style="text-align: center;" | – || 80x25 textual CGA color mode |- | style="text-align: center;" | 11b | style="text-align: center;" | – || 80x25 monochrome textual mode |- | style="text-align: center;" | 49h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Current video mode (A.10-1) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4Ah | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Number of columns (or pixels) per screen width |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4Ch | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Video buffer's screen page size (in bytes) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4Eh | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Current page start address in video buffer |- | style="text-align: center;" | 50h | style="text-align: center;" | 16 || Cursor XY positions on each of 8 video pages |- | style="text-align: center;" | 60h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Cursor start and end scan lines (INT 10/AH=01h) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 62h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Active screen page number |- | style="text-align: center;" | 63h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || CRT controller base I/O port address (usually 03D4h) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 65h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Last control byte value sent to port 03B8h/03D8h: :bit 5 – blinking control (INT 10\AX=1003h) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 66h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Last control byte value sent to I/O port 03D9h: :bit 4 – background brightness |- | style="text-align: center;" | 84h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Number of rows (or lines) on screen minus one |- | style="text-align: center;" | 85h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Font height in scan lines |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 87h | style="text-align: center;" | 5 || Video adapter control flags: :bit 0: – cursor emulation disabled :bit 1: – monochrome display attached :bit 2: – wait for CRT display enable :bit 7: – don't clear RAM on videomode set |- | style="text-align: center;" | A8h | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to VGA video pointers table |} Note 1: presented data placement may depend on BIOS version (A.01-1). === A.10-7 Features of requested SVGA videomode === This table presents selected data from a 256-byte data block, returned by INT 10\AX=4F01 function (8.01-36) in response to a request about any SVGA videomode, supported by computer's hardware. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | style="width: 3em; text-align: left;" | Flags : | style="text-align: left;" | bit 0 – requested videomode is supported |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 2 – functions 8.01-21, 8.01-33 are supported |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 3 – set for color videomode |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 4 – set for graphic videomode |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 5 – videomode differs from VGA standard |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 6 – memory banks switching isn't supported |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 7 – linear frame buffer is supported |- | 02h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Window "A" : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 0 – sliding window "A" is active |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 1 – window "A" is readable |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 2 – window "A" is writable |- | 03h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Window "B": the same, as at offset 02h for window "A" |- | 04h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Shift step (in kb) of windows "A", "B" in video memory |- | 06h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Size of sliding windows "A" and "B" (in kb) |- | 08h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Segment address of window "A" in CPU's address space |- | 0Ah || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Segment address of window "B" in CPU's address space |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 0Ch || 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Direct call address for sliding windows positioning program, similar to INT 10\AX=4F05h (8.01-39) |- | 10h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of video memory bytes per one screen line |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 12h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Screen line length in pixels for graphic videomodes or in character cells for textual videomodes |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 14h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Screen height in pixels for graphic videomodes or in character cells for textual videomodes |- | 16h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Character cell width (in pixels) |- | 17h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Character cell height (in pixels) |- | 18h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of video memory planes |- | 19h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of video memory bits per one pixel |- | 1Ah || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of video adapter's memory banks |- | 1Bh || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Video memory filling model: |- | 00h || – | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | textual, alternate character and color bytes |- | 03h || – | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | 16-color graphic EGA model |- | 04h || – | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | graphic model with "packed" pixels |- | 06h || – | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | 3 color bytes per pixel (HiColor) |- | 07h || – | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | luminance-chrominance model (YUV/YIQ) |- | 1Ch || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Video memory bank size (in kilobytes) |- | 1Dh || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Number of screen pages |- | 28h || 4 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Physical address of linear video buffer (VBE v2.0) |} == A.11 PC's hardware specifications == === A.11-1 Hardware configuration word === Hardware configuration word is returned by INT 11 handler (8.01-42); it reads this word in BIOS data area (A.01-1) at address 0040:0010h (exact address may depend on BIOS version). Bifields in hardware configuration word should be interpreted according to the following table. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Bits ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 0 || PC can be booted from existing floppy drive |- | 1 || Math coprocessor is present |- | 2 || BIOS controlled pointing device (mouse) is attached |- | 4-5 || Code of initial video mode (A.10-1) |- | 6-7 || Number of floppy drives minus one (if bit 0 is set) |- | 9-11 || Number of available serial ports (COM-ports) |- | 12 || Game port is present (for joystick) |- | 13 || Internal modem is present |- | 14-15 || Number of available parallel ports (LPT-ports) |} === A.11-2 PC model identifiers for HIMEM.SYS driver === In order to enable access to computer's extended memory, HIMEM.SYS driver (5.04-01) has to determine CPU model. However, in some computers HIMEM.SYS can't determine CPU model properly, and then computer's identifier or its numeric code should be specified explicitly in driver's command line. The table below presents identifiers and corresponding numeric codes for computers, which don't ensure CPU determination for at least some versions of HIMEM.SYS driver. The first place in this table (code 1) is an exception: IBM AT is a determinable model, it represents the default choice. Latest versions of HIMEM.SYS driver are able to detect properly most part of PC types, specified in this table, except Acer 1100, Wyse, and IBM 7552. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Identifier !! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | PC model |- | at || 1 || IBM PC AT and compatible models |- | ps2 || 2 || IBM PS/2 |- | ptlcascade || 3 || Phoenix Cascade BIOS |- | hpvectra || 4 || HP Vectra (A & A+) |- | att6300plus || 5 || AT&T 6300 Plus |- | acer1100 || 6 || Acer 1100 |- | toshiba || 7 || Toshiba 1600 & 1200XE |- | wyse || 8 || Wyse 12.5 Mhz 286 |- | tulip || 9 || Tulip SX |- | zenith || 10 || Zenith ZBIOS |- | at1 || 11 || reserved by IBM |- | at2 || 12 || reserved by IBM |- | css || 12 || CSS Labs |- | at3 || 13 || reserved by IBM |- | philips || 13 || Philips |- | fasthp || 14 || HP Vectra |- | ibm7552 || 15 || IBM 7552 Industrial Computer |- | bullmicral || 16 || Bull Micral 60 |- | dell || 17 || Dell XBIOS |} === A.11-3 Keyboard controller === Keyboard controller is a chip on computer's motherboard. Though types of keyboard controllers may be different, their mission and their interface in all AT-compatible computers are unified. Main interaction between CPU and keyboard controller occurs via ports 60h and 64h. Port 64h is always opened for reading keyboard controller's current status by IN command (7.03-26). Set state of bits in status byte, read from port 64h, should be interpreted as follows: ::bit 7 – an error has occurred in data sent from keyboard ::bit 6 – keyboard doesn't respond to controller ::bit 4 – keyboard is blocked with ADh command ::bit 2 – keyboard's self-test has been successful ::bit 1 – previous operation isn't completed yet ::bit 0 – a key code is prepared for reading in port 60h At each keystroke and at each key release keyboard controller exhibits transformed key code in port 60h and just after that announces its readiness for reading via bit 0 in port 64h and via bit 4 of controller's output line.<sup id="note-A.11-3-1-ref1">[[#note-A.11-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> The latter signal invokes INT 09 handler (8.01-09), which reads the prepared byte from port 60h. Each reading access to port 60h clears bit 0 in port 64h. Besides that, port 64h receives operation codes, sent to keyboard controller with OUT command (7.03-66). As far as keyboard controller is much slower, than CPU, before sending an operation code the CPU must wait until bit 1 will be cleared in status byte, read from the same port 64h: it will signify that the keyboard controller has finished its previous operation and is ready to receive the next operation code for execution. Codes of some important operations, which may be sent to keyboard controller's port 64h, are shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | Operation |- | ADh || Block the keyboard (switch it OFF) |- | AEh || Activate the keyboard (switch it ON) |- | D1h || Open port 60h for data reception <sup id="note-A.11-3-1-ref2">[[#note-A.11-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | EDh || Open port 60h for data reception <sup id="note-A.11-3-2-ref">[[#note-A.11-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | FEh || Send reset signal to CPU <sup id="note-A.11-3-3-ref">[[#note-A.11-3-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.11-3-1">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.11-3-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.11-3-1-ref2|'''''b''''']]} Having received operation code D1h via port 64h, keyboard controller begins to wait for reception of data byte via port 60h and then transfers the received data byte to its output bus. Bits of data byte are distributed among output bus lines in the following way: ::bit 7 – command output to keyboard via data line; ::bit 6 – clock output to keyboard via clock line; ::bit 4 – a call for INT 09 (8.01-09) via line IRQ 1; ::bit 1 – to gate of CPU's address line A20; ::bit 0 – to CPU's reset pin. Active state of controller's output lines corresponds to cleared states of bits in data byte; hence, sending a data byte with clear bit 0 is not allowed – CPU will get blocked. Because of the same reason for opening A20 line gate a data byte FFh should be sent to port 60h, and for closing access to HMA – data byte FDh.</li> <li id="note-A.11-3-2">[[#note-A.11-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Having received operation code EDh via port 64h, keyboard controller begins to wait for reception of data byte via port 60h and then transfers bit states of the received data byte to control lines of keyboard's LED indicators, in particular : ::bit 2 – to Caps Lock indicator; ::bit 1 – to Num Lock indicator; ::bit 0 – to Scroll Lock indicator. Indicator will be lit, if corresponding bit in data byte is set. Not mentioned bits in this data byte must be cleared.</li> <li id="note-A.11-3-3">[[#note-A.11-3-3-ref|'''^''']] Having received operation codes F0h–FFh via port 64h, keyboard controller sends four least significant bits of this operation code to lines 3–0 of its output bus. Unlike to response on reception of operation code D1h, after reception of operation codes F0h–FFh the imposed states of output lines are not fixed for ever, but are kept for about 6 milliseconds as a solitary pulse. In particular, operation code FEh causes a pulse sent to CPU's reset pin, just as after a press on RESET button on a face panel of computer's system block. Some ways to affect further events after CPU's reset are described in <span id="note-A.12-1-4-ref4">[[#note-A.12-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.12-1&#93;]]</span>.</li> </ol> === A.11-4. CPU's flags register === Former 16-bit flags register in modern processors, starting from model 80386, has been expanded to 32 bits; besides that, control registers CR0, CR2 and CR3 have been introduced. Later, starting from Pentium CPU, one more control register CR4 has been added. Flags are present in all of the mentioned control registers, except CR2: it stores linear address of that last command, which requested access to a forbidden memory page. Missions of flags in flags register, and also of some flags in control registers are shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Register !! Bit !! Description !! Comments |- | FLAGS || 00h || CF – carry flag || <sup id="note-A.11-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | FLAGS || 02h || PF – bit's parity in the least significant byte || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | FLAGS || 04h || AF – intermediate carry flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | FLAGS || 06h || ZF – zero (or equality) flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | FLAGS || 07h || SF – sign flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | FLAGS || 08h || TF – trace (step-by-step) flag |- | FLAGS || 09h || IF – interrupt enable flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | FLAGS || 0Ah || DF – index count direction flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | FLAGS || 0Bh || OF – overflow flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | FLAGS || 0Ch || I/O privilege level 2-bit field || <sup id="note-A.11-4-2-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | FLAGS || 0Eh || Nested task flag || <sup id="note-A.11-4-3-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | FLAGS || 0Fh || Distinctive feature of CPU 8086 || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | EFLAGS || 10h || Ignore debugging flag (A.11-5) || <sup id="note-A.11-4-4-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | EFLAGS || 11h || VM – V86 mode flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.11-4-5-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | EFLAGS || 12h || AC – alignment check enable flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.11-4-6-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | EFLAGS || 13h || VIF – virtual interrupt flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | EFLAGS || 14h || VIP – virtual interrupt pending || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | EFLAGS || 15h || ID – CPU identification flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.11-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 00h || PE – protection enable flag || <sup id="note-A.11-4-7-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]</sup> |- | CR0 || 01h || Coprocessor synchronization (7.02-05) || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 02h || Coprocessor emulation via INT 07 || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 03h || TS – task switched flag || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 04h || Coprocessor's commands support || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 05h || Exception enable on coprocessor's errors || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 10h || WP – write protection || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.11-4-8-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]</sup> |- | CR0 || 12h || AM – alignment mask || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.11-4-6-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | CR0 || 1Dh || NW – not write-through cache || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 1Eh || CD – cache disable || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR0 || 1Fh || PG – paging enabled || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR3 || 03h || Cache write-through || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.11-4-9-ref">[[#note-A.11-4-9|&#91;Note&nbsp;9&#93;]]</sup> |- | CR3 || 04h || Page caching disabled || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.11-4-9|&#91;Note&nbsp;9&#93;]]} |- | CR4 || 00h || VME – V86 mode extensions enabled || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR4 || 01h || PVI – virtual interrupts enabled || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR4 || 02h || TSD – time stamp disabled || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | CR4 || 03h || Debugging: allow INT 01 on port calls || ^{[[#note-A.11-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.11-4-1">[[#note-A.11-4-1-ref|'''^''']] Mission and states of this flag are described in article 6.05-15.</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-2">[[#note-A.11-4-2-ref|'''^''']] Bits 0Ch and 0Dh in flags register express required privilege level for performing I/O operations. By default under DOS both bits 0Ch and 0Dh are set: hence, direct I/O operations are allowed for all processes. But only processes with the highest (zero) privilege level are allowed to alter states of 0Ch and 0Dh bits with POPF command (7.03-68). The latter feature enables to determine whether the current process indeed is performed at the highest privilege level.</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-3">[[#note-A.11-4-3-ref|'''^''']] Flags register enables to perform a coarse identification of CPU type. Inability to clear the 0Fh flag is a distinctive feature of obsolete 8086 CPU. Inability to set the 0Eh flag is specific for 16-bit processors. If CPU is able to set the 0Eh flag, hence it is a 32-bit CPU and is equipped with extended EFLAGS register. In the latter case bit 15 in EFLAGS register will show, whether this CPU is able to respond properly to CPU identification command (CPUID, machine code 0Fh A2h)</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-4">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.11-4-4-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#POPF-3|'''''b''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#PUSHF-1|'''''c''''']]} EFLAGS is a 32-bit extension of 16-bit flags register. In real mode access to EFLAGS's bits 31–16 can be provided by PUSHF and POPF commands, preceded by prefix 66h, as it is described in article 7.02-06.</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-5">[[#note-A.11-4-5-ref|'''^''']] An opportunity to set V86 mode with POPF command is blocked by hardware. Nevertheless V86 mode can be set from stack with IRET command, if CPU is in protected mode and if at the same time the 06 bit in segment descriptor allows 32-bit addressing (A.12-2).</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-6">[[#note-A.11-4-6-ref|'''^''']] Here alignment implies that address of each operand in memory must be a multiple of this operand's size (in bytes). Alignment check can be performed at the lowest (the third) privilege level only, when CPU is in protected mode (note 1 to 8.01-42). Alignment mask bit in CR0 enables alignment exceptions even if these are not enabled by AC flag in EFLAGS register.</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-7">[[#note-A.11-4-7-ref|'''^''']] Control registers can be accessed with MOV command (note 1 to 7.03-58). Besides that, contents of CR0 register can be read by INT 67\AX=DE07h function (8.03-72).</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-8">[[#note-A.11-4-8-ref|'''^''']] Bit 10h is used in order to protect application programs segments from being accessed for writing to operating system or to other processes, which may have higher privilege level.</li> <li id="note-A.11-4-9">[[#note-A.11-4-9-ref|'''^''']] 20 most significant bits of CR3 register store base address of page directory. This base address must be a multiple of page size (normally 4 kb). Each writing operation to CR3 register causes updating of TLB buffer contents; this should be done after every change in page address translation table(s).</li> </ol> === A.11-5 CPU's debugging registers === Debugging registers enable to call for INT 01 handler (8.01-02) each time a particular target is addressed: a port or a prescribed memory region, including non-writable regions of address space, where breakpoints can't be stored. All modern processors of x86 platform, starting from model 80386, are equipped with debugging registers DR0–DR7. Access to debugging registers is provided by INT 67\AX=DE08h-DE09h functions (8.03-73), and also by MOV command (note 1 to 7.03-58). Registers DR0–DR3 store four 32-bit absolute linear addresses of prescribed target points. The DR7 register defines conditions of access event enrolment. The DR6 register stores some circumstances of happened access event (programmable and external interrupts don't affect DR6 contents). Missions of selected bitfields in DR6 and DR7 registers are shown in the following table. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Register !! Bit !! Description !! Comments |- | DR6 || 00h || Event has occurred at DR0 address || <sup id="note-A.11-5-1-ref">[[#note-A.11-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | DR6 || 01h || Event has occurred at DR1 address || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | DR6 || 02h || Event has occurred at DR2 address || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | DR6 || 03h || Event has occurred at DR3 address || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | DR6 || 0Dh || Breakpoint debug access detected || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | DR6 || 0Eh || BS – single step state detected || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | DR6 || 0Fh || TS – task switch state detected || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | DR7 || 00h || 2-bit permission field for DR0 || <sup id="note-A.11-5-2-ref">[[#note-A.11-5-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | DR7 || 02h || 2-bit permission field for DR1 || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | DR7 || 04h || 2-bit permission field for DR2 || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | DR7 || 06h || 2-bit permission field for DR3 || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | DR7 || 0Dh || GD – general detect enabled || <sup id="note-A.11-5-3-ref">[[#note-A.11-5-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | DR7 || 10h || 4-bit control field for DR0 || <sup id="note-A.11-5-4-ref">[[#note-A.11-5-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | DR7 || 14h || 4-bit control field for DR1 || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | DR7 || 18h || 4-bit control field for DR2 || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | DR7 || 1Ch || 4-bit control field for DR3 || ^{[[#note-A.11-5-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.11-5-1">[[#note-A.11-5-1-ref|'''^''']] Access event is fixed in bits 01h–03h of DR6 register even when exception generation is not permitted by bit 0Dh in DR7 register or by bit 10h in EFLAGS register (A.11-4). Bit 0Eh in DR6 register fixes state of TF flag at the moment of access event ; bit 0Fh, the state of task switch. Set state of bit 0Dh in DR6 register reminds that exception hasn't been generated yet, though access event has happened (bit 0Dh is cleared by exception).</li> <li id="note-A.11-5-2">[[#note-A.11-5-2-ref|'''^''']] Permission field defines either local or global permission to enroll access events. The first of bits in permission field acts locally within current task only and is turned off at each task change. The second bit in permission field is imparted with global property and enables to enroll access events beyond the current task.</li> <li id="note-A.11-5-3">[[#note-A.11-5-3-ref|'''^''']] Bit 0Dh in DR7 register doesn't affect access event enrolment, but rather allows exception generation, caused by access event. State of 0Dh bit in DR7 can't be changed unless the process either has the highest privilege level or is executed in real mode.</li> <li id="note-A.11-5-4">[[#note-A.11-5-4-ref|'''^''']] The first pair of bits in each control field defines purpose of those access events, which should be intercepted : ::00 – attempt to execute machine code ::01 – attempt of writing into memory ::10 – I/O address to a port (for CPUs Pentium+) ::11 – both reading and writing attempts. The second pair of bits in each control field defines size of the monitored address space: a byte, a word or a double word. Attempt of access to either byte within monitored address space is equally enrolled as access event.</li> </ol> == A.12 Memory allocation and management == === A.12-1 General memory map === This table shows general allocation of memory space below 1 Mb, typical for AT-compatible computers, controlled by DOS operating system. However, memory allocation depends on BIOS version, on BIOS Setup settings, on particular computer's configuration. Therefore some features of memory allocation in your computer may differ from those shown below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Address !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 0000:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 400h || Interrupt table for real mode |- | 0000:0074 | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to video register's default settings |- | 0000:0078 | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to default floppy data table (A.08-2) |- | 0000:007C | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to 8x8 graphic font characters 80–FFh |- | 0000:0104 | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to 1st HDD parameters table (A.13-1) |- | 0000:010C | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to current graphic font (8.01-30) |- | 0000:0118 | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Pointer to 2nd HDD parameters table (A.13-1) |- | 0040:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 100h || BIOS data area (A.01-1) |- | 0050:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Printer's status for INT 05 (8.01-06) |- | 0050:0004 | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Floppy drive choice (A: or B:) |- | 0050:0040 | style="text-align: center;" | BCh || Selected pointers to original interrupt handlers <sup id="note-A.12-1-6-ref">[[#note-A.12-1-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0000:7C00 | style="text-align: center;" | 200h || Default area to load and execute boot record |- | 9000:FFFF | style="text-align: center;" | – || Upper boundary of "conventional" memory <sup id="note-A.12-1-1-ref">[[#note-A.12-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | A000:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 10000h || Video memory access "window" <sup id="note-A.12-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.12-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | B000:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 10000h || Video memory access "window" ^{[[#note-A.12-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | B800:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 8000h || Video buffer for textual videomodes EGA+ |- | C000:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 8000h || Video adapter's BIOS area <sup id="note-A.12-1-3-ref">[[#note-A.12-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | C000:0070 | style="text-align: center;" | 7 || "EXTMODE" signature: SVGA videomodes support |- | C800:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 4000h || Hard disk's BIOS area |- | D000:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 10000h || Default area for UMBs, arranged by EMM386.EXE |- | E000:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | 10000h || Default area for expanded memory pages |- | F000:0000 | style="text-align: center;" | FFFFh || Relocated copy of PC's ROM BIOS ^{[[#note-A.12-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | F000:FFF0 | style="text-align: center;" | – || Reboot program's entrance point <sup id="note-A.12-1-4-ref1">[[#note-A.12-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | F000:FFF5 | style="text-align: center;" | 8 || BIOS date |- | F000:FFFD | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || BIOS code checksum |- | F000:FFFE | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Computer's model code |- | FFFF:0010 | style="text-align: center;" | FFEFh || High memory area <sup id="note-A.12-1-5-ref">[[#note-A.12-1-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.12-1-1">[[#note-A.12-1-1-ref|'''^''']] The 640 kb boundary of conventional memory is hardware defined by dynamic memory controller chip in motherboard's chipset. Above this boundary the next 384 kb of address space are reserved for video memory and for BIOS ROM chips. Free space in this area normally is made accessible in protected mode due to address translation mechanism in CPU.</li> <li id="note-A.12-1-2">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.12-1-2-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected drivers#MemMgrs|'''''b''''']]} Address space area A000:0000–B000:FFFF provides access to video memory. Particular usage of this area depends on videomode (A.10-1). SVGA BIOS of modern video adapters arranges in this area one or two "sliding" windows, providing "sliding" access to selected part(s) of large video memory (details in section 8.01-39).</li> <li id="note-A.12-1-3">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.12-1-3-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected drivers#MemMgrs|'''''b''''']]} Access via the same areas of address space may be arranged either directly to BIOS and video BIOS codes in ROM chips or to copies of these codes in a more fast RAM. A choice of a particular alternative depends on "shadowing" parameters settings for corresponding memory areas, set by BIOS Setup program.</li> <li id="note-A.12-1-4">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.12-1-4-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref4|'''''d''''']] [[#note-A.12-1-4-ref5|'''''e''''']]} Reset program's entrance point address F000:FFF0h is hardware defined by CPU : at power-on the initial state of its address bus is just FFFF0h. Further booting process depends on value written in byte 0Fh in BIOS's CMOS RAM<sup id="note-A.14-1-1-ref3">[[#note-A.14-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.14-1&#93;]]</sup>: ::00h – ordinary booting with POST test ::04h – reboot with a call for INT 19 (8.01-90) ::05h – reset and jump to address in 0040:0067 cell (A.01-1) ::0Ah – jump to address prepared in 0040:0067 cell (A.01-1) Unlike booting after power-on, POST test after reboot depends on a word at address 0040:0072h.<sup id="note-A.01-1-1-ref2">[[#note-A.01-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.01-1&#93;]]</sup> Alternatives 05h and 0Ah are used after reboot only and differ in that whether interrupt controller will be reset or not.</li> <li id="note-A.12-1-5">[[#note-A.12-1-5-ref|'''^''']] High memory area is accessed, when segment address summation with offset produces a carry bit, directed into A20 line of address bus. High memory area is accessible in real mode, but needs HIMEM.SYS driver (5.04-01) to be installed, which provides control over A20 line gate.</li> <li id="note-A.12-1-6">[[#note-A.12-1-6-ref|'''^''']] The 0050:0040–0050:00FB area stores copies of selected interrupt handler's addresses (INT 00 – INT 1F, INT 40 – INT 43, INT 46, INT 70 – INT 77), prepared by BIOS for subsequent loading of operating system. In main interrupt table these addresses may be overwritten by addresses of other handlers, installed later either by MS-DOS&nbsp;7 itself, or by TSR programs, or by drivers.</li> </ol> === A.12-2 Segment descriptors === Segment boundaries and access rights in protected mode are defined by segment descriptors. A number of most important segment descriptors constitute global descriptor table (GDT). CPU transition to protected mode implies presence of a GDT, at least partially prepared beforehand, while CPU is in real mode. Order and selection of descriptors in the prepared GDT depend on requirements of that procedure, which should control CPU transition to protected mode. Examples of GDT tables for different procedures are shown in articles 8.01-76, 8.01-78 and 9.10-01. In all GDT tables the first descriptor must be filled with zeros: it is a template for non-requested segments and memory pages. All descriptors have the same internal structure, shown in the following table. Least {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h || style="text-align: center;" | 2 || colspan=2 | Less significant 2 bytes of segment size, the least first |- | style="text-align: center;" | 02h || style="text-align: center;" | 3 || colspan=2 | Less significant 3 bytes of base address, the least first |- | style="text-align: center;" | 05h || style="text-align: center;" | 1 || colspan=2 | Access rights byte <sup id="note-A.12-2-2-ref">[[#note-A.12-2-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup>: |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 0: || = 0 – segment hasn't been accessed yet |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 1 – segment has been accessed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 1: || = 0 – data reading or code execution only |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 1 – data writing and code reading allowed |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || colspan=2 style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 2 : – direction of expansion <sup id="note-A.12-2-3-ref">[[#note-A.12-2-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 3 : || = 0 – segment contains data |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 1 – segment contains executable code |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 4 : || = 0 – system descriptor's marker |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 1 – application descriptor's marker |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || colspan=2 style="padding-left: 1em;" | bits 5–6 : – privilege level : |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 00 – highest |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 11 – lowest |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 7 : || = 0 – segment must be read from disk |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 1 – segment is present in RAM |- | style="text-align: center;" | 06h || style="text-align: center;" | 1 || colspan=2 | bits 0–3 : – most significant 4 bits of segment size |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || colspan=2 style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 4: – free bit <sup id="note-A.12-2-4-ref">[[#note-A.12-2-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup>: |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 5: || = 0 (reserved) |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || colspan=2 style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 6: – address and operand's size <sup id="note-A.12-2-5-ref">[[#note-A.12-2-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup>: |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 0 – 16-bit addressing and operands |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 1 – 32-bit addressing and operands |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || colspan=2 style="padding-left: 1em;" | bit 7: – granularity bit: |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 0 – segment size count in bytes |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 1 – segment size count in 4 kb units |- | style="text-align: center;" | 07h || style="text-align: center;" | 1 || colspan=2 | Most significant byte of base address |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.12-2-1">[[#note-A.12-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Bytes 06h and 07h of segment descriptor are taken into account by CPU models 80386 and higher. If program is expected to be executed by CPU 80286, then bytes 06h and 07h must be cleared. Zero values of bytes 06h and 07h are a distinctive feature of protected mode 16-bit programs, enabling their proper execution by 32-bit CPU models.</li> <li id="note-A.12-2-2">[[#note-A.12-2-2-ref|'''^''']] Interpretation of bits 0–3 in access rights byte depends on bit 4. The shown interpretation of bits 0–3 relates to application programs, including their data segments and executable code segments. In system descriptors bits 0–3 define 16 types of different descriptor's subtypes.</li> <li id="note-A.12-2-3">[[#note-A.12-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Interpretation of bit 2 in access rights byte depends on bit 3. In code segments cleared state of bit 2 means that code can be executed by programs of the same privilege level (otherwise code also can be executed by programs having higher privilege level). For data segments cleared state of bit 2 means normal expansion direction upwards, whereas set state of bit 2 means reverse expansion direction — downwards, as used in stack segments.</li> <li id="note-A.12-2-4">[[#note-A.12-2-4-ref|'''^''']] Bit 4 in byte 06h is available to programmer's regulation. In memory page descriptors this bit is used as a redefinition ban mark, for example, for mapping I/O address space into memory.</li> <li id="note-A.12-2-5">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.12-2-5-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected utilities#CSDOSB|'''''b''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#note-7.02-06-5|'''''c''''']] [[../Debugger's assembler commands#note-7.02-07-3|'''''d''''']]} Size bit 6 in byte 06h of code segment descriptors defines sizes of both addresses and operands. In system segments, bits 4–6 of byte 06h must be cleared.</li> </ol> === A.12-3 Selected subfunctions of XMS-driver === XMS subfunctions are performed by extended memory driver HIMEM.SYS (5.04-01). Before these subfunctions can be used, two preliminary operations have to be done. First is to check with INT 2F\AX=4300h function (8.03-22) whether HIMEM.SYS driver is installed. The second operation is to find out with INT 2F\AX=4310h function (8.03-23) an address of XMS driver's entrance point. Returned double-word address should be specified for a CALL FAR command (7.03-08). On call the subfunction to be executed is defined by value in AX register, shown in the first column of the table below. DX register's mission is shown in second column, returned AX contents – in the fourth column. If AX returns status, AX=0001h means success, AX=0000h means failure. In case of failure, almost all subfunctions (except AH=00h) return error code (A.06-1) in BL register. Query subfunctions AH=08h and AH=88h return error code in BL register in any case. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! style="width: 2.5em; text-align: left;" | AH ! style="width: 5em; text-align: left;" | DX ! style="width: 15em; text-align: left;" | Subfunction ! style="width: 7em; text-align: left;" | AX on return ! style="text-align: left;" | Comments |- | 00h || &nbsp; || Report XMS version || XMS version || <sup id="note-A.12-3-1-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 05h || &nbsp; || Turn ON the A20 line gate || status |- | 06h || &nbsp; || Turn OFF the A20 line gate || status |- | 08h || &nbsp; || Report free XMS-memory || largest block || <sup id="note-A.12-3-2-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 09h || size || Allot XMS-memory block || status || <sup id="note-A.12-3-3-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Ah || handle || Release XMS-memory block || status |- | 0Bh || &nbsp; || Copying in XMS-memory || status || A.12-4 |- | 0Ch || handle || Lock XMS-memory block || status || <sup id="note-A.12-3-4-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Dh || handle || Unlock XMS-memory block || status |- | 0Eh || handle || Get XMS handle information || status || <sup id="note-A.12-3-5-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Fh || handle || Resize XMS-memory block || status || <sup id="note-A.12-3-6-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | 10h || size || Allot UMB memory block || status || <sup id="note-A.12-3-7-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.12-3-8-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]</sup> |- | 11h || segment || Release UMB memory block || status || ^{[[#note-A.12-3-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]} |- | 12h || segment || Resize UMB memory block || status || ^{[[#note-A.12-3-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.12-3-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]} |- | 88h || &nbsp; || Report free XMS memory || largest block || ^{[[#note-A.12-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.12-3-9-ref">[[#note-A.12-3-9|&#91;Note&nbsp;9&#93;]]</sup> |- | 89h || size || Allot XMS-memory block || status || ^{[[#note-A.12-3-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.12-3-9|&#91;Note&nbsp;9&#93;]]} |- | 8Eh || handle || Get XMS handle information || status || ^{[[#note-A.12-3-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.12-3-9|&#91;Note&nbsp;9&#93;]]} |- | 8Fh || handle || Resize XMS-memory block || status || ^{[[#note-A.12-3-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.12-3-9|&#91;Note&nbsp;9&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.12-3-1">[[#note-A.12-3-1-ref|'''^''']] This subfunction returns status of HMA area in DX register: DX=0001h signifies that HMA area is in use, DX=0000h – that HMA area is not used.</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-2">[[#note-A.12-3-2-ref|'''^''']] On call subfunction 08h needs BL=00h. On return size of free XMS memory (in kilobytes) is reported in DX register, and size of the largest available XMSmemory block is reported in AX register. The 88h subfunction does the same, but returns similar results in 32-bit registers EDX and EAX. Besides that, subfunction 88h in ECX register returns maximum physical address, corresponding to furthermost available byte of XMS-memory.</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-3">[[#note-A.12-3-3-ref|'''^''']] Both 09h and 89h subfunctions accept requested size of XMS-memory block in kilobytes, but 09h subfunction accepts requested size from DX register, whereas 89h subfunction accepts requested size from 32-bit EDX register. Both 09h and 89h subfunctions return a handle for allotted XMS-memory block in DX register.</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-4">[[#note-A.12-3-4-ref|'''^''']] In case of success registers DX:BX return 32-bit physical address of that memory block, which has been locked.</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-5">[[#note-A.12-3-5-ref|'''^''']] The 0Eh subfunction returns in BH register a number of lock counts for the requested XMS block, in BL register – number of free handles, in DX register – size in kilobytes of XMS block, opened for access by the specified handle. The 8Eh subfunction does the same, but returns number of free handles in CX register, and size of XMS block – in EDX register.</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-6">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.12-3-6-ref|'''''a''''']] [[../Selected drivers#UMBPCI.SYS-no-EMS|'''''b''''']]} Resizing subfunction 0Fh accepts new size (in kilobytes) for the requested memory block from BX register. The 8Fh subfunction does the same, but accepts new size from EBX register. Requested memory block must not be locked.</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-7">[[#note-A.12-3-7-ref|'''^''']] For CPU models 80386 and higher the 10h–12h subfunctions usually are implemented by means of address translation in CPU's TLB buffer. Therefore execution of these subfunctions is relegated to EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02), which arranges address translation and intercepts address of direct calls for HIMEM.SYS driver. However, subfunctions 10h–12h don't necessarily require switching CPU to protected mode and can be implemented in real mode by UMBPCI.SYS driver (5.04-04).</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-8">[[#note-A.12-3-8-ref|'''^''']] Both 10h and 12h subfunctions operate with UMB block size specifications in 16-byte units (paragraphs). Resizing subfunction 12h accepts requested new size from BX register. Allocation subfunction 10h in case of successful termination returns segment address of UMB block in BX register, and actual size of UMB block &mdash; in DX register. In case of a failure, marked by AX=0000h value, both 10h and 12h subfunctions return size of the largest available UMB block in DX register.</li> <li id="note-A.12-3-9">[[#note-A.12-3-9-ref|'''^''']] Unlike 0xh subfunctions, the 8xh subfunctions can't be implemented by obsolete 16-bit processors and require HIMEM.SYS driver's version not less than 3.07.</li> </ol> === A.12-4 Format of XMS copy request === A pointer to this request data block is accepted from DS:SI registers by subfunction AH = 0Bh (A.12-3) of XMS driver HIMEM.SYS (5.04-01). Subfunction AH = 0Bh copies a group of bytes from one XMS block, addressed via source handle, to another XMS block, addressed via destination handle. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size !! style="text-align:left;" | Description |- | 00h || 4 || style="text-align: left;" | Number of bytes to copy (must be even) |- | 04h || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Source handle |- | 06h || 4 || style="text-align: left;" | Offset in source block |- | 0Ah || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Destination handle |- | 0Ch || 4 || style="text-align: left;" | Offset in destination block |} Note 1: if source and destination overlap, only forward copying (source base less than destination base) is guaranteed to work properly. Note 2: if either handle in the request is 0000h, then the corresponding offset double-word is interpreted as ordinary address (segment: offset) inside directly addressable conventional memory. === A.12-5 Format of EMS copy descriptor === EMS copy descriptor specifies source and destination for copying and exchange functions INT 67\AX=5700h-5701h (8.03-69), performed by EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02). Both source and destination may belong either to EMS memory page(s) or to conventional memory. In the latter case 0000h value should be written instead of corresponding handle number, and location should be specified by segment address in place of EMS logical page number. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size !! style="text-align:left;" | Description |- | 00h || 4 || style="text-align: left;" | Length in bytes of the data block to be copied/exchanged |- | 04h || 1 || style="text-align: left;" | = 00h: source block is in conventional memory |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="text-align: left;" | = 01h: source block is in EMS-memory page |- | 05h || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Source handle (0000h if source in conventional memory) |- | 07h || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Source offset in page or in conventional memory segment |- | 09h || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Source logical page or segment in conventional memory |- | 0Bh || 1 || style="text-align: left;" | = 00h: destination block is in conventional memory |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || style="text-align: left;" | = 01h: destination block is in EMS-memory page |- | 0Ch || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Destination handle (0000h if destination in conventional memory) |- | 0Eh || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Destination offset in page or in conventional memory segment |- | 10h || 2 || style="text-align: left;" | Destination logical page or segment in conventional memory |} Note 1: for move operation the source and destination may overlap, but then only one direction of copying provides proper result. === A.12-6 Data block for jumps inside EMS memory === The shown data block specifies parameters of a call for subroutine inside EMS memory, performed by INT 67\AH=56h function (8.03-68) of EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02). A far jump operation inside EMS memory, performed by INT 67\AH=55h function (8.03-68), uses a part of the shown data block up to offset 09h. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size !! style="text-align:left;" | Description |- | 00h || 4 || style="text-align:left;" | Target address (segment: offset) |- | 04h || 1 || style="text-align:left;" | Length of new page mapping list |- | 05h || 4 || style="text-align:left;" | Pointer to new page mapping list |- | 09h || 1 || style="text-align:left;" | Length of current page mapping list |- | 0Ah || 4 || style="text-align:left;" | Pointer to current page mapping list |- | 0Eh || 8 || style="text-align:left;" | (reserved for EMM386.EXE driver's data) |} Note 1: internal structure of page mapping lists is described in note 3 to article 8.03-66. Data about current page mapping list, which is to be replaced, are needed for return to current program execution when subroutine's execution terminates. === A.12-7 Memory control descriptors === Computer's memory allocation is a prerogative of operating system. Each memory block, allotted by DOS, is preceded by a 16 bytes long memory control descriptor. These descriptors are also known as MCB (Memory Control Blocks). MCBs are easy to find: segment address of MCB descriptor is always a unity less, than segment address of allotted memory block, associated with this MCB descriptor. DOS traces the whole available memory via a chain of MCB descriptors.<sup id="note-A.12-7-3-ref1">[[#note-A.12-7-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> Free memory space beyond the allocated memory areas is considered by DOS as a separate memory block: it also must be preceded by MCB descriptor. A distinctive feature of MCB descriptor(s), associated with free memory space(s), is code 0000h instead of segment address of the owner program. All data about available free memory and about disposition of particular free memory areas DOS acquires from a traceable chain of MCB descriptors. Data structure inside a MCB descriptor is shown in the following table. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size !! style="text-align: left;" | Description !! Comments |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h || style="text-align: center;" | 1 || = 4Dh (= M) – not-the-last MCB || <sup id="note-A.12-7-1-ref">[[#note-A.12-7-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || = 5Ah (= Z) – the last MCB in a chain |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01h || style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Segment address of owner program || <sup id="note-A.12-7-2-ref">[[#note-A.12-7-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03h || style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Size of associated memory block || <sup id="note-A.12-7-3-ref2">[[#note-A.12-7-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 05h || style="text-align: center;" | 3 || Not used |- | style="text-align: center;" | 08h || style="text-align: center;" | 8 || Program filename || <sup id="note-A.12-7-4-ref">[[#note-A.12-7-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.12-7-1">[[#note-A.12-7-1-ref|'''^''']] Memory block with main DOS's system data is divided into subblocks, each having its own MCB descriptor, but with other identifiers in a byte at offset 00h : ::42h (= B) – subblock with buffers (4.03) ::44h (= D) – subblock for DOS's drivers ::45h (= E) – data subblock for DOS's drivers ::46h (= F) – subbblock with SFT table (4.12) ::49h (= I) – subblock for IFS data ::4Ch (= L) – subblock with CDS table (4.17) ::53h (= S) – subblock for DOS's stacks (4.27) ::54h (= T) – subblock for transition code(s) ::58h (= X) – subblock for FCBS (4.10)</li> <li id="note-A.12-7-2">[[#note-A.12-7-2-ref|'''^''']] If associated memory space is free, then in MCB descriptor a word at offset 01h is filled with zeros. If associated memory block is allocated by DOS to itself, then code 0008h is written in a word at offset 01h instead of segment address of the owner program.</li> <li id="note-A.12-7-3">^{[[#note-A.12-7-3-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.12-7-3-ref2|'''''b''''']]} Size of associated memory block is specified in 16-byte units (paragraphs). Segment address of each next MCB descriptor is a unity greater than a sum of a number, specified at offset 03h in current MCB descriptor, with segment address of current MCB descriptor. On basis of this formula DOS traces a chain of MCB descriptors. Tracing starts from the first MCB descriptor; segment address of this first MCB descriptor is stored in a word just preceding DOS's List-of-Lists. This word is marked in table A.01-2 as having offset &minus;02h.</li> <li id="note-A.12-7-4">[[#note-A.12-7-4-ref|'''^''']] Name of program's file is specified in those MCB descriptors, which are associated with PSP memory blocks, with driver's subblocks and with IFS subblocks. At offset 08h in several other MCB descriptors there are signatures with the following meaning : ::SC – associated block contains DOS's executable code; ::SD – associated block contains DOS's data; ::SM – associated block is the last in UMB area; ::UMB – associated block is the first in UMB area. Bytes 08h–0Fh in MCB descriptors, associated with other memory blocks, are not used and may contain "garbage".</li> <li id="note-A.12-7-5">[[#note-A.12-7-5-ref|'''^''']] Program files with *.COM suffix have no headers, which specify the required memory space for other types of executable files. This is why for programs with *.COM suffix DOS allocates the whole free memory space, following previously allocated memory areas. When DOS has no more free memory space, then computer may get hanged at each next request for memory space, which may come from unexpectedly activated resident program of from a handler, invoked by external interrupt. In order to avoid a threat of hanging the programs with *.COM suffix must call for INT 21\AH=4Ah function (8.02-52), forming a separate MCB descriptor for unused part of memory and thus announcing it free. Examples of such calls are shown in the first 6 lines of assembler texts in articles 9.06, 9.10-01 and 9.10-02.</li> </ol> == A.13 Hard disk data structures == === A.13-1 BIOS tables of physical HDD parameters === BIOS systems in obsolete computers, produced before 1996, addressed HDDs with parameters CHS (Cylinder-Head-Sector). HDD's storage space, available for CHS addressing, is limited to 528 Mb. BIOS system stored CHS parameters of first and second physical HDDs in data tables; addresses of these tables were written in memory cells 0000:0104h and 0000:0118h correspondingly. Both these cells are inside interrupt table (A.12-1) and sometimes are referred to as INT 41 and INT 46. If computer was equipped with more than two HDDs, then the only way to obtain CHS parameters of the rest HDDs was a call for INT 13\AH=08h function (8.01-49). In 1995 capacities of HDDs have reached 1 Gb. The 528 Mb limit, inherent to CHS addressing, had to be overcame. For newer BIOS systems LBA addressing<sup id="note-A.13-6-4-ref2">[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.13-6&#93;]]</sup> and extended INT 13 functions (8.01-55 – 8.01-60) have been developed. But compatibility with former programs had to be preserved. Therefore in newer BIOS systems the INT 13\AH=08h function (8.01-49) has been "taught" to yield not the real, but transformed CHS parameters. When programs call for "old" INT 13 functions (8.01-46 – 8.01-54) and specify transformed CHS parameters, then BIOS system automatically performs reverse transformation so that HDD's storage space, available for CHS addressing, is expanded to 8.4 Gb (some detail in <span id="note-A.13-6-2-ref2">[[#note-A.13-6-2|note&nbsp;2&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.13-6]]</span>). Data blocks, addressed by pointers stored in cells 0000:0104h and 0000:0118h, may have different data structures: it depends on whether there are real or transformed CHS parameters. Both kinds of data structures are shown in the table below. Real data offsets are shown in the first column (Std). Offsets in the second column (Trs) correspond to transformed CHS data, conforming to Phoenix-1995 specification for HDDs with more than 1024 cylinders. Though described data blocks are supported by modern BIOS systems, nevertheless for programs being developed now usage of parameters from these data blocks is not recommended. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! Std !! Trs !! Size !! colspan=2 | Description |- | 00h || 00h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Number of HDD's cylinders <sup id="note-A.13-1-1-ref">[[#note-A.13-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 02h || 02h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Number of HDD's heads ^{[[#note-A.13-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- style="vertical-align: top;" | &nbsp; || 03h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Signature A0h — distinctive feature of blocks, conforming to Phoenix-1995 specification. |- | &nbsp; || 04h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Number of sectors per track <sup id="note-A.13-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.13-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 05h || 05h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Cylinder number, where write precompensation should start <sup id="note-A.13-1-3-ref">[[#note-A.13-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 08h || 08h | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | style="width: 3em;" | Flags : || bit 2 – no recalibration; |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 3 – more than 8 heads; |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 5 – defect map is present<sup id="note-A.13-1-4-ref">[[#note-A.13-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup>; |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 6 – disable ECC reading retries; |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 7 – disable access retries. |- | &nbsp; || 09h | style="text-align: center;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Number of tracks (up to 65536)^{[[#note-A.13-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | &nbsp; || 0Bh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Number of heads (up to 16)^{[[#note-A.13-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 0Ch || 0Ch | style="text-align: center;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Cylinder number of landing zone^{[[#note-A.13-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | 0Eh || 0Eh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Number of sectors per track ^{[[#note-A.13-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | &nbsp; || 0Fh | style="text-align: center;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Data checksum |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.13-1-1">[[#note-A.13-1-1-ref|'''^''']] CHS parameters in these positions are for "old" functions of INT 13 handler (8.01-46 – 8.01-54). Nevertheless there are some BIOS versions, which specify in these positions a number of cylinders exceeding 1024, inadmissible for "old" functions.</li> <li id="note-A.13-1-2">[[#note-A.13-1-2-ref|'''^''']] These positions are filled with real HDD's parameters for programs, appealing not to INT 13 handler, but directly to HDD controller's port. These positions are not filled in those data blocks, which supply real parameters for "old" functions of INT 13 handler.</li> <li id="note-A.13-1-3">[[#note-A.13-1-3-ref|'''^''']] Modern disk drives perform landing and write precompensation independently. Attempts to affect these operations are ignored.</li> <li id="note-A.13-1-4">[[#note-A.13-1-4-ref|'''^''']] The track number, where surface defect map is written, is usually a unit greater than the number of cylinders, specified at offset 00h in BIOS tables of physical HDD's parameters.</li> </ol> === A.13-2 Extended table of HDD's parameters === Extended table of HDD's parameters is written into a prepared buffer by INT 13\AH=48h function (8.01-60). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | On call: length of prepared buffer (8.01-60) |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | colspan=2 | On return: actual length of returned data |- | style="text-align: center;" | 02h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Flags : || bit 0 : DMA boundary errors handled transparently |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 1 : CHS data (A.13-1) are valid |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 2 : this is a removable drive, bits 4–6 are valid |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 3 : writing with verification is supported |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 4 : drive provides change-line support |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 5 : drive provides locking and unlocking |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || bit 6 : media isn't present, default CHS data reported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 | Number of physical cylinders on the drive <sup id="note-A.13-2-1-ref">[[#note-A.13-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 08h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 | Number of physical heads on the drive ^{[[#note-A.13-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 | Number of physical sectors per track (counted from 1) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 10h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8 | colspan=2 | Total number of sectors (number of the last sector plus 1) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 18h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | Bytes per sector |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Ah | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 | Pointer to auxiliary DPTE table <sup id="note-A.13-2-2-ref">[[#note-A.13-2-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Eh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 | colspan=2 | = BEDDh: signature confirming path data presence |- | style="text-align: center;" | 20h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 | = 2Ch: size of path data, including the signature |- | style="text-align: center;" | 24h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 | colspan=2 | Bus type (ISA or PCI) appended with a space (20h) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 28h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8 | colspan=2 | Interface type <sup id="note-A.13-2-3-ref">[[#note-A.13-2-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 30h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 8 | colspan=2 | Interface path field <sup id="note-A.13-2-4-ref">[[#note-A.13-2-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 38h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 16 | colspan=2 | Device path field <sup id="note-A.13-2-5-ref">[[#note-A.13-2-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 49h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 | colspan=2 | Complement checksum for bytes at offsets 1Eh–48h |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.13-2-1">[[#note-A.13-2-1-ref|'''^''']] Valid numbers of tracks, cylinders and heads are counted from zero, therefore the last valid number is a unity less than the value specified in this field. A value in this field is a real value. Therefore this value shouldn't be specified in calls for "old" INT 13 functions: these functions require transformed parameters, returned by INT 13\AH=08h function (8.01-49).</li> <li id="note-A.13-2-2">[[#note-A.13-2-2-ref|'''^''']] BIOS INT 13 extensions below version 2.x don't return DPTE table, and fill DPTE pointer field with FFFFh:FFFFh value. Structure of DPTE table is shown in appendix A.13-3. DPTE table is presented in a temporary buffer; its contents are not preserved after next calls for BIOS functions.</li> <li id="note-A.13-2-3">[[#note-A.13-2-3-ref|'''^''']] Interface type field may be filled with the following words: 1394, ATA, ATAPI, SCSI, USB. Words are appended with spaces up to nominal field length 8 bytes.</li> <li id="note-A.13-2-4">[[#note-A.13-2-4-ref|'''^''']] For ISA bus the path field contains a 2-byte base I/O port address, bytes at offsets 32h–37h are zeros. For PCI bus a byte at offset 30h presents bus number ; byte at offset 31h, slot number ; byte at offset 32h, function number ; byte at offset 33h, controller number ; bytes at offsets 34h–37h are zeros.</li> <li id="note-A.13-2-5">[[#note-A.13-2-5-ref|'''^''']] For 1394 (Firewire) interface a 8-byte extended unique identifier (EUI-64) is specified at offset 38h. For ATA (IDE) interface the 00h value at offset 38h signifies master device, the 01h value at offset 38h signifies slave device. Byte at offset 38h has the same meaning for ATAPI interface, but byte at offset 39h represents logical unit number (LUN). For SCSI interface a 2-byte device identifier (SCSI ID) is specified starting at offset 38h, and a 8-byte logical unit number (LUN) is specified starting at offset 3Ah. For USB interface a 8-byte serial number is written starting at offset 38h. Not mentioned bytes at offsets 3Ah–48h are reserved and must be cleared.</li> </ol> === A.13-3 Auxiliary device parameters table DPTE === BIOS INT 13 version 2.0 and higher supplement extended HDD's parameters table (A.13-2) with auxiliary device parameters table DPTE. A pointer to DPTE table is returned by INT 13\AH=48h function (8.01-60) at offset 1Ah inside extended HDD's parameters table (A.13-2). DPTE address points at a temporary buffer, which doesn't preserve its contents after following BIOS functions calls. Data in DPTE table are consigned for those programs, which intend to appeal directly to ports of HDD controller. DPTE data structure is shown in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Physical I/O port base address for the device |- | 02h || 2 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Disk drive control registers port address |- | 04h || 1 | style="width: 3em; text-align: left;" | Flags : | style="text-align: left;" | bits 0–3 are cleared, bits 5 and 7 are set |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 4 : cleared if master device, set if slave |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 6 : set if LBA addressing is enabled |- | 06h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Bits 0–3 : IRQ number, bits 4–7 are cleared |- | 07h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Blocks (sectors) count for multi-block transfers |- style="vertical-align: top;" | 08h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Bits 0–3 : DMA channel number, bits 4–7: DMA type according to ATA-2 specification. |- | 09h || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Bits 0–3 : PIO type, if in a word at offset 0Ah bit 0 is set. |- | 0Ah || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Flags : | style="text-align: left;" | bit 0 : fast PIO enabled, byte 09h is valid |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 1 : fast DMA access enabled |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 2 : multi-sector transfers enabled |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 3 : CHS parameters translation enabled |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 4 : LBA translation enabled |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 5 : drive uses removable media |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 6 : ATAPI interface device (probably CD-ROM) |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 7 : 32-bit transfer mode enabled |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 8 : ATAPI signal readiness for packet transfers |- style="vertical-align: top;" | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bits 9–10 : CHS parameters translation type: := 00 – bit-shifting translation := 01 – LBA-assisted translation := 10, 11 – proprietary translation |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | bit 11 : ultra DMA access enabled. |- | 0Eh || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | INT 13 extension version number |- | 0Fh || 1 | colspan=2 style="text-align: left;" | Complement checksum of bytes 00h–0Eh |} === A.13-4 Disk address packet === This form of data packet is used by extended reading function INT 13\AH=42h (8.01-56) and by extended writing function INT 13\AH=43h (8.01-57). Before applying these functions a check for their BIOS support should be made with a call for INT 13\AH=41h (8.01-55). {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Size of address packet <sup id="note-A.13-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.13-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 02h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Number (up to 7Fh) of data blocks to transfer <sup id="note-A.13-4-2-ref">[[#note-A.13-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp21&#93;]]</sup> |- | 04h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Pointer to data transfer buffer <sup id="note-A.13-4-3-ref">[[#note-A.13-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 08h || 8 | style="text-align: left;" | LBA absolute number of the first data block <sup id="note-A.13-4-4-ref">[[#note-A.13-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 10h || 8 | style="text-align: left;" | 64-bit pointer to data transfer buffer ^{[[#note-A.13-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | 18h || 8 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of data blocks to transfer ^{[[#note-A.13-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp21&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.13-4-1">[[#note-A.13-4-1-ref|'''^''']] If extended disk address packet is supported, then size is 20h, otherwise size is 10h. Set state of bit 3 in CX register, returned by INT 13\AH=41h function (8.01-55), signifies that extended disk address packet is supported.</li> <li id="note-A.13-4-2">[[#note-A.13-4-2-ref|'''^''']] If extended disk address packet is supported, and if the FFh value is written into a byte at offset 02h, then number of blocks to transfer will be read from a quad word at offset 18h. On return this number at offset 18h is replaced with number of blocks, which actually have been transferred.</li> <li id="note-A.13-4-3">[[#note-A.13-4-3-ref|'''^''']] If extended disk address packet is supported, and if FFFF:FFFFh value is written into a double word at offset 04h, then pointer to data buffer will be read from a quad word at offset 10h.</li> <li id="note-A.13-4-4">[[#note-A.13-4-4-ref|'''^''']] For disk drives, not supporting LBA addressing,<sup id="note-A.13-6-4-ref3">[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.13-6&#93;]]</sup> absolute number of starting block is calculated according to formula ::(C&times;N + H)&times;T + S &minus; 1 where: C – number of the selected cylinder, N – number of heads (by 1 greater than maximum head number), H – number of the selected head, T – number of sectors per track, S – number of the selected sector on a track.</li> </ol> === A.13-5 HDD's partition descriptors === In sector 01h of bootable physical HDD's head 00 cylinder 00 is the master boot record (MBR), containing up to 446 bytes of executable code, 4-byte identifier (at offsets 1B8h–1BBh) and partition table. Identifier is written by operating systems Windows-NT/2000/XP only and may be absent. In order to view MBR sector it should be copied into a file, as it is explained in article 9.02-02. Non-textual file can be opened by a viewer of Volkov Commander file manager (6.25) or else by debugger DEBUG.EXE (6.05). Fig.12 shows fragments of MBR sector, copied from a real physical disk. [[File:HitrovoDOS7screenshot12.png|thumb|center|550px|Fig. 12]] The first fragment presents starting part of executable code (proprietary OnTrack's MBR version). The second fragment presents final part of that executable code with a prepared error message. The third fragment presents partition table, defining division of HDD's writable surface into partitions in a particular computer. Partition table consists of 4 partition descriptors, each 16 bytes long. If offsets are counted from start of MBR sector, then partition descriptor's offsets are 1BEh, 1CEh, 1DEh, 1EEh correspondingly. However, MBR sector's copy, shown in fig.12, is loaded from offset 100h and on; therefore in fig.12 partition descriptor's offsets are 2BEh, 2CEh, 2DEh, 2EEh. The last word in MBR sector is a signature AA55h, marking the end of bootable disk's MBR. Four partition descriptors enable to create up to four primary partitions in any physical HDD drive. If there is less than 4 partitions, the rest descriptors are filled with zeros. In fig.12 the first descriptor in partition table is filled with zeros. Hence, this particular HDD is divided into three valid primary partitions. On a bootable HDD one primary partition must be marked as active (potentially bootable) with a 80h mark in the first descriptor's byte. In fig.12 the 80h mark is present at offset 02CEh, which is the first byte of the second partition descriptor. Hence, active partition in this particular HDD is the second partition. Missions of the mentioned and of other bytes in partition descriptors are shown in the table below. Offsets in the first column of the table are counted from the start of each partition descriptor. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Status indicator (80h – active partition) |- | 01h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Partition's start HDD's head |- | 02h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Partition's first sector <sup id="note-A.13-5-1-ref">[[#note-A.13-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 03h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Partition's first track ^{[[#note-A.13-5-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | 04h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Partition's file system identifier (A.13-6) |- | 05h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Partition's final HDD's head |- | 06h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Partition's last sector <sup id="note-A.13-5-2-ref">[[#note-A.13-5-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 07h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Partition's last track ^{[[#note-A.13-5-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 08h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of sectors preceding the partition |- | 0Ch || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Length of the partition (in sectors) |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.13-5-1">[[#note-A.13-5-1-ref|'''^''']] In a byte at offset 02h bits 5–0 express number of partition's first sector on a track, but bits 6 and 7 represent most significant bits of partition's 10-bit first track number. 8 least significant bits of partition's 10-bit first track number are stored in a byte at offset 03h.</li> <li id="note-A.13-5-2">[[#note-A.13-5-2-ref|'''^''']] In a byte at offset 06h bits 5–0 express number of partition's last sector on a track, but bits 6 and 7 represent most significant bits of partition's 10-bit last track number. 8 least significant bits of partition's 10-bit last track number are stored in a byte at offset 07h.</li> <li id="note-A.13-5-3">Descriptors to partitions with LBA addressing<sup id="note-A.13-6-4-ref4">[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.13-6&#93;]]</sup> may contain invalid CHS parameters (numbers of tracks, heads and sectors). Nevertheless data in bytes at offsets 08h–0Fh must be valid.</li> </ol> === A.13-6 Selected file system identifiers === In each partition descriptor (A.13-5) a byte at offset 04h is file system identifier. Operating system reads file system identifier and "decides" whether it can ensure access to this partition. If file system identifier is not "known" to operating system, then access to this partition will not be attempted. Most probably such partition even wouldn't be shown to user. Some file system identifiers denote hidden partitions, which can be accessed for system purposes, but stay hidden for the user. The table below presents interpretation of selected file system identifiers. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! ID !! Description |- | 00h || Free disk's space |- | 01h || File system FAT-12 for volumes 16 Mb and less |- | 04h || Obsolete FAT-16 up to 32 Mb without cluster structure |- | 05h || Extended partition with CHS addressing <sup id="note-A.13-6-1-ref">[[#note-A.13-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.13-6-2-ref">[[#note-A.13-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 06h || FAT-16 up to 2 Gb with CHS addressing ^{[[#note-A.13-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 07h || NTFS file system <sup id="note-A.13-6-3-ref">[[#note-A.13-6-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Bh || FAT-32 with CHS addressing ^{[[#note-A.13-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 0Ch || FAT-32 with LBA addressing <sup id="note-A.13-6-4-ref1">[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Eh || FAT-16 up to 2 Gb with LBA addressing ^{[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | 0Fh || extended partition with LBA addressing ^{[[#note-A.13-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]}^{[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | 11h || Hidden FAT-12 partition (for OS/2 boot manager) |- | 14h || Hidden FAT-16 partition (for OS/2 boot manager) |- | 1Bh || Hidden FAT-32 with CHS addressing ^{[[#note-A.13-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 1Ch || Hidden FAT-32 with LBA addressing ^{[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | 3Ch || PowerQuest's Partition Magic recovery partition |- | 42h || Dynamic partition of Windows Vista OS |- | 43h || PTS DOS boot manager's (BootWizard's) partition |- | 4Dh-4Fh || QNX OS partitions |- | 54h || OnTrack Disk Manager's DDO (Dynamic Drive Overlay) |- | 64h-65h || Novell Netware OS partitions |- | 82h || Linux OS swap partition |- | 83h || Ext2fs file system of Linux OS |- | 84h || Partition for power supply state recovery |- | 85h || Linux OS extended partition ^{[[#note-A.13-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | A0h || Partition for portable PC's state recovery |- | A5h || FreeBSD OS partition |- | A6h || OpenBSD OS partition |- | A8h || UFS file system of MacOS |- | A9h || Net BSD OS partition |- | ABh || Bootable partition of MacOS |- | BEh || Bootable partition of Solaris OS |- | D8h, DBh || CP/M OS partitions |- | EBh || BFS1 file system of BeOS |- | EEh || GPT partition of 64-bit Windows OS versions <sup id="note-A.13-6-5-ref">[[#note-A.13-6-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | FDh || RAID partition of Linux OS |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.13-6-1">[[#note-A.13-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Extended partition is a formal specification of disk's space for placement of several non-primary partitions (logical disks). Descriptors of non-primary partitions are written not in MBR, but in separate dedicated sectors, traced via a chain of references. MS-DOS doesn't allow this chain to be closed in a loop, otherwise MS-DOS hangs in infinite cycle of finding the end of this loop.</li> <li id="note-A.13-6-2">^{[[#note-A.13-6-2-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-2-ref2|'''''b''''']]} As far as parameters CHS (Cylinder-Head-Sector) occupy 3 bytes in partition descriptors (A.13-5), hence CHS parameters enable to address not more than 2^24 sectors 512 bytes each, equivalent to 2^23 kilobytes, or else 8 Gb. Therefore partitions with CHS addressing can't be arranged beyond first 8 Gb, counted from the start of disk's space (LBA addressing should be applied further). In table A.13-6 those only identifiers are marked with CHS, which are used as distinctive features of CHS addressing.</li> <li id="note-A.13-6-3">[[#note-A.13-6-3-ref|'''^''']] The 07h file system identifier is interpreted by Microsoft as belonging to installable file systems (IFS), file systems with transformed presentation to the user. But in fact, besides NTFS, only one rarely used IBM's HPFS file system is marked with 07h identifier.</li> <li id="note-A.13-6-4">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.13-6-4-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref4|'''''d''''']] [[#note-A.13-6-4-ref5|'''''e''''']] [[../Configuration commands#4.30 SWITCHES – supplementary options|'''''f''''']]} Linear Block Addressing (LBA) is based on sectors count from start of disk's space according to data in bytes 08h–0Fh in partition descriptors (A.13-5). LBA enables to overcome the 8 Gb boundary, inherent to CHS addressing. LBA requires support for extended functions of INT 13 handler (8.01-55) from both disk drive and BIOS system. All modern computers provide such support.</li> <li id="note-A.13-6-5">[[#note-A.13-6-5-ref|'''^''']] Data about partitions GPT (= GUID Partition Table) constitute extended MBR, occupying not a single sector, but a considerable part of disk's first track. Only 64-bit versions of operating systems Windows&nbsp;server&nbsp;2003, Windows&nbsp;XP and Windows&nbsp;Vista provide support for GPT partitions.</li> <li id="note-A.13-6-6">As far as it is known, partition identifiers 21, 23, 26, 31, 33, 34, 36, 71, 73, 74, 76, 86, A1, A3, A4, A6, B1, B3, B4, B6, E5, E6, F3, F6 are reserved and are not used yet.</li> </ol> === A.13-7 Disk's free space table === This table with data about logical disk's free space is returned by INT 21\AX=7303h function (8.02-80), which may be applied to logical disks, formatted with FAT-12, FAT-16 and FAT-32 file systems. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Size of this table (in bytes) |- | 02h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Must be = 0000h on call |- | 08h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of bytes per sector |- | 0Ch || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of free clusters |- | 10h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Total number of clusters in logical disk |- | 14h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of free physical sectors in logical disk |- | 18h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Total number of physical sectors in logical disk |- | 1Ch || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Number of available allocation units |- | 20h || 4 | style="text-align: left;" | Total number of allocation units in logical disk |} == A.14 I/O Ports == === A.14-1 Selected port addresses === Ports represent computer's hardware and therefore should be addressed either via BIOS functions, which are adapted to a particular computer's motherboard, or via device drivers for expansion boards. Direct access to ports can't be recommended for application programs, though there are some exceptions. But knowledge of port addresses is beneficial, at least in order to avoid address conflicts with expansion boards. The table below shows relatively steady features of general port addresses allocation in AT-compatible computers. Of course, port addresses allocation in your particular computer may somewhat differ from the one shown below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Address ranges ! style="text-align: left;" | Target devices |- | 0000h–001Fh || 1st direct memory access controller (DMA1) |- | 0020h–0021h || 1st interrupt controller (IRQ 1 – IRQ 7, 8.01-09) |- | 0022h–0023h || Dynamic RAM controller |- | 0060h–0064h || Keyboard controller (A.11-3) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0070h || CMOS RAM requests reception port <sup id="note-A.14-1-1-ref1">[[#note-A.14-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0071h || CMOS RAM data I/O port ^{[[#note-A.14-1-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0080h || Manufacturing diagnostics port |- | 00A0h–00A1h || 2nd interrupt controller (IRQ 8 – IRQ 15, 8.03-75) |- | 00B2h–00B3h || Advanced power management ports |- | 00C0h–00DFh || 2nd direct memory access controller (DMA2) |- | 00F0h–00FFh || Arithmetic coprocessor |- | 0168h–016Fh || IFS devices or expansion boards |- | 0170h–0177h || 2nd IDE HDD controller (default IRQ 15) |- | 01E8h–01Efh || PS/2 mouse or other devices (IRQ 12) |- | 01F0h–01F7h || 1st IDE HDD controller (default IRQ 14) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 01F8h || A20 line gate control |- | 0200h–020Fh || Game port (joystick) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0279h || Plug-and-play configuration register port |- | 02E8h–02EFh || Serial port COM4 |- | 02F8h–02FFh || Serial port COM2 (default IRQ 3) |- | 0300h–031Fh || NE2000-compatible Ethernet adapters |- | 0330h–0331h || Musical instrument's MIDI interface |- | 0378h–037Ah || Parallel port LPT1 (default IRQ 7) |- | 03C0h–03CFh || Ports of EGA-compatible video adapters <sup id="note-A.14-1-2-ref">[[#note-A.14-1-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03C4h || EGA sequencer's selector port <sup id="note-A.14-1-3-ref">[[#note-A.14-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03C5h || EGA sequencer's data port ^{[[#note-A.14-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03CEh || Graphic register's selector port <sup id="note-A.14-1-4-ref">[[#note-A.14-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03CFh || Graphic register's data port ^{[[#note-A.14-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 03DAh || CGA/EGA/VGA video adapter's status port <sup id="note-A.14-1-5-ref">[[#note-A.14-1-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | 03E0h–03E7h || PCMCIA i82365 controller's ports |- | 03E8h–03EFh || Serial port COM3 |- | 03F0h–03F7h || Floppy disk controller (default IRQ 6) |- | 03F8h–03FFh || Serial port COM1 (default IRQ 4) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0A79h || Plug-and-play system data port |- | 0CF8h–0CFFh || PCI bus configuration ports |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.14-1-1">'''^''' ^{[[#note-A.14-1-1-ref1|'''''a''''']] [[#note-A.14-1-1-ref2|'''''b''''']] [[#note-A.14-1-1-ref3|'''''c''''']] [[../Selected interrupt handlers#INT02-1|'''''d''''']]} Some data in CMOS RAM are accessible via BIOS Setup program (1.01). Besides that, some hardware data and memory data are read by INT 11 (8.01-42) and by INT 12 (8.01-43) handlers. Direct appeals to CMOS RAM may be necessary for masking NMI (note 1 to 8.01-03), for obtaining data about floppy drives (offset 10h in A.08-03) and for defining CPU's actions after reset, dependent on a byte at offset 0Fh in CMOS RAM.<sup id="note-A.12-1-4-ref5">[[#note-A.12-1-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.12-1&#93;]]</sup> For access to data in CMOS RAM the requested byte's offset (up to 7Fh) should be sent by OUT command (7.03-66) to port 70h; then via port 71h the requested byte's value can be read by IN command (7.03-26) or altered with OUT command.</li> <li id="note-A.14-1-2">[[#note-A.14-1-2-ref|'''^''']] As far as drawing graphics with INT 10\AH=0Ch function (8.01-19) is slow, operating systems appeal directly to video memory and to ports of EGAcompatible video adapters. Therefore EGA port addresses are preserved as a standard, though EGA adapter itself has come out of use long ago.</li> <li id="note-A.14-1-3">[[#note-A.14-1-3-ref|'''^''']] Port 03C5h transfers a byte, sent by OUT command (7.03-66), to that internal register in video adapter, which is defined beforehand via port 03C4h. If a byte AL = 02h is sent in advance to port 03C4h, then the next byte, sent to port 03C5h, will be accepted as color mask (its normal value is 0Fh).</li> <li id="note-A.14-1-4">[[#note-A.14-1-4-ref|'''^''']] Port 03CFh transfers a byte, sent by OUT command (7.03-66), to that internal register in video adapter, which is defined beforehand via port 03CEh. If a byte AL = 08h is sent in advance to port 03CEh, then the next byte, sent to port 03CFh, will be accepted as a bit-mask for 8 consecutive pixels. If a byte AL = 05h is sent in advance to port 03CEh, then the next byte, sent to port 03CFh, will specify mode (00h–02h) of writing into video memory (note 3 to 8.01-39).</li> <li id="note-A.14-1-5">[[#note-A.14-1-5-ref|'''^''']] Port 03DAh is intended for data reading only. Bit 3 in a byte, read from port 03DAh, is kept set during field retrace intervals and is kept cleared outside these intervals. Therefore field retrace intervals can be registered by IN command (7.03-26) in order to avoid image disruptions, which are noticeable, if changes of the displayed image occur outside retrace intervals.</li> </ol> === A.14-2 Status of serial port === This table presents interpretation of bitfields in status byte, returned in AH register by INT 14\AH=00h – INT 14\AH=03h functions (8.01-65 – 8.01-68). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Bit ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0 || Received data are ready |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Overrun error |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Parity error |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || Framing error |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Break detected |- | style="text-align: center;" | 5 || Transmit holding register is empty |- | style="text-align: center;" | 6 || Transmit shift register is empty |- | style="text-align: center;" | 7 || Timeout. no reply |} === A.14-3 Status of printer, connected to parallel port === This table presents interpretation of bitfields in status byte, returned in AH register by INT 17\AH=00h – INT 17\AH=02h functions (8.01-86 – 8.01-88). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Bit ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0 || Timeout, no reply |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || EPP BIOS only: requested port is not supported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Unused |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || I/O error |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || Port is busy |- | style="text-align: center;" | 5 || Printer is out of paper |- | style="text-align: center;" | 6 || Acknowledge |- | style="text-align: center;" | 7 || Printer is ready (not busy) |} Note 1: returned set state of CF flag with status byte AH = 03h means that EPP BIOS is present, but it doesn't support the requested port. Note 2: status byte AH = 00h means that EPP data are returned in registers (A.14-4). === A.14-4 Selected functions of EPP BIOS === EPP is a BIOS supplement, enabling enhanced modes of data transfer through LPT ports according to IEEE 1284 specification. Presence of EPP BIOS in your computer should be proved by INT 17\AX=0200h function (8.01-88), which also reports LPT port base address, EPP BIOS version, and address of its entrance point. The latter is used as a target address for CALL FAR command (7.03-08); being called in this way, EPP BIOS performs the operation, specified by a value in AH register at that moment. For the latest revision 7 of EPP BIOS the choice of a particular LPT port is defined by its base address in DX register; earlier EPP BIOS versions define LPT port by its number 00h–03h in DL register. Besides this, some EPP BIOS functions need other data, shown in the second column of the table below or in notes, marked by note number in fifth column. Unless specified otherwise, almost all EPP BIOS functions return status byte (A.14-7) in AH register, mark failure with set state of CF flag and don't preserve contents of BX register. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="text-align: left;" ! AH !! On call !! EPP BIOS function !! On return !! Comments |- | 00h || &nbsp; || Report configuration || AL = IRQ || A.14-5 |- | 01h || A.14-6 || Set transfer mode || AX altered |- | 02h || &nbsp; || Report transfer mode || AH altered || A.14-6 |- | 03h || AL=00h || Enable LPT interrupts |- | 03h || AL=01h || Disable LPT interrupts |- | 04h || &nbsp; || Reset EPP || AL altered |- | 05h || AL=address || Address-write I/O cycle || AL altered |- | 06h || &nbsp; || Address-read I/O cycle || AL=address |- | 07h || AL=byte || Send a byte |- | 08h || &nbsp; || Send a block of data || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.14-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 09h || &nbsp; || Receive a byte || AL=byte |- | 0Ah || &nbsp; || Receive a block of data || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.14-4-2-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Bh || AL=address || Addressed byte reading || AL=byte |- | 0Ch || AL=address || Addressed byte sending || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.14-4-3-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 0Dh || AL=address || Addressed block reading || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.14-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 0Eh || AL=address || Addressed block sending || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.14-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | 0Fh || AL=port || Lock LPT port || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.14-4-4-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 10h || AL=port || Unlock LPT port || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.14-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]} |- | 11h || CH=00h || Disable device interrupts || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.14-4-5-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | 11h || CH=01h || Enable device interrupts || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.14-4-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]} |- | 12h || AL=00h || Real-time device present? || AL=01h if yes |- | 12h || AL=01h || Add real-time device |- | 12h || AL=02h || Remove real-time device |- | 40h || &nbsp; || Query multiplexer || &nbsp; || <sup id="note-A.14-4-6-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup><sup id="note-A.14-4-7-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]</sup> |- | 41h || AL=port || Query multiplexer port || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.14-4-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.14-4-8-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-8|&#91;Note&nbsp;8&#93;]]</sup> |- | 50h || AL=port || Query daisy chain || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.14-4-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]}<sup id="note-A.14-4-9-ref">[[#note-A.14-4-9|&#91;Note&nbsp;9&#93;]]</sup> |- | 51h || AL=port || Reassign chain numbers || &nbsp; || ^{[[#note-A.14-4-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]} |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.14-4-1">[[#note-A.14-4-1-ref|'''^''']] On call a pointer to data block must be specified in DS:SI registers, length of data block (in bytes) — in CX register. Earlier versions of EPP BIOS, preceding the 7th revision, accept a pointer to data block from ES:DI registers. Function returns in CX register a number of bytes not sent yet.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-2">[[#note-A.14-4-2-ref|'''^''']] On call a pointer to buffer for data must be specified in ES:DI registers, length of this buffer — in CX register. After successful termination function returns buffer filled, and in CX register — a number of bytes left not filled in the buffer.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-3">[[#note-A.14-4-3-ref|'''^''']] On call the data byte to be sent must be specified in CL register. Earlier versions of EPP BIOS, preceding the 7th revision, accept data byte from DH register.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-4">[[#note-A.14-4-4-ref|'''^''']] If external devices are connected via multiplexer, then multiplexer port number (01h–08h) should be specified in bits 3–0 of a byte in AL register. If external devices are connected as a daisy chain, then daisy chain port number (10h–80h) should be specified in bits 7–4 of a byte in AL register.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-5">[[#note-A.14-4-5-ref|'''^''']] Multiplexer port number (01h–08h) should be specified in AL register. If multiplexer is not used, then AL register must be cleared. For interrupt enable function (CH = 01h) a pointer to interrupt event handler should be specified in ES:DI registers.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-6">[[#note-A.14-4-6-ref|'''^''']] This function is not implemented in earlier versions, preceding EPP BIOS revision 7. This function shouldn't be applied, if external devices are not connected to a certain LPT port via multiplexer or as a daisy chain. The requested LPT port will be identified not by its number, but by its I/O base address, which should be specified in DX register.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-7">[[#note-A.14-4-7-ref|'''^''']] The number of currently active multiplexer port is returned by this function in AL register, and a flags byte is returned in CH register. Set state of bit 0 in flags byte signifies locked state of multiplexer port, set state of bit 1 in flags byte signifies that there is an interrupt pending from this multiplexer port.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-8">[[#note-A.14-4-8-ref|'''^''']] This function returns in CH register a byte of flags. Set state of bits in this flags byte have the following meaning : ::bit 0 – this port is selected (active) ::bit 1 – port is locked ::bit 2 – interrupts from this port are enabled ::bit 3 – interrupt is pending from this port.</li> <li id="note-A.14-4-9">[[#note-A.14-4-9-ref|'''^''']] This function returns in BH register the EPP BIOS version, in BL register — number of currently active daisy chain device, in CH register — a flags byte (as described in [[#note-A.14-4-7|note&nbsp;7]]), in CL register — number of devices constituting the daisy chain (or 00h, if there is no daisy chain), in ES:DI registers — a pointer to driver's vendor identification string.</li> </ol> === A.14-5 EPP BIOS configuration byte === The "Report configuration" function, defined on call by 00h value in AH register (A.14-4), returns in AL register a LPT port's IRQ line number, in BH register — the EPP BIOS version, in ES:DI registers — a pointer to driver's information, in CX register — LPT port's I/O base address (for versions 1.0 – 3.0 of EPP BIOS only), and in BL register returns EPP BIOS configuration byte. Interpretation of configuration byte's bitfields is given in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Bit ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0 || Multiplexer is present |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Bi-directional data transfer is supported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Daisy chain is present |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || ECP specification is supported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || EPP software emulation is supported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 5 || EPP BIOS functions are supported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 6 || "Fast Centronics" data transfer is supported |- | style="text-align: center;" | 7 || Standard EPP I/O map |} === A.14-6 Code of EPP BIOS data transfer mode === The "Report transfer mode" function, defined on call by 02h value in AH register (A.14-4), returns code of current transfer mode in AL register. The "Set transfer mode" function, defined on call by 01h value in AH register (A.14-4), enables to change LPT data transfer mode according to mode's code, specified in AL register. Interpretation of bitfields in this mode's code is given in the table below. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Bit ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 0 || Compatibility mode enabled |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1 || Bi-directional data transfer enabled |- | style="text-align: center;" | 2 || Data transfer according to EPP specification |- | style="text-align: center;" | 3 || Data transfer according to ECP specification <sup id="note-A.14-6-1-ref">[[#note-A.14-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | style="text-align: center;" | 4 || EPP software emulation enabled ^{[[#note-A.14-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 5 || "Fast Centronics" data transfer enabled ^{[[#note-A.14-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]} |- | style="text-align: center;" | 6 || = 0b (reserved) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 7 || EPP port interrupts enabled <sup id="note-A.14-6-2-ref">[[#note-A.14-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.14-6-1">[[#note-A.14-6-1-ref|'''^''']] Modes defined by set state of bits 3–5 in mode's code cannot be implemented by earlier versions of EPP BIOS, preceding its latest 7th revision.</li> <li id="note-A.14-6-2">[[#note-A.14-6-2-ref|'''^''']] As far as device interrupts are enabled by AH = 11h function (A.11-4), set state of bit 7 is not accepted by "Set transfer mode" function (AH = 01h), but nevertheless may be reported by "Report transfer mode" EPP BIOS function (AH = 02h).</li> </ol> === A.14-7 Status code of EPP BIOS functions === Almost all EPP BIOS functions, except 01h and 02h (A.14-4), return in AH register a status byte. Interpretation of EPP BIOS status byte codes is given in the following table. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || Successful termination |- | 02h || Requested command or feature is not supported |- | 03h || Requested parallel port is not supported |- | 05h || Request is not supported in current mode |- | 06h || Invalid subfunction requested |- | 07h || Request is already done or set |- | 20h || LPT multiplexer isn't present (AMI BIOS versions only) |- | 40h || LPT multiplexer isn't present (other EPP BIOS versions) |- | 41h || Currently multiplexer is locked |- | 80h || I/O timeout, no response |- | FFh || Requested function either is invalid or isn't supported |} == A.15 CD/DVD service tables == === A.15-1 Bootable CD/DVD specification packet === BIOS functions INT 13\AH=4A00h and INT 13\AX=4C00h (8.01-61) emulate a logical disk on basis of its copy, read from an optical CD/DVD disc. Emulation control parameters must be prepared in a form of bootable CD/DVD specification packet. Internal data structure of this packet is shown in the following table. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Size of this packet in bytes (=13h normally) |- | 01h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Disk copy type (same as at offset 21h in A.15-3) |- | 02h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Drive number to emulate (note 1 to 8.01-44) |- | 03h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Drive controller number to emulate |- | 04h || 4 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | CD Logical Block Address where disk copy begins (the same as at offset 28h in table A.15-3) |- | 08h || 2 | style="text-align: left;" | Bit || 0 | style="text-align: left;" | : emulate a slave IDE drive |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | Bits | style="text-align: right;" | 7–0 | style="text-align: left;" | : LUN and SCSI ID number (for SCSI) |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | Bits | 15–8 | style="text-align: left;" | : bus number (for SCSI) |- | 0Ah || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Segment address of prepared 3 kb read buffer (or 0000h value if no caching) |- | 0Ch || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Segment address to load boot sector of disk's copy (the same as at offset 22h in table A.15-3) |- | 0Eh || 2 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of 512-byte virtual sectors in disk's copy (the same as at offset 26h in table A.15-3) |- | 10h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Least significant 8 bits in number of disk's copy cylinders (as is returned by INT 13\AH=08h in CH) |- | 11h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Bits | style="text-align: right;" | 5–0 | style="text-align: left;" | : number of last sector on a track |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; | style="text-align: left;" | Bits | style="text-align: right;" | 7–6 | style="text-align: left;" | : most significant bits of copy cylinders number (as is returned by INT 13\AH=08h in CL) |- | 12h || 1 | colspan=3 style="text-align: left;" | Number of heads in emulated disk drive |} === A.15-2 Format of command packet === This command packet specifies parameters for INT 13\AH=4Dh function (8.01-63), which reads sectors from optical CD/DVD discs. During boot procedure this command packet specifies reading of boot catalog from CD/DVD disc. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 || Size of packet in bytes (= 08h normally) |- | 01h || 1 || Number of sectors to be read |- | 02h || 4 || Pointer to buffer for read data |- | 06h || 2 || Number of the first sector to be read |} === A.15-3 Boot catalog of optical CD/DVD discs === Optical discs potentially are able to implement several computer booting scenarios. Initial data, defining each booting scenario, must be present on bootable optical disc(s) in form of a hidden directory, also known as boot catalog. This directory can be read by INT 13\AH=4Dh function (8.01-63). As in ordinary directory, records in boot catalog have standard length 20h bytes. Minimal contents of boot catalog are composed of two required records: the first record is known as validation entry, the second record is a descriptor of default bootable disk's copy. The table below presents structures of both mentioned required records. Offsets 00h–1Fh correspond to validation entry record ; offsets 20h–3Fh, to descriptor of default bootable disk's copy. {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | style="text-align: center;" | 00h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || = 01h: signature of validation entry start |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 01h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Platform type: ::= 00h – AT-compatible ::= 01h – Power PC ::= 02h – Apple Macintosh |- | style="text-align: center;" | 04h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 24 || CD/DVD drive manufacturer (ASCII string) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Ch | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Complement checksum of bytes 00h–1Fh |- | style="text-align: center;" | 1Eh | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || = AA55h: validation entry termination signature |- | style="text-align: center;" | 20h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || = 88h: signature of bootable disk's descriptor <sup id="note-A.15-3-2-ref">[[#note-A.15-3-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="text-align: center;" | 21h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Bits 3-0 : ::= 0000b – invalid descriptor ::= 0001b – copy of 1.2 Mb diskette ::= 0010b – copy of 1.44 Mb diskette ::= 0011b – copy of 2.88 Mb diskette ::= 0100b – copy of a hard disk |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || Bit 6: – copy of a disk with ATAPI interface |- | &nbsp; || &nbsp; || Bit 7: – copy of a disk with SCSI interface |- | style="text-align: center;" | 22h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Segment address for loading boot sector (if = 0000h, then segment address is 07C0h by default) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 24h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 1 || Disk's copy file system identifier (A.13-6) |- | style="text-align: center;" | 26h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 2 || Number of 512-byte virtual sectors in disk's copy |- | style="text-align: center;" | 28h | style="text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;" | 4 || CD/DVD Logical Block Address where disk's copy starts |} ;Notes <ol> <li id="note-A.15-3-1">Besides two required records, presented in table A.15-3, CD boot catalog may contain other 32-byte records, grouped in several sections. Each section represents a separate booting option and consists of not less than two records: a header record and a bootable disk's copy descriptor for that booting option. Header record begins with signature byte 90h, except header record in the last section, which begins with signature byte 91h. In every header record a word at offset 02h announces number of 32-byte records in this section. In each section descriptor of booting option may be followed by auxiliary records. Data structure in each descriptor of booting option is the same as that of default bootable disk's descriptor, shown in table A.13-3 at offsets 20h–3Fh.</li> <li id="note-A.15-3-2">[[#note-A.15-3-2-ref|'''^''']] Descriptors of non-bootable disks are allowed too, their distinctive feature is starting signature 00h.</li> </ol> === A.15-4 Commands, performed by CD/DVD drivers === In order to send a command to a driver, you have to obtain a handle, associated with this driver. The first step is to find a pointer to CD/DVD driver header by means of INT 2F\AX=1501h function (8.03-14), performed by TSR program either MSCDEX.EXE (5.08-03) or SHSUCDX.COM (5.08-04). Second step is to read a 8-byte name (signature) of driver's access channel inside driver's header at offset 0Ah. Driver access channel usually is named after the identifier, which follows the /D: parameter in command line, loading the driver (for example, the /D:MSCD001 identifier for CD/DVD drivers, shown in articles 5.10-01 – 5.10-03). The next third step is to use the name for obtaining a handle with INT 21\AH=3Dh function (8.02-33). The name must be uppercased and appended to 8 bytes with spaces (20h), if it is shorter. Returned handle should be placed in BX register before the desired command will be sent to the driver by INT 21\AX=4403h or by INT 21\AX=4402h function (8.02-41). Besides that, these functions need a request data block to be prepared. A pointer to request data block must be specified in DS:DX registers, and length of request data block — in CX register. Length of request data block for different commands is shown in the second column of the table below. The third column shows codes of CD/DVD driver's commands, which are to be specified at offset 00h in request data block. If command implies return of some data, driver will write these data into cells of the same request data block. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! AX !! CX !! Code ! style="text-align: left;" | Operation ! style="text-align: left;" | Comments |- | 4402h || 05h || 00h | style="text-align: left;" | Report driver's header address || <sup id="note-A.15-4-2-ref">[[#note-A.15-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 4402h || 06h || 01h | style="text-align: left;" | Report drive's head location || <sup id="note-A.15-4-3-ref">[[#note-A.15-4-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 4402h || 09h || 04h | style="text-align: left;" | Report audio control status || A.15-5 |- | 4402h || 05h || 06h | style="text-align: left;" | Report CD/DVD drive status || A.15-6 |- | 4402h || 04h || 07h | style="text-align: left;" | Read mode, sector size || <sup id="note-A.15-4-4-ref">[[#note-A.15-4-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&#93;]]</sup> |- | 4402h || 05h || 08h | style="text-align: left;" | Get number of sectors || ^{[[#note-A.15-4-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]} |- | 4402h || 02h || 09h | style="text-align: left;" | Report disc change status || <sup id="note-A.15-4-5-ref">[[#note-A.15-4-5|&#91;Note&nbsp;5&#93;]]</sup> |- | 4402h || 07h || 0Ah | style="text-align: left;" | Get number of tracks || <sup id="note-A.15-4-6-ref">[[#note-A.15-4-6|&#91;Note&nbsp;6&#93;]]</sup> |- | 4402h || 08h || 0Bh | style="text-align: left;" | Get start of track || <sup id="note-A.15-4-7-ref">[[#note-A.15-4-7|&#91;Note&nbsp;7&#93;]]</sup> |- | 4403h || 01h || 00h | style="text-align: left;" | Eject the tray |- | 4403h || 02h || 0100h | style="text-align: left;" | Unlock the door |- | 4403h || 02h || 0101h | style="text-align: left;" | Lock the door |- | 4403h || 01h || 02h | style="text-align: left;" | Reset the drive || <sup id="note-A.15-4-1-ref">[[#note-A.15-4-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 4403h || 09h || 03h | style="text-align: left;" | Audio control || A.15-5 |- | 4403h || 01h || 05h | style="text-align: left;" | Pull the track in |} <ol> <li id="note-A.15-4-1">[[#note-A.15-4-1-ref|'''^''']] After any request to CD/DVD driver sent by INT 21\AX=4402h function and before the driver is activated for any other purpose it must be reset by sending command 02h via INT 21\AX=4403h function.</li> <li id="note-A.15-4-2">[[#note-A.15-4-2-ref|'''^''']] After execution of operations 00h and 08h the requested result is written into request data block starting at offset 01h. This result is either a 4-byte number or a 4-byte address according to the requested operation.</li> <li id="note-A.15-4-3">[[#note-A.15-4-3-ref|'''^''']] After a request for drive's head location a returned byte at offset 01h in request data block represents CD/DVD addressing format : ::00h – HSG format ::01h – Red Book format (frames/seconds/minutes). Besides that, a double word at offset 02h in request data block is drive's head location in units according to addressing format.</li> <li id="note-A.15-4-4">[[#note-A.15-4-4-ref|'''^''']] After a request for read mode it is returned in request data block at offset 01h : ::00h – reading with error correction (cooked) ::01h – reading with ECC code, but without error correction (raw). Besides that, returned word at offset 02h presents sector's size.</li> <li id="note-A.15-4-5">[[#note-A.15-4-5-ref|'''^''']] After a request for disc change status driver returns status byte at offset 01h in request data block : ::00h – change status isn't determined, ::01h – disc has not been changed, ::FFh – disc has been changed.</li> <li id="note-A.15-4-6">[[#note-A.15-4-6-ref|'''^''']] After a request for number of tracks driver returns number of the first track in a byte at offset 01h, number of the last track — in a byte at offset 02h, and start address of the first track (in Red Book format) is returned as a double word at offset 04h.</li> <li id="note-A.15-4-7">[[#note-A.15-4-7-ref|'''^''']] On call for start of a track the number of requested track must be specified in byte at offset 01h in request data block. In response to this call driver writes into request data block at offset 02h a double word address of requested track's starting point (in Red Book format). Besides that, in a word at offset 06h driver returns flags, where set state of bits means the following : ::bit 12 – audio track, written with preemphasis, ::bit 13 – digital copying is permitted, ::bit 14 – this track contains data (not audio), ::bit 15 – this is a 4-channel audio track.</li> </ol> === A.15-5 CD/DVD audio control === If in CD/DVD drive status word (A.15-6) bit 8 is set, then this CD/DVD drive doesn't need audio card in order to control audio playback: this CD/DVD drive itself is able to control audio playback. For sending a request to CD/DVD drive via INT 21\AX=4403h function (A.15-4), a pointer to data block with requested parameters must be specified in DS:DX registers. The table below presents structure of a data block with audio control parameters, which should be prepared for audio control operation 03h in order to alter audio playback. Data block of the same structure is written into a prepared buffer by INT 21\AX=4402h function in response to a request for audio control status operation (A.15-4). On call for INT 21\AX=4402h function a byte at offset 00h in prepared buffer must be filled yet : it must specify code 04h of audio control status operation. {| style="margin-left: 3em; text-align: center;" ! Offset !! Size ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 00h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Function: 03h for AX=4403h or 04h for AX=4402h |- | 01h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 0 |- | 02h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Volume for output channel 0 |- | 03h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 1 |- | 04h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Volume for output channel 1 |- | 05h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 2 |- | 06h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Volume for output channel 2 |- | 07h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Input channel (0–3) for output channel 3 |- | 08h || 1 | style="text-align: left;" | Volume for output channel 3 |} Note 1: output channels 0 and 1 correspond to left and right; output channels 2 and 3 correspond to rear left and rear right. Each channel may be switched off by sending its volume value 00h. Note 2: by default each input channel is connected to output channel with the same number, and volume is set to maximum value FFh. === A.15-6 Bitfields in optical disc drive status word === This table shows meaning of bitfields in status word, returned by INT 21\AX=4402h function inside data block at offset 01h in response to CD/DVD drive status request 06h (A.15-4). {| style="margin-left: 3em;" ! Bit ! style="text-align: left;" | Description |- | 0 || Drive's tray is ejected |- | 1 || Tray lid is unlocked |- | 2 || "Raw" reading mode is supported <sup id="note-A.15-6-1-ref">[[#note-A.15-6-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&#93;]]</sup> |- | 3 || Drive enables writing onto CD/DVD discs |- | 4 || CD/DVD drive is able to play audio/video tracks |- | 5 || CD/DVD drive supports interleaving <sup id="note-A.15-6-2-ref">[[#note-A.15-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&#93;]]</sup> |- | 7 || CD/DVD drive supports prefetch requests <sup id="note-A.15-6-3-ref">[[#note-A.15-6-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&#93;]]</sup> |- | 8 || CD/DVD drive supports audio channel control |- | 9 || Red Book addressing is supported (in addition to HSG) |- | 10 || CD/DVD drive drive is busy with playing audio |- | 11 || There is no disc in CD/DVD drive |- | 12 || CD/DVD drive has separate read and write channels |} <ol> <li id="note-A.15-6-1">[[#note-A.15-6-1-ref|'''^''']] "raw" reading mode implies that ECC code together with data is read and sent to output, but error correction is not performed. Normal "cooked" reading mode implies that ECC code is used for error correction, but is not sent to output together with corrected data.</li> <li id="note-A.15-6-2">[[#note-A.15-6-2-ref|'''^''']] Interleaving here is related to video files, composed of alternating groups of image frames and audio frames.</li> <li id="note-A.15-6-3">[[#note-A.15-6-3-ref|'''^''']] Prefetch requests cause reading into drive's memory buffer, so that later the requested data can be obtained without waiting for access to the requested track.</li> </ol> == A.16 Some relevant abbreviations == {| style="margin-left: 3em;" |- style="vertical-align: top;" | style="width: 5em;" | ACPI | – || Advanced Configuration and Power Interface specification stipulates presentation of motherboard's parameters to operating system in a form of data tables in dedicated memory areas. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AGP || – || Accelerated Graphic Port : a slot for inserting video adapters, and also specification of video adapter's interaction with motherboard. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit AX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit AX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AMIS || – || Alternate Multiplex Interrupt Specification (A.07-6) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ANSI || – || American National Standards Institute (USA) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | API || – || Application Program Interface, i.e. OS services for programs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | APM || – || Advanced Power Management : extension of computer's BIOS system, providing control over power supply (8.01-70 – 8.01-72) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ASCII || – || American Standard Code for Information Interchange. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ASCIIZ || – || a string in ASCII code terminated with at least one 00h byte. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ASPI || – || Advanced SCSI Programming Interface : enhanced set of commands for SCSI interface (5.07-03). Nowadays many ASPI commands are implemented in ATAPI (5.07-01) and USB (5.07-05) controllers. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AT || – || Advanced Technology : a name of IBM's PC model produced in 1984. Most modern computers inherit some features of AT model. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ATA || – || AT Attachment : disk storage device's interface, implemented for the first time in IBM's PC AT model. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ATAPI || – || ATA Packet Interface: packet enhancement of ATA (5.07-01). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ATX || – || AT extension : enhanced specification of PC blocks construction features, implemented since 1998. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AUX || – || reserved word, used to address serial port COM1. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AVI || – || suffix of video files, composed of interleaved audio and video frames. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | AX || – || 16-bit general purpose register, associated with CPU's arithmetic unit. In 32-bit CPUs AX represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit register EAX. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | b || – || binary : distinctive mark of binary numbers. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BAT || – || suffix of batch files, interpreted by COMMAND.COM (6.04). Unlike ordinary command files, batch files are accepted by COMMAND.COM interpreter from command line without input redirection. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit BX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BIOS || – || Basic Input-Output System, the one supplied with PC's motherboard. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit BX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BP || – || Base Pointer : 16-bit register, used as a base for addressing data arrays. In 32-bit CPUs BP represents bits 15–0 of 32-bit register EBP. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BPB || – || BIOS Parameters Block (A.03-4). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BSD || – || Berkley Software Distribution, known for a freeware OS. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | BX || – || 16-bit general purpose register, also used as a base for addressing data. In 32-bit CPUs BX represents bits 15–0 of 32-bit register EBX. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CD || – || Compact Disc : a one-sided 650–800 Mb optical disc. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CD-ROM || – || a read-only compact disc or a drive for such discs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CDS || – || Current Directory Structure (A.03-3). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CF – (1) || : || CPU's Carry Flag, used to indicate carry and errors. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CF – (2) || : || Compact Flash — a type of removable storage cards. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CGA || – || Color Graphic Adapter : the first IBM's model of color video adapter. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit register CX. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CHS || – || Cylinder-Head-Sector : mode of HDDs addressing.<sup id="note-A.13-6-2-ref3">[[#note-A.13-6-2|&#91;Note&nbsp;2&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.13-6&#93;]]</sup> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit register CX. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CMOS || – || Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor : BIOS' memory block on CMOS chips, which doesn't lose stored data when PC is switched off. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | COM – (1) || : || suffix of executable files, which have no header. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | COM – (2) || : || reserved word for access to serial ports. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | COM – (3) || : || Common Object Model — a programming technique. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CON || – || console, i.e. keyboard for input and display for output. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CP || – || Codepage (more about CP in articles 1.06 and A.02-2). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CP/M || – || Control Program for Microcomputers : a prototype of DR-DOS. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CPU || – || Central Processing Unit — the main processor chip in a PC. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CR || – || Control Registers : 32-bit registers CR0, CR2, CR3 (A.11-4), introduced in 80386 CPU model. CR4 has been introduced later in Pentium CPU. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CRC || – || Cyclic Redundancy Check : code for error detection only (no correction) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CRT || – || Cathode Ray Tube. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CS || – || Code Segment : 16-bit segment register, defining segment address of the code, executed by CPU. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CSM || – || Compatibility Support Module supplements UEFI BIOS with features of ordinary BIOS systems, thus enabling to use DOS' software, to launch Windows-XP and many other OSes, which can't start under UEFI. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CWR || – || Control Word Register in arithmetical coprocessor. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | CX || – || 16-bit general purpose register, often used as a counter. In 32-bit CPUs CX represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit ECX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DAC || – || Digital-to-Analog Converter. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | dd || – || two-digit decimal day number in a month. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DDO || – || Dynamic Drive Overlay : OnTrack's BIOS extension for access to HDDs over 512 Mb in obsolete PCs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DH || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 15–8 of 16-bit register DX. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DI || – || Destination Index : 16-bit register normally used to store target offset. In 32-bit CPUs DI represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit register EDI. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DL || – || CPU's 8-bit register, representing bits 7–0 of 16-bit register DX. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DMA || – || Direct Memory Access. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DOS || – || Disk-based Operating System. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DPB || – || Drive Parameters Block (A.03-1). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DPMI || – || DOS Protected Mode Interface : API functions for programs, designed to be executed in CPU's V86 mode. DPMI is implemented, in particular, by "DOS box" of Windows OS (more about that in 8.03-21). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DPR || – || Data Pointer Register in arithmetical coprocessor. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DPTE || – || Drive Parameter Table Extension (A.13-3). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DR – (1) || : || Digital Research — company developer of CP/M and DR-DOS. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DR – (2) || : || Debug Registers — CPU's registers DR0–DR7 (A.11-5). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DS || – || Data Segment : 16-bit segment register, defining segment address of current program's data block. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DTA || – || Data Transfer Area (8.02-16, A.09-1) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DVD || – || Digital Versatile Disk — optical disc with 4.7 Gb of data per side. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | DX || – || 16-bit general purpose register. In 32-bit CPUs DX represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit register EDX. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EAX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EAX register (bits 15–0) constitute AX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EBIOS || – || BIOS extension providing LBA mode of disk access in obsolete PCs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EBP || – || 32-bit base address register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EBP register(bits 15–0) constitute BP register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EBX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EBX register (bits 15–0) constitute BX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ECC || – || Error Correcting Code. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ECP || – || Extended Capabilities Port : data transfer specification for LPT ports. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ECX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of ECX register (bits 15–0) constitute CX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EDI || – || 32-bit destination offset register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EDI register (bits 15–0) constitute DI register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EDX || – || 32-bit general purpose register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of EDX register (bits 15–0) constitute DX register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EFI || – || Extensible Firmware Interface : Intel's specification of 32-bit BIOSes, originally intended for Itanium 64-bit single-core CPU (2002). Revision of EFI for newer 32-bit multi-core CPUs is known as UEFI (2007). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EGA || – || Enhanced Graphics Adapter : obsolete IBM's color video adapter. Modern video adapters inherit many important features from EGA. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EHCI || – || Enhanced Host Controller Interface : controller specification for USB bus versions 2.x (more about that in 5.07-05). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EMM || – || Expanded Memory Manager : EMM386.EXE driver (5.04-02). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EMS || – || Expanded Memory Specification, implemented by EMM (5.04-02). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EOF || – || End Of File : EOF mark in ASCII code is byte 1Ah. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EPP || – || Enhanced Parallel Port : BIOS extension of LPT functions (A.14-4) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ES || – || 16-bit segment register in CPU, defining target segment address. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ESI || – || 32-bit source offset register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of ESI (bits 15–0) constitute SI register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ESP || – || 32-bit stack pointer register in 32-bit CPUs. Least significant bits of ESP (bits 15–0) constitute SP register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | EXE || – || Executable : suffix for executable files having a header. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | FASM || – || Flat ASseMbler : modern freeware assembler for DOS, Windows, Linux and Unix. Can be downloaded from http://www.flatassembler.net/ . |- style="vertical-align: top;" | FAT || – || File Allocation Table. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | FCB || – || File Control Block (A.09-5). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | FCBS || – || command (4.10), reserving memory for FCBs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | FDD || – || Floppy Disk Drive. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | FS || – || auxiliary 16-bit segment register, introduced since CPU 80386. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | GDT || – || Global Descriptor Table — a table of 8-byte segment descriptors, defining main system segments in protected mode. (A.12-2). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | GDTR || – || CPU's system register. Stores GDT's linear address and size. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | GS || – || auxiliary 16-bit segment register, introduced since CPU 80386. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | GUI || – || Graphical User Interface — alternative to textual command line. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | GUID || – || Globally Unique IDentifier — 32-bytes long universal identifier. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | h || – || hexadecimal : distinctive mark of hexadecimal numbers. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | HDD || – || Hard Disk Drive. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | HMA || – || High Memory Area : memory area 1024–1088 kb. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | HRS || – || Hidden, Read-only, System : a set of attributes for system files. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | HSG || – || High Sierra Group specification — prototype of ISO 9660 standard. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IBM || – || International Business Machines company. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ID || – || identifier. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IDE || – || Integrated Drive Electronics : HDD interface, equivalent to ATA. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IDT || – || Interrupt Descriptor Table : table of interrupts for protected mode. Its segment descriptor is sometimes also denoted as IDT. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IDTR || – || CPU's system register. Stores IDT's linear address and size. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IEEE || – || Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IFS || – || Installable File System : file system (5.08-01), accessed by means of installable driver. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IML || – || Initial Machine Load system. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | INT || – || Interrupt : event or command (7.03-28), invoking interrupt handler. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | I/O || – || Input-Output, i.e. data transfer operations. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IOCTL || – || Input-Output Control system (8.02-41). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IP || – || Instruction Pointer : 16-bit register, defining offset of the next command. In 32-bit CPUs IP represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit EIP register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IPR || – || Instruction Pointer Register in arithmetical coprocessor. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | IRQ || – || Interrupt ReQuest line(s). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ISA || – || Industrial Standard Architecture : (obsolete) bus for expansion cards. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ISO || – || International Standards Organization. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ISP || – || Interrupt Sharing Protocol (A.07-5). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | JFT || – || Job File Table : table of opened handles.<sup id="note-A.07-1-3-ref2">[[#note-A.07-1-3|&#91;Note&nbsp;3&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.07-1&#93;]]</sup> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | LAN || – || Local Area Network. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | LBA || – || Linear Block Addressing — HDDs addressing mode.<sup id="note-A.13-6-4-ref5">[[#note-A.13-6-4|&#91;Note&nbsp;4&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.13-6&#93;]]</sup> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | LCD || – || Liquid Crystal Display. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | LFN || – || Long File Name (A.09-3). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | LIM || – || Lotus-Intel-Microsoft : the founders of EMS specification. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | LPT || – || Line PrinTer : port, also known as parallel port. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | LUN || – || Logical Unit Number : identifier for devices, sharing one bus address.<sup id="note-A.03-2-1-ref2">[[#note-A.03-2-1|&#91;Note&nbsp;1&nbsp;to&nbsp;A.03-2&#93;]]</sup> |- style="vertical-align: top;" | MASM || – || Macro ASseMbler : Microsoft's low-level code assembler. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | MBR || – || Master Boot Record (A.13-5). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | MCB || – || Memory Control Block : 16 bytes long descriptor (A.12-7). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | MDA || – || Monochrome Display Adapter, used in IBM's obsolete PCs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | mm || – || two-digit decimal month number in a year. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | MO || – || Magneto-Optical disks or disk drives. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | MS || – || mark for objects, owned or developed by Microsoft. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | MSWR || – || Machine Status Word Register : control register in CPU 80286. In modern CPUs MSWR is a part of control register CR0. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | NTFS || – || New Technology File System for HDDs under Windows NT/2000/XP. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | NUL – (1) || : || channel "to nowhere", as alternative to real channels. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | NUL – (2) || : || the 00h byte value. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | OEM || – || Original Equipment Manufacturer : direct delivery of components (as antonym of retail sale). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | OHCI || – || Open Host Controller Interface : controller specification for USB bus versions 1.x (5.07-05). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | OS || – || Operating System. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PC || – || Personal Computer. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PCI || – || Peripheral Components Interconnect : type of bus for expansion cards. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PCMCIA || – || PC Memory Card International Association : interface standard, originally designed for memory expansion cards (5.07-02). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PD || – || Powerful Disk : a 650 Mb rewritable optical discs of CD-RAM type, prototype of DVD-RAM discs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PIO || – || Programmed I/O control for devices with ATAPI interface. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PM || – || Protected Mode of CPU operation. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | POST || – || Power-On Self Test : performed by BIOS when PC is switched on. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PRN || – || reserved word used to address printer port LPT1. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PSP || – || Program Segment Prefix (A.07-1). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PS/2 || – || Personal System/2 : IBM's PC model developed in 1987. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PS2 || – || mouse port and connector type, first introduced in PS/2 PCs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | PTS || – || PhysTechSoft — russian software vendor, known for its PTS-DOS |- style="vertical-align: top;" | RAID || – || Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks : distributed storage technique, enhancing transfer speed. Under permanent qualified maintenance, some RAID versions also may reduce risk of data loss. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | RAM || – || Random Access Memory — ordinary writable memory, as alternative to sequential access to tape and disk media. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ROM || – || Read-Only Memory, i.e. non-rewritable storage media. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SCSI || – || Small Computer System Interface (5.07-03). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SFT || – || System File Table of associations for active handles (A.01-4) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SFX || – || SelF eXtracting packed archive or module. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SI || – || Source Index : 16-bit register, used to store source address offset. In 32-bit CPUs SI represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit ESI register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SIMD || – || Single Instruction Multiple Data : class of commands, performing the same operation over a group of data items. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SP || – || Stack Pointer : 16-bit register, defining offset of stack's top. In 32-bit CPUs SP register represents a part (bits 15–0) of 32-bit ESP register. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SS || – || Stack Segment : 16-bit register, defining stack's segment address. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SSE || – || Streaming SIMD Extensions : extensions of SIMD command set, implemented in modern CPUs. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | STDIN || – || input channel, corresponding to handle 0000h and having default association with keyboard as data source. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | STDOUT || – || output channel, corresponding to handle 0001h and having default association with display as target device. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | STDERR || – || channel to display error messages, associated with handle 0002h. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SVGA || – || SuperVGA videomodes (A.10-1), suggested by VESA. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | SWR || – || Status Word Register in arithmetical coprocessor (7.04-08, 7.04-64). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | TASM || – || TurboASseMbler : a low-level code assembler from Borland Co. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | TLB || – || Translation Lookaside Buffer : cache buffer in CPU, performing translation of linear addresses into physical addresses. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | TSR || – || Terminate and Stay Resident : resident modules or programs (8.02-23) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | TWR || – || Tags Word Register in arithmetical coprocessor. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | UEFI || – || Unified EFI — revision of EFI, adopted in 2007 for modern 32-bit multicore CPUs. UEFI stipulates for graphic shell, for network support and for retention of compatibility with OSes by means of CSM module. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | UHCI || – || Universal Host Controller Interface : controller specification for USB bus versions 1.x (5.07-05). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | UMB || – || Upper Memory Blocks : address space pieces, allotted for loading drivers inside 640–1024 kb area. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | USB || – || Universal Serial Bus (5.07-05). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | V86 || – || virtual 8086 mode : emulation of obsolete CPU 8086 by modern CPUs, operating in protected mode. V86 mode enables to execute DOS programs at the lowest (third) privilege level. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | VBE || – || Video BIOS Extensions, developed by VESA (8.01-35) in order to enable implementation of SVGA videomodes. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | VC || – || Volkov Commander shell (6.25). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | VCPI || – || Virtual Control Program Interface : protocol of interaction enabling control transfer from one control program to another (5.04-02). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | VESA || – || Video Electronics Standards Association. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | VGA || – || Video Graphics Array : video adapter for IBMs PS/2 computers. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | XMS || – || Extended Memory Specification implemented by Himem.sys (5.04-01) |- style="vertical-align: top;" | YIQ || – || model of pixel representation in luminance and two chrominance axes, corresponding to highest and lowest visual color resolution. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | YUV || – || model of pixel representation in luminance and two chrominance axes, conforming to specifications of CIE (Comite Internationale d'Eclairage). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | yy || – || year (in MS-DOS&nbsp;7 year is represented by a four-digit number). |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ZIP – (1) || : || suffix of archive files, compressed by PKZIP utility. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ZIP – (2) || : || trade mark of removable disk drives, produced by Iomega Co. |- style="vertical-align: top;" | ZF || – || CPU's zero flag, used to indicate equality or zero result. |} {{BookCat}} 4qcpr0opbcp83eori0hnwk02fk7o2pm 2 397633 4654005 4641766 2026-07-11T14:20:48Z Rcmcola 3394483 /* § 388, p. 149* */ 4654005 wikitext text/x-wiki This wikibook is an answer key to the revised 1918 edition of Collar's and Daniell's ''First Year Latin''. There are two copies of this edition in the Internet Archive: [https://archive.org/details/collaranddaniel00jenkgoog] and [https://archive.org/details/collardaniellsfi00collrich another copy]). === About References === The references are to the paragraph numbers (§ ''N'') and the original page numbers (p. ''N'') of ''First Year Latin''. === Abbreviations === {| |- | ''acc'' || accusative |- | ''act'' || active voice |- | ''abl'' || the ablative case |- | ''dat'' || the dative case |- | ''gen'' || the genitive case |- | ''imp'' || the imperative mood |- | ''imperf'' || the imperfect tense |- | ''ind'' || the indicative mood |- | ''inf'' || the infinitive mood |- | ''nom'' || the nominative case |- | ''pass'' || the passive voice |- | ''perf'' || the perfect tense |- | ''pl'' || the plural |- | ''pluperf'' || the pluperfect tense |- | ''sg'' || the singular |- | ''subj'' || the subjunctive mood |} === About Prose Translations === All prose translations have been kept as literal as possible. This should not be taken as a model to emulate. Quite contrary, one should hardly ever aim at a literal translation instead of a fluent one. Answers marked with a * may be written with a little more liberty by a different pupil, though are still more-or-less literal translations. == Exercises == === § 30, p. 25 === # A sailor is singing. # Sailors are singing. # A farmer is working. # Farmers are working. # A girl swims. # Girls swim. # Cornelia draws near. # Are the girls drawing near? (In a boys-only school this might have stirred the pupils somewhat.) # Cornelia and the girls are singing. # Julia works and sings. # What is approaching? # Are the sailors swimming? # Who is walking? === § 31, p. 25 === # Nauta natat. # Puellae cantant. # Quis appropinquat? # Appropinguantne nautae? # Cantatne Cornēlia? # Cornēlia et Iūlia ambulant et cantant. # Puella cantat, et agricola labōrat. # Nautae et agricolae labōrant. === § 36, p. 27 === # Galba has a trumpet. # Does Galba have trumpets? # Girls praise Cornelia and Julia. # A sailor sees a letter. # Galba calls together the sailors. # Who sees Galba? # Whom Galba is seeing? # The farmer now calls the girls together. # Do the sailors see land? # Girls like Cornelia. === § 37, p. 27 === # Quis appropinquat? # Nauta et Galba appropinquant. # Quid agricola habet? # Agricola terram habet. # Laudatne Galba agricolae? # Puella aquam et terram videt. # Nautae agricolās convocant. # Iūlia litterās nunc habet. === § 41, p. 29 === # She walks, calls together, sings. # Are they calling together? Singing? Praising? # You (sg.) swim, work, walk. # We like, draw near, walk. # You (pl.) are calling together, are singing, are liking. # They like, she is giving, we are praising. # Whom are you looking at? # I praise the inhabitants. # You (pl.) often praise Julia. # But we are praising the letter. # What are you (pl.) giving now? === § 42, p. 29 === # Natō, natat, natō. # Labōrāsne/labōrātisne? cantāmus, laudatne? # Appropinquant, dant, ambulās/ambulātis. # Laudās/laudātis, natant, labōrat. # Incolās convocāmus, sed nautās convocātis. # Puellae aquam nunc spectant. === § 46, p. 31 === # She delights, we are routing, you set free. # We are waiting, they carry, you delight. # We delight, you (pl.) rout, they are setting free. # Is she freeing? I am freeing, we are carrying. # They are setting free the farmers' daughters. # The poet's fortune pleases the queen. # We are looking at the woman's daughters. (Quite possibly a true story from a boy school.) # Does Galba's ''daughter'' expect a letter? # Even the trumpets of the sailors put the inhabitants to flight. # Whose letter are you carrying? === § 47, p. 31 === # Nautās rēgīnae convocō. # Fīliae poetārum terram amant. # Cuius fīliam liberās/liberātis? # Laudantne fīliās Galbae? # Agricolās nunc expectāmus. # Quem fortūna agricolārum dēlectat? === § 52, p. 33 === # You have money. # I teach Julia. # You often advice the inhabitants. # Do they frighten the girls? # Whom are they seeing? # We advice and we teach. # What do we have? # I now see a booty. # You (pl.) see a trumpet. # Are you (pl.) warning ''the farmers''? # They have a letter. # Julia teaches the poet's daughters. # The pirates have even the farmers' money. # The daughters' fate pleases the woman. (Obviously they got married off to better men than the boys of this school became.) # Why do you warn Julia and Cornelia? # Whom do you teach and advice? # The women praise the girls because they work. (Hopefully nothing beyond the chaste exercise of weaving, though.) === § 53, p. 33 === # Monent. # Habent. # Moneō. # Terrēs/terrētis. # Vidēmus. # Puellāsne docet? # Pīrātamne Iūlia et Cornēlia spectant? # Cūr pīrātae incolās terrent? # Pecūniam et praedam habent. # Fēminam laudāmus quod puellās docet. # Quis vidēs/vidētis? Quid spectās/spectātis? === § 61, p. 35 === # A farmer shows the road to a woman. # Cornelia tells the story even to the girls. # We dwell on an island. # Who shows the island to the poets? # Why are the pirates remaining in the water? # To whom are you giving the money? # The sailors show the booty to the farmers. # The inhabitants are approaching on the road and they are looking at the queen. # They like the mistress because she tells stories. === § 62, p. 35 === # Cuī fēminam dēmonstrās/dēmonstrātis? # Iūliae letterās dēmonstrō. # Rēgīnae fābulās narrant. # Fīlia Galbae nautīs pecūniam dat. # Habitantne pīrātae in īnsulā? # Cuius fīliae in viam appropinquant? === § 66, p. 37 === # Why are the poets remaining in the woods? # To whom are you telling about the queen's victory? # I see Julia and Cornelia in the portal. # In Germany and Greece they often assemble the farmers. # Do they live in the province? # The sailors' victory frightens the farmers. # The girls' diligence pleases the woman. # In the fight we put to flight the pirates of Italy. # Galba tells about the flight of the pirates. === § 67, p. 37 === # In prōvinciā Graeciae incolō. # Silvae prōvinciārum poetīs dēlectant. # Fīliae Iūliae pecūniam dat. # Cuī aquam dās/dātis? # Cuius dīligentiam laudās/laudātis? # In viā exspectant et silvās spectant. === § 75, p. 41 === # I see a town. # We are seeing towns. # Is the master warning a slave? # The tribune is looking at a horse. # The masters' horses delight the slaves. # Marcus is narrating a story to a friend. # The masters give the spoils friends. # We often call together the friends in the town. # Slaves are approaching, and they are carrying grain and water. === § 76, p. 41 === # Quis equum tribūnī habet? # Servī dōna dominōrum nunc habent. # Amicōsne in hortō habēs/habētis? # Servus frūmentum tribūnī portat. # Cuius dōnum Marcō dēmonstrant? # Oppidum et hortōs oppidī vidēmus. === § 83, p. 43 === # We are looking at and also approving of the large horses. # The tribune gives a javelin to a good friend. # The sailor's welcome gift delights Julia. # A strong sailor has strong oars. # A girl sees good slaves. # Great winds do not frighten sailors. # Where do you see the strong farmers' grain? # They are carrying the grain in a large cart. # The pirates are frightening the farmers because they have javelins. === § 84, p. 43 === # Carrum magnum habeō. # Dominus bonus servum bonum habet. # Atque servō bonō dōnum grātum dat. # Probatne servus dōnum? # Magnō in oppidō Graeciae nōn habitant. # Nautās bonōs nōn convocat. # Ubi silvam magnam vidēs/vidētis? === § 91, p. 45 === # Galba is a farmer. # Galba is strong. # Julia and Cornelia are my daughters. # My daughter is small. # Is your town large? # Britain is an island of Europe. # Vesta was a Roman goddess. # The carts of the Romans were good and strong. # War is not welcome. # Wars aren't welcome. # Greece is a small country of Europe. # We are friends of the tribune. # In the large town we see wide roads. === § 92, p. 45 === # Viae oppidī sunt longae. # Viae Rōmae nōn erant lātae. # Viae Britanniae sunt lātae et longae. # Ubi es/estis? # Dōna nova tribūnī sunt grāta. # Deōs laudāmus quod dōna dant. # Rōmānī sumus sed in Britanniā habitāmus. === § 101, p. 49 === # The sons of the men are in Britain. # The men are allies. # I am a messenger of the allies. # We are waiting for the small boys, sons of the tribune. # The boys have Marcus' sword and javelin. # Who shows the way to the man? # The battle is long, and the allies are waiting for help. # A man and sons of the messenger are toiling in the field. # Why are you giving rewards to the men? === § 102, p. 49 === # Fīlius nūntī est puer parvus. # Gladium tuum vidēmus sed pilum tuum nōn habēmus. # Puerōs parvōs et fēminam terrent. # Virī sociōs fugant. # Ubi nūntiī habitant? # Gladium fīlī meī habeō. # Bella et proelia Rōmānōs dēlectant. === § 105, p. 50 === # I see horses in Marcus', friend's, field. # A wretched messenger is telling a miserable story of the allies' flight. # They are giving rewards to your friends. # Money, Cornelia's gift, is pleasing to our son. # We are free men in a free town. # The Greek goddesses were many. # Our associate is miserable because he has no sword. # They are subduing the Romans in a battle. # Are you calling your son? # A miserable slave prepares food for a master. A bonus question about the translation of 10. for the boys in the back row: Are all slaves miserable because they prepare food for their masters or is this particular slave miserable because he's preparing food for his master or is this particular slave miserable because he's preparing food for a master not his own? === § 106, p. 51 === # Amīcī nostrī, Mārcus et Galba, sunt miserī. # Multī carrī in viīs oppidī nostrī sunt. # Fīliōs miserōs nūntiōrum convocat. # Ubi equum tuum vides? # Ventī nautās nōn terrent. # Fīliī virōrum līberōrum sumus. # Pīlum dōnum āmicī habeō. === § 113, p. 53 === # She is, she was, she will be. # They are, they were, they will be. # We are, we were, we will be. # I am, I was, I will be. # You (sg.) are, you (sg.) were, you (sg.) will be. # You (pl.) are, you (pl.) were, you (pl.) will be. # Certainly we were hostile towards Marcus, your son. # Next to the town were many fields. # Injuries of the allies were many. # I see an island near to the (main)land. # The winds will not be pleasing to the sailors. # Farmers were not fit for a long war. # Meanwhile, we will be favourable to your sons. # Swords and javelins are suitable for a battle. === § 114, p. 53 === # Sum, sumus. # Ubi eramus? In oppidō eram. # Erō, erimus. # Estne tribūnus? Sociī sunt. # Interim vir līber eris. # Oppida nostra Graeciae propinqua sunt. # Virī in oppidīs nostrīs Rōmae inimīcī sunt. # Erit magnum proelium in Britanniā. # Librī Mārcō amicō meō grātī certē erunt. === § 124, p. 57 === # They were showing, she was preparing, you (pl.) were filling. # I was telling, you (sg.) were seeing, we were dwelling. # You (sg.) were overcoming, you (pl.) were having, she was approving. # You (sg.) were singing, I was freeing, you (pl.) were staying. # I was frightening, she was calling, you (pl). were delighting. # I was calling together the lieutenants. # Farmers were bringing grain and food in small carts. # Meanwhile they were fighting with swords in forests. # We were equipping our allies with shields. # I was calling the lieutenant, my friend. # They were subduing the tribune and the lieutenant in the fight with javelins. # Your gifts were pleasing to the gods. # The village was next to the sea. === § 125, p. 57 === # Ambulābam sed in agrō exspectābās. # Armābāmus, manēbant. # Appropinquābātis et pugnābant. # In vicō labōrābant. # Fābulīs et librīs docēbāmus. # Amicōs vestrōs gladiīs vestriīs liberābātis. # Cibus Helvetiīs dēfessīs grātus erat. # Virī pīlīs longīs pugnābant. # Lēgātus vīcum cibō et frūmentō complēbat. === § 130, p. 59 === # They will call, they will fill, they will hasten. # Is she arming? She will overcome, we will keep. # Will they stay? We will show, I will frighten. # You (sg.) will work, you (pl.) will teach, I will dwell. # Where to is the strong farmer hurrying? # A farmer and boys will hurry to the fields. # They toil in the fields with great zeal. # They will carry the grain into the village with care. # You (pl.) will build boats with great diligence. === § 131, p. 59 === # Aedificābis. # Properābit. # Quis nōn manēbit? # Tenēbitis. # Virōs aegrōs magnō cum cūrā portābimus. # Quō lēgātus properābit? # In Graeciam properābit atque incolās armābit. # Ubi amīcī nostrī cum studiō pugnābunt? # Virī nāvigia cum dīligentiā complēbant. === § 135, p. 61 === # Has she called? She has called together, she has subdued. # They have fought, they have expected, they have worked. # We have hastened, we have built, we have equipped. # Did I praise? You (sg.) have called, you (pl.) have hastened. # She has brought, she has delighted, she has given. === § 136, p. 61 === # Laudāvistī/-istis, dēmonstrāvistī/-istis, narrāvistī/-istis. # Dedī, portāvī, liberāvī. # Probāvērunt, cantāvērunt, natāvērunt. # Dedimus, habitāvimus, dēmonstrāvimus. === § 140, p. 62 === # She has warned, they have warned, she has taught. # They have taught, she has had, they have had. # You (sg.) have frightened, you (pl.) have frightened, have you (sg.) kept? # I have seen, have they seen? We have stayed. # She has kept, they have kept, they have frightened. === § 141, p. 62 === # Complēvī, vīdistī, tenuimus. # Terruit, habuit, complēvērunt. # Mānsit, docuī, monuistis. === § 145, p. 63 === # The boys have filled our cart with grain. # They have carried a sick girl with care. # I have seen the shields and swords of the captives in front of the gates. # The place was not suitable for a battle. # The lieutenant has hurried to Germany with many men. # He will show the cause of the war. # I have spent the winter in Greece with your friends. # With great risk they have stayed. === § 146, p. 63 === # Gladiī et pīla captivōs terruērunt. # Longō in bellō cum tribūnō pugnāvērunt. # Fēminae in Italiā hiemābant. # Quis causam bellī lēgātō narrābit? # Locum armīs complēvērunt. # Rōmānī cum sociīs prō Rōmā pugnāvērunt. === § 148/b, p. 64 === {| class="wikitable" |- | id dōnum || is nūntius || ea patria |- | eius dōnī || eius nūntiī || eius patriae |- | eī dōnō || eī nūntiō || eī patriae |- | id dōnum || eum nūntium || eam patriam |- | eō dōnō || eō nūntiō || eā patriā |- | ea dōna || iī nūntiī || eae patriae |- | eōrum dōnōrum || eōrum nūntiōrum || eārum patriārum |- | iīs dōnīs || iīs nūntiīs || iīs patriīs |- | ea dōna || eōs nūntiōs || eās patriās |- | iīs dōnīs || iīs nūntiīs || iīs patriīs |} === § 150, p. 65 === # I have seen that shield. # That sword is mine. # That battle was long. # I will fight with this sword. # She has given food for that prisoner. # That was yours. # He was showing the danger of those lieutenants. # We have been in Germany and in the land of the Helvetii. # Has your daughter been sick? # That slave's master was tired. # That victory has delighted the Romans. # I was hurrying to Britain with that friend. # Where were you (pl.)? === § 151, p. 65 === # Iīs armīs pīrātās in ōceanō superābimus. # Id auxilium Rōmānōs dēlectat. # In iīs silvīs saepe fuī. # Fīliōs eōrum agricolārum docuī. # Eōs sociōs vīdistī et laudāvistī quod cum studiō pugnāvērunt. # Quō properābatis cum eō puerō? # Causae eius bellī fuērunt multae. === § 155, p. 67 === # Who have built that temple? # Which lieutenants have armed those men? # What is in that field? # To whom does Marcus give that reward? # To which countries is Britain near? # Whom are you praising? # Which book Cornelia has praised? # With which sword have they injured the prisoner? # What risk are you reporting? === § 156, p. 67 === # Quis nūntius deōrum erat? # Quod dōnum eī puerō dedit? # Cuius scūtum is servus habuit? # Cui causās eius bellī dēmonstrāvērunt? # Quem superāvistī? # Quibus armīs Helvetiōs superāvērunt? # Quō in vicō habitāvērunt? === § 161, p. 68 === # She rules, she was ruling, she will rule. # I am buying, I was buying, I will buy. # They are leading, they will lead, she was leading. # She has ruled, they have ruled, she has led. # They have led, you (sg.) have bought, you (pl.) have bought. # I have sent, we have sent, she has sent. # We are sending, they are sending, they will send. # This farmer has many fields. # He will send grain into a big town with boats. # He will send grain into a village with strong horses. # Who will lead the horses on the way? # Sons of the farmer, Marcus and Galba, have led the horses, and they will lead (them) today. # Then they will buy new arms. # Formerly the Romans have ruled Italy well. === § 162, p. 69 === # Regunt, rēxērunt, regent. # Dūcit, dūcēbat, dūcet. # Ēmī, ēmimus, ēmērunt. # Mittō, mittam, mīsī. # Mittis, mittes, mīsistī. # Ōlim Rōmānī multās terrās habuērunt. # Eās terrās saepe nōn bene rēxērunt. # Tum sociī auxilium mīsērunt. # Quae puellae in Italiā hiemāvērunt? # Lēgātum cum iīs captīvīs in Italiam mittam. === § 171/d, p. 75 === === § 173, p. 75 === # Today I have seen the king and the general. # We have seen the heads of many foot soldiers. # Both kings and generals have led our soldiers. # Besides, the horsemen were fighting bravely for the king and the general. # They have overcome the allies with courage and zeal. # They have injured many farmers with stones and javelins. # Certainly the bravery of the horsemen and also the zeal of the foot soldiers will delight the legate. # Who will procure shields for these horsemen? # We have sent our soldiers in the forest too. === § 174, p. 75 === # Imperia rēgis fuerunt multa. # Imperia rēgum probābimus. # Helvetiōs virtūte eōrum mīlitum superābimus. # Cum duce hiemābō. # In oppidō rēgem vīdī. # Is rēx erat dux bonus et benē rēxit. # Cibum peditibus miserīs ēmit. # Et arma et frūmenta in id oppidum mīsit. === § 181, p. 77 === # She will take, she takes, they take. # I am hurling, I will hurl, I was hurling. # They have taken, she has thrown, we have thrown. # We have fled, we are fleeing, we have sent away. # They running out from the conference. # They will flee from (the vicinity of) the village into fields. # She has fled (down) from the town to the ocean. # Who have sent letters to the king? # They have hurled javelins down from the walls of this town. # He has sent the tired soldiers away from the battle. # Why are you fleeing from that place? # They will take our wagons. === § 182, p. 77 === # Iaciet, iacient, iaciunt. # Iacis, iaciēs, iēcistī. # Pedēs equitim vulnerāvērunt. # Ex Ītaliā in prōvinciam properābō. # Et fēminae et puellae ex agrīs fugiēbant. # Ā Germāniā in Ītaliam properāvērunt. # Lēgātum ad conloquium dūxit. === § 187, p. 79 === # For many reasons the Romans did not send help. # They have injured these men with stones and javelins. # They have many wounds in (their) heads and bodies. # Today the fathers of the sons will grieve because of the wounds. # Our general will praise the centurions because of the great victory. # The peril of the scouts has frightened the soldiers. # At that time you were not fleeing onto the walls of the town on the account of injuries. # For the lack of food we were in great danger. # The legate has led the horsemen and the foot soldiers to a conference. === § 188, p. 79 === # Vulneribus saepe dēfessī fuimus. # Mīlitēs nostrōs virtūte studiōque eōrum laudābo. # Patrēs nostrī diū pugnābunt et multam praedam capient. # Quis centuriō pīla dē mūrō iaciēbat? # Ob inopiam cibī aquaeque Marcus et Galba, centuriōnēs, nōn cum virtūte pugnāvērunt. # Soror mea dolet quod fēminae Britanniae miserae sunt. # Interim explōrātōrēs imperia ducis narrābant. === § 191, p. 81 === # The victory of enemies has frightened the citizens of the city of Rome. # I have not seen the hills and the mountains of Italy. # The scouts and centurions have fled out from the Sabines' territory. # The Romans have had many boats and ships on the sea. # Because of a great danger the citizens carry food and grain into the city. # We too will send cohorts, and we will overcome the enemies. # The town was near a mountain. # The citizens' bravery was pleasing to the general. === § 192, p. 81 === # Habēmusne multās navīs hodiē? # Ōlim in collīs montibusque incolēbant. # Fīnēs Rōmānōrum erant lātī. # Iī cīvēs nōn idōneī bellō sunt. # Quī pīla dē mūrīs urbium iaciunt? # Puerī ignīs magnōs in urbe vident. === § 197, p. 83 === # Our men have seen a centurion among the prisoners. # Neighbour(ing tribe)s lament account of that victory of the Romans. # Why the cohorts were fleeing through the woods to the town? # With care you (pl.) have taught your daughters with books. # The horsemen and the foot soldiers are in front of the gate. # We will stay in the city without danger. # And they even have carried out from that city many things. # She has led the scouts across a wide field. # He was in the province with many soldiers. === § 198, p. 83 === # Post id proelium nostrōs in Germāniam mittet. # Oppidum sine auxiliō cēpērunt. # Fīnitimī contrā hostīs fortiter pugnābant. # Ante oppidum erat collis. # Apud lēgātum nūntius exspectābat. # Per Ītaliam properābimus et apud eōs montīs hiemābimus. === § 210, p. 89 === # Caesar was a daring leader of the Romans. # The authority of this leader has been great. # All soldiers greatly liked Caesar because he has often overcome the enemy. # In a war the hardships of soldiers were often severe. # Enemies were many and brave, and they were throwing many javelins at the Romans. # But our cohorts did not flee from the public danger. # They have fought bravely for Rome. # That war was short. === § 211, p. 89 === # Gladius Rōmānōrum et brevis et gravis erat. # Pedes socium audācem habuit. # Nostrī multās gravīs portābant. # Dōna omnibus amīcīs meīs dabō. # Dux equitum ācrium propter multōs labōrēs dolēbat. # Omnīs trībūnōs ā colloquiō dīmīsit. === § 214, p. 90 === # I am hearing, I was hearing, I shall hear. # Does she hear? She was hearing, she will hear. # They are hearing, they were hearing, they will hear. # We are hearing, we have heard, you (pl.) will hear. # I have heard, you are hearing, they have heard. # You are coming, she is coming, you (sg.) did come. # She has come, we are coming, we have come. # Do you (sg.) find? You (pl.) have found, you (pl.) are finding. # I have found, she is finding, she has found. === § 215, p. 90 === # Repperit, repperērunt, vēnērunt. # Audīs/audītis, vēnistī/vēnistis, audīvit. # Audīvimus, reperiēbāmus, vēnimus. # Venis/venitis, reperiēbant, veniemus. # Audiam, audimus, audivērunt. # Vēnit, vēnit, audiunt. # Dēfendent, oppugnāvērunt, dēfendit. === § 220, p. 92 === # During the winter winds on the sea are violent. # In summer the farmers were toiling on the fields. # At daybreak they came to Caesar. # Caesar has waged war with strong enemies. # In a few years he has conquered all provinces. # At what time in the night did you (pl.) come into the city? # They capture ten scouts during the second hour of the battle. # At that time a messenger showed the document to a legate. === § 221, p. 92 === # Brevī tempore aestās grāta veniet. # Secundā hōrā noctis ea imperia audīvimus. # Decem vulnera in corpore peditis repperit. # Prīmā lūce Caesar eam cohortem inter collem montemque mīsit. # Prīmō annō bellī ā prōvinciā fūgērunt. # Cūr hieme bellum cum Rōmānōs nōn gessērunt? === § 225, p. 95 === # They will have bought, I had waged, you (pl.) had spent the winter. # They had shown, you (pl.) will have heard, we had subdued. # I shallhave kept, I had filled, you (sg.) had armed. # You (sg.) will have dwelt, she had called, I shall have stayed. # You (pl.) will have told, you (sg.) had sent, we shall have fled. # I had expected, I shall have suffered, she will have strenghthened. # She had kept in check, I had ruled, you (sg.) will have hastened. # Labienus had praised the chief for courage. # A strong man will have had friends many and brave. # Caesar had waged war not only in Gaul but also in Britain. # At what time of the night you (sg.) will have taken the arms? # The Gauls had defended the town with great bravery. # The Roman People had liberated the citizens of that state. === § 226, p. 95 === # Terruerimus, vēnerās, dīmīseritis. # Pugnāverit, cēperat, dēfenderant. # Dūxerāmus, vulnerāverint, iēcerit. # Aedificāveris, reppererāmus, portāverint. # Pōpulus Rōmānus longō temporē Gallōs sustinuerat. # Prīncipēs omnīs cīvitātēs convocāverant. # In eō locō Labiēnus multa tēpa reppererit. # Gallī auxilium exspectāverant. # Tandem eum collem oppugnāverāmus. === § 232, p. 97 === # The general has sent those horsemen and foot soldiers to Capua. # Finally, because of public danger, he has hurried out of Italy to Carthago. # These soldiers had come from Athens, and they were fighting in Gaul. # He sent a messenger to Corinth at the second hour of that night. # Those legates had carried the plunder to Rome. # In that island a bold people had dwelt. # I had been a friend of this centurio. # From this territory all chiefs had fled to Delphi, because at that time enemies were preparing for a war. === § 233, p. 97 === # Delphīs Athēnās vēnerant. # Domō frāter meus Corinthum properāvit. # Caesar nūntiōs per illās cīvitātēs mīserat. # Hīs annīs Gallī amīcī fuerant populī Rōmānī. # Hī hostēs magnā virtūte cum Caesar pugnāverint. # Hoc pīlum, ille gladius est. === § 240, p. 100 === # She loves, he is loved. # He was loving, she was loved. # She will love, he will be loved. # They love, they are loved. # They were loving, they were loved. # Will they love? Will they be loved? # We are loving, we are loved. # I advice, I am adviced. # I was advicing, I was being adviced. # I will warn, I will be warned. # You (pl.) will warn, you (pl.) will be warned. # You (sg.) warn, you (sg.) are warned. === § 241, p. 101 === # Laudās/laudātis, laudāris/laudāminī. # Laudābant, laudābantur. # Laudābis/laudābitis, laudāberis/laudābiminī. # Doceō, doceor. # Docēmus, docēmur. # Docēbimus, docēbimur. # Docent, docentur. === § 244, p. 101 === # This boy was praised by my brother. # This booty will be brought to Rome by Caesar. # By whom is power not loved? # Many stories about Britain will be told by these messengers. # The town is stormed by the soldiers. # In this fight ten men are wounded by the Gauls. # The grain will be brought with ships. === § 245, p. 101 === # Omnēs hī Gallī āb illīs equitibus sustinebuntur. # Frātrēs meī ab illō puerō laudābantur. # Auxilium ā hostibus expectātur. # Paucae cohortēs ā prīncipe vidēbantur. # Rōma āb omnīs Rōmānīs amābātur. === § 250, p. 103 === # That woman you see is Cornelia's mother. # The merchants are bringing many (things) into Germany. # The brave enemies by whom our native land is laid waste are Romans. # These men with whose bravery and determination the city was guarded will come home from war. # The towers which were built with care will be destroyed by the enemy. # The hostages, who are liberated by the Romans, will hurry to Athens. # The commander of legions whom Caesar sent across the river was Labienus. === § 251, p. 103 === # Arma, quae portāvimus, nōn bona sunt. # Eā aestāte cum Caesare, quī prōvinciam dēfendit, pugnābi(ti)s. # Cōnsilium, quō illud oppidum vastātur, laudābō. # Caesar decem legiōnēs in bellīs, quae cum Gallīs gessit, habuit. # Fēmina, cui viam dēmonstrāvī, māter huius obsidis miserī est. === § 258, p. 106 === # She rules, he's ruled. # She was ruling, he was ruled. # She will rule, he will be ruled. # They rule, they are ruled. # They will rule, they will be ruled. # You (sg.) rule, you (sg.) are ruled. # You (sg.) were ruling, you (sg.) were ruled. # You (sg.) will rule, you (sg.) will be ruled. # We are ruling, we are ruled. # You (pl.) rule, you (pl.) are ruled. # I shall rule, I shall be ruled. # They are seizing, they are captured. # She was seizing, he was being captured. # She will seize, he will be captured. # They will seize, they will be captured. # You (sg.) will seize, you (sg.) will be captured. # You (sg.) seize, you (sg.) are captured. # You (sg.) were seizing, you (sg.) were being captured. === § 259, p. 106 === # Dūcit, dūcitur. # Dūcent, dūcentur. # Dūcunt, dūcuntur. # Dūcis/dūcitis, dūceris/dūciminī. # Dūcēmus, dūcēmur. # Mittimus, mittimur. # Mittiturne? Mittunturne? # Mittet, mittētur. # Mitteris/mittiminī, mittēris/mittēminī. # Gerēbant, gerēbam. # Gerimus, gerēmus. # Iacimus, iacimur. # Iaciēbāmus, iaciēbāmur. # Quis recipit? Quis recipiēbatur? === § 261, p. 107 === # Ambassadors have come into consul's camp for peace. # At last these legates are led to the consul. # They will be received well by the consul. # No longer is the enemy's city defended. # The weapons which were thrown down from the walls wounded many. # The soldiers of the consul are not defeated often by the Gauls. # The peace will be welcome to the Roman people. === § 262, p. 107 === # Labiēnus paucīs cum cohortibus Rōmā in Galliam mittētur. # Illa oppida Galliae fortiter dēfendentur. # Legiō ex castrīs dūcuntur. # Hodiē multae cīvitātēs Galliae vincuntur. # Nova cōnsilia sociōrum nostrōrum fīnitimīs nūntiābantur. # Illī recipientur ā Caesare, quī Helvetiōs vīcit. === § 269, p. 109 === # His shield was heavy. # Their friends have been soldiers. # Their zeal is praised. # I will stay with you (pl.) because of the storm. # The war is waged against them. # Is Marcus with you (sg.)? # He was walking with her. # They will hurry to Athens without you (pl.). # We are miserable, you (pl.) are sick and exhausted. # All your (pl.) plans are acceptable to us. # His father and mother were received well by you (pl.) # The remaining chiefs, who were arming themselves, did not come to the meeting. # And thus he calls a centurion to himself and explains the plan to him. # Caesar led the foot soldiers out the camp daily. === § 270, p. 109 === # Māter eius et pater meus tē vīdērunt. # Nunc sunt cum mē. # Eī, eī, eīs praemia dabō. # Castra eōrum oppugnātur. # Egō in oppidum tēcum properābō. # Magnō cum labōre nōs līberāmus. # Ea sē gladiō eius patris vulnerāvit. # Reliquī sē interficient. # Ea aestāte oppida eōrum ā Gallīs vāstābuntur. === § 272, p. 110 === # She hears, she's being heard. # She was hearing, she was being heard. # She will hear, she will be heard. # We hear, we are being heard. # We will hear, we will be heard. # I shall hear, I shall be heard. # You (pl.) hear, you (pl.) are being heard. # You (pl.) will hear, you (pl.) will be heard. # You (sg.) hear, you (sg.) are being heard. # I was hearing, I was being heard. # They hear, they are being heard. # They were hearing, they were being heard. === § 273, p. 110 === # Impediō, impedior. # Impediēbam, impediēbar. # Impediam, impediar. # Impediunt, impediuntur. # Impedient, impedientur. # Reperit, reperītur. # Reperiēbat, reperiēbatur. # Reperiet, reperiētur. === § 284, p. 113 === # Caesar, however, sent his own soldiers across the river. # Caesar will find his (not his own) brother in the camp. # That sick man was deprived of water. # Afterwards that state was lacking food and grain. # He kept soldiers away from this people by buildings and money for a long time. # Because of want of arms the Germans left off from the battle. # Our (troops), who had hurried to the camp of the Germans, kept them away from weapons. # A river was cutting off our troops from the road. # At that time boats were being built near the river by the enemy. === § 285, p. 113 === # Amīcī nostrī pecūniam carēbat. # Hostēs sua aedificia dēfendent. # Nōs ā cūrā līberābis/līberābitis. # Caesar sua cōnsilia dē pāce suīs nūntiāvit. # Posteā ex omniā potestāte Germānōs prīvābunt. # Reliquī prīncipum ab suīs oppidīs interclūdēbantur. === § 287, p. 114 === # A man has been loved, a woman has been loved, a war has been loved. # The men have been loved, the women have been loved, the wars have been loved. # The soldiers had been warned, the boy will have been warned, the town had been warned. # A farmer has been captured, a city has been ruled, a province had been ruled. # I have been captured, I had been captured, I shall have been captured. # You (sg.) have been heard, you (sg.) had been heard, you (sg.) will have been heard. # We have been heard, we had been heard, we shall have been heard. === § 288, p. 115 === # Gallia monita est, Gallia monita erat, Gallia monita erit. # Aedificia capita sunt, aedificia capita erant, aedificia capita erunt. # Fīnēs ā Germānīs rectī erant. # Urbēs dēfensae erunt. # Itaque audītae erimus. === § 290, p. 115 === # Many towns in Italy have been built by the Romans. # Few Germans there have been killed with our javelins. # Your words will have been heard by me. # At that time the commander was cut off from the baggage and carts. # The war, which has been waged by Caesar, was long. # The soldiers, who were sent to Gaul by him, lacked grain. # The booty that had been captured by our commander has been carried to Rome without delay. # In a meeting Caesar said to his own (troops): "My plans have not been hampered by the enemy." === § 294, p. 117 === # The arrival of the legions delights us. # Our army, however, has cut off the Germans from supplies. # Between our (troops) and the enemy was a lake. # Consuls were commanders of Roman armies. # They had fought violently for a long time on the flanks. # Labienus' camp was protected with a swamp and a lake. # In the ports of Greece we have seen many ships during the winter. # We observed the armed force of the enemy. === § 295, p. 117 === # Et pedibus et cornibus pugnant. # Inter montīs multī lacūs āb eīs videntur. # Ab adventū mercātōrum dēlectātī erāmus. # Haec domus est mea, illa est tua. # Prīmā luce autem commeātūs ē castrīs ad portūs portāvērunt. # Statim Rōma ā manibus cīvium mūnita est. # Cūr domū properās/properātis? === § 299, p. 119 === # Which way is shorter? # Which way is the shortest? # Nevertheless, the cavalry had travelled through the neighbouring villages. # The Germans asked for peace from the Roman senate. # The friendship of the allies will be very pleasing to the Roman people. # Our army will make an attack upon the enemy. # This river is wide, but the sea is wider. # The Gauls certainly were very brave in the war. # Where have you seen more brave citizens? === § 300, p. 119 === # Domus tua novissima est. # Imperātōr equitātūs per iter longius mīsit. # Aestās in Brītanniā nōn brevissima est. # Hōc pīlum gravius est. # Pāx autem ab omnibus cīvitātibus Galliae petetur. # Impetum in turrem parvō cum studiō faciunt. # Excercitus per silvās palūdēsque iter faciēbat. === § 311, p. 123 === # A large part of the route is narrow but very easy. # At daybreak we saw a part of the enemy on the mountain. # That of all the roads of the city was shortest. # The men of Britain are different from the men of Italy. # Straightaway ten of the soldiers leave off from the battle. # On a beach the women were grieving because the road was difficult. # The enemy was fiercest and swiftest ff all the Gauls. # The most difficult is often very easy. # They will strengthen (their) friendship with the nearest tribes. === § 312, p. 123 === # Habemusne cōpiam armōrum? # Iter per montīs facile nōn erit. # Quinque ex amīcīs meīs in lītore mittentur ā mē per iter facilius. # Pars mīlitum ā reliquō excercitū interclūdēbātur. # Manus tua similis est meae (manuī). # Hōc est facillimum omnium itinerum per fīnīs Gallōrum. === § 323, p. 127 === # Six legions are led into the lower part of the province by Caesar. # The roads of ''our'' city are narrower by many feet. # A very large armed force of the enemy had been assembled, and they were preventing the Romans from march(ing). # They have thrown very many javelins down from the higher ground. # That tower is ten feet taller than the wall. # A smaller fort was defended by a hundred soldiers. # Your part of the work is larger than mine. # Occasionally our friends give us bad advice. # I see the top of the mountain. # The lower (southern) part of Italy was called "Great Greece" on account of many Greek cities (there); the upper (northern) part of Italy, because the Gauls dwelt there, was called "Cisalpine Gaul" or "the Nearer Gaul". === § 324, p. 127 === # Virī optimī interdum plūrimōs amīcōs nōn habent. # In itinere plūrimī (virī) interficiēbantur; reliquī in silvām magnam fūgērunt. # Cornēlia pede altior quam Iūlia erat. # Gallī plūrēs equitēs quam Rōmānī habēbant.* # Pars hostium in locīs superiōribus exspectābat. # Cōnsilium melius senātuī praebitum est.* # Urbēs maximae centum obsidēs Caesarī mīsērunt. * While the imperfect tense describes, the perfect tense advances a narrative. === § 329, p. 129 === # Fathers and mothers love very greatly their own children. # They give to them very good advice and work for them very diligently. # At that time we will send ahead a great number of foot soldiers in that large forest, which we see from here. # From this mountaintop I easily see six cities and a hundred roads. # In the lowest (southern) parts of the country rivers are very small. # Our troops have been hindered longer by the lake than the mountains. # Most of the soldiers have been left behind near the port; the remaining (soldiers) have suddenly attacked the enemy. # They will build walls with trees and stones. # This river is wider than that by a hundred feet. === § 330, p. 129 === # Interdum hostēs Caesaris multō fortius quam mīlitēs Rōmānī pugnāvērunt. # Sed mīlitēs eius ācerrimē audacissimēque pugnābant. # Diūtissimē cum Gallīs bella gerēbat. # Ampla praemia saepe centuriōnibus suīs deit quod multa praeda cēperant. # In urbe Rōmae ā suīs inimīcīs interfectus est. === § 335, p. 131 === # At first Caesar pitched the camp on the top of the mountain. # The camp has been pitched on the top of the mountain by Caesar. # From this place the enemy have been seen on the large plain. # Between this mountain and that plain was a river, which was hundred feet wide and five feet deep. # However, Caesar drew up the battle line and was waiting the enemy's attack. # For the larger part of the day his horsemen remained in the flanks. # But the enemy did not attack, because they had a small hope of victory. # At that time the young lacked corn for many days. # The hills behind our camp is higher by many feet. === § 336, p. 131 === # Caesar hanc rem ē plūrimīs nūntiīs audivit. # Eō diē fidēs Gallōrum parvissima erat. # Flūmen in eō locō decem pedem altum erat; itaque in lītore tota impedīmenta relīquērunt. # Hae rēs (mīlitēs) nostrī omnī spē prīvāvit. # In Italiā sex diēs manēbimus. === § 345, p. 135 === # He sends a messenger in order that she may warn the citizens. # A youth is being sent that the citizens may be warned. # The legion is sent lest the town will be captured by the enemy. # The legions are fighting bravely to capture the town. # The boy has come so that he will hear the story. # The boys have come so they may hear your words. # We are sending them to govern the province. # We send them in order that the province is ruled by them. # You hasten to Gaul in order to wage war. # We send ahead a hundred soldiers to fortify the camp. === § 346, p. 135 === # Mittitur ut pugnet. # Eōs mittīmus ut viam reperiant. # Mitteris nē in urbem hostēs impetum faciant. # Mīlitēs ē castrīs dūcentur ut aciēs īnstruātur. # Veniam tē mātremque (tuam) videam. # Pugnat ut sē dēfendat. === § 353, p. 137 === # They come that they may seek peace. # They came that they might seek peace. # They will come that they may seek peace. # They had come that they might have sought peace. # They were fighting bravely lest they might be overcome by the Gauls. # They had hurried across the river so they might storm the town. # The legions will be sent to cut off the enemy from supplies. # In order that they might defend the port our (troops) have been sent ahead. # The consul will speak very boldly to rouse the <s>rabble</s> Roman people. === § 354, p. 137 === # Labōrant ut laudent. # Labōrābant ut laudārent. # Labōrābunt ut laudent. # Labōrāvērant ut laudārent. # Dē locīs superiōribus pīla iaciēbant ut Rōmānōs impedīrent. # Prīncipēs convocāverat ut novum cōnsilium audīrent. # Dē proeliō dēsistent nē interficiantur. === § 360, p. 139 === # The boy acted in such a way that he was liked by everyone. # The city has been laid waste lest it would have been captured by the enemy. # We advice him lest he become a soldier. # He commanded them not to travel through our province. # So great is the lack of food that very many are sick. # The city has been defended so bravely that for ten days it was not captured. # The enemy have fled to the forests lest they be surrounded by our (troops). # First Caesar ordered them to give aid to our (troops). === § 361, p. 139 === # Paucī tam erant ut fugerent. # Erant tam fortitēs ut nōn fugerent. # Eum moneō ut fortior sit. # Lēgātus mīlitēs ē castrīs dūxit ut āciem īnstrueret. # Postulat ut castra in eō locō pōnant. # Pālus tantus est ut nostrī impediantur. === § 375, p. 145 === # She asks what they are doing, they have done. # She knew what the were doing, they had done. # I shall tell you why they were toiling, they have toiled. # They had heard whence the soldiers were coming, had come. # They asked why they were being praised, they had been praised. # She knows why they are staying, they had stayed. # She has told us what those boys had done. # I asked whether she had been often in Italy. # Do you know how many years the Romans held Britain? === § 376, p. 145 === # Tibi dīcam ubi fuissent et quid fēcerint. # Hī veniunt ut videant, illī ut videantur. # Dēfessī tam sunt ut hōdiē nōn labent. # Mē rogāvit ut cūr venissem. # Audīveram ut ubi fuisset. # Dūx rogāvit num (illī) omnēs venīrent. # Scīsne quot mīlitēs veniant? === § 383, p. 147 === # On the way two rivers, ten feed deep, will be found. # The memory of these events had roused the army. # They had marched three miles and (then) the first line of battle was drawn up. # Caesar ordered that on the right wing were arranged the third legion and the fourth legion on the left. # Of the three brothers Marcus was the bravest. # For desire of victory this one legion kept back the Gauls. # The heavy javelin of the Romans was six feet long. # The next day they marched eight miles (away) from that place. # The four scouts, whom had been sent ahead, fled because of fear of the enemy. === § 384, p. 147 === # Spēs praemī līberōs Marcī incitābat. # In eō colle decem mīlia peditēs et duo mīlia equitēs īnstructī sunt. # Impedīmentum excertitūs mīlia passuum ā lītore relictum est. # Imperātōr secundam legiōnem prō castra īnstruet. # Adventū duarum legiōnum hostēs ē sinistrō cornū dēcessērunt. # Timor Caesaris Rōmānōrumque ūnam cīvitātem impedeet. # Ūnus hominum erat mihi inimīcus. === § 388, p. 149* === # On one shore of the river there was a city, and on the other was a mountain. # Of the two men, one was a general, the other was a tribune. # By the courage of the third legion alone the army was defended. # One legion was placed on the right wing, and the other was placed on the left wing by Caesar. # I will give neither of the captives food. # Which boy is your son? # During the summer there was not a ship in the sea. # Why are you encouraging both of them? === § 389, p. 149 === # Caesar virtūtem tōtīus legiōnis laudāverat. # Uter adulēscēns maiorem virtūtem dēmonstrāvit? # Caesar sine morā cum sōlā secundā legiōne iter faciet. # Aliī castra ponēbant, aliī aciēs īnstruēbant. # Nūllō in locō plūrimās arborēs repperimus. === § 396, p. 151* === # To come, to give, he is able to leave. # To be hindered, to be placed, they are able to be placed. # Receiving rewards is often pleasing. # Caesar has begun to lay waste to the remaining fields and towns of that state. # To hear your words is exceedingly difficult. # The Germans are not able to cut off supplies from the Romans. # At once the multitude began to beg for peace. # They ought to defend themselves. # Who of the entire army was so strong that he endured an enemy attack? # In the winter, days are five hours shorter than in the summer. === § 397, p. 151 === # Castra mūrō altō munīre erit facile. # Auxilium praebēre dēbēs/dēbētis. # Mīlitēs decimae legiōnis incitāre nōn potest. # Bellum gerere nōn saepe est optimum. # Fortēs bonīque esse dēbēmus. # Aliī pugnāre, aliī fugere coepērunt. === § 404, p. 154* === # By means of two scouts, Caesar knew that the enemies had marched six miles. # The allies respond that they will send aid to Caesar immediately. # The general said that he will give ample rewards to his own (men). # They all long to be children. # They all long for Italy to be free. # They all see the town being bravely defended. # Caesar ordered that the third line of battle be drawn up at once. # He knew the Gauls were coming to make an attack. === § 405, p. 154 === # Legātus suōs turrīs aedificāre iubēbit. # Sciō duās legiōnēs praemissās esse. # Per captīvōs cognōvit hostēs cibō carēre. # Eōs in illā cīvitāte hiemāre iussit. # Mercātōrēs respondērunt nūllum frūmentum in fīnibus Germānōrum esse. === § 413, p. 159* === # He can, he was able to, he shall be able to. # We have been able to, they had been able to, they were able to. # Do you know why these words of yours cannot be heard? # Identical were the difficulties of war that he could report to you all. # Labienus himself knew the causes of war were very many. # I reckon that I will purchase nothing today. # They no longer demand that the Roman people proffer ships. # The centurion who with eight scouts had been send to learn the way has reported that he had not been able to learn the way. # They all were hoping that Caesar would defeat the Gauls this summer. # The men themselves say that the weapons cannot be thrown. === § 414, p. 159* === # Potuimus, poterit, poteram. # Potuerat, potuerint, poterāmus # Līberī ipsī nōn iam pācem cupīvērunt. # Dīcunt sociōs nostrōs hodiē eōdem in periculō esse. # Putō mē duō diē cum istō amīcō manēre. # Mercātōrēs nūntiāvērunt multās manūs equitum in mōntēs missās esse. # Putō tē pugnāre posse. # Putāvistī mē venīre nōn posse. === § 421, p. 162* === # Two new rivers have been found by certain bold men. # I can no longer see any one in front of the house. # He demanded that the weapons be surrendered at once so that the citizens would be free from fear. # A certain captive has declared the same thing once again. # Each one shall be able to reply to some one. # Some women had not only been disturbed, but also had fled. # The legate demanded that everyone carry grain out of the region. # A certain legion was hastening to Delphi on account of a hope for victory. # This land of yours is like the island. === § 422, p. 163* === # Quisque dīcit Gallōs appropinquāre. # Quiddam nōn postulat. # Illa puella dextrā in manū aliquid habet. # Parte cuiusque aestātis apud montēs collīsque habitāmus. # Hodiē fābula nobīs ā aliquō narrābātur. # Simul quīdam in Caesarem vēniēbant ut auxilium postulārent. # Sciō quid quemque agere posse. === § 430, p. 165* === # One town of the allies had been attacked by the enemy for a long time, and fortifications were ravaged daily. # Because food and weapons have began to be lacking to the citizens, the allies have asked that Caesar send troops to help. # Therefore Caesar has placed Labienus in charge of one legion and has sent him as an aid to the citizens. # On the way Labienus ran into the enemy, who came from everywhere to capture the town. # The javelins were a hindrance to them, but the swords were a great advantage. # Our men have been superior to the enemy and have overcome them. # Labienus said that he would be a defense to the citizens. # Do you know who was at the head of the town? === § 431, p. 165* === # Virtūs Caesarī saepe nōn dēerat. # Virīs fortibus praefuit. # Praesidiō patriae suae erat. # Annōs multōs bellīs proximīs nōn superfuit. # Principibus Gallōrum Germānōrumque praestitit. # Lēgātōs cīvitātibus, quae victae erant, praefēcit. # Mare multīs pedibus altius est quam ille lacus. === § 436, p. 167* === # You all are willing, we are not willing, you are more willing # He did not trust the merchants. # To be unwilling, to have been more willing # They wish to persuade you all. # He is willing to favor me. # And they do not want to cause injury to you. # We prefer to be of help to you. # Why do you not want to help your mother? Lit. Why do you not want to be a help to your mother? # We reckon he want to rule over the cavalry. # At sunset the soldiers will capture the enemies' camp. # For few desire war from these people. # He commanded the soldiers that they bravely oppose the Gauls. # Neither the women nor the children were afraid. === § 437, p. 167* === # Volēbant, nōlam, mālet. # Auxiliō nostrīs nōlēbant. # Amīcīs tuīs placēre nōn poterant # Atque imperātōrī nōn persuāsērunt. # Eīs imperābit ut mulieribus nōn noceant. # Illō tempore neque Gallī neque Germānī bellō volēbant. === § 447, p. 171* === # Some of the soldiers were fleeing and have been captured. # Hindered by these things on this day, they did not make an attack. # The other centurion was wounded while fighting in the first line of battle. # Aid had been sent to our soldiers attacking the camp. # Certain women left in the town have determined to defend themselves. # Part of the enemy has been disturbed by the arrival of Caesar and has left at sunset. # He left the soldiers that were brought back in the winter quarters. # The multitude of slaves, having been frightened, were fleeing from the city. # The following day, the camp have moved. === § 448, p. 172* === # Quīdam vir resistēns ā hoste vulnerātus est. # Vulnerātī tam fortiter pugnavērunt ut captī esse nōn possent. # Commōtus difficultātibus itineris legiōnēs suōs rēdūcere cōnstituit. # Hī equitēs praemissī longē fortiterque Gallōs restitērunt. # Dē cōnsiliīs tuīs rogātus, nihil dīcam. # Ducēs captī in Italiam mittentur.   === § 457, p. 176* === # When the enemies had been defeated, he determined to march through the middle of the province. # With Caesar as consul, the war with the Gauls was long. # When a certain town had been taken by storm, a camp was placed on the very banks of this river. # The Helvetians, having been influenced by a lack of everything, sent ambassadors to Caesar concerning surrender. # With these things having been discovered, all were eager for war. # Although few were defending it, the Romans were not able to capture this town. # With the captives having been received into surrender, the general left behind three cohorts as relief for the camp. # These prisoners had been captured for the same reason while fighting quite bravely.   # Who put the horsemen who had been sent to aid the generals in command? # When the city had been fortified, the citizens were no longer frightened. === § 458, p. 177* === # Hīs verba audītibus, magnopere permōvit. # Urbe captī, mīlitēs captīvēs līberāvērunt. # Tōtum diem hostēs nostrōs resistēbant. # Labienō duce, exercitus noster hostibus nocēre potuerint. # Monte captī, Labienus nostrōs expectābat. # Ēruptiōne factī, prīmam aciem nostram appropinquāre nōn potuērunt. === § 464, p. 179* === # He goes, we go, they were going. # To go, having loved, they shall go. # They go, they had gone, he has gone. # He reported the difficulty of navigating. # This is the reason for sending. # He came for the purpose of sending letters. # Diligence in action [acting/doing] pleases the leader. # The opportunity was not given for fighting. # Caesar has stopped speaking. # The time for throwing javelins at the enemy was short. # They have come near to talk. # He shall go with you all to enquire about their names. # He wanted to know where they had been going. # Labienus ordered that the camp be fortified with a rampart. === § 465, p. 179* === # Īs, ībant, ierat. # Ībimus, ieris. # Quō iērunt? # Eīs īre persuādet. # Imperāvit ut eant. # Causā quaerendī pācem vēnērunt. # Spatium ōrandī nōn datum est. # Ad nāvigandum mare appropinquābant. # Eō diē tria mīllia passuum iērunt et occassū solis casta posuērunt.   === § 476, p. 183* === # He bears, we bear, they shall bear. # To bear, he shall bear, to have borne. # They are coming back to bring help. # They had borne, he had been carried. # In peace-seeking. # On account of desiring freedom.   # By increasing men. # Of bridge-making. # The legion prepares itself for waging war. # Many have come together to see the new city. # The sign had to be given. # With the signal given, the soldiers marched with the greatest swiftness. # Everything had been done at once. # We reckon that the war ought to be arranged. # He lacked time because of the javelin throwing. # Weapons are to be brought to the winter-quarters. === § 477, p. 183* === # Fers, ferunt, tulerat. # Tulistī, ferēbant, ferendō. # Auxilium ferēbatur. # Dīxērunt scūta ferenda esse. # Oppidī videndī. # Causā aciēī īnstruendī. # Bellō gerendō. # In acrīs vāstandīs. # Vīs sociōrum cotīdiē auget. # Vīs hostium ferenda est. # Cohors celeritāte redūcenda est. # Lēgātus hīs cōpiīs praesentus erat. === § 485, p. 187 === === § 486, p. 187 === === § 491, p. 189 === === § 492, p. 189 === === § 499, p. 193 === === § 500, p. 193 === === § 504, p. 195 === === § 505, p. 195 === == Reading Lessons == Translations for the reading lessons are kept as literal as possible. These should not be taken as an example neither for translation nor reading. === § 96, p. 46-7 === Cornelia and Julia are small girls. Where do they dwell? They dwell not in Greece but in a renowned town of Italy. They are inhabitants of Rome. Italy is the native country of the Romans. Rome has wide roads and large temples. The Romans like and approve of war. <br> Cornelia is a poet's daughter. The poet often walks in wide gardens. He also sings about the long war and the flight of the Germans because he approves the victory of the Romans. <br> Julia is a farmer's daughter. The farmer has horses and new carts. The farmer's horses carry food and grain. The farmer's slaves give water to the horses. Julia likes the horses and praises the slaves. The farmer is a good master. <br> Marcus and Galba, tribunes, are friends of the girls. Marcus is a friend of the poet's and tells pleasing stories to Cornelia. Galba shows forests and islands of the sea to Julia. (During the modern times this could, and probably would, end up being understood horribly wrong, and the whole affair would end badly for both Marcus and Galba.) <br> A good woman teaches the girls. Cornelia's diligence delights the woman. She calls together the girls in the poet's garden, and she tells stories. The stories of war frighten the small girls. <br> They (= presumably the girls and the woman) often prepare gifts for Vesta. Who is Vesta? Vesta is a Roman goddess, and she has a temple. The girls often walk on Roman roads and behold the booty of Germany and Britain. === § 138, p. 61 === Romulus has built Rome, the renowned city of Italy. The Romans were strong men, and they loved their fatherland. They were fighting often for their fatherland, and with arms they subdued often the Sabines in battle. The Sabines had fine arms, and they fought with great zeal for a long time with long javelins. But the Romans put the Sabines in flight, and they wounded many men with (their) swords. === § 158, p. 67 === Mars, ancestor of the Romans, was fond of arms, battles and wars. Romulus and Remus, sons of the god of arms, have built Rome. And so, battles and wars delighted the minds of the Romans. The Romans worshipped Mercury, Neptune, and Vesta. Mercury, a messenger of the gods, related commands of the gods to inhabitants of the Earth. Sailors worshipped Neptune, the god of water and sea. Women worshipped Vesta, the goddess of hearth, and they prepared many offerings for the goddess. === § 169, p. 72 === ''Marcus'': My friend told me a good story today. ''Julia'': About what did your friend tell? ''Marcus'': (He told) about Icarus, son of Daedalus, an unfortunate boy. ''Julia'': Where did Icarus live? In Britain? ''Marcus'': He did not live in Britain, but in Crete, a large and famous island. Daedalus conceived and prepared wings for (his) son. These wings he put on Icarus using wax with great care. The wings were pleasing to Daedalus. The he taught Daedalus, the boy, to fly, but Icarus flew too high. An so the sun melted the wax, and the wings fell off. ''Julia'': And what about Icarus? ''Marcus'': Icarus too fell down into the sea. ''Julia'': [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/alack Alack], poor Icarus! === § 170, p. 73 === '''The Romans fight for (their) allies''' Because injuries have been many, our allies ask for succour. And accordingly, the Romans have sent a legate with men into the land of Helvetians. Presently this legate has called men together in a town. He has bought food and carts, and he has armed the men with swords and shields. Meanwhile the allies have prepared grain. Today the legate will strengthen the spirits of the men. Then he will lead the men in neighbouring lands and will wait for a battle. The spot of that battle is near to the Helvetians('s troops). Our men will fight with great zeal for the allies, and they will subdue the Helvetians. They will lead many prisoners into the town. Those prisoners will pass the winter in our villages. === § 200, p. 84 === Porsena, an enemy of the Romans, was a famous king. Once he was besieging the city, Rome. Terror of the Romans was great, because Porsena had many soldiers. Frightened women were supplicating the gods in temples. But the bravery of a strong man protected Rome. For with a few comrades Horatius kept back the enemy in front of the Sublician bridge. Meanwhile the citizens dismantled and broke down the bridge in the rear. Then Horatius sent away (his) comrades, and he (alone) defended the bridge against the enemy. Finally the bridge fell down, and among the javelins of the enemy Horatius leapt down into the Tiber and swam to his comrades. This example of bravery saved Rome. Today we praise the deeds of Horatius. === § 202, p. 85 === Spain, Gaul, and Germany were countries of Europe. Nearest to the Strait of Gibraltar (= [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pillars_of_Hercules the Pillars of Hercules]) was Spain. The Gauls lived between Spain and Germany, and Germans dwelled on the other side of Rhine. The Germans had a few villages in Gaul too. Because these nations were enemies (of the Romans), the Romans have fought with the Spaniards, the Gauls, and the Germans often. Between Gaul and the (mediterranean) sea was a new province of Rome. For a long time the inhabitants of that province warded off violence of the Gauls. Finally they requested help from the Romans; for they were greatly afraid of the neighbouring Helvetians. The Helvetians were hostile not only to the province but also to the Germans, and they were fighting the Germans with almost daily battles. === § 216, p. 91 === M: Today I heard the story about Porsena and Horatius. I: Who was Porsena? Was he a Roman? M: Porsena, a noble king, was an enemy of the Romans. With daring soldiers he came into the territories of the Romans, and he attacked the city of Rome. I: Did the Romans flee because of the danger? M: Great was the danger of the city and of the citizens, because the enemies were brave and eager, but the Romans did not flee. I: Did Porsena capture Rome? M: He did not capture the city, because the bravery of a strong man was protecting the citizens. With few allies, Horatius was bravely fighting for the city. I: Did Horatius withstand the enemies for a long time? M: Not for a long time, because the enemies were many, and they were hurling many javelins. But he swam across the river to allies. The Romans praised Horatius on account of his courage. === § 222, p. 93 === # Once a friend asked a Spartan: "Why does Spart not have walls?" The Spartan responded: "Our city has the very best walls, the courage of the strong inhabitants." # Once the Spartan king said: "My citizens have never asked, 'How many are the enemies?' but 'Where are they?'" # Before battle with a Spartan, an enemy said, 'You will not see the sun on account of a multitude of javelins and arrows." "In shade, therefore, we will fight," responded the Spartan. === § 234, p. 98 === In Gaul, the citizens were many and strong. The chiefs of these citizens feared the power and commands of the Romans. Therefore, they had called together many soldiers and among the mountains and hills they were waiting for the Romans. In the first year of the war, the Roman people sent Caesar against the Gauls. This leader, with Labienus and foot soldiers and a few horsemen, hasetened out of Italy in the summer and without peril came into the territories of the Gauls. In these places the scouts of Caesar found enemies. At dawn, the Roman soldiers attacked the Gauls. Intense was the battle. The Gauls were defending the place with stones and heavy weapons. Our men were throwing javelins, and with swords they were withstanding the enemeis. Finally the weary Gauls, on account of a lack of weapons and wounds, fled across the river. For ten years Caesar waged many wars in Gaul and he sent many captives to Rome. === § 236, p. 99 === Because the Britons had often sent aid to the Gauls, Caesar sailed to the Britain island. Although frightened by a great number of ships and men, the strong Britains fought with great courage in defense of the homeland. Yet finally they fled from shore. After this battle, the Romans had laid waste to the fields of the enemies, and had seized villages, and had captured much booty. Cassivellaunus, chief of the Britons, sent envoys to Caesar. Caesar demanded hostages. With these hostages and many captives, he came out of Britain into Gaul. On account of this victory, great was the power of the Romans in Britain. === § 275, p. 111 === At one time, the cities of Rome were rendered a great danger from the Volscians, who were bold enemies of the Roman people. The Volscians were stirred and led by Coriolanus, a Roman. At last, many buildings in the fields were laid waste by the enemies. The citizens armed themselves. The city was supplied food by the consul. In vain the enemies were hindered. Then, because of the great danger, the Romans sent the mother of Coriolanus to him regarding peace, because she was greatly loved by her son. Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, came into the camp to her son. She found him in the camp. Coriolanus saw her and said, 'My country have conquered me and my allies.' At once he fled from the city with the enemies. === § 277, p. 111 === Many stories concerning Perseus are told by poets. Perseus was the son of Jupiter, king of the gods. His grandfather was Acrisius. He was wishing to kill Perseus; for on account of the power of the gods, he feared the boy. Therefore, he captured him while he was still a baby, and placed him with his mother in a chest. Then he cast the chest into the sea. Danae, the mother of Perseus, was fearing greatly, for a great storm was disturbing the sea. However, Perseus was sleeping in the arms of his mother. === § 291, p. 115 === Then Jupiter saw all of this, and he determined to save his son. Therefore he made the sea calm, and he drew the chest to the island of Seraphim. Polydectus was the king of this island at that time. After the ark was drawn to the shore, Danae was sleeping on the sand. After a short time she was found by a man, and she was led to the king. He received well the mother and son, and offered to them a safe dwelling in his territories. === § 314, p. 124 === Scipio and Hannibal were famous generals. The former was a Roman, who won great victories; the latter was a Carthaginian, who conquered the Romans in many battles. Hannibal, when a boy, was brought to the altar by his father. There he swore hatred against the Romans. The young man captured many towns in Spain, then he passed over the Alp mountains and often defeated the Romans in Italy. Scipio, near the Ticinus River, courageously saved the life of his father, and afterwards, near Cannae, showed himself brave against Hannibal. War was carried across into Africa, and there Scipio defeated Hannibal near Zama. He is called by the Romans, 'Africanus.' === § 316, p. 125 === Perseus, as a young man, withdrew from the island Seriphus, and, after he came to the mainland, sought Medusa. For a long time, in vain, he was seeking her for he was ignorant of the nature of the location. After a while, Mercury and Minerva showed to him the road. First unto the Graeae, the sisters of Medusa, he came. With their help he received winged shoes and a magic helmet. Mercury and Minerva gave to him a sword and mirror. Then, after he put on his feet the winged shoes, he ascended into the air. For a long time he flew through the air; finally, however, to that place where Medusa was living with the other Gorgons he came. The Gorgons were monsters whose heads were wholly covered with snakes. But their hands were made from bronze. === § 337, p. 132 === If you are doing well, it is good; I am also doing well. This letter I am gladly writing to you. By the advice of my doctor I am wintering in Italy with my parents. With you snow covers everything, but with us here we rarely see snow. The air is mild; the heavens smile. Sometimes I walk on the shore or I wander in the spacious gardens, for the grass and trees are green there. From here I see Mt. Vesuvius, from here nearly the entire city, from here the beautiful islands situated in the sea. Daily, I give much of ''my'' work in the Latin language. I learn this language much easier than Greek. But now I form the end of the letter; soon I will tell to you everything in person. Farewell, my friend. === § 339, p. 133 === The most difficult thing was the cutting off the head of the Gorgon. for by the sight of it men would be turned into stone. Because of this reason, Minerva had given to Perseus the mirror. Therefore he turned his back, and into the mirror he looked; by this manner he advanced to the place where Medusa was sleeping. Then with his sword he cut off her head with one stroke. The remaining Gorgons immediately were awakened from sleep, and, when they saw the thing, were disturbed. They seized weapons, and they intended to kill Perseus. However while he was fleeing, he put on the magic helmet; and, where he did this, immediately he went out of their view. === § 368, p. 142 === On the next day, Caesar led the army out from the camp and made a march to the river. The thing was reported by the enemy, whose foot-soldiers were seen by us on the top of the hill. Then Caesar placed the calvary in the sides so that they could help the foot-soldiers, and he incited the spirits of the soldiers to battle in this way: "All the hope of the public affair is placed on our courage. Fortune helps the brave. The brave will conquer." The enemy then fiercely made an attack against our line so that they gave way. However for a short time the enemy were overcome so that from all sides of the battle they fled across the river. Their leader was captured and he was sent to Rome. === § 370, p. 143 === After this Perseus came into the territories of Egypt. There Cepheus was ruling at that time. He at one time had struck Neptune, the god of the sea; therefore, Neptune had sent the cruelest monster. This monster daily would come out of the sea and would devour men. For this reason, terror seized the spirits of them all. Cepheus, therefore, consulted the oracle of the god Hammon, and he was commanded by the god to surrender his daughter Andromeda to the monster. However, that virgin was very beautiful. Cepheus, when he heard this, greatly grieved. But he wished to save his citizens from the great danger, and for this reason he determined to do the command of Hammon. === § 391, p. 149 === === § 406, p. 156* === After this battle, Caesar spoke to his soldiers in a meeting thus: they had fought bravely; and so the enemy has been defeated everywhere and has fled to the mountains and the marshes; he [Caesar] would give the booty to them; he [Caesar] knew that they were tired on account of the long war and that he would send them to Italy at once; he [Caesar] wanted to remain in Gaul through the winter, but the following summer he [Caesar] would lead his own (men) to the Germans; many captives had been sent to Rome, and the Roman people were delighted by their victory. === § 408, p. 156-7* === When Perseus saw this, he took out his sword, and, after donning his magic boots, flew through the air. Then he suddenly attacked the monster from above, and gravely wounded its neck with his sword. When the monster felt the wound, it let out a horrible noise and without delay submerged its entire body in the water. As Perseus flew around the shore, he awaited its return. But meanwhile, the sea was being tainted everywhere with blood. After a short time the beast exposed its head again; nevertheless it was soon wounded by Perseus with a more severe strike. Then it again submerged itself in the waves, and thereafter was never seen again. After Perseus descended to the shore, he first removed his magic boots; then came to the cliff where Andromeda was bound. But she had put away all hope of salvation, and when Perseus arrived, she had nearly died of fear. The former loosened her bonds at once and returned the girl to her father. Cepheus was affected with great joy on account of this action. And so he gave Andromeda to Perseus in matrimony. Perseus lived with his wife in this region for a few years, and existed in great honor among all Ethiopians. === § 423, p. 163* === [From Caesar's ''Commentāriī De Bellō Gallicō'' Book I.I] All of Gaul is divided in three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, and the third those who are called Gauls. Of all of these the bravest are the Belgae because they are neither near the Roman provinces nor do traders come to them often; and they are the nearest to the Germans, who live across the Rhine, and with whom they wage war. For this reason the Helvetians are also braver than the rest of Gaul. They struggle on account of nearly daily battles with the Germans, when they restrain them from their own territories or they themselves wage war in the Germans' territories. This part that the Gauls occupy begins at the river Rhone; and is stopped at the river Garonne, the ocean, and the Belgian territories. === § 438, p. 168* === Certain mice had a meeting once, for they greatly feared a cat. Plans that were put forward was not pleasing to all. Finally one mouse spoke thus: "We ought to tie a tinnabulum to the cat's tail. Thus truly on account of his sound we shall be warned and shall be able to flee. Who of us wishes to do this?" But none of the companions was persuaded to tie the tintinnabulum to the cat, and he himself was unwilling. This story teaches that very many are bold in offering advice but are afraid of the very risk [of doing so]. === § 439, p. 168* === One time, Nasica came to the house of the poet Ennis and asked about him. The slave-girl responded that Ennius was not at home. But Nasica felt that that girl said this on account of the master's command and that Ennius was home. A few days later Ennius came to Nasica's house. She exclaims to him that Nasica is not at home. Then Ennius said, "What? Do I not know your voice?" Hereupon Nasica replied, "You are a shameless man. I believed your slave-girl; you do not believe me myself?" === § 440, p. 168-9* === [From Caesar's ''Commentāriī De Bellō Gallicō'' Book I.II] Oregetorix was the most famous of the Helvetians for a long time. He was led by desire for the kingship and created a conspiracy of the nobility. Then he persuaded the state to hasten from their own land with all of their troops. It was easy to persuade them because the Helvetians are enclosed on all sides by the nature of the place: on one side the river Rhine, the broadest and deepest, which divided the land of the Helvetians from the Germans; on the other side by the very high Jura mountain, which is between the Sequani and the Helvetians; on the third side by lake Lemannus [Geneva] and the river Rhine, which divides our province from the Helvetians. On account of the multitude of men and the glory of war they reckoned themselves to have a small territory, which extended 240 miles in length and 180 miles in breadth. === § 449, p. 173* === # Lacaenus said to his son while hastening to battle, "either on a shield or with a shield." (A Greek saying based on the fact that slain warriors would be carried home upon their shields.) # Leonidas said to the soldiers, "The enemies are near us," to which he responded, "Now we are near the enemy." # Thales, having been asked, "What is common to men?" responded, "Hope; for truly now they have this who have nothing at all." # A Corinthian spectator asked, "You make strong and high walls. Which women inhabit this city?" # A certain man asked Aristotle, "What is friendship?" Aristotle replied, "One soul in two bodies." # Cicero said, "The one that cannot tame an army is the general who cannot tame himself."   === § 451, p. 173-4* === The Helvetians, influenced by these things and having been agitated by the authority of Orgetorix, determined to buy the maximum number of carts, prepare a supply of grain, and strengthen peace and friendship with neighboring nations. Meanwhile Orgetorix assumed the position of ambassador towards the nations. During this quest he persuaded Casticus, a Sequani, whose father had possessed the Sequani kingdom for many years and had been named friend of the Roman people by the Senate, to seize the kingdom in his own nation. He persuaded this man to do the same for the other chiefs. Influenced by Orgetorix's speech, these chiefs offered hostages amongst themselves, and they hoped to be able to occupy the entirety of Gaul by themselves. The Helvetians however did not approve of this meeting. Therefore they gathered together a multitude of men from the fields to avert Orgetorix's plans. But at this time Orgetorix suddenly died.    === § 479, p. 184-5 === === § 494, p. 190-1 === == Reviews == === § 68, p. 38 === === § 69, p. 38 === === § 70, p. 39 === === § 71, p. 39 === === § 72, p. 39 === # Rule: The subject of a sentence is in the nominative case.<br>''Equus natat.'' # Rule: A verb agrees with its subject in number and person.<br>''Equī natant.'' # Rule: The object of a verb is in the accusative case.<br>''Puella equum exspectat.'' # Rule: The word enoting the owner or possessor is in the genitive case.<br>''Equus puellae natat.'' # Rule: The cause of and action may be expressed by a dependent clause introduced by ''quod''.<br>''Equus natat quod puella equum exspectat.'' # Rule: The indirect object of a verb is in the dative case.<br>''Rēgīna puellae equum dat.'' # Rule: Plase where is commonly expressed by a phrase consisting of a preposition, usually ''in'', with the ablative case.<br>''Puella in agrō equum spectat.'' # Rule: -.<br>''Quis puellae equum dat?''<br>''Rēgīnane puellae equum dat?''<br>''Cuius equum rēgīna puellae dat?'' === § 115, p. 54 === === § 116, p. 54 === === § 117, p. 55 === === § 118, p. 55 === === § 119, p. 55 === # Rule: Adjectives agree with their nouns in case, gender, and number. <br>''Ea puella equum bonum et parvam habet.'' # Rule: A predicate noun agrees in case with the subject of the verb. <br>''Cornēlia est puella.'' # Rule: A predicate adjective agrees in case, gender, and number with the subject of the verb. <br>''Iūlia et Cornēlia sunt amīcae.'' # Rule: An appositive agrees in case with the noun it explains. <br>''Cornēlia puella equum probat.'' # Rule: Certain adjectives meaning near, fit, friendly, pleasing, like, and their opposites may be accompanied by a dative to show the person or the thin toward which the quality of the adjective is directed. <br>''Equus Cornēliae grātus est.'' === § 163, p. 70 === === § 164, p. 70 === === § 165, p. 70 === === § 166, p. 71 === === § 167, p. 71 === # Rule: The means by which an action is accomplished is expressed by the ablative without a preposition.<br>''Sociōs vulnerōs scutīs portāvērunt.'' # Rule: The ablative with cum is used with abstract nouns to denote the manner of an action; but cum may be omitted if an adjective modifies the noun of the phrase.<br>''In eō locō cum studīo pugnāvērunt; sed prō eō vīcō magnā cūrā pugnāvērunt.'' # Rule: The ablative with cum is used to show accompaniment.<br>''Is lēgātus in Italiam cum sociīs properāvit.'' === § 203, p. 86 === === § 204, p. 86 === === § 205, p. 87 === === § 206, p. 87 === === § 207, p. 87 === # Rule: Place from which is expressed by the ablative with ''ā'' (''ab''), ''dē'' or ''ē'' (''ex'').<br>''Ab urbē Horātius properat.''<br>''Dē pontē Horātius desiluit.''<br>''Ē portā Horātius properāvit.'' # Rule: The place to which is expressed by the accusative with ''ad'' or ''in''.<br>''Ad pontem Horātius cucurrit.''<br>''In flūmen Horātius desilit.'' # Rule: The ablative without a preposition is used to express cause.<br>''Multīs vulneribus mīlitēs dēfessī sunt.'' # Rule: Cause may also be expressed by a prepositional phrase consisting of ''ob'' or ''propter'' with the accusative, or of ''dē'' or ''ex'' with the ablative.<br>''Ob virtūtem Horātiī eum laudāmus.''<br>''Rōmānī multīs dē iniūrīs cum Helvetiīs pugnāverunt.'' # Rule: -<br>''Ad pontem contrā hostīs Horātius properat.''<br>''Ante pontem inter sociōs Horātius apud hostīs pugnāvit.''<br>''Ob iniūriās per urbem et trāns pontem Horātius, et post Horātium cīvēs, properāvērunt.'' # Rule: -<br>''Ab urbe et ē portās cum sociīs prō Rōmā Horātius, sine terrōre, properat.'' # Rule: -<br>''Nostrī dēfessī sunt.''<br>''Dux dēfessōs ā proeliō dīmīsit.'' === § 252, p. 104 === === § 253, p. 104 === === § 254, p. 104 === === § 255, p. 105 === === § 256, p. 105 === === § 301, p. 120 === === § 302, p. 120 === === § 303, p. 121 === === § 304, p. 121 === === § 305, p. 121 === === § 362, p. 140 === === § 363, p. 140 === === § 364, p. 141 === === § 365, p. 141 === === § 366, p. 141 === === § 415, p. 160 === === § 416, p. 160 === === § 417, p. 161 === === § 418, p. 161 === === § 419, p. 161 === === § 466, p. 180 === === § 467, p. 180 === === § 468, p. 181 === === § 469, p. 181 === === § 470, p. 181 === === § 506, p. 196 === === § 507, p. 196 === === § 508, p. 197 === === § 509, p. 197 === === § 510, p. 197 === === § 511, p. 197 === inwy44dnux1wato3kittcnnm4t5bs8o 2 407881 4654128 4614594 2026-07-11T19:22:50Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654128 wikitext text/x-wiki __noTOC__ == Recpies for national and ethnic dishes on Wikibooks == The list includes also dishes that don't exist yet as recpies on Wikibooks. I hope to add the missing ones too. Search for additional recpies at the top search box on [[Cookbook:Table_of_Contents|this page]]. === Middle Eastern === * [[:en:Cookbook:Tabbouleh|Tabbouleh]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Baba Ganoush|Baba Ganoush]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Hummus I|Hummus]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Falafel|Falafel]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> Tabouleh 1.JPG|Tabbouleh Hummuswithpinenuts.jpg|Hummus Falafel_in_a_pita2.jpg|Falafel </gallery> === East Asian === ;Japanese cuisine * [[:en:Cookbook:Sushi|Sushi]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Chicken Teriyaki|Chicken Teriyaki]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> Sushi_002.jpg|Sushi </gallery> ;Chinese cuisine * [[:en:Cookbook:Chow Mein|Chow Mein]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Kung Pao Chicken|Kung Pao Chicken]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> Chicken chow mein by roland in Vancouver.jpg|Chow Mein Kung_Pao_chicken_(western_version)_-1.jpg|Kung Pao Chicken </gallery> === South Asian === ;Indian cuisine * [[:en:Cookbook:Chicken Tikka Masala|Chicken Tikka Masala]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Palak Paneer|Palak Paneer]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Aloo Gobi|Aloo Gobi]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> Chicken Tikka Masala.jpeg|Chicken Tikka Masala Cottage cheese in spinach gravy(palak paneer).jpg|Palak Paneer </gallery> === South-East Asian === ;Thai cuisine * [[:en:Cookbook:Pad Thai|Chicken Pad Thai]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Drunken Noodles with Chicken|Drunken Noodles with Chicken]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> SamedFEB10 - 102.JPG|Pad Thai </gallery> ;Vietnamese cuisine * [[:en:Cookbook:Phở|Phở]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Lemongrass Chicken|Lemongrass Chicken]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Chicken Lo Mein|Chicken Lo Mein]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> Phở_bò,_Cầu_Giấy,_Hà_Nội.jpg|Pho Lo Mein (25045196681).jpg|Chicken Lo Mein </gallery> === African === * Couscous with steamed vegetables * [[:en:Cookbook:Shakshuka|Shakshuka]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Injera|Injera]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> Couscous-1.jpg|Couscous with steamed vegetables Shakshuka1.jpg|Shakshuka Alicha_1.jpg|Tradional Ethiopian meal on injera bread </gallery> === Mediterenian === * [[:en:Cookbook:Stuffed Peppers|Stuffed Peppers]] ;Green cuisine * [[:en:Cookbook:Greek Salad|Greek Salad]] ;Italian cuisine * [[:en:Cookbook:New York City-Style Pizza|Pizza]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Spaghetti alla Carbonara|Spaghetti alla Carbonara]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Lasagna|Lasagna]] {{-}} === North American === ;Mexican cusine * [[:en:Cookbook:Burrito|Bean Burrito]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Fajita|Chicken Fajitas]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Enchilada|Enchilada]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Taco|Beef Taco]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Quesadilla|Quesadilla]] * [[:en:Cookbook:Guacamole|Guacamole]] <gallery widths=250px heights=160px perrow=4 class="center"> Breakfast_burritos.jpg|Burrito Enchilada_Rice_Beans.jpg|Enchilada NCI_Visuals_Food_Taco.jpg|Taco </gallery> === Jewish Recpies === * [[:en:Cookbook:Challah|Challah]] === South American === fqo59tp5w4enojly53uc21bbyskkz4j 0 414769 4654146 4408240 2026-07-11T23:12:44Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 Fixes obsolete HTML tags lints 4654146 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{doc-page-head}}</noinclude><strong><big><span style="color: {{{CO|blue}}};"><kbd>{{key press/core|{{{1}}}}}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{2|}}}|+{{key press/core|{{{2}}}}}}}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{3|}}}|+{{key press/core|{{{3}}}}}}}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{4|}}}|+{{key press/core|{{{4}}}}}}}<!-- -->{{#if:{{{5|}}}|+{{key press/core|{{{5}}}}}}}{{{p|}}}</kbd></span></big></strong><noinclude><div <!--style={{TRS-style|BG=#F5FFFA;}}---> ><!-- <hr> ---> &nbsp; ;Purpose and usage This is the same template internal code as [[Template:Key_press]] and [[template:Kb]], but differing from the latter, since it is both wrapped in a BLACK(or using parameter |CO=color), an alternative colorizing HTML wrapper as {{tl|Kb}} supports, but also the wrapper increasing the font size '<big>...</big>' in wiki-markup. The key displayed is expressed in the user's (''browser'''s) ''default monospace font'' within the {{wp|Digital_container_format|wrapper}}s (or {{wp|Container_(abstract_data_type)|Software container}}). * The related templates [[template:Kb]] and [[template:KbL]] use instead a {{BL|blue motif}} which is used on the [[Trainz |Trainz Wikibook]] extensively to emphasize the difference between Tools selection command and Hotkeys of other kinds, but with the same distinction between HTML wrappers. </div> <!-- --->[[Category:Trainz typing-aid templates |Key_press]]<!-- --->[[Category:Text formatting templates|Key_press]]<!-- --->[[Category:Graphic templates|Key_press]] {{Kb/doc}} </div> </noinclude> i30uzjbv5p1hclj7xkiv3ssvs8h3jsl 2 417270 4654133 4513012 2026-07-11T19:24:19Z Koavf 16549 massdelete 4654133 javascript text/javascript //<nowiki> /* Cat-a-lot - changes category of multiple files */ mw.loader.using(['jquery.ui', 'mediawiki.util'], function(){ mw.loader.load('//commons.wikimedia.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Cat-a-lot'); }); ////////// Cat-a-lot user preferences ////////// window.catALotPrefs = {"watchlist":"preferences","minor":true,"editpages":true,"docleanup":false,"subcatcount":10}; ////////////////////////////////////catALotEnd// //</nowiki> /* Uploaded from branch master, commit 5d2cd81 */ // vim: ts=4 sw=4 et //<nowiki> function loadReplyLink( $, mw ) { var TIMESTAMP_REGEX = /\(UTC(?:(?:−|\+)\d+?(?:\.\d+)?)?\)\S*?\s*$/m; var EDIT_REQ_REGEX = /^((Semi|Template|Extended-confirmed)-p|P)rotected edit request on \d\d? \w+ \d{4}/; var EDIT_REQ_TPL_REGEX = /\{\{edit (template|fully|extended|semi)-protected\s*(\|.+?)*\}\}/; var LITERAL_SIGNATURE = "~~" + "~~"; // split up because it might get processed var i18n = { "en": { "rl-advert": " (using [[w:en:User:Enterprisey/reply-link|reply-link]])", "rl-error-status": "There was an error while replying! Please leave a note at " + "<a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Enterprisey/reply-link'>the script's talk page</a>" + " with any errors in <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:JSERROR'>the browser console</a>, if possible.", "rl-replying-to": "Replying to ", "rl-reloading": "automatically reloading", "rl-reload": "Reload", "rl-saved": "Reply saved!", "rl-cancel": "cancel ", "rl-placeholder": "Reply here!", "rl-reply": "Reply", "rl-preview": "Preview", "rl-cancel-button": "Cancel", "rl-started-reply": "You've started a reply but haven't posted it", "rl-loading": "Loading...", "rl-reply-label": "reply", "rl-to-label": " to ", "rl-auto-indent": "Automatically indent?" }, "pt": { "rl-advert": "(usando [[w:en:User:Enterprisey/reply-link|reply-link]])", "rl-error-status": "Ocorreu um erro ao responder! Por favor deixe um comentário na " + "<a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Enterprisey/reply-link'>página de discussão do script</a>" + " informando os erros que apareçam <a href='https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:JSERROR'>no console do navegador</a>, se possível.", "rl-replying-to": "Respondendo a ", "rl-reloading": "recarregando automaticamente", "rl-reload": "Recarregar", "rl-saved": "Resposta publicada!", "rl-cancel": "cancelar ", "rl-placeholder": "Responda aqui!", "rl-reply": "Responder", "rl-preview": "Prever", "rl-cancel-button": "Cancelar", "rl-started-reply": "Você começou a responder, mas não publicou sua resposta", "rl-loading": "Carregando...", "rl-reply-label": "responder", "rl-to-label": " a ", "rl-auto-indent": "Indentar automaticamente?" } }; var PARSOID_ENDPOINT = "https:" + mw.config.get( "wgServer" ) + "/api/rest_v1/page/html/"; var HEADER_SELECTOR = "h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6"; var MAX_UNICODE_DECIMAL = 1114111; var HEADER_REGEX = /^\s*=(=*)\s*(.+?)\s*\1=\s*$/gm; // T:TDYK, used at the end of loadReplyLink var TTDYK = "Template:Did_you_know_nominations"; var RFA_PG = "Wikipedia:Requests_for_adminship/"; // Threshold for indentation when we offer to outdent var OUTDENT_THRESH = 8; // All of the interface message keys that we explicitly load var INT_MSG_KEYS = [ "mycontris" ]; // Date format regexes in signatures (i.e. the "default date format") var DATE_FMT_RGX = { "//en.wikipedia.org": /\d\d:\d\d,\s\d{1,2}\s\w+?\s\d{4}/.source, "//simple.wikipedia.org": /\d\d:\d\d,\s\d{1,2}\s\w+?\s\d{4}/.source, "//en.wikisource.org": /\d\d:\d\d,\s\d{1,2}\s\w+?\s\d{4}/.source, "//pt.wikipedia.org": /\d\dh\d\dmin\sde \d{1,2} de \w+? de \d{4}/.source } // Shared API object var api; /* * Regex *sources* for a "userspace" link. Basically the * localized equivalent of User( talk)?|Special:Contributions/ * Initialized in buildUserspcLinkRgx, which is called near the top * of the closure in handleWrapperClick. * * Three subproperties: und for underscores instead of spaces (e.g. * "User_talk"), spc for spaces (e.g. "User talk"), and both for * a regex combining the two (used for matching on wikitext). */ var userspcLinkRgx = null; /** * This dictionary is some global state that holds three pieces of * information for each "(reply)" link (keyed by their unique IDs): * * - the indentation string for the comment (e.g. ":*::") * - the header tuple for the parent section, in the form of * [level, text, number], where: * - level is 1 for a h1, 2 for a h2, etc * - text is the text between the equal signs * - number is the zero-based index of the heading from the top * - sigIdx, or the zero-based index of the signature from the top * of the section * * This dictionary is populated in attachLinks, and unpacked in the * click handler for the links (defined in attachLinkAfterNode); the * values are then passed to doReply. */ var metadata = {}; /** * This global string flag is: * * - "AfD" if the current page is an AfD page * - "MfD" if the current page is an MfD page * - "TfD" if the current page is a TfD log page * - "CfD" if the current page is a CfD log page * - "FfD" if the current page is a FfD log page * - "" otherwise * * This flag is initialized in onReady and used in attachLinkAfterNode */ var xfdType; /** * The current page name, including namespace, because we may be reading it * a lot (especially in findUsernameInElem if we're on someone's user * talk page) */ var currentPageName; /** * A map for signatures that contain redirects, so that they can still * pass the sanity check. This will be updated manually, because I * don't want the overhead of a whole 'nother API call in the middle * of the reply process. If this map grows too much, though, I'll * consider switching to either a toolforge-hosted API or the * Wikipedia API. Used in doReply, for the username sanity check. */ var sigRedirectMapping = { "Salvidrim": "Salvidrim!" }; /** * When the reply is saved via API, this flag is set to true to * disable the onbeforeunload handler. */ var replyWasSaved = false; /** * Cache for getWikitext. Only useful in test mode. */ var getWikitextCache = {}; // Polyfill from https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/String/includes if( !String.prototype.includes ) { String.prototype.includes = function( search, start ) { if( search instanceof RegExp ) { throw TypeError('first argument must not be a RegExp'); } if( start === undefined ) { start = 0; } return this.indexOf( search, start ) !== -1; }; } /** * Get the formatted namespace name for a namespace ID. * Quick ref: user = 2, proj = 4 */ function fmtNs( nsId ) { return mw.config.get( "wgFormattedNamespaces" )[ nsId ]; } /** * Escapes a string for inclusion in a regex. */ function escapeForRegex( s ) { return s.replace( /[-\/\\^$*+?.()|[\]{}]/g, '\\$&' ); } /* * MediaWiki turns spaces before certain punctuation marks * into non-breaking spaces, so fix those. This is done by * the armorFrenchSpaces function in Mediawiki, in the file * /includes/parser/Sanitizer.php */ function deArmorFrenchSpaces( text ) { return text.replace( /\xA0([?:;!%»›])/g, " $1" ) .replace( /([«‹])\xA0/g, "$1 " ); } /** * Capitalize the first letter of a string. */ function capFirstLetter( someString ) { return someString.charAt( 0 ).toUpperCase() + someString.slice( 1 ); } /** * Namespace name to ID. * For example, nsNameToId( "Template" ) === 10. */ function nsNameToId( nsName ) { return mw.config.get( "wgNamespaceIds" )[ nsName.toLowerCase().replace( / /g, "_" ) ]; } /** * Canonical-ize a namespace. */ function canonicalizeNs( ns ) { return fmtNs( nsNameToId( ns ) ); } /** * This function converts any (index-able) iterable into a list. */ function iterableToList( nl ) { var len = nl.length; var arr = new Array( len ); for( var i = 0; i < len; i++ ) arr[i] = nl[i]; return arr; } /** * Process HTML character entities. * From https://stackoverflow.com/a/46851765 */ function processCharEntities( text ) { var el = document.createElement('div'); return text.replace( /\&[#0-9a-z]+;/gi, function ( enc ) { el.innerHTML = enc; return el.innerText } ); } /** * Process HTML character entities, MediaWiki style * From https://stackoverflow.com/a/46851765 */ function processCharEntitiesWikitext( text ) { var el = document.createElement('div'); return text.replace( /\&[#0-9a-z]+;/gi, function ( enc ) { if( /#\d+/.test( enc ) ) { if( parseInt( enc.slice( 1 ) ) > MAX_UNICODE_DECIMAL ) { return enc; } } el.innerHTML = enc; return el.innerText } ); } /** * When there's a panel being shown, this function sets the status * in the panel to the first argument. The callback function is * optional. */ function setStatus ( status, callback ) { var statusElement = $( "#reply-dialog-status" ); statusElement.fadeOut( function () { statusElement.html( status ).fadeIn( callback ); } ); } /** * Sets the panel status when an error happened. Good for use in * catch blocks. */ function setStatusError( e ) { console.error(e); setStatus( mw.msg( "rl-error-status" ) ); if( e.message ) { console.log( "Content request error: " + JSON.stringify( e.message ) ); } console.log( "DEBUG INFORMATION: '"+currentPageName+"' @ " + mw.config.get( "wgCurRevisionId" ),"parsoid",PARSOID_ENDPOINT+ encodeURIComponent(currentPageName).replace(/'/g,"%27")+"/"+mw.config.get("wgCurRevisionId") ); throw e; } /** * Given some wikitext, processes it to get just the text content. * This function should be identical to the MediaWiki function * that gets the wikitext between the equal signs and comes up * with the id's that anchor the headers. */ function wikitextToTextContent( wikitext ) { return decodeURIComponent( processCharEntities( wikitext ) ) .replace( /\[\[:?(?:[^\|\]]+?\|)?([^\]\|]+?)\]\]/g, "$1" ) .replace( /\{\{\s*tl\s*\|\s*(.+?)\s*\}\}/g, "{{$1}}" ) .replace( /\{\{\s*[Uu]\s*\|\s*(.+?)\s*\}\}/g, "$1" ) .replace( /('''?)(.+?)\1/g, "$2" ) .replace( /<s>(.+?)<\/s>/g, "$1" ) .replace( /<big>(.+?)<\/big>/g, "$1" ) .replace( /<span.*?>(.*?)<\/span>/g, "$1" ); } function wikitextHeaderEqualsDomHeader( wikitextHeader, domHeader ) { return wikitextToTextContent( wikitextHeader ) === deArmorFrenchSpaces( domHeader ); } /** * Finds and returns the div that is the immediate parent of the * first talk page header on the page, so that we can read all the * sections by iterating through its child nodes. */ function findMainContentEl() { // Which header are we looking for? var targetHeader = "h2"; if( xfdType || currentPageName.startsWith( RFA_PG ) ) targetHeader = "h3"; if( currentPageName.startsWith( TTDYK ) ) targetHeader = "h4"; // The element itself will be the text span in the h2; its // parent will be the h2; and the parent of the h2 is the // content container that we want var candidates = document.querySelectorAll( targetHeader + " > span.mw-headline" ); if( !candidates.length ) return null; var candidate = candidates[candidates.length-1].parentElement.parentElement; // Compatibility with User:Enterprisey/hover-edit-section // That script puts each section in its own div, so we need to // go out another level if it's running if( candidate.className === "hover-edit-section" ) { return candidate.parentElement; } else { return candidate; } } /** * Gets the wikitext of a page with the given title (namespace required). * Returns an object with keys "content" and "timestamp". */ function getWikitext( title, useCaching ) { if( useCaching === undefined ) useCaching = false; if( useCaching && getWikitextCache[ title ] ) { return $.when( getWikitextCache[ title ] ); } return $.getJSON( mw.util.wikiScript( "api" ), { format: "json", action: "query", prop: "revisions", rvprop: "content", rvslots: "main", rvlimit: 1, titles: title } ).then( function ( data ) { var pageId = Object.keys( data.query.pages )[0]; if( data.query.pages[pageId].revisions ) { var revObj = data.query.pages[pageId].revisions[0]; var result = { timestamp: revObj.timestamp, content: revObj.slots.main["*"] }; getWikitextCache[ title ] = result; return result; } return {}; } ); } /** * Creates userspcLinkRgx. Called in handleWrapperClick and the test * runner at the bottom. */ function buildUserspcLinkRgx() { var nsIdMap = mw.config.get( "wgNamespaceIds" ); var nsRgxFragments = []; var contribsSecondFrag = ":" + escapeForRegex( mw.messages.get( "mycontris" ) ) + "\\/"; for( var nsName in nsIdMap ) { if( !nsIdMap.hasOwnProperty( nsName ) ) continue; switch( nsIdMap[nsName] ) { case 2: case 3: nsRgxFragments.push( escapeForRegex( capFirstLetter( nsName ) ) + "\\s*:" ); break; case -1: nsRgxFragments.push( escapeForRegex( capFirstLetter( nsName ) ) + contribsSecondFrag ); break; } } userspcLinkRgx = {}; userspcLinkRgx.spc = "(?:" + nsRgxFragments.join( "|" ).replace( /_/g, " " ) + ")"; userspcLinkRgx.und = userspcLinkRgx.spc.replace( / /g, "_" ); userspcLinkRgx.both = userspcLinkRgx.spc.replace( / /g, "(?: |_)" ); } /** * Is there a signature (four tildes) present in the given text, * outside of a nowiki element? */ function hasSig( text ) { // no literal signature? if( !text.includes( LITERAL_SIGNATURE ) ) return false; // if there's a literal signature and no nowiki elements, // there must be a real signature if( !text.includes( "<nowiki>" ) ) return true; // Save all nowiki spans var nowikiSpanStarts = []; // list of ignored span beginnings var nowikiSpanLengths = []; // list of ignored span lengths var NOWIKI_RE = /<nowiki>.*?<\/nowiki>/g; var spanMatch; do { spanMatch = NOWIKI_RE.exec( text ); if( spanMatch ) { nowikiSpanStarts.push( spanMatch.index ); nowikiSpanLengths.push( spanMatch[0].length ); } } while( spanMatch ); // So that we don't check every ignore span every time var nowikiSpanStartIdx = 0; var LIT_SIG_RE = new RegExp( LITERAL_SIGNATURE, "g" ); var sigMatch; matchLoop: do { sigMatch = LIT_SIG_RE.exec( text ); if( sigMatch ) { // Check that we're not inside a nowiki for( var nwIdx = nowikiSpanStartIdx; nwIdx < nowikiSpanStarts.length; nwIdx++ ) { if( sigMatch.index > nowikiSpanStarts[nwIdx] ) { if ( sigMatch.index + sigMatch[0].length <= nowikiSpanStarts[nwIdx] + nowikiSpanLengths[nwIdx] ) { // Invalid sig continue matchLoop; } else { // We'll never encounter this span again, since // headers only get later and later in the wikitext nowikiSpanStartIdx = nwIdx; } } } // We aren't inside a nowiki return true; } } while( sigMatch ); return false; } /** * Given an Element object, attempt to recover a username from it. * Also will check up to two elements prior to the passed element. * Returns null if no username was found. Otherwise, returns an * object with these properties: * * - username: The username that we found. * - link: The DOM object for the link from which we got the * username. */ function findUsernameInElem( el ) { if( !el ) return null; var links; for( let i = 0; i < 3; i++ ) { if( el === null ) break; links = el.tagName.toLowerCase() === "a" ? [ el ] : el.querySelectorAll( "a" ); //console.log(i,"top of outer for in findUsernameInElem ",el, " links -> ",links); // Compatibility with "Comments in Local Time" if( el.className.includes( "localcomments" ) ) i--; // If we couldn't get any links, try again with prev elem if( !links ) continue; var link; // his name isn't zelda for( var j = 0; j < links.length; j++ ) { link = links[j]; //console.log(link,decodeURIComponent(link.getAttribute("href"))); if( link.className.includes( "mw-selflink" ) ) { return { username: currentPageName.replace( /.+:/, "" ) .replace( /_/g, " " ), link: link }; } // Also matches redlinks. Why people have redlinks in their sigs on // purpose, I may never know. //console.log( "^\\/(?:wiki\\/" + userspcLinkRgx.und + /(.+?)(?:\/.+?)?(?:#.+)?|w\/index\.php\?title=User(?:_talk)?:(.+?)&action=edit&redlink=1/.source + ")$" ) var sigLinkRe = new RegExp( "\\/(?:wiki\\/" + userspcLinkRgx.und + /(.+?)(?:\/.+?)?(?:#.+)?|w\/index\.php\?title=/.source + userspcLinkRgx.und + /(.+?)&action=edit&redlink=1/.source + ")$" ); var liveDecodedHref = decodeURIComponent( link.getAttribute( "href" ) ); if( liveDecodedHref.startsWith( "/" ) ) { liveDecodedHref = "https:" + mw.config.get( "wgServer" ) + liveDecodedHref; } var usernameMatch = sigLinkRe.exec( liveDecodedHref ); if( usernameMatch ) { //console.log("usernameMatch",usernameMatch) var rawUsername = usernameMatch[1] ? usernameMatch[1] : usernameMatch[2]; return { username: decodeURIComponent( rawUsername ).replace( /_/g, " " ), link: link }; } } // Go backwards one element and try again el = el.previousElementSibling; } return null; } /** * Given a reply-link-wrapper span, attempts to find who wrote * the comment that precedes it. For information about the return * value, see the documentation for findUsernameInElem. */ function getCommentAuthor( wrapper ) { var sigNode = wrapper.previousSibling; //console.log(sigNode,sigNode.style,sigNode.style ? sigNode.style.getPropertyValue("size"):""); var smallOrFake = sigNode.nodeType === 1 && ( sigNode.tagName.toLowerCase() === "small" || ( sigNode.tagName.toLowerCase() === "span" && sigNode.style && ( sigNode.style.getPropertyValue( "font-size" ) === "85%" || sigNode.style.getPropertyValue( "font-size" ).indexOf( "small" ) === 0 ) ) ); var possUserLinkElem = ( smallOrFake && sigNode.children.length > 1 ) ? sigNode.children[sigNode.children.length-1] : sigNode.previousElementSibling; return findUsernameInElem( possUserLinkElem ); } /** * Given the wikitext of a section, attempt to find the first edit * request template in it, and then mark that template as answered. * Returns the modified section wikitext. */ function markEditReqAnswered( sectionWikitext ) { var editReqMatch = EDIT_REQ_TPL_REGEX.exec( sectionWikitext ); if( !editReqMatch ) { console.error( "Couldn't find an edit request!" ); return sectionWikitext; } var ansParamMatch = /ans(wered)?=.*?(\||\}\})/.exec( editReqMatch[0] ); if( !ansParamMatch ) { sectionWikitext = sectionWikitext.replace( editReqMatch[0], editReqMatch[0].replace( "}}", "answered=yes}}" ) ); } else { var newEditReqTpl = editReqMatch[0].replace( ansParamMatch[0], "answered=yes" + ansParamMatch[2] ); sectionWikitext = sectionWikitext.replace( editReqMatch[0], newEditReqTpl ); } return sectionWikitext; } /** * Ascend until dd or li, or a p directly under div.mw-parser-output. * live is true if we're on the live DOM (and thus we have our own UI * elements to deal with) and false if we're on the psd DOM. */ function ascendToCommentContainer( startNode, live, recordPath ) { var currNode = startNode; if( recordPath === undefined ) recordPath = false; var path = []; var lcTag; var headerRegex = /h\d+/i; function hasHeaderAsAnyPreviousSibling( node ) { do { if( headerRegex.test( node.tagName ) ) { return true; } node = node.previousElementSibling; } while( node ); } function isActualContainer( node, nodeLcTag ) { if( nodeLcTag === undefined ) nodeLcTag = node.tagName.toLowerCase(); return /dd|li/.test( nodeLcTag ) || ( ( nodeLcTag === "p" || nodeLcTag === "div" ) && ( node.parentNode.className === "mw-parser-output" || hasHeaderAsAnyPreviousSibling( node ) || node.parentNode.className === "hover-edit-section" || ( node.parentNode.tagName.toLowerCase() === "section" && node.parentNode.dataset.mwSectionId ) ) ); } var smallContainerNodeLimit = live ? 3 : 1; do { currNode = currNode.parentNode; lcTag = currNode.tagName.toLowerCase(); if( lcTag === "html" ) { console.error( "ascendToCommentContainer reached root" ); break; } if( recordPath ) path.unshift( currNode ); //console.log( "checking isActualContainer for ", currNode, isActualContainer( currNode, lcTag ), // lcTag === "small", isActualContainer( currNode.parentNode ), // currNode.parentNode.childNodes, // currNode.parentNode.childNodes.length ); } while( !isActualContainer( currNode, lcTag ) && !( lcTag === "small" && isActualContainer( currNode.parentNode ) && currNode.parentNode.childNodes.length <= smallContainerNodeLimit ) ); //console.log("ascendToCommentContainer from ",startNode," terminating, r.v. ",recordPath?path:currNode); return recordPath ? path : currNode; } /** * Given a Parsoid DOM and a link in the live DOM that is the link at the * end of a signature, return the corresponding element in the Parsoid DOM * that represents the same comment, or null if none was found. * * psd = Parsoid, live = in the current, live page DOM. */ function getCorrCmt( psdDom, sigLinkElem ) { // First, define some helper functions // Does this node have a timestamp in it? function hasTimestamp( node ) { //console.log ("hasTimestamp ",node, node.nodeType === 3,node.textContent.trim(), // TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test( node.textContent.trim() ), // node.childNodes.length === 1, // node.childNodes.length && TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test( node.childNodes[0].textContent.trim()), // " => ",( node.nodeType === 3 && // TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test( node.textContent.trim() ) ) || // ( node.childNodes.length === 1 && // TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test( node.childNodes[0].textContent.trim() ) ) ); //console.log(node,node.textContent.trim(),TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test(node.textContent.trim())); var validTag = node.nodeType === 3 || ( node.nodeType === 1 && ( node.tagName.toLowerCase() === "small" || node.tagName.toLowerCase() === "span" ) ); return ( validTag && TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test( node.textContent.trim() ) || ( node.childNodes.length === 1 && TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test( node.childNodes[0].textContent.trim() ) ) ); } // Get prefix that's the actual comment function getPrefixComment( theNodes ) { var prefix = []; for( var j = 0; j < theNodes.length; j++ ) { prefix.push( theNodes[j] ); if( hasTimestamp( theNodes[j] ) ) break; } return prefix; } /** * From a "container elem" (like the whole dd, li, or p that has a * comment), get the prefix that ends in a timestamp (because other * comments might be after the timestamp), and return the text content. */ function surrTextContentFromElem( elem ) { var surrListElemNodes = elem.childNodes; // nodeType 8 is for comments return getPrefixComment( surrListElemNodes ) .map( function ( c ) { return ( c.nodeType !== 8 ) ? c.textContent : ""; } ) .join( "" ).trim(); } /** From a "container elem" (dd, li, or p), remove all but the first comment. */ function onlyFirstComment( container ) { //console.log("onlyFirstComment top container and container.childNodes",container,container.childNodes); if( container.childNodes.length === 1 && container.children[0].tagName.toLowerCase() === "small" ) { console.log( "[onlyFirstComment] container only had a small in it" ); container = container.children[0]; } var i, autosignedIdx, autosigned = container.querySelector( "small.autosigned" ); if( autosigned && ( autosignedIdx = iterableToList( container.childNodes ).includes( autosigned ) ) ) { i = autosignedIdx; } else { var childNodes = container.childNodes; for( i = 0; i < childNodes.length; i++ ) { if( hasTimestamp( childNodes[i] ) ) { //console.log( "[oFC] found a timestamp in ",childNodes[i]); break; } } if( i === childNodes.length ) { throw new Error( "[onlyFirstComment] No timestamp found" ); } } //console.log("[onlyFirstComment] killing all after ",i,container.childNodes[i]); i++; var elemToRemove; while( elemToRemove = container.childNodes[i] ) { container.removeChild( elemToRemove ); } } // End helper functions, begin actual code // We dump this object for debugging in the event of an error var corrCmtDebug = {}; // Convert live href to psd href (aka newHref) var newHref, liveHref = decodeURIComponent( sigLinkElem.getAttribute( "href" ) ); corrCmtDebug.liveHref = liveHref; if( sigLinkElem.className.includes( "mw-selflink" ) ) { newHref = "./" + currentPageName; } else { if( /^\/wiki/.test( liveHref ) ) { var hrefTokens = liveHref.split( ":" ); if( hrefTokens.length !== 2 ) throw new Error( "Malformed href" ); newHref = "./" + canonicalizeNs( hrefTokens[0].replace( /^\/wiki\//, "" ) ).replace( / /g, "_" ) + ":" + hrefTokens[1] .replace( /^Contributions%2F/, "Contributions/" ) .replace( /%2F/g, "/" ) .replace( /%23/g, "#" ) .replace( /%26/g, "&" ) .replace( /%3D/g, "=" ) .replace( /%2C/g, "," ); } else { var REDLINK_HREF_RGX = /^\/w\/index\.php\?title=(.+?)&action=edit&redlink=1$/; var redlinkMatch = REDLINK_HREF_RGX.exec( liveHref ); if( redlinkMatch ) { newHref = "./" + redlinkMatch[1]; } else { newHref = liveHref.replace( /_/g, '%20' ); } } } newHref = newHref.replace( /\\/g, "\\\\" ) .replace( /'/g, "\\'" ) .replace( /\?/g, "%3F" ); var livePath = ascendToCommentContainer( sigLinkElem, /* live */ true, /* recordPath */ true ); corrCmtDebug.newHref = newHref; corrCmtDebug.livePath = livePath; // Deal with the case where the comment has multiple links to // sigLinkElem's href; we will store the index of the link we want. // null means there aren't multiple links. if( liveHref ) { liveHref = liveHref.replace( /'/g, "\\'" ); } var liveDupeLinks = livePath[0].querySelectorAll( "a" + ( liveHref ? ( "[href='" + liveHref + "']" ) : ".mw-selflink" ) ); if( !liveDupeLinks ) throw new Error( "Couldn't select live dupe link" ); var liveDupeLinkIdx = ( liveDupeLinks.length > 1 ) ? iterableToList( liveDupeLinks ).indexOf( sigLinkElem ) : null; //console.log("liveDupeLinkIdx",liveDupeLinkIdx); //console.log("livePath[0]",livePath[0],livePath[0].childNodes); var liveClone = livePath[0].cloneNode( /* deep */ true ); // Remove our own UI elements var ourUiSelector = ".reply-link-wrapper,#reply-link-panel"; iterableToList( liveClone.querySelectorAll( ourUiSelector ) ).forEach( function ( n ) { n.parentNode.removeChild( n ); } ); //console.log("(BEFORE) liveClone",liveClone,liveClone.childNodes); onlyFirstComment( liveClone ); //console.log("(AFTER) liveClone",liveClone,liveClone.childNodes); // Process it a bit to make it look a bit more like the Parsoid output var liveAutoNumberedLinks = liveClone.querySelectorAll( "a.external.autonumber" ); for( var i = 0; i < liveAutoNumberedLinks.length; i++ ) { liveAutoNumberedLinks[i].textContent = ""; } var liveSelflinks = liveClone.querySelectorAll( "a.mw-selflink.selflink" ); for( var i = 0; i < liveSelflinks.length; i++ ) { liveSelflinks[i].href = "/wiki/" + currentPageName; } // "Comments in Local Time" compatibility: the text content is // gonna contain the modified time stamp, but the original time // stamp is still there var localCommentsSpan = liveClone.querySelector( "span.localcomments" ); if( localCommentsSpan ) { var dateNode = document.createTextNode( localCommentsSpan.getAttribute( "title" ) ); localCommentsSpan.parentNode.replaceChild( dateNode, localCommentsSpan ); } // User:Writ Keeper/Scripts/teahouseTalkbackLink.js compatibility: // get rid of the |C|TB that it adds var teahouseTalkbackLink = liveClone.querySelector( "a[id^=TBsubmit]" ); if( teahouseTalkbackLink ) { teahouseTalkbackLink.parentNode.removeChild( teahouseTalkbackLink.nextSibling ); for( var ttlIdx = 0; ttlIdx < 3; ttlIdx++ ) { teahouseTalkbackLink.parentNode.removeChild( teahouseTalkbackLink.previousSibling ); } teahouseTalkbackLink.parentNode.removeChild( teahouseTalkbackLink ); } var adminMarksClass = liveClone.querySelectorAll( "b.adminMark" ); if ( adminMarksClass.length > 0 ) { adminMarksClass.forEach( function ( currentValue, currentIndex, listObj ) { currentValue.parentNode.removeChild( currentValue ); } ); } // TODO: Optimization - surrTextContentFromElem does the prefixing // operation a second time, even though we already called onlyFirstComment // on it. var liveTextContent = surrTextContentFromElem( liveClone ); console.log("liveTextContent >>>>>"+liveTextContent + "<<<<<"); function normalizeTextContent( tc ) { return deArmorFrenchSpaces( tc ); } liveTextContent = normalizeTextContent( liveTextContent ); var selector = livePath.map( function ( node ) { return node.tagName.toLowerCase(); } ).join( " " ) + " a[href^='" + newHref + "']"; // TODO: Optimization opportunity - run querySelectorAll only on the // section that we know contains the comment var psdLinks = iterableToList( psdDom.querySelectorAll( selector ) ); console.log("(",liveDupeLinkIdx, ")",selector, " --> ", psdLinks); var oldPsdLinks = psdLinks, newHrefLen = newHref.length, hrefSubstr; psdLinks = []; for( var i = 0; i < oldPsdLinks.length; i++ ) { hrefSubstr = oldPsdLinks[i].getAttribute( "href" ).substring( newHrefLen ); if( !hrefSubstr || hrefSubstr.indexOf( "#" ) === 0 ) { psdLinks.push( oldPsdLinks[i] ); } } // Narrow down by entire textContent of list element var psdCorrLinks = []; // the corresponding link elem(s) if( liveDupeLinkIdx === null ) { for( var i = 0; i < psdLinks.length; i++ ) { var psdContainer = ascendToCommentContainer( psdLinks[i], /* live */ false, true ); //console.log("psdContainer",psdContainer); var psdTextContent = normalizeTextContent( surrTextContentFromElem( psdContainer[0] ) ); //console.log(i,">>>"+psdTextContent+"<<<"); if( psdTextContent === liveTextContent ) { psdCorrLinks.push( psdLinks[i] ); } /* else { //console.log(i,"len: psd live",psdTextContent.length,liveTextContent.length); for(var j = 0; j < Math.min(psdTextContent.length, liveTextContent.length); j++) { if(psdTextContent.charAt(j)!==liveTextContent.charAt(j)) { //console.log(i,j,"psd live", psdTextContent.codePointAt(j), liveTextContent.codePointAt( j ) ); break; } } } */ } } else { for( var i = 0; i < psdLinks.length; i++ ) { var psdContainer = ascendToCommentContainer( psdLinks[i], /* live */ false ); if( psdContainer.dataset.replyLinkGeCorrCo ) continue; var psdTextContent = normalizeTextContent( surrTextContentFromElem( psdContainer ) ); console.log(i,">>>"+psdTextContent+"<<<"); if( psdTextContent === liveTextContent ) { var psdDupeLinks = psdContainer.querySelectorAll( "a[href='" + newHref + "']" ); psdCorrLinks.push( psdDupeLinks[ liveDupeLinkIdx ] ); } // Flag to ensure we don't take a link from this container again psdContainer.dataset.replyLinkGeCorrCo = true; } } if( psdCorrLinks.length === 0 ) { console.error( "Failed to find a matching comment in the Parsoid DOM." ); return null; } else if( psdCorrLinks.length > 1 ) { console.error( "Found multiple matching comments in the Parsoid DOM." ); return null; } return psdCorrLinks[0]; } /** * Given a page title, the Parsoid output (GET /page/html endpoint) * of that page, page and a DOM object in the current page * corresponding to a link in a signature, locate the section * containing that comment. That section may not be in the provided * page! Returns an object with these properties: * * - page: The full title of the page directly containing the * comment (in its wikitext, not through transclusion). * - sectionName: The anticipated wikitext section name. Should * appear inside the equal signs at the above index. * - sectionDupeIdx: If there are multiple sections with the same * name, the 0-based index of the section with the comment among * those sections. Otherwise, 0. * - sectionLevel: The anticipated wikitext section level (e.g. * 2 for an h2) * - nearbyMwId: The Parsoid ID of some element near the * comment (in practice, a userspace link) for jumping purposes. * * Parsoid is abbreviated here as "psd" in variables and comments. */ function findSection( psdDomPageTitle, psdDomString, sigLinkElem ) { console.log("findSection(",psdDomPageTitle,", ...)"); //console.log(psdDomString); var domParser = new DOMParser(), psdDom = domParser.parseFromString( psdDomString, "text/html" ); var corrLink = getCorrCmt( psdDom, sigLinkElem ); if( corrLink === null ) { return $.when(); } //console.log("STEP 1 SUCCESS",corrLink); var corrCmt = ascendToCommentContainer( corrLink, /* live */ false ); // Ascend until we hit something in a transclusion var currNode = corrLink; var tsclnId = null; do { if( currNode.getAttribute( "about" ) && currNode.getAttribute( "about" ).indexOf( "#mwt" ) === 0 ) { tsclnId = currNode.getAttribute( "about" ); break; } currNode = currNode.parentNode; } while( currNode.tagName.toLowerCase() !== "html" ); //console.log( "tsclnId", tsclnId ); // Helper function: are we in a pseudo-section? (Unused, at the moment.) function inPseudo( headerElement ) { var currNodeIP = headerElement; // This requires Parsoid HTML v 2.0.0 do { if( currNodeIP.nodeType === 1 && currNodeIP.matches( "section" ) ) { return currNodeIP.dataset.mwSectionId < 0; break; } currNodeIP = currNodeIP.parentNode; } while( currNodeIP ); return false; } // Now, get the nearest header above us var currNode = corrCmt; var nearestHeader = null; var HTML_HEADER_RGX = /^h\d$/; do { if( HTML_HEADER_RGX.exec( currNode.tagName.toLowerCase() ) ) { // Commented because I don't think the !inPseudo requirement is necessary 2019-nov-01 //if( !inPseudo( currNode ) ) { nearestHeader = currNode; break; //} } var containedHeaders = currNode.querySelectorAll( HEADER_SELECTOR ); if( containedHeaders.length ) { var nearestHdrIdx = containedHeaders.length - 1; // Commented because I don't think the !inPseudo requirement is necessary 2019-nov-01 // TODO this is an extraordinarily silly while loop; it has been temporarily commented 2020-apr-25 //while( nearestHdrIdx >= 0 ){//&& inPseudo( containedHeaders[ nearestHdrIdx ] ) ) // nearestHdrIdx--; //} if( nearestHdrIdx >= 0 ) { nearestHeader = containedHeaders[ nearestHdrIdx ]; break; } } if( currNode.previousElementSibling ) { currNode = currNode.previousElementSibling; continue; } currNode = currNode.parentNode; } while( currNode.tagName.toLowerCase() !== "body" ); // Get the target page (page actually containing the comment) var targetPage; if( tsclnId === null ) { console.warn( "tsclnId === null" ); targetPage = psdDomPageTitle; } else { var tsclnInfoSel = "*[about='" + tsclnId + "'][typeof='mw:Transclusion']", infoJson = JSON.parse( psdDom.querySelector( tsclnInfoSel ) .dataset.mw ); // First, check the first and last wikitext segments to see if they have the header var firstWktxtSegIdx = 0; while( infoJson.parts[firstWktxtSegIdx].template && infoJson.parts[firstWktxtSegIdx].template.target.href.startsWith( "Template:" ) && firstWktxtSegIdx < infoJson.parts.length ) { firstWktxtSegIdx++; } if( firstWktxtSegIdx < infoJson.parts.length && typeof infoJson.parts[firstWktxtSegIdx] === typeof '' ) { var firstWktxtSeg = infoJson.parts[firstWktxtSegIdx]; var headerMatch = null; do { headerMatch = HEADER_REGEX.exec( firstWktxtSeg ); if( headerMatch ) { if( wikitextHeaderEqualsDomHeader( headerMatch[2], nearestHeader.textContent ) ) { targetPage = psdDomPageTitle; break; } } } while( headerMatch ); } } if( !targetPage ) { var lastWktxtSegIdx = infoJson.parts.length - 1; while( infoJson.parts[lastWktxtSegIdx].template && infoJson.parts[lastWktxtSegIdx].template.target.href.startsWith( "Template:" ) && lastWktxtSegIdx >= 0 ) { lastWktxtSegIdx--; } if( lastWktxtSegIdx >= 0 && typeof infoJson.parts[lastWktxtSegIdx] === typeof '' ) { var lastWktxtSeg = infoJson.parts[lastWktxtSegIdx]; var headerMatch = null; do { headerMatch = HEADER_REGEX.exec( lastWktxtSeg ); if( headerMatch ) { if( wikitextHeaderEqualsDomHeader( headerMatch[2], nearestHeader.textContent ) ) { targetPage = psdDomPageTitle; break; } } } while( headerMatch ); } } var recursiveCalls = $.when(); if( !targetPage ) { // Recurse on all non-top-level Templates! var pages = infoJson.parts.filter( function ( part ) { return part.template && part.template.target && part.template.target.href && ( !part.template.target.href.startsWith("./Template") || ( part.template.target.href.match( new RegExp( '/', 'g' ) ) || [] ).length >= 2 ); } ); if( pages.length ) { var pageNames = pages.map( function ( part ) { return part.template.target.href.substring( 2 ); // remove the ./ } ); var deferreds = pageNames.map( function ( pageName ) { return $.get( PARSOID_ENDPOINT + encodeURIComponent( pageName ) ) .then( function ( data ) { return data; } ); // truncate to first argument, which is the data } ); recursiveCalls = $.when.apply( $, deferreds ).then( function () { var results = arguments; // use keyword "arguments" to access deferred results var deferreds2 = []; if( pageNames.length !== results.length ) { console.error(pageNames,results); throw new Error( "pageNames.length !== results.length: " + pageNames.length + " " + results.length ); } for( var i = 0; i < pageNames.length; i++ ) { deferreds2.push( findSection( pageNames[i], results[i], sigLinkElem ) ); } return $.when.apply( $, deferreds2 ).then( function () { var results2 = Array.prototype.slice.call( arguments ); var namesAndResults2 = []; if( pageNames.length !== results2.length ) { throw new Error( "pageNames.length !== results2.length: " + pageNames.length + " " + results2.length ); } for( var i = 0; i < pageNames.length; i++ ) { if( results2[i] ) { namesAndResults2.push( [ pageNames[i], results2[i] ] ); } } if( namesAndResults2.length === 0 ) { return null; } else if( namesAndResults2.length === 1 ) { return namesAndResults2[0][1]; } else { var allSameName = namesAndResults2.every( function ( nameAndResult ) { return nameAndResult[0] === namesAndResults2[0][0]; } ); if( allSameName ) { return namesAndResults2[0][1]; } else { console.error( "WTF", namesAndResults2 ); } } } ); } ); } } return recursiveCalls.then( function ( data ) { if( data ) { return data; } else if( nearestHeader === null ) { return { page: targetPage, sectionName: "", sectionDupeIdx: 0, sectionLevel: 0, nearbyMwId: corrCmt.id }; } else { // We tried recursing, and it didn't work, so the // section must be on the current page targetPage = psdDomPageTitle; // Finally, get the index of our nearest header var allHeaders = iterableToList( psdDom.querySelectorAll( HEADER_SELECTOR ) ); var sectionDupeIdx = 0; for( var i = 0; i < allHeaders.length; i++ ) { if( allHeaders[i].textContent === nearestHeader.textContent ) { if( allHeaders[i] === nearestHeader ) { break; } else { sectionDupeIdx++; } } } var result = { page: targetPage, sectionName: nearestHeader.textContent, sectionDupeIdx: sectionDupeIdx, sectionLevel: nearestHeader.tagName.substring( 1 ), // that is, cut off the "h" at the beginning nearbyMwId: corrCmt.id }; //console.log("findSection return val: ",result); return result; } } ); } /** * Given some wikitext that's split into sections, return the full * wikitext (including header and newlines until the next header) of * the section with the given name. To get the content before the * first header, sectionName should be "". * * Performs a sanity check with the given section name. */ function getSectionWikitext( wikitext, sectionName, sectionDupeIdx ) { console.log("In getSectionWikitext, sectionName = >" + sectionName + "< (wikitext.length = " + wikitext.length + ")"); //console.log("wikitext (first 1000 chars) is " + dirtyWikitext.substring(0, 1000)); // There are certain locations where a header may appear in the // wikitext, but will not be present in the HTML; such as code // blocks or comments. So we keep track of those ranges // and ignore headings inside those. var ignoreSpanStarts = []; // list of ignored span beginnings var ignoreSpanLengths = []; // list of ignored span lengths var IGNORE_RE = /(<pre>[\s\S]+?<\/pre>)|(<source.+?>[\s\S]+?<\/source>)|(<!--[\s\S]+?-->)/g; var ignoreSpanMatch; do { ignoreSpanMatch = IGNORE_RE.exec( wikitext ); if( ignoreSpanMatch ) { //console.log("ignoreSpan ",ignoreSpanStarts.length," = ",ignoreSpanMatch); ignoreSpanStarts.push( ignoreSpanMatch.index ); ignoreSpanLengths.push( ignoreSpanMatch[0].length ); } } while( ignoreSpanMatch ); var startIdx = -1; // wikitext index of section start var endIdx = -1; // wikitext index of section end var headerCounter = 0; var headerMatch; // So that we don't check every ignore span every time var ignoreSpanStartIdx = 0; var dupeCount = 0; var lookingForEnd = false; if( sectionName === "" ) { // Getting first section startIdx = 0; lookingForEnd = true; } // Reset regex state, if for some reason we're not running this for the first time HEADER_REGEX.lastIndex = 0; headerMatchLoop: do { headerMatch = HEADER_REGEX.exec( wikitext ); if( headerMatch ) { // Check that we're not inside one of the "ignore" spans for( var igIdx = ignoreSpanStartIdx; igIdx < ignoreSpanStarts.length; igIdx++ ) { if( headerMatch.index > ignoreSpanStarts[igIdx] ) { if ( headerMatch.index + headerMatch[0].length <= ignoreSpanStarts[igIdx] + ignoreSpanLengths[igIdx] ) { console.log("(IGNORED, igIdx="+igIdx+") Header " + headerCounter + " (idx " + headerMatch.index + "): >" + headerMatch[0].trim() + "<"); // Invalid header continue headerMatchLoop; } else { // We'll never encounter this span again, since // headers only get later and later in the wikitext ignoreSpanStartIdx = igIdx; } } } //console.log("Header " + headerCounter + " (idx " + headerMatch.index + "): >" + headerMatch[0].trim() + "<"); // Note that if the lookingForEnd block were second, // then two consecutive matching section headers might // result in the wrong section being matched! if( lookingForEnd ) { endIdx = headerMatch.index; break; } else if( wikitextHeaderEqualsDomHeader( /* wikitext */ headerMatch[2], /* dom */ sectionName ) ) { if( dupeCount === sectionDupeIdx ) { startIdx = headerMatch.index; lookingForEnd = true; } else { dupeCount++; } } } headerCounter++; } while( headerMatch ); if( startIdx < 0 ) { throw( "Could not find section named \"" + sectionName + "\" (dupe idx " + sectionDupeIdx + ")" ); } // If we encountered no section after the target section, // then the target was the last one and the slice will go // until the end of wikitext if( endIdx < 0 ) { //console.log("[getSectionWikitext] endIdx negative, setting to " + wikitext.length); endIdx = wikitext.length; } //console.log("[getSectionWikitext] Slicing from " + startIdx + " to " + endIdx); return wikitext.slice( startIdx, endIdx ); } /** * Converts a signature index to a string index into the given * section wikitext. For example, if sigIdx is 1, then this function * will return the index in sectionWikitext pointing to right * after the second signature appearing in sectionWikitext. * * Returns -1 if we couldn't find anything. */ function sigIdxToStrIdx( sectionWikitext, sigIdx ) { console.log( "In sigIdxToStrIdx, sigIdx = " + sigIdx ); // There are certain regions that we skip while attaching links: // // - Spans with the class delsort-notice // - Divs with the class xfd-relist (and other divs) // // So, we grab the corresponding wikitext regions with regexes, // and store each region's start index in spanStartIndices, and // each region's length in spanLengths. Then, whenever we find a // signature with the right index, if it's included in one of // these regions, we skip it and move on. var spanStartIndices = []; var spanLengths = []; var DELSORT_SPAN_RE_TXT = /<small class="delsort-notice">(?:<small>.+?<\/small>|.)+?<\/small>/.source; var XFD_RELIST_RE_TXT = /<div class="xfd_relist"[\s\S]+?<\/div>(\s*|<!--.+?-->)*/.source; var STRUCK_RE_TXT = /<s>.+?<\/s>/.source; var SKIP_REGION_RE = new RegExp("(" + DELSORT_SPAN_RE_TXT + ")|(" + XFD_RELIST_RE_TXT + ")|(" + STRUCK_RE_TXT + ")", "ig"); var skipRegionMatch; do { skipRegionMatch = SKIP_REGION_RE.exec( sectionWikitext ); if( skipRegionMatch ) { spanStartIndices.push( skipRegionMatch.index ); spanLengths.push( skipRegionMatch[0].length ); } } while( skipRegionMatch ); //console.log(spanStartIndices,spanLengths); var dateFmtRgx = DATE_FMT_RGX[mw.config.get( "wgServer" )]; if( !dateFmtRgx ) { throw new Error( "Error! I don't know the native date format used by the server '" + mw.config.get( "wgServer" ) + "'!" ); } /* * I apologize for making you have to read this regex. * I made a summary, though: * * - a wikilink, without a ]] inside it * - some text, without a link to userspace or user talk space * - a timestamp * - as an alternative to all of the above, an autosigned script * and a timestamp * - some comments/whitespace or some non-whitespace * - finally, the end of the line * * It's also localized. */ var sigRgxSrc = "(?:" + /\[\[\s*(?:m:)?:?\s*/.source + "(" + userspcLinkRgx.both + /([^\]]|\](?!\]))*?/.source + ")" + /\]\]\)?/.source + "(" + /[^\[]|\[(?!\[)|\[\[/.source + "(?!" + userspcLinkRgx.both + "))*?" + DATE_FMT_RGX[mw.config.get( "wgServer" )] + /\s+\(UTC\)|class\s*=\s*"autosigned".+?\(UTC\)<\/small>/.source + ")" + /(\S*([ \t\f]|<!--.*?-->)*(?:\{\{.+?\}\})?(?!\S)|\s?\S+([ \t\f]|<!--.*?-->)*)$/.source; var sigRgx = new RegExp( sigRgxSrc, "igm" ); var matchIdx = 0; var match; var matchIdxEnd; var dstSpnIdx; sigMatchLoop: for( ; true ; matchIdx++ ) { match = sigRgx.exec( sectionWikitext ); if( !match ) { console.error("[sigIdxToStrIdx] out of matches"); return -1; } //console.log( "sig match (matchIdx = " + matchIdx + ") is >" + match[0] + "< (index = " + match.index + ")" ); matchIdxEnd = match.index + match[0].length; // Validate that we're not inside a delsort span for( dstSpnIdx = 0; dstSpnIdx < spanStartIndices.length; dstSpnIdx++ ) { //console.log(spanStartIndices[dstSpnIdx],match.index, // matchIdxEnd, spanStartIndices[dstSpnIdx] + // spanLengths[dstSpnIdx] ); if( match.index > spanStartIndices[dstSpnIdx] && ( matchIdxEnd <= spanStartIndices[dstSpnIdx] + spanLengths[dstSpnIdx] ) ) { // That wasn't really a match (as in, this match does not // correspond to any sig idx in the DOM), so we can't // increment matchIdx matchIdx--; continue sigMatchLoop; } } if( matchIdx === sigIdx ) { return match.index + match[0].length; } } } /** * Inserts fullReply on the next sensible line after strIdx in * sectionWikitext. indentLvl is the indentation level of the * comment we're replying to. * * This function essentially takes the indentation level and * position of the current comment, and looks for the first comment * that's indented strictly less than the current one. Then, it * puts the reply on the line right before that comment, and returns * the modified section wikitext. */ function insertTextAfterIdx( sectionWikitext, strIdx, indentLvl, fullReply ) { //console.log( "[insertTextAfterIdx] indentLvl = " + indentLvl ); // strIdx should point to the end of a line var counter = 0; while( ( sectionWikitext[ strIdx ] !== "\n" ) && ( counter++ <= 50 ) ) strIdx++; var slicedSecWikitext = sectionWikitext.slice( strIdx ); //console.log("slicedSecWikitext = >>" + slicedSecWikitext.slice(0,50) + "<<"); slicedSecWikitext = slicedSecWikitext.replace( /^\n/, "" ); var candidateLines = slicedSecWikitext.split( "\n" ); //console.log( "candidateLines =", candidateLines ); // number of the line in sectionWikitext that'll be right after reply var replyLine = 0; var INDENT_RE = /^[:*#]+/; if( slicedSecWikitext.trim().length > 0 ) { var currIndentation, currIndentationLvl, i; // Now, loop through all the comments replying to that // one and place our reply after the last one for( i = 0; i < candidateLines.length; i++ ) { if( candidateLines[i].trim() === "" ) { continue; } // Detect indentation level of current line currIndentation = INDENT_RE.exec( candidateLines[i] ); currIndentationLvl = currIndentation ? currIndentation[0].length : 0; //console.log(i + ">" + candidateLines[i] + "< => " + currIndentationLvl); if( currIndentationLvl <= indentLvl ) { // If it's an XfD, we might have found a relist // comment instead, so check for that if( xfdType && /<div class="xfd_relist"/.test( candidateLines[i] ) ) { // Our reply might go on the line above the xfd_relist line var potentialReplyLine = i; // Walk through the relist notice, line by line // After this loop, i will point to the line on which // the notice ends var NEW_COMMENTS_RE = /Please add new comments below this line/; while( !NEW_COMMENTS_RE.test( candidateLines[i] ) ) { i++; } // Relists are treated as if they're indented at level 1 if( 1 <= indentLvl ) { replyLine = potentialReplyLine; break; } } else { //console.log( "cIL <= iL, breaking" ); break; } } else { replyLine = i + 1; } } if( i === candidateLines.length ) { replyLine = i; } } else { // In this case, we may be replying to the last comment in a section replyLine = candidateLines.length; } // Walk backwards until non-empty line while( replyLine >= 1 && candidateLines[replyLine - 1].trim() === "" ) replyLine--; //console.log( "replyLine = " + replyLine ); // Splice into slicedSecWikitext slicedSecWikitext = candidateLines .slice( 0, replyLine ) .concat( [ fullReply ], candidateLines.slice( replyLine ) ) .join( "\n" ); // Remove extra newlines if( /\n\n\n+$/.test( slicedSecWikitext ) ) { slicedSecWikitext = slicedSecWikitext.trim() + "\n\n"; } // We may need an additional newline if the two slices don't have any var optionalNewline = ( !sectionWikitext.slice( 0, strIdx ).endsWith( "\n" ) && !slicedSecWikitext.startsWith( "\n" ) ) ? "\n" : ""; // Splice into sectionWikitext sectionWikitext = sectionWikitext.slice( 0, strIdx ) + optionalNewline + slicedSecWikitext; return sectionWikitext; } /** * Using the text in #reply-dialog-field, add a reply to the * current page. rplyToXfdNom is true if we're replying to an XfD nom, * in which case we should use an asterisk instead of a colon. * cmtAuthorDom is the username of the person who wrote the comment * we're replying to, parsed from the DOM. revObj is the object returned * by getWikitext for the page with the comment; findSectionResult is the * object returned by findSection for the comment. * * Returns a Deferred that resolves/rejects when the reply succeeds/fails. */ function doReply( indentation, header, sigIdx, cmtAuthorDom, rplyToXfdNom, revObj, findSectionResult ) { console.log("TOP OF doReply",header,findSectionResult); header = [ "" + findSectionResult.sectionLevel, findSectionResult.sectionName, findSectionResult.sectionDupeIdx ]; var deferred = $.Deferred(); var wikitext = revObj.content; try { // Generate reply in wikitext form var reply = document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ).value.trim(); // Add a signature if one isn't already there if( !hasSig( reply ) ) { reply += " " + ( window.replyLinkSigPrefix ? window.replyLinkSigPrefix : "" ) + LITERAL_SIGNATURE; } var isUsingAutoIndentation = window.replyLinkAutoIndentation === "checkbox" ? ( !document.getElementById( "reply-link-option-auto-indent" ) || document.getElementById( "reply-link-option-auto-indent" ).checked ) : window.replyLinkAutoIndentation === "always"; if( isUsingAutoIndentation ) { var replyLines = reply.split( "\n" ); // If we're outdenting, reset indentation and add the // outdent template. This requires that there be at least // one character of indentation. var outdentCheckbox = document.getElementById( "reply-link-option-outdent" ); if( outdentCheckbox && outdentCheckbox.checked ) { replyLines[0] = "{" + "{od|" + indentation.slice( 0, -1 ) + "}}" + replyLines[0]; indentation = ""; } // Compose reply by adding indentation at the beginning of // each line (if not replying to an XfD nom) or {{pb}}'s // between lines (if replying to an XfD nom) var fullReply; if( rplyToXfdNom ) { // If there's a list in this reply, it's a bad idea to // use pb's, even though the markup'll probably be broken if( replyLines.some( function ( l ) { return l.substr( 0, 1 ) === "*"; } ) ) { fullReply = replyLines.map( function ( line ) { return indentation + "*" + line; } ).join( "\n" ); } else { fullReply = indentation + "* " + replyLines.join( "{{pb}}" ); } } else { fullReply = replyLines.map( function ( line ) { return indentation + ":" + line; } ).join( "\n" ); } } else { fullReply = reply; } // Prepare section metadata for getSectionWikitext call console.log( "in doReply, header =", header ); var sectionHeader, sectionIdx; if( header === null ) { sectionHeader = null, sectionIdx = -1; } else { sectionHeader = header[1], sectionDupeIdx = header[2]; } // Compatibility with User:Bility/copySectionLink if( document.querySelector( "span.mw-headline a#sectiontitlecopy0" ) ) { // If copySectionLink is active, the paragraph symbol at // the end is a fake sectionHeader = sectionHeader.replace( /\s*¶$/, "" ); } // Compatibility with the "auto-number headings" preference if( document.querySelector( "span.mw-headline-number" ) ) { sectionHeader = sectionHeader.replace( /^\d+ /, "" ); } var sectionWikitext = getSectionWikitext( wikitext, sectionHeader, sectionDupeIdx ); var oldSectionWikitext = sectionWikitext; // We'll String.replace old w/ new // Now, obtain the index of the end of the comment var strIdx = sigIdxToStrIdx( sectionWikitext, sigIdx ); // Check for a non-negative strIdx if( strIdx < 0 ) { throw( "Negative strIdx (signature not found in wikitext)" ); } // Determine the user who wrote the comment, for // edit-summary and sanity-check purposes var userRgx = new RegExp( /\[\[\s*(?:m:)?:?\s*/.source + userspcLinkRgx.both + /\s*(.+?)(?:\/.+?)?(?:#.+?)?\s*(?:\|.+?)?\]\]/.source, "ig" ); var userMatches = processCharEntitiesWikitext( sectionWikitext.slice( 0, strIdx ) ).match( userRgx ); var cmtAuthorWktxt = userRgx.exec( userMatches[userMatches.length - 1] )[1]; if( cmtAuthorWktxt === "DoNotArchiveUntil" ) { userRgx.lastIndex = 0; cmtAuthorWktxt = userRgx.exec( userMatches[userMatches.length - 2] )[1]; } // Normalize case, because that's what happens during // wikitext-to-HTML processing; also underscores to spaces function sanitizeUsername( u ) { u = u.charAt( 0 ).toUpperCase() + u.substr( 1 ); return u.replace( /_/g, " " ); } cmtAuthorWktxt = sanitizeUsername( cmtAuthorWktxt ); cmtAuthorDom = sanitizeUsername( cmtAuthorDom ); // Do a sanity check: is the sig username the same as the // DOM one? We attempt to check sigRedirectMapping in case // the naive check fails if( cmtAuthorWktxt !== cmtAuthorDom && processCharEntitiesWikitext( cmtAuthorWktxt ) !== cmtAuthorDom && sigRedirectMapping[ cmtAuthorWktxt ] !== cmtAuthorDom ) { throw new Error( "Sanity check on sig username failed! Found " + cmtAuthorWktxt + " but expected " + cmtAuthorDom + " (wikitext vs DOM)" ); } // Actually insert our reply into the section wikitext sectionWikitext = insertTextAfterIdx( sectionWikitext, strIdx, indentation.length, fullReply ); // Also, if the user wanted the edit request to be answered, // do that var editReqCheckbox = document.getElementById( "reply-link-option-edit-req" ); var markedEditReq = false; if( editReqCheckbox && editReqCheckbox.checked ) { sectionWikitext = markEditReqAnswered( sectionWikitext ); markedEditReq = true; } // If the user preferences indicate a dry run, print what the // wikitext would have been post-edit and bail out var dryRunCheckbox = document.getElementById( "reply-link-option-dry-run" ); if( window.replyLinkDryRun === "always" || ( dryRunCheckbox && dryRunCheckbox.checked ) ) { console.log( "~~~~~~ DRY RUN CONCLUDED ~~~~~~" ); console.log( sectionWikitext ); setStatus( "Check the console for the dry-run results." ); document.querySelector( "#reply-link-buttons button" ).disabled = false; deferred.resolve(); return deferred; } var newWikitext = wikitext.replace( oldSectionWikitext, sectionWikitext ); // Build summary var defaultSummmary = mw.msg( "rl-replying-to" ) + ( rplyToXfdNom ? xfdType + " nomination by " : "" ) + cmtAuthorWktxt + ( markedEditReq ? " and marking edit request as answered" : "" ); var customSummaryField = document.getElementById( "reply-link-summary" ); var summaryCore = defaultSummmary; if( window.replyLinkCustomSummary && customSummaryField.value ) { summaryCore = customSummaryField.value.trim(); } var summary = "/* " + sectionHeader + " */ " + summaryCore + mw.msg( "rl-advert" ); // Send another request, this time to actually edit the // page api.postWithToken( "csrf", { action: "edit", title: findSectionResult.page, summary: summary, text: newWikitext, basetimestamp: revObj.timestamp } ).done ( function ( data ) { // We put this function on the window object because we // give the user a "reload" link, and it'll trigger the function window.replyLinkReload = function () { window.location.hash = sectionHeader.replace( / /g, "_" ); if( findSectionResult.nearbyMwId ) { document.cookie = "parsoid_jump=" + findSectionResult.nearbyMwId; } window.location.reload( true ); }; if ( data && data.edit && data.edit.result && data.edit.result == "Success" ) { var needPurge = findSectionResult.page !== currentPageName; function finishReply( _ ) { var reloadHtml = window.replyLinkAutoReload ? mw.msg( "rl-reloading" ) : "<a href='javascript:window.replyLinkReload()' class='reply-link-reload'>" + mw.msg( "rl-reload" ) + "</a>"; setStatus( mw.msg( "rl-saved" ) + " (" + reloadHtml + ")" ); // Required to permit reload to happen, checked in onbeforeunload replyWasSaved = true; if( window.replyLinkAutoReload ) { window.replyLinkReload(); } deferred.resolve(); } if( needPurge ) { setStatus( "Reply saved! Purging..." ); api.post( { action: "purge", titles: currentPageName } ).done( finishReply ); } else { finishReply(); } } else { if( data && data.edit && data.edit.spamblacklist ) { setStatus( "Error! Your post contained a link on the <a href=" + "\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Spam_blacklist\"" + ">spam blacklist</a>. Remove the link(s) to: " + data.edit.spamblacklist.split( "|" ).join( ", " ) + " to allow saving." ); document.querySelector( "#reply-link-buttons button" ).disabled = false; } else { setStatus( "While saving, the edit query returned an error." + " Check the browser console for more information." ); } deferred.reject(); } //console.log(data); document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ).style["background-image"] = ""; } ).fail ( function( code, result ) { setStatus( "While replying, the edit failed." ); console.log(code); console.log(result); deferred.reject(); } ); } catch ( e ) { setStatusError( e ); deferred.reject(); } return deferred; } function handleWrapperClick ( linkLabel, parent, rplyToXfdNom ) { return function ( evt ) { $.when( mw.messages.exists( INT_MSG_KEYS[0] ) ? 1 : api.loadMessages( INT_MSG_KEYS ) ).then( function () { var newLink = this; var newLinkWrapper = this.parentNode; if( !userspcLinkRgx ) { buildUserspcLinkRgx(); } // Remove previous panel var prevPanel = document.getElementById( "reply-link-panel" ); if( prevPanel ) { prevPanel.remove(); } // Reset previous cancel links var cancelLinks = iterableToList( document.querySelectorAll( ".reply-link-wrapper a" ) ); cancelLinks.forEach( function ( el ) { if( el != newLink ) el.textContent = el.dataset.originalLabel; } ); // Handle disable action if( newLink.textContent === linkLabel ) { // Disable this link newLink.textContent = mw.msg( "rl-cancel" ) + linkLabel; } else { // We've already cancelled the reply newLink.textContent = linkLabel; evt.preventDefault(); return false; } // Figure out the username of the author // of the comment we're replying to var cmtAuthorAndLink = getCommentAuthor( newLinkWrapper ); try { var cmtAuthor = cmtAuthorAndLink.username, cmtLink = cmtAuthorAndLink.link; } catch ( e ) { setStatusError( e ); } // Create panel var panelEl = document.createElement( "div" ); panelEl.id = "reply-link-panel"; panelEl.innerHTML = "<textarea id='reply-dialog-field' class='mw-ui-input'" + " placeholder='" + mw.msg( "rl-placeholder" ) + "'></textarea>" + ( window.replyLinkCustomSummary ? "<label for='reply-link-summary'>Summary: </label>" + "<input id='reply-link-summary' class='mw-ui-input' placeholder='Edit summary' " + "value='Replying to " + cmtAuthor.replace( /'/g, "&#39;" ) + "'/><br />" : "" ) + "<table style='border-collapse:collapse'><tr><td id='reply-link-buttons' style='width: " + ( window.replyLinkPreloadPing === "button" ? "325" : "255" ) + "px'>" + "<button id='reply-dialog-button' class='mw-ui-button mw-ui-progressive'>" + mw.msg( "rl-reply" ) + "</button> " + "<button id='reply-link-preview-button' class='mw-ui-button'>" + mw.msg( "rl-preview" ) + "</button>" + ( window.replyLinkPreloadPing === "button" ? " <button id='reply-link-ping-button' class='mw-ui-button'>Ping</button>" : "" ) + "<button id='reply-link-cancel-button' class='mw-ui-button mw-ui-quiet mw-ui-destructive'>" + mw.msg( "rl-cancel-button" ) + "</button></td>" + "<td id='reply-dialog-status'></span><div style='clear:left'></td></tr></table>" + "<div id='reply-link-options' class='gone-on-empty' style='margin-top: 0.5em'></div>" + "<div id='reply-link-preview' class='gone-on-empty' style='border: thin dashed gray; padding: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.5em'></div>"; parent.insertBefore( panelEl, newLinkWrapper.nextSibling ); var replyDialogField = document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ); replyDialogField.style = "padding: 0.625em; min-height: 10em; margin-bottom: 0.75em; line-height: 1.3"; if( window.replyLinkPreloadPing === "always" && cmtAuthor && cmtAuthor !== mw.config.get( "wgUserName" ) && !/(\d+.){3}\d+/.test( cmtAuthor ) ) { replyDialogField.value = window.replyLinkPreloadPingTpl.replace( "##", cmtAuthor ); } // Fill up #reply-link-options function newOption( id, text, defaultOn ) { var newCheckbox = document.createElement( "input" ); newCheckbox.type = "checkbox"; newCheckbox.id = id; if( defaultOn ) { newCheckbox.checked = true; } var newLabel = document.createElement( "label" ); newLabel.htmlFor = id; newLabel.appendChild( document.createTextNode( text ) ); document.getElementById( "reply-link-options" ).appendChild( newCheckbox ); document.getElementById( "reply-link-options" ).appendChild( newLabel ); } // Fetch metadata about this specific comment var ourMetadata = metadata[this.id]; // If the dry-run option is "checkbox", add an option to make it // a dry run if( window.replyLinkDryRun === "checkbox" ) { newOption( "reply-link-option-dry-run", "Don't actually edit?", true ); } // If the current section header text indicates an edit request, // offer to mark it as answered if( ourMetadata[1] && EDIT_REQ_REGEX.test( ourMetadata[1][1] ) ) { newOption( "reply-link-option-edit-req", "Mark edit request as answered?", false ); } // If the previous comment was indented by OUTDENT_THRESH, // offer to outdent if( ourMetadata[0].length >= OUTDENT_THRESH ) { newOption( "reply-link-option-outdent", "Outdent?", false ); } if( window.replyLinkAutoIndentation === "checkbox" ) { newOption( "reply-link-option-auto-indent", mw.msg( "rl-auto-indent" ), true ); } /* Commented out because I could never get it to work // Autofill with a recommendation if we're replying to a nom if( rplyToXfdNom ) { replyDialogField.value = "'''Comment'''"; // Highlight the "Comment" part so the user can change it var range = document.createRange(); range.selectNodeContents( replyDialogField ); //range.setStart( replyDialogField, 3 ); // start of "Comment" //range.setEnd( replyDialogField, 10 ); // end of "Comment" var sel = window.getSelection(); sel.removeAllRanges(); sel.addRange( range ); }*/ // Close handler window.onbeforeunload = function ( e ) { if( !replyWasSaved && document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ) && document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ).value ) { var txt = mw.msg( "rl-started-reply" ); e.returnValue = txt; return txt; } }; // Called by the "Reply" button, Ctrl-Enter in the text area, and // Enter/Ctrl-Enter in the summary field function startReply() { // Change UI to make it clear we're performing an operation document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ).style["background-image"] = "url(" + window.replyLinkPendingImageUrl + ")"; document.querySelector( "#reply-link-buttons button" ).disabled = true; setStatus( mw.msg( "rl-loading" ) ); var parsoidUrl = PARSOID_ENDPOINT + encodeURIComponent( currentPageName ) + "/" + mw.config.get( "wgCurRevisionId" ), findSectionResultPromise = $.get( parsoidUrl ) .then( function ( parsoidDomString ) { return findSection( currentPageName, parsoidDomString, cmtLink ); },console.error ); var revObjPromise = findSectionResultPromise.then( function ( findSectionResult ) { console.log( "findSectionResult ", findSectionResult ); return getWikitext( findSectionResult.page ); },console.error ); $.when( findSectionResultPromise, revObjPromise ).then( function ( findSectionResult, revObj ) { // ourMetadata contains data in the format: // [indentation, header, sigIdx] doReply( ourMetadata[0], ourMetadata[1], ourMetadata[2], cmtAuthor, rplyToXfdNom, revObj, findSectionResult ); }, function (e) { setStatusError(new Error(e))} ); } // Event listener for the "Reply" button document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-button" ) .addEventListener( "click", startReply ); // Event listener for the text area document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ) .addEventListener( "keydown", function ( e ) { if( e.ctrlKey && ( e.keyCode == 10 || e.keyCode == 13 ) ) { startReply(); } } ); // Event listener for the "Preview" button document.getElementById( "reply-link-preview-button" ) .addEventListener( "click", function () { var reply = document.getElementById( "reply-dialog-field" ).value.trim(); // Add a signature if one isn't already there if( !hasSig( reply ) ) { reply += " " + ( window.replyLinkSigPrefix ? window.replyLinkSigPrefix : "" ) + LITERAL_SIGNATURE; } var sanitizedCode = encodeURIComponent( reply ); $.post( "https:" + mw.config.get( "wgServer" ) + "/w/api.php?action=parse&format=json&title=" + currentPageName + "&text=" + sanitizedCode + "&pst=1", function ( res ) { if ( !res || !res.parse || !res.parse.text ) return console.log( "Preview failed" ); document.getElementById( "reply-link-preview" ).innerHTML = res.parse.text['*']; // Add target="_blank" to links to make them open in a new tab by default var links = document.querySelectorAll( "#reply-link-preview a" ); for( var i = 0, n = links.length; i < n; i++ ) { links[i].setAttribute( "target", "_blank" ); } } ); } ); if( window.replyLinkPreloadPing === "button" ) { document.getElementById( "reply-link-ping-button" ) .addEventListener( "click", function () { replyDialogField.value = window.replyLinkPreloadPingTpl .replace( "##", cmtAuthor ) + replyDialogField.value; } ); } // Event listener for the "Cancel" button document.getElementById( "reply-link-cancel-button" ) .addEventListener( "click", function () { newLink.textContent = linkLabel; panelEl.remove(); } ); // Event listeners for the custom edit summary field if( window.replyLinkCustomSummary ) { document.getElementById( "reply-link-summary" ) .addEventListener( "keydown", function ( e ) { if( e.keyCode == 10 || e.keyCode == 13 ) { startReply(); } } ); } if( window.replyLinkTestInstantReply ) { startReply(); } }.bind( this ) ); // Cancel default event handler evt.preventDefault(); return false; } } /** * Adds a "(reply)" link after the provided text node, giving it * the provided element id. anyIndentation is true if there's any * indentation (i.e. indentation string is not the empty string) */ function attachLinkAfterNode( node, preferredId, anyIndentation ) { // Choose a parent node - walk up tree until we're under a dd, li, // p, or div. This walk is a bit unsafe, but this function should // only get called in a place where the walk will succeed. var parent = node; do { parent = parent.parentNode; } while( !( /^(p|dd|li|div|td)$/.test( parent.tagName.toLowerCase() ) ) ); // Determine whether we're replying to an XfD nom var rplyToXfdNom = false; if( xfdType === "AfD" || xfdType === "MfD" ) { // If the comment is non-indented, we are replying to a nom rplyToXfdNom = !anyIndentation; } else if( xfdType === "TfD" || xfdType === "FfD" ) { // If the sibling before the previous sibling of this node // is a h4, then this is a nom rplyToXfdNom = parent.previousElementSibling && parent.previousElementSibling.previousElementSibling && parent.previousElementSibling.previousElementSibling.nodeType === 1 && parent.previousElementSibling.previousElementSibling.tagName.toLowerCase() === "h4"; } else if( xfdType === "CfD" ) { // If our grandparent is a dl and our grandparent's previous // sibling is a h4, then this is a nom rplyToXfdNom = parent.parentNode.tagName.toLowerCase() === "dl" && parent.parentNode.previousElementSibling.nodeType === 1 && parent.parentNode.previousElementSibling.tagName.toLowerCase() === "h4"; } // Choose link label: if we're replying to an XfD, customize it var linkLabel = mw.msg( "rl-reply-label" ) + ( rplyToXfdNom ? mw.msg( "rl-to-label" ) + xfdType : "" ); // Construct new link var newLinkWrapper = document.createElement( "span" ); newLinkWrapper.className = "reply-link-wrapper"; var newLink = document.createElement( "a" ); newLink.href = "#"; newLink.id = preferredId; newLink.dataset.originalLabel = linkLabel; newLink.appendChild( document.createTextNode( linkLabel ) ); newLink.addEventListener( "click", handleWrapperClick( linkLabel, parent, rplyToXfdNom ) ); newLinkWrapper.appendChild( document.createTextNode( " (" ) ); newLinkWrapper.appendChild( newLink ); newLinkWrapper.appendChild( document.createTextNode( ")" ) ); // Insert new link into DOM parent.insertBefore( newLinkWrapper, node.nextSibling ); } /** * Uses attachLinkAfterTextNode to add a reply link after every * timestamp on the page. */ function attachLinks () { var mainContent = findMainContentEl(); if( !mainContent ) { console.error( "No main content element found; exiting." ); return; } var contentEls = mainContent.children; // Find the index of the first header in contentEls var headerIndex = 0; for( headerIndex = 0; headerIndex < contentEls.length; headerIndex++ ) { if( contentEls[ headerIndex ].tagName.toLowerCase().startsWith( "h" ) ) break; } // If we didn't find any headers at all, that's a problem and we // should bail if( mainContent.querySelector( "div.hover-edit-section" ) ) { headerIndex = 0; } else if( headerIndex === contentEls.length ) { console.error( "Didn't find any headers - hit end of loop!" ); return; } // We also should include the first header if( headerIndex > 0 ) { headerIndex--; } // Each element is a 2-element list of [level, node] var parseStack = iterableToList( contentEls ).slice( headerIndex ); parseStack.reverse(); parseStack = parseStack.map( function ( el ) { return [ "", el ]; } ); // Main parse loop var node; var currIndentation; // A string of symbols, like ":*::" var newIndentSymbol; var stackEl; // current element from the parse stack var idNum = 0; // used to make id's for the links var linkId = ""; // will be the element id for this link while( parseStack.length ) { stackEl = parseStack.pop(); node = stackEl[1]; currIndentation = stackEl[0]; // Compatibility with "Comments in Local Time" var isLocalCommentsSpan = node.nodeType === 1 && "span" === node.tagName.toLowerCase() && node.className.includes( "localcomments" ); var isSmall = node.nodeType === 1 && ( node.tagName.toLowerCase() === "small" || ( node.tagName.toLowerCase() === "span" && node.style && node.style.getPropertyValue( "font-size" ) === "85%" ) ); // Small nodes are okay, unless they're delsort notices var isOkSmallNode = isSmall && !node.className.includes( "delsort-notice" ); if( ( node.nodeType === 3 ) || isOkSmallNode || isLocalCommentsSpan ) { // If the current node has a timestamp, attach a link to it // Also, no links after timestamps, because it's just like // having normal text afterwards, which is rejected (because // that means someone put a timestamp in the middle of a // paragraph) var hasLinkAfterwardsNotInBlockEl = node.nextElementSibling && ( node.nextElementSibling.tagName.toLowerCase() === "a" || ( node.nextElementSibling.tagName.match( /^(span|small)$/i ) && node.nextElementSibling.querySelector( "a" ) ) ); if( TIMESTAMP_REGEX.test( node.textContent ) && ( node.previousSibling || isSmall ) && !hasLinkAfterwardsNotInBlockEl ) { linkId = "reply-link-" + idNum; attachLinkAfterNode( node, linkId, !!currIndentation ); idNum++; // Update global metadata dictionary metadata[linkId] = currIndentation; } } else if( node.nodeType === 1 && /^(div|p|dl|dd|ul|li|span|ol|table|tbody|tr|td)$/.test( node.tagName.toLowerCase() ) ) { switch( node.tagName.toLowerCase() ) { case "dl": newIndentSymbol = ":"; break; case "ul": newIndentSymbol = "*"; break; case "ol": newIndentSymbol = "#"; break; case "div": if( node.className.includes( "xfd_relist" ) ) { continue; } break; default: newIndentSymbol = ""; break; } var childNodes = node.childNodes; for( let i = 0, numNodes = childNodes.length; i < numNodes; i++ ) { parseStack.push( [ currIndentation + newIndentSymbol, childNodes[i] ] ); } } } // This loop adds two entries in the metadata dictionary: // the header data, and the sigIdx values var sigIdxEls = iterableToList( mainContent.querySelectorAll( HEADER_SELECTOR + ",span.reply-link-wrapper a" ) ); var currSigIdx = 0, j, numSigIdxEls, currHeaderEl, currHeaderData; var headerIdx = 0; // index of the current header var headerLvl = 0; // level of the current header for( j = 0, numSigIdxEls = sigIdxEls.length; j < numSigIdxEls; j++ ) { var headerTagNameMatch = /^h(\d+)$/.exec( sigIdxEls[j].tagName.toLowerCase() ); if( headerTagNameMatch ) { currHeaderEl = sigIdxEls[j]; // Test to make sure we're not in the table of contents if( currHeaderEl.parentNode.className === "toctitle" ) { continue; } // Reset signature counter currSigIdx = 0; // Dig down one level for the header text because // MW buries the text in a span inside the header var headlineEl = null; if( currHeaderEl.childNodes[0].className && currHeaderEl.childNodes[0].className.includes( "mw-headline" ) ) { headlineEl = currHeaderEl.childNodes[0]; } else { for( var i = 0; i < currHeaderEl.childNodes.length; i++ ) { if( currHeaderEl.childNodes[i].className && currHeaderEl.childNodes[i].className.includes( "mw-headline" ) ) { headlineEl = currHeaderEl.childNodes[i]; break; } } } var headerName = null; if( headlineEl ) { headerName = headlineEl.textContent; } if( headerName === null ) { console.error( currHeaderEl ); throw "Couldn't parse a header element!"; } headerLvl = headerTagNameMatch[1]; currHeaderData = [ headerLvl, headerName, headerIdx ]; headerIdx++; } else { // Save all the metadata for this link currIndentation = metadata[ sigIdxEls[j].id ]; metadata[ sigIdxEls[j].id ] = [ currIndentation, currHeaderData ? currHeaderData.slice(0) : null, currSigIdx ]; currSigIdx++; } } //console.log(metadata); // Disable links inside hatnotes, archived discussions var badRegionsSelector = [ "div.archived", "div.resolved", "table" ].map( function ( s ) { return s + " .reply-link-wrapper" } ).join( "," ); var insideArchived = mainContent.querySelectorAll( badRegionsSelector ); for( var i = 0; i < insideArchived.length; i++ ) { insideArchived[i].parentNode.removeChild( insideArchived[i] ); } } function runTestMode() { // We never want to make actual edits window.replyLinkDryRun = "always"; // Simulate having a panel open $( "#mw-content-text" ) .append( $( "<div>" ) .append( $( "<textarea>" ).attr( "id", "reply-dialog-field" ).val( "hi" ) ) .append( $( "<div>" ).attr( "id", "reply-link-buttons" ) .append( $( "<button> " ) ) ) ); mw.util.addCSS( ".reply-link-wrapper { background-color: orange; }" ); // Fetch content, Parsoid DOM, etc var parsoidUrl = PARSOID_ENDPOINT + encodeURIComponent( currentPageName ); $.when( $.get( parsoidUrl ), api.loadMessages( INT_MSG_KEYS ) ).then( function ( parsoidDomString, _ ) { buildUserspcLinkRgx(); // Statistics variables var successes = 0, failures = 0; // Run one test on a wrapper link function runOneTestOn( wrapper ) { try { var cmtAuthorAndLink = getCommentAuthor( wrapper ), cmtAuthor = cmtAuthorAndLink.username, cmtLink = cmtAuthorAndLink.link; var ourMetadata = metadata[ wrapper.children[0].id ]; findSection( currentPageName, parsoidDomString, cmtLink ).then( function ( findSectionResult ) { var revObjPromise = getWikitext( findSectionResult.page, /* useCaching */ true ); $.when( findSectionResult, revObjPromise ).then( function ( findSectionResult, revObj ) { doReply( ourMetadata[0], ourMetadata[1], ourMetadata[2], cmtAuthor, false, revObj, findSectionResult ).done( function () { wrapper.style.background = "green"; successes++; } ).fail( function () { wrapper.style.background = "red"; failures++; } ); }, function ( e ) { wrapper.style.background = "red"; failures++; } ); } ); } catch ( e ) { console.error( e ); wrapper.style.background = "red"; failures++; } } var wrappers = Array.from( document.querySelectorAll( ".reply-link-wrapper" ) ); function runOneTest() { var wrapper = wrappers.shift(); if( wrapper ) { runOneTestOn( wrapper ); setTimeout( runOneTest, 750 ); } else { var results = successes + " successes, " + failures + " failures"; $( "#mw-content-text" ).prepend( results ).append( results ); } } //console.log = function() {}; setTimeout( runOneTest, 0 ); } ); } function onReady() { var lang_code = mw.config.get( "wgUserLanguage" ) // Replace default English interface by translation if available var interface_messages = $.extend( {}, i18n.en, i18n[ lang_code.split('-')[0] ], i18n[ lang_code ] ); // Define interface messages mw.messages.set( interface_messages ); // Exit if history page or edit page if( mw.config.get( "wgAction" ) === "history" ) return; if( document.getElementById( "editform" ) ) return; api = new mw.Api(); mw.util.addCSS( "#reply-link-panel { padding: 1em; margin-left: 1.6em; "+ "max-width: 1200px; width: 66%; margin-top: 0.5em; }"+ ".gone-on-empty:empty { display: none; }" ); // Pre-load interface messages; we will check again when a (reply) // link is clicked api.loadMessages( INT_MSG_KEYS ); // Initialize the xfdType global variable, which must happen // before the call to attachLinks currentPageName = mw.config.get( "wgPageName" ); xfdType = ""; if( mw.config.get( "wgNamespaceNumber" ) === 4) { if( currentPageName.startsWith( "Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/" ) ) { xfdType = "AfD"; } else if( currentPageName.startsWith( "Wikipedia:Miscellany_for_deletion/" ) ) { xfdType = "MfD"; } else if( currentPageName.startsWith( "Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/" ) ) { xfdType = "TfD"; } else if( currentPageName.startsWith( "Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/" ) ) { xfdType = "CfD"; } else if( currentPageName.startsWith( "Wikipedia:Files_for_discussion/" ) ) { xfdType = "FfD"; } } // Default values for some preferences if( window.replyLinkAutoReload === undefined ) window.replyLinkAutoReload = true; if( window.replyLinkDryRun === undefined ) window.replyLinkDryRun = "never"; if( window.replyLinkPreloadPing === undefined ) window.replyLinkPreloadPing = "always"; if( window.replyLinkPreloadPingTpl === undefined ) window.replyLinkPreloadPingTpl = "{{u|##}}, "; if( window.replyLinkCustomSummary === undefined ) window.replyLinkCustomSummary = false; if( window.replyLinkTestMode === undefined ) window.replyLinkTestMode = false; if( window.replyLinkTestInstantReply === undefined) window.replyLinkTestInstantReply = false; if( window.replyLinkAutoIndentation === undefined ) window.replyLinkAutoIndentation = "checkbox"; // Insert "reply" links into DOM attachLinks(); // If test mode is enabled, create a link for that if( window.replyLinkTestMode ) { mw.util.addPortletLink( "p-cactions", "#", "reply-link test mode", "pt-reply-link-test" ) .addEventListener( "click", runTestMode ); } // This large string creats the "pending" texture window.replyLinkPendingImageUrl = "data:image/gif;base64,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"; } mw.loader.load( "mediawiki.ui.input", "text/css" ); mw.loader.using( [ "mediawiki.util", "mediawiki.api" ] ).then( function () { mw.hook( "wikipage.content" ).add( onReady ); } ); $.getScript('https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Enterprisey/parsoid-jump.js&action=raw&ctype=text%2Fjavascript'); // Return functions for testing return { "iterableToList": iterableToList, "sigIdxToStrIdx": sigIdxToStrIdx, "insertTextAfterIdx": insertTextAfterIdx, "wikitextToTextContent": wikitextToTextContent }; } // Export functions for testing if( typeof module === typeof {} ) { module.exports = { "loadReplyLink": loadReplyLink }; } // If we're in the right environment, load the script if( jQuery !== undefined && mediaWiki !== undefined ) { var currNamespace = mw.config.get( "wgNamespaceNumber" ); // Also enable on T:TDYK and its subpages var ttdykPage = mw.config.get( "wgPageName" ).indexOf( "Template:Did_you_know_nominations" ) === 0; // Normal "read" view and not a diff view var normalView = mw.config.get( "wgIsArticle" ) && !mw.config.get( "wgDiffOldId" ); if ( normalView && ( currNamespace % 2 === 1 || currNamespace === 4 || ttdykPage ) ) { loadReplyLink( jQuery, mediaWiki ); } } //</nowiki> mw.loader.using(['mediawiki.api', 'mediawiki.Title'], function () { "use strict"; var config = mw.config.get(['wgNamespaceNumber', 'wgTitle', 'wgUserGroups', 'skin']); function removeBlanks(arr) { var ret = []; var i, len; for (i = 0, len = arr.length; i < len; i++) { var s = arr[i]; s = s.trim(); if (s) { ret.push(s); } } return ret; } function doMassDelete() { document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteSubmit").disabled = true; var articles = document.getElementById("wpMassDeletePages").value.split("\n"); articles = removeBlanks(articles); if (!articles.length) { return; } var api = new mw.Api(), wpMassDeleteReasons = document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteReasons").value, wpMassDeleteReason = document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteReason").value, deleted = 0, failed = [], error = [], deferreds = [], reason = wpMassDeleteReasons == "other" ? wpMassDeleteReason : wpMassDeleteReasons + (wpMassDeleteReason ? " (" + wpMassDeleteReason + ")" : ""), onSuccess = function () { deleted++; document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteSubmit").value = "(" + deleted + ")"; }; function makeDeleteFunc(article) { return function () { return $.Deferred(function (deferred) { var promise = api.postWithToken('delete', { format: 'json', action: 'delete', title: article, reason: reason }); promise.done(onSuccess); promise.fail(function (code, obj) { failed.push(article); error.push(obj.error.info); }); promise.always(function () { deferred.resolve(); }); }); }; } // Make a chain of deferred objects. We chain them rather than execute them in // parallel so that we don't make 1000 simultaneous delete requests and bring the // site down. We use deferred objects rather than the promise objects returned // from the API request so that the chain continues even if some articles gave // errors. var deferred = makeDeleteFunc(articles[0])(); for (var i = 1, len = articles.length; i < len; i++) { deferred = deferred.then(makeDeleteFunc(articles[i])); } // Show the output and do cleanup once all the requests are done. $.when(deferred).then(function () { document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteSubmit").value = "Done (" + deleted + ")"; if (failed.length) { var $failedList = $('<ul>'); for(var x = 0; x < failed.length; x++) { // Link the titles in the "failed" array var failedTitle = mw.Title.newFromText(failed[x]); var $failedItem = $('<li>'); if (failedTitle) { $failedItem.append( $('<a>') .attr('href', failedTitle.getUrl()) .text(failed[x]) ); } else { $failedItem.text(failed[x]); } $failedItem.append(document.createTextNode(': ' + error[x])); $failedList.append($failedItem); } $('#wpMassDeleteFailedContainer') .append($('<br />')) .append($('<b>') .text('Failed deletions:') ) .append($failedList); } }); } function massdeleteform() { var bodyContent = (config.skin == "cologneblue" ? "article" : "bodyContent"); document.getElementsByTagName("h1")[0].textContent = "Mass delete pages"; document.title = "Mass delete pages"; document.getElementById(bodyContent).innerHTML = '<h3 id="siteSub">Lifted From Wikimedia Incubator - revision of 2015-10-28</h3><br />' + '<div>' + '<form id="wpMassDelete" name="wpMassDelete">' + '<p>Welcome to the mass deletion form, the page which you can use to mass delete a couple of pages. If you are deleting multiple pages that were created by one user, please use <a href="/wiki/Special:Nuke">Special:Nuke</a>!</p>' + '<p>If you are deleting <b>more than 10 pages</b>, please <a href="/wiki/Special:UserRights">flag yourself</a> as a bot first to avoid flooding <a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges">Special:RecentChanges</a>, thank you!</p>' + '<p>Please add the list of pages you would like to delete in the text box below, listing one page in one line. Thank you for using this tool!</p>' + '<div id="wpMassDeleteFailedContainer"></div>' + '<br />' + 'Pages to delete (one on each line, please):<br />' + '<textarea tabindex="1" accesskey="," name="wpMassDeletePages" id="wpMassDeletePages" rows="15" cols="80"></textarea>' + '<br /><table style="background-color:transparent">' + '<tr><td>Common reasons:</td>' + '<td><select id="wpMassDeleteReasons">' + '<optgroup label="Other reason">' + '<option value="other">Other reason</option>' + '</optgroup>' + '<optgroup label="Criteria for speedy deletion">' + '<optgroup label="Common delete reasons">' + '<option value="Author request">Author request</option>' + '<option value="Beyond scope">Beyond scope</option>' + '<option value="Copyright violation">Copyright violation</option>' + '<option value="Unneeded redirect">Unneeded redirect(s)</option>' + '<option value="Vandalism">Vandalism</option>' + '</optgroup>' + '<optgroup label="Routine maintenance">' + '<option value="Process deletion">Process deletion</option>' + '<option value="Orphaned talkpage">Orphaned talkpage</option>' + '<option value="Redundant/extraneous after bulk-action">Redundant/extraneous after bulk-action</option>' + '<option value="Source file status change">Source file status change</option>' + '<option value="Superior transcription exists">Superior transcription exists</option>' + '</optgroup>' + '</optgroup>' + '</select></td></tr>' + '<tr><td>Other/additional reason:</td>' + '<td><input type="text" id="wpMassDeleteReason" name="wpMassDeleteReason" size="42" maxlength="255" /></td></tr>' + '<tr><td><input type="button" id="wpMassDeleteSubmit" name="wpMassDeleteSubmit" value="Delete" /></td>' + '</form>' + '</div>'; document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteReasons").onchange = function() { var maxlength = (document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteReasons").value == "other" ? 255 : 252-document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteReasons").value.length); //It's 252 because of the three characters (" ()") in addition to the selected summary. document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteReason").setAttribute("maxlength", maxlength); }; document.getElementById("wpMassDeleteSubmit").addEventListener("click", function (e) { doMassDelete(); }); } if (config.wgNamespaceNumber == -1 && config.wgTitle.toLowerCase() == "massdelete" && /sysop/.test(config.wgUserGroups) ) { massdeleteform(); } }); 0qedqkkscrz1ct3oegkhe1167t3q9bt 0 426712 4654088 3847413 2026-07-11T19:17:22Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654088 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sphere Break''' is a minigame within the role-playing game ''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]''. A bit like [[w:Sudoku|Sudoku]], the game has a numerical grid that has to be dealt with using a set of rules. The mechanics of the minigame are purely mathematical, relying on sums and multiplications; the aim is to create the most multiples of a "core number" by combining numbers of the 16 coins on the board. {{TOCleft}} ==Gallery== <gallery class="center"> Image:Sphere break 1.jpg|Coins Image:Sphere break 2.jpg|Game Opening Image:Sphere break 3.jpg|A Break Image:Sphere break 4.jpg|Game Board </gallery> {{-}} ==Game elements== ===Coins=== Coins are numbered from 1 to 9 and possess several different attributes that can help you in the Final Fantasy X-2 or in the Sphere Break Minigame itself (Free magic Item, Free potions, Echo, + coins, quota multipliers,...) ===Core Break=== A ''Core Break'' happens when the player selects coins that added to each other form a sum that is a multiple of the number rolled by the '''Core Sphere'''. The player with the coins has to obtain a ''Core Break'' in a set limit of time or he loses the game. A core break ends a turn in the game. [[Image:Sphere break 4.jpg|right|300 px|thumb|Game board: Core Sphere (light blue) surrounded by center coins (gold) which are in turn surrounded by border coins (dark blue)]] ===Center Coins / Entry Coins=== The player playing against the dealer (owner of the core sphere) selects 4 coins to bet. They will be his entry coins and will be placed in the center. During the game, every time the dealer rolls a number on the core sphere, his opponent has to pick at least one entry coin to start his turn. ===Border Coins=== At each turn, a number of coins between 0 to 12 coins surrounds the center coins and the core sphere. The player uses them to make a '''Core break'''. At each turn, any coin not used in a core break is increased in value by one. If it had a value of 9 before, it is removed from play as they cannot be a value of ten. Coins used in a core break are also removed. Empty spaces are filled (or not) randomly, with a new coin valued from 1 to 9. ==Game mechanics== # Like a dice, the dealer makes his ''Core Sphere'' produce a number from 1 to 9 for a set number of turns, i.e. 20 turns # For each turn, the player has to use at least one of his center coins which on the tournament of Final Fantasy X-2 are preset 1,2,3 and 5 with multiplier Echo #Each turn has a set time limit from (60 seconds, 30 seconds..) and the player has to produce a multiple of the ''Core Sphere'' within it. If he fails he loses the game and also loses the center coins he bet #Each game has a "Quota", i.e. a set number of coins that needs to be used in the games set umber of turns. If all turns are used and the player did not complete his quota he loses the game and also loses the center coins he bet *By using the multipliers and other coin attributes players can beat dealers with very difficult ''Core Spheres''. The current champion Shinra has a quota of 100 coins that has to be obtained in just 15 turns with a time limit per turn of 45 seconds. ==A sample game== * Quota: 30 coins, Turns: 20 turns, Time limit per turn: 60 seconds (''a very easy game with low quota, lots of turns and large time limit per turn'') :1 - For the first turn, the dealer rolls out a number from 1-9, i.e. '''7''' ::In his first turn the player needs to find a multiple of 7 by adding the center coins (1,2,3, and 5 with ''multiplier echo'') and the 0-12 border coins (randomly set). :: Here the player could just use center coins (2+5) but this is not to the player's advantage because center coins do not add any coins to the quota of 30 coins he has to use before his 20 turns are complete. The player has to pick one center coin, so let's pick '''2''' (Sum=2) :: Now the player looks at the border coins and tries to get as many border coins he can to make a multiple of the core sphere's '''7'''. Since he already picked a '''2''' the maximum sum of the border coins he can pick has to be either ''5'' or ''12'' or ''19'' etc... to yield a multiple of '''7''' such as ''7'' or ''14'' or ''21'' etc... :: The player picks 3 border coins: '''8''', '''8''' and '''3''' making his total Sum = 2 + 8 + 8 + 3 = 21 and obtains a successful turn, i.e., a ''sphere break'' :: His quota is now equal to 3 coins and his ''multiplier'' was ''3'' because he closed the turn with 21 which is 3 * 7 . The multiplier is important because one of his center coins has the ''multiplier echo'' attribute and will help augment the player's quota in his next turn :2 - On the second turn the ''Core Sphere'' rolls a '''1''' which is good for the dealer and bad for the player :: Faced with a '''1''' from the core sphere the player is forced to pick only center coins, as any number he picks will be a multiple of 1 and he has to start by picking a center coin. This means he will not get any extra coins to add to his quota this turn. ::As noted above, any center coin (1,2,3 and 5) will end the turn. A clever player would use the ''multiplier echo'' to his advantage here and pick the '''3''' center coin. This will make his multiplier for his second turn to be equal ''3'' which is what 3 * 1 amounts to. ::Note that the turn ends with the same multiplier as the last turn: ''3''. This means the player has a ''multiplier echo'' :: The turn ends with a quota of 3 (no border coins were added) and a ''multiplier echo'' of 1 :3 - For the 3rd turn the Core sphere rolls a '''2''' :: A clever player would pick his mandatory center coin to be ''odd'' because any coin that is even will end his turn. Our player picks '''1''' :: For the border coins, our player can now keep on picking ''odd'' coins but to take advantage of the ''multiplier echo'' he needs to stop when his sum totals ''6'' which is 3 * 2 and gives him another ''multiplier echo''. :: Our player picks a '''5''' border coin making his sum equal 1+5 = 6 and making another multiplier echo :: The turn ends with a quota of 4 plus the echo bonus of 2 * his quota on this turn which is 2*1, giving him a total quota of 6 and a new ''multiplier echo'' of 2 :4-20 - The game proceeds until either all 20 turns are completed or the quota of 30 coins is fulfilled. If the player fulfills his quota before the end of 20 turns he wins the game and all the prizes yielded by the border coin attributes. ==External links== *[http://projects.aeroleviathan.com/ihsb/ I Hate Sphere Break! (a PHP version of Sphere Break)] *[http://eyesonff.com/ff10-2/sbluca.php Sphere Break at Eyes on Final Fantasy Forum] *[http://faqs.ign.com/articles/442/442330p1.html Sphere Break Gil Trick] and lots of Sphere break tips {{bookcat}} n6icolgmgcv4znrjy6nvztvwg15oq1u 0 426720 4654063 3849422 2026-07-11T19:06:16Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654063 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Open Areas== *Kilika Village *Kilika Harbor *Youth League Fort *Temple of Ifrit ==Secret Areas== *A small plateau overlooking the village and jungle where [[w:Cactuars|Cactuars]] like to hang out ==Gallery== <gallery class="center"> Image:xxx.jpg|kilika </gallery> {{deletebecause|cs7-author requests delete - moved to FF Wiki}} {{BookCat}} 80k5ks06shihst32b1mpcg87gle825g 0 426756 4654134 3966866 2026-07-11T19:24:29Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654134 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCleft}} ===Unsent=== Apparently any humanoid with very intense emotions can manage to stay behind in Spira in a shadow form that is called "unsent". Unlike ghosts, most unsent are virtually indistinguishable from live humanoids. The powers and the level of skill of each unsent seem to vary with their "age", i.e., with the time they have been unsent, and with whether or not the unsent had magical training or had been a summoner during his life. Examples of unsent characters are: Yunalesca, Maechen, Shuyin and Lenne... {{clear}} [[Image:Aeonmap.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Aeons]] ===Aeons=== Aeons are the "physical-forms" the Summoners give to the Fayth's dreams. Aeons resemble large animals or figures from Earth's mythology. There are a total of 8 Aeons in Final Fantasy X. After Yuna defeated Sin the Aeons were no longer available for Summoning but still returned in FFX2 as "Dark Aeons" who attacked Yuna and her friends. [[Image:Valefor.jpg|Valefor|right|thumb]] ===Fayth=== From Wikipedia we learn that ''In the world of Final Fantasy X, the Fayth are the souls of the people who willingly underwent a ritual that removed their souls from their still-living bodies and sealed into stone tablets. This technique of creating Fayth is known only by those from Zanarkand''. The purple hooded boy that talks often to Yuna and Tidus is Bahamut's ''Fayth''. ===Wood Spirits=== Donga, Baira and Pukutak are examples of Wood spirits <gallery class="center"> Image:Dongaffx.jpg|Donga Image:Bayra.jpg|Bayra Image:Pukutak.jpg|Pukutak </gallery> ===Fiends=== Fiends are created when people die without being sent, and those without a will powerful enough to become humanoid "unsent". Fiends represent the spirit's envy and resent the living, attacking most of the time. Fiends vary widely in appearance and skills. Most fiends belong to a particular elemental class: Fire, Ice, Water or Energy <gallery class="center"> Image:Dongaffx.jpg|Donga Image:Baira.jpg|Baira Image:Pukutak.jpg|Pukutak Image:Sand_Worm_FFX.jpg|Sandworm '''fiend''' </gallery> {{bookcat}} kov4tr9yqoq25o34vjh1q8e4e9c3run 0 438289 4654167 4653395 2026-07-12T02:42:33Z Idavidmiller 3577687 Work in progress. Saving Changes. 4654167 wikitext text/x-wiki == Maxima Operators == <blockquote>''"Standards are great! That's why there are so many of them, and they change so often."'' ''"What once was forbidden is now required."'' – Unknown</blockquote> === Mathematical Notation and Operators === Mathematical notation was conceived of by different contributors and adopted over a period of time until the present . Standards are important. They help ensure that efforts are consistent and predictable. But if there are standards for notation, then these tend to be ''de facto'' in the absence of some imposed or adopted contextual guidance. Notation is important as this is the means by which mathematical expressions are composed. Much of what is now considered "standard" notation was in use before the advent of computers and programming software. Software such as Maxima that has as its purpose "doing" at least some of what is meant by "mathematics," must provide the means by which mathematical expressions can be composed. Standard or conventional mathematical notation in general is not well-suited for this purpose. Hence, there has been the effort to "shoe horn" expressions into a form that is better suited for composing expressions that conforms to software programming syntax, instead of developing software systems that can compose and interpret the full spectrum of existing mathematical expressions, presumably because the former is technically simpler. There has been more success in the form of output expressions in terms of conforming to standard mathematical notation. Maxima is mostly about mathematical expressions, and these expressions are composed of operators and atoms. Atoms are relatively the simple ingredient for use in composing expressions – numerical and string data types, but also identifiers, especially those that are not assigned a value, and hence may be considered variables. Operators are the ingredient where much of the "heavy lifting" occurs with respect to expression composition, and operators need some means to be expressed. Maxima operators are all some sort of "function" (or in Lisp, a procedure) in the programming language sense of the word. This is important to understand. Even something as simple as the expression of a sum is a based on a function. For example, consider the Maxima expressions:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i1) e+3; (%o1) e+3 (%i2) :lisp #$[e+3]$ ((MLIST SIMP) ((MPLUS SIMP) 3 $E)) </syntaxhighlight> Notice that a sum is simply the Lisp procedure <code>MPLUS</code>. .++. '''There is no single, universally enforced standard that dictates mathematical notation across all branches of math'''. Instead, notation is decentralized, evolving organically and varying by '''discipline''', '''publisher''', and '''subfield'''. [1, 2, 3] However, there are widely accepted conventions and formal frameworks that serve as references: 1. The ISO Standard The closest thing to a universal style guide is the '''ISO 31-11''' (now succeeded by '''ISO 80000-2'''). * '''Who uses it:''' Primarily applied scientists, physicists, and engineering bodies. Pure mathematicians largely ignore it in favor of their own subfield traditions. * '''Core Rule:''' It mandates the use of '''italic fonts for variables''' (e.g., $E = mc^2$) and '''upright (roman) fonts for mathematical constants''' (e.g., $e$ or $\pi$). [7, 8] 2. Disciplinary Conventions Mathematical notation broadly divides into four categories depending on the context: * '''Operational Symbols:''' e.g., $+$, $-$, $\times$, $\div$, $=$ * '''Set & Logic Symbols:''' e.g., $\in$, $\notin$, $\forall$ (for all), $\exists$ (there exists) * '''Functional Notation:''' e.g., $f(x)$, $\sin(\theta)$ * '''Structural/Relational Notation:''' e.g., $\sum$ (summation), $\int$ (integration), $\cup$, $\cap$ [2] Within these categories, subfields develop distinct dialects. For example, a partial derivative might be written as $\frac{\partial f}{\partial x}$ in calculus, $f_x$ in differential equations, or $\partial_x f$ in differential geometry. 3. Practical Usage Because notation evolves so quickly, papers and textbooks typically rely on '''context''' and explicit definitions rather than a rigid central authority. For typesetting, the international default for mathematical texts is '''LaTeX''', which establishes formatting norms but not the mathematical meaning itself. [1, 2, 9, 10] To explore this topic further, the '''Wikipedia Mathematical Notation''' page provides a solid overview of common symbols and their regional variants. [7] [1] <nowiki>https://mathoverflow.net/questions/33152/is-there-a-reference-containing-standard-mathematical-notations</nowiki> [2] <nowiki>https://mathematicsauthority.com/mathematical-notation-guide/</nowiki> [3] <nowiki>https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/4738809/is-there-one-universal-standard-for-mathematical-notation</nowiki> [4] <nowiki>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_31-11</nowiki> [5] <nowiki>https://mathoverflow.net/questions/33152/is-there-a-reference-containing-standard-mathematical-notations</nowiki> [6] <nowiki>https://hsm.stackexchange.com/questions/19089/why-does-mathematical-notation-and-terminology-stop-being-standard-after-calculu</nowiki> [7] <nowiki>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_notation</nowiki> [8] <nowiki>https://nhigham.com/2016/01/28/typesetting-mathematics-according-to-the-iso-standard/</nowiki> [9] <nowiki>https://www2.cde.ca.gov/cacs/math?c0=14,8&c1=5</nowiki> [10] <nowiki>https://math.stackexchange.com/questions/1202594/there-is-a-logical-or-mathematical-symbol-for-compatibility-incompatibility</nowiki> The definitive, encyclopedic reference for the history of mathematical symbols is <mark>Florian Cajori's ''A History of Mathematical Notations''</mark>. This foundational text details the origin, evolution, and dissemination of virtually every mathematical symbol. You can access the full A History Of Mathematical Notations Vol I text online via the Internet Archive. [1, 2, 3] For a quick, scannable breakdown of specific symbols, turn to the Wikipedia History of mathematical notation. This resource highlights major eras and the mathematicians who standardized our modern system. [1, 2, 3] Key Resources by Topic * Textbook Classic: Read or borrow Florian Cajori's unabridged work via Internet Archive for a deep dive into specific symbols. [1, 2] * General Summary: Use the Wikipedia History of mathematical notation for a curated list of who invented specific operators. [1] * Functions & Operations: Visit the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, maintained by the University of St Andrews, to track individual symbols (e.g., \(+\), \(-\), \(\times \), \(\div \), and \(f(x)\)). [1, 2, 3] * The Future of Notation: Read Stephen Wolfram's Mathematical Notation: Past and Future to learn how the history of notation shapes modern computation. [1] <blockquote> ''"Now I have to tell you that I had always assumed that mathematical notation was too haphazard to be used as any kind of thing that a computer could reasonably interpret in a rigorous way. But at the beginning of the 1990s we got interested in making Mathematica be able to interact with mathematical notation. And so we realized that we really had to figure out what was going on with mathematical notation.'' ''Neil Soiffer had spent quite a number of years working on editing and interpreting mathematical notation, and when he joined our company in 1991, he started trying to convince me that one really could work with mathematical notation in a reasonable way, for both output and input.'' ''The output side was pretty straightforward: after all, TROFF and TeX already did a moderately good job with that.'' ''The issue was input.'' ''Well, actually, one already learned something from output. One learned that at least at some level, a lot of mathematical notation could be represented in some kind of context-free form. Because one knew that in TeX, for instance, one could set things up in a tree of nested boxes.'' ''But how about input? Well, one of the biggest things was something that always comes up in parsing: if you have a string of text, with operands and operators, how do you tell what groups with what?"<br />'' – Stephen Wolfram</blockquote>"=" means syntactic equality. Check : is(equal(a,b)) {{Bookcat}} {{Status|0%}} 68qfqxia17zbphz29hjax3y8ym1pvwp 0 446529 4654009 4648080 2026-07-11T14:57:05Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654009 wikitext text/x-wiki {{New book}} <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xxx-large; color: #FF0055;"><b>ꯈꯨꯔꯨꯝꯖꯔꯤ! </b></span></div> {| border="2" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #FF8080; border:#FF0000; margin: auto;" | '''ꯍꯦꯜꯂꯣ! "ꯑꯅꯧꯕ ꯃꯩꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟ ꯋꯤꯀꯤꯕꯨꯛ"ꯇ ꯇꯔꯥꯝꯅ ꯑꯣꯛꯆꯔꯤ! ꯃꯐꯝ ꯑꯁꯤꯗ ꯅꯍꯥꯛ ꯃꯅꯤꯄꯨꯔꯤ ꯉꯥꯡꯕ ꯇꯝꯒꯅꯤ!''' |- | align="center" | <small>Translation: ''Hello! Welcome to the Modern Meitei language wikibook! Here you will learn to speak Manipuri!''</small> |} Welcome to the '''Modern Meitei''' WikiBook! This book is aimed at teaching from absolute beginners to advanced. It is a work in progress, please consider helping the project by contributing. : ''Note: This book is for Modern Meitei, for Ancient Meitei, click [[Ancient Meitei|here]], for Classical Meitei, click [[Classical Meitei|here]].'' [[File:Meitei language written in Meitei script.svg|thumb|300px|"Meiteilon" (literally meaning "Meitei language"), written in Meitei script]] '''Meitei''' (ꯃꯩꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟ), officially known as '''Manipuri''' (ꯃꯅꯤꯄꯨꯔꯤ), is the official language of both Manipur and Assam states. Besides, it is one of the 22 official languages of the Republic of India, at the national level, legally recognised by the Constitution of India. It is the predominantly spoken language of Manipur. It is the most widely spoken Indian language from the Sino-Tibetan family (or "Tibeto-Burman family"). It is the lingua franca of Manipur. It is also spoken as minority language in Assam, Tripura, Bangladesh and Myanmar. It is the mother tongue of Meitei ethnicity (popularly known as Manipuri ethnicity), the largest ethnic group of Manipur. {| width=1000px align="center" style="border: transparent 0px solid; background-color: transparent" | width=100% valign="top" | <div style="text-align: center;"> [[Image:Flag of Manipur (stripes variant).svg|border|x200px|The Meitei Cultural Flag]] <br><br> [[File:Uttra Sanglen.JPG|x200px]][[File:The tableau of Manipur passes through the Raj path during the 61st Republic Day Parade-2010, in New Delhi on January 26, 2010.jpg|x200px]][[File:Temple at Kangla.jpg|x200px]]<br /> [[File:The tableau of Manipur passes through the Rajpath, on the occasion of the 69th Republic Day Parade 2018, in New Delhi on January 26, 2018.jpg|x200px]][[File:Stamp of Armenia - 2018 - Colnect 806145 - Indian Dance Manipuri.jpeg|x200px]] [[File:The tableau of Manipur passes through the Rajpath, on the occasion of the 68th Republic Day Parade 2017, in New Delhi on January 26, 2017.jpg|x200px]] </div> |} {| align="center" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="{{greek clr}}; border: #00aadd; border-collapse: collapse;" | align="center" | '''Note''': To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to display Meitei characters. If the characters in the box below appear as blank boxes or question marks or any other forms of garbages, it means it is not properly configured.<br><small>&nbsp;</small> {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" align="center" style="border: #eeeeff; border-collapse: collapse;" | style="background-color:#eeeeee;" |ꯃꯐꯝ ꯑꯁꯤꯗ ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯃꯌꯦꯛꯁꯤꯡ ꯎꯠꯀꯗꯕꯅꯤ꯫! |} |} Meitei language uses Meitei script as well as Bengali script for its writings. From the inception of history until 17th century AD, Meitei language used ancient Meitei script. From the 18th century until 20th century and in many times even today, it uses Bengali script. However, from 2003-04 AD, usage of Meitei script is revived with the efforts of Meitei people to replace the Bengali script for Meitei language. Half of the online Meitei language websites will be found written in Bengali script while half of them will be in Meitei script. However, in all the Wikimedia Foundation Projects, including Wikipedia and Wiktionary, Meitei language uses Meitei script and not a single Bengali script sentence will be found for Meitei language. === Lesson 1: Preface and writing system === # [[Modern Meitei/Introduction|Introduction]] # [[Modern Meitei/Script|Script]] === Lesson 2: Common phrases and greetings === # [[Modern Meitei/Common phrases|Common phrases]] # [[Modern Meitei/Greetings|Greetings]] === Lesson 3: Genders and Pronouns === # [[Modern Meitei/Genders|Genders]] # [[Modern Meitei/Pronouns|Pronouns]] === Lesson 4: Numbers, Time and Date === # [[Modern Meitei/Numbers|Numbers]] # [[Modern Meitei/Time|Time]] # [[Modern Meitei/Days and Months|Days and Months]] === Lesson 5: Conversations and Dialogues === # [[Modern Meitei/Question Words|Question Words]] # [[Modern Meitei/Introducing dialogues|Introducing dialogues]] === Lesson 6: Vocabularies === # [[Modern Meitei/Family|Family]] # [[Modern Meitei/Professions|Professions]] # [[Modern Meitei/Foods and Drinks|Foods and Drinks]] # [[Modern Meitei/Clothes|Clothes]] # [[Modern Meitei/Body parts|Body]] # [[Modern Meitei/Places around a house|Places around a house]] # [[Modern Meitei/Vocabularies of a town|Places around a town]] # [[Modern Meitei/Colours|Colours]] # [[Modern Meitei/Climate, Seasons and Weather|Climate, Seasons and Weather]] # [[Modern Meitei/Countryside vocabularies|Countryside]] === Appendices === # [[Modern Meitei/Zodiac Signs|Zodiac Signs]] # [[Modern Meitei/Authors & Contributors|Authors & Contributors]] == External resources == {{wikipedia|Meitei language}} {{wiktionary|Meitei}} {{wikiquote|Meitei language}} {{wikivoyage|Meitei language}} {{Commonscat|Meitei language}} {{Status|75%}} {{Shelves|Meitei language}} bdbg82op8887536e86r2vh3pz8osz1y 0 447001 4654023 4648958 2026-07-11T15:49:17Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654023 wikitext text/x-wiki {{New book}} <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: xxx-large; color: #00008B;"><b>ꯈꯨꯂꯨꯝꯆꯂꯤ!</b></span></div> {| border="2" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; background: #12AD2B; border:#FF0000; margin: auto;" | '''ꯈꯨꯂꯨꯝꯆꯂꯤ! "ꯊꯥꯛ ꯑꯋꯥꯡꯄ ꯃꯩꯇꯩꯂꯣꯟ ꯋꯤꯀꯤꯕꯨꯛ"ꯇ ꯇꯂꯥꯝꯅ ꯑꯣꯛꯆꯂꯤ! ꯃꯐꯝ ꯑꯁꯤꯇ ꯅꯍꯥꯛ ꯂꯣꯜ ꯑꯁꯤ ꯇꯝꯒꯅꯤ!''' |- | align="center" | <small>Translation: ''Hello! Welcome to the Classical Meitei language Wikibook! Here you will learn Classical Manipuri!''</small> |} [[File:The classical Meitei epic of the "Numit Kappa", written in ancient Meitei language (in archaic Meitei script).jpg|center|500px]] {{Book title|{{BOOKNAME}}|An introduction to Classical Meitei language}} Welcome to the '''Classical Meitei''' WikiBook! This book is aimed at teaching from absolute beginners to advanced. It is a work in progress, please consider helping the project by contributing. : ''Note: This book is for Classical Meitei, for Ancient Meitei, click [[Ancient Meitei|here]], for Modern Meitei, click [[Modern Meitei|here]].'' {| align="center" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="{{greek clr}}; border: #00aadd; border-collapse: collapse;" | align="center" | '''Note''': To use this book, your web browser must first be configured to display the Meitei characters. If the characters in the box below appear as blank boxes or question marks or any other forms of errors, it means it is not properly configured.<br><small>&nbsp;</small> {| border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6" align="center" style="border: #eeeeff; border-collapse: collapse;" | style="background-color:#eeeeee;" |ꯃꯐꯝꯁꯤꯇ ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯃꯌꯦꯛ ꯎꯅꯤ ꯫! |} |} Some basic knowledge of Meitei language and writing system before starting this course is assumed, though they are not mandatory. == Introduction == '''Classical Meitei''' or '''Classical Manipuri''' is the standardized literary form of the Meitei language (officially known as Manipuri language). It is used most notably in the holy Puyas (the traditional Meitei religious and philosophical texts). It serves as the holy and sacred language of Sanamahism (traditional Meitei religion) since ancient times. It is the representation of the development of the rich literary sources of the modern day Meitei literature (Manipuri literature). Meitei language is the only Indian language from Sino-Tibetan family (a greater branch of the Tibeto-Burman family) whose literature grew up under the royal patronage since ancient times. And so, Classical Meitei is the only standardised literary form of all the Sino-Tibetan languages of the Indian subcontinent (South Asia). The classical form of Meitei language is the purest of all the forms of Meitei language. It has no mixing with any loan words from other languages. Classical Meitei is closer to Ancient Meitei (Old Manipuri) in comparison to its closeness to Modern Meitei (Modern Manipuri). It is because of the complete absence of foreign linguistic cultural influence. However, Classical Meitei is still used with modernised pronunciations in present day times. Classical Meitei should not be confused with Medieval Meitei (Middle Meitei). Though Classical Meitei was still used in medieval times too, it remains distinct from every other forms of Meitei language. Medieval Meitei was a form of Meitei language where the usage of loan words from other languages, especially from Indo-Aryan languages, was at its peak. Like Latin in the European continent, Classical Meitei was not a language spoken by a group of people in their day-to-day lives. Instead, it was a formal language that only intellectual elites used. Today, Classical Meitei is no longer used so widely, this language is still taught at high schools in Manipur as a subject extension of Modern Meitei (Modern Manipuri) and Elementary Meitei (Elementary Manipuri). Classical Meitei is emphasized more as a written language rather than a spoken language. It is a poetic and sophisticated language. It is one of the most concise languages in the world. == Table of contents == {{Book search}} * [[Classical Meitei/Common terms|Common terms]] *: [[/Common terms#Air / Wind|Air / Wind]] | [[/Common terms#Alcoholic drink / beer / rum / wine|Drinks]] | [[/Common terms#Day / Sun|Day / Sun]] | [[/Common terms#Deity / God|Deity / God]] | [[/Common terms#Fruit (plant fruit)|Fruit]] | [[/Common terms#Fire|Fire]] | [[/Common terms#Flower|Flower]] | [[/Common terms#Stone / Rock / Pebble|Stone / Rock / Pebble]] | [[/Common terms#Time|Time]] | [[/Common terms#Tree|Tree]] | [[/Common terms#Water|Water]] | [[/Common terms#Points to remember|Points to remember]] * [[Classical Meitei/Verb list|Verb list]] *:[[/Verb list/#Bathing|Bathing]] | [[/Verb list/#Delivering (Getting birth)| Birth]] | [[/Verb list/#Dying (Passing away)| Death]] | [[/Verb list/#Eating|Eating]] | [[/Verb list/#Going|Going]] | [[/Verb list/#Sleeping|Sleeping]] *[[Classical Meitei/Authors & Contributors|Authors & Contributors]] == External resources == # Simple English Wikipedia has an article about [[:w:simple:Classical Meitei|Classical Meitei]] # English Wikivoyage has an article about [[:wikivoyage:Classical Meitei Language|Classical Meitei language]] # English Wiktionary has a definition for [[:wikt:Classical Meitei|Classical Meitei]] # Simple English Wiktionary has a definition for [[:wikt:simple:Classical Meitei|Classical Meitei]] {{Status|25%}} {{Shelves|Meitei language}} 3lv9upgrktrpw8klpuogwkk71ijggce 4 447875 4654143 4642424 2026-07-11T22:49:08Z Alexis Jazz 470964 Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]]) 4654143 wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}} The following data is cached, and was last updated 2026-07-10T08:02:55Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache. {| class="sortable wikitable" ! Gadget !! data-sort-type="number" | Number of users !! data-sort-type="number" | Active users |- |BookCat || 106 || 4 |- |CleanDeleteReasons || 55 || 1 |- |CommentsInLocalTime || 667 || 5 |- |DeluxeBar || 208 || 7 |- |GetCollection || 552 || 0 |- |HotCat || 8 || 4 |- |Massblock || 2 || 2 |- |OneClickWelcomer || 27 || 1 |- |SpecialSearch || 664 || 1 |- |UTCLiveClock || 369 || 10 |- |background-awesomeness || 786 || 5 |- |bottomtabs || 431 || 1 |- |commons-file || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |- |contribsrange || 331 || 6 |- |markAdmins || 144 || 15 |- |markblocked || 59 || 3 |- |modrollback || 83 || 3 |- |navpop || 843 || 11 |- |purge || 620 || 11 |- |rightsfilter || 372 || 4 |- |searchbox || 210 || 4 |- |sidebartranslate || 503 || 3 |- |sixtabs || 312 || 0 |- |subject-pages || 611 || 3 |- |subpages || 29 || 4 |- |wiked || 669 || 1 |- |wikidialog || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |} * [[Special:GadgetUsage]] * [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] <!-- data in CSV format: BookCat,106,4 CleanDeleteReasons,55,1 CommentsInLocalTime,667,5 DeluxeBar,208,7 GetCollection,552,0 HotCat,8,4 Massblock,2,2 OneClickWelcomer,27,1 SpecialSearch,664,1 UTCLiveClock,369,10 background-awesomeness,786,5 bottomtabs,431,1 commons-file,default,default contribsrange,331,6 markAdmins,144,15 markblocked,59,3 modrollback,83,3 navpop,843,11 purge,620,11 rightsfilter,372,4 searchbox,210,4 sidebartranslate,503,3 sixtabs,312,0 subject-pages,611,3 subpages,29,4 wiked,669,1 wikidialog,default,default --> r72murrmp0i6z6jxdg0u7tgxjwyuxpq 0 449109 4654060 4645001 2026-07-11T19:00:05Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654060 wikitext text/x-wiki {{book title|Cultural travel|General education microtextbook}} [[File:Airplane silhouette.svg|left|50px]] This educational material examines one of the options for non-standard travel around the planet, which partially intersects with homeless tourism. Recommended reading for everyone. [[File:Путешественник Виктор Пинчук (Кабул, Афганистан).jpg|thumb|270px|Viktor Pinchuk — Russian traveller and supporter of cultural travel (Kabul, 2018)]] ----------------------- '''Cultural travel''' — the term is almost unknown, very rarely used in the true sense; in addition, it has nothing to do with the widely practiced [[w:Cultural tourism|Cultural tourism]]. The following material explains the meaning of cultural travel, its basic principles, and also offers a short training course for those who wish to do it. == General information == Cultural Travel emphasizes experiencing life from within a foreign culture, rather than from the point of view of a temporary visitor.<ref>{{cite web |author = |url = https://culturewhiz.org|title = Your Cultural & Social Guide to the World Search destination|lang = en |website =peacecorps.gov/malawi|date = |accessdate = April 23, 2023}}</ref> Cultural travelers leave their home environme nt at home, bringing only themselves and a desire to become part of the culture they visit.<ref name= "Cultural travel">{{cite web |author = |url = http://www.culturaltravel.net|title = Cultural Travel: Information and Resources|lang = en|website = culturaltravel.net|date = |accessdate = April 23, 2023}}</ref> Cultural travel goes beyond exploration, and involves a complete transformation in way of life.<ref name= "Cultural travel"></ref> The concept was first used in 1977 by 21-year-old budget traveler Gary Langer as a way to describe a journey that requires a new level of understanding of foreign culture.<ref name= "AB">{{cite web |author = |url = https://www.transitionsabroad.com/information/media/history.shtml|title = A Brief History of Transitions Abroad Publishing|lang = en|website = transitionsabroad.com|date = |accessdate = April 23, 2023}}</ref> The term is often distorted and misused by travel agents, tour operators and international tourism organizations.<ref name= "Cultural travel"></ref> Culture is primarily about people, not places or objects.<ref name= "Cultural travel"></ref> Tourists are limited to impressions beyond the surface: visits to museums, ancient buildings and festivals do not give the same experience that true becoming part of the culture of another country.<ref name= "Cultural travel"></ref> Territorial research is a form of cultural travel that provides insight into various unknown and less discussed cultures. The knowledge of the foreign culture of the homebody part of the population depends on the travel notes of travelers, testifying to the seen in distant countries, rather than from official messages from abroad. The [[w:Antithesis|antithesis]] of cultural travel is tourism, that is trips, when people bring their home environment with them, wherever they go, and apply it to everything they see.<ref name= "Cultural travel"></ref> == How to mentally prepare for such a journey and behave in the process? == === Respect for tradition === Cultural travel suggests that wanderer will look like a native inhabitant, without differentiating in clothing. In some countries, clothing standards contrast with foreign designs, fundamentally different from them. For example, the [[w:Afghan clothing|Pashtun costume]] and the [[w:Pakol|pakol]] uses in Afghanistan; the [[w:Shalwar kameez|shalwar kameez]] — in the countries of South Asia. In muslim states people wearing [[w:Islamic clothing|long robes and chalmas]]. In many African and Asian countries where the official religion is Islam, men are allowed to enter the mosque during the day and sit relaxed, even eat and lie down (the floors of Muslim temples are usually paved with soft clean carpets), plunging into sleep. In European terms, it is unacceptable to take such actions in a holy tample. Another example is the wearing of the [[w:Hiyab|hiyab]] by women of all ages, nationalities and citizenship in Iran. The traveler should forget the tradition of his country and live by local canons. ===Use of traditional cuisine in food === The features of the national cuisine are an integral part of the culture. A traveller practising cultural immersion should include traditional foods in their diet. Some dishes of exotic countries may shock the foreigner. For example, in the Cambodian town of [[w:Skuon|Skuon]], fried tarantulas are eaten. In Phnom Penh, this exquisite dish is harder to find, which is not the case with more common food: fried in butter grasshoppers and cockroaches. In the Ecuadorian village of Pompeia (Orellana province), local people eat the charcoal-broiled larvae of the [[w:Rhynchophorus ferrugineus|palm beetle]].<ref>{{cite book|last= Pinchuk|first= Viktor |author-link= |date= |title= Two hundred days in Latin America|url= |language= ru|location= Russia |publisher= Brovko|page=80|isbn=978-5-9909912-0-0}}</ref><br> In Zambia, Zimbabwe and Malawi cook a variety of meals using [[w:Gonimbrasia belina|Gonimbrasia belina caterpillars]], — a delicacy that costs more than meat, while the daily food of the people of those countries is [[w:Ugali|nshima]], — a fresh dish of rice flour. In the Philippines, they eat [[w:Balut (food)|ballut]] (boiled duck egg that has already formed a fruit) and deep-fried newborn chickens. In many countries of Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America, a variety of [[w:Cooking banana|plantains]] dishes are served: it can be cooked as a boiled, deep fried or grilled. === Living in Aboriginal homes === A cultural traveller visiting the countries of the world, whenever possible, stay in the homes of the local population; if not given the opportunity, — uses accommodation designed for the indigenous poor. While staying with the natives, observing life and life, eating with the owners of traditional dishes, the traveler learns local customs. Indigenous people in small communities of developing countries will, in most cases, welcome the presence in their homes of an infrequent visitor from a distant country. == Practical examples == Many foreigners, including Russian travelers, getting to the territory of Indonesia by water route "Malacca — Dumai" from Malaysia, live with a local English teacher — Mr. Muchsin, owner of a private school, helping students to learn the basics of English.<ref>{{cite web |author = |url = https://svoyput.ucoz.ru/index/indonezija_chast_1/0-26|title = Indonesia (part 1)|lang = ru|website = svoyput.ucoz.ru|date = |accessdate =April 23, 2023}}</ref>. Traveler Viktor Pinchuk, using the idea and experience of the practice from Muchsin, continued the lessons with the children in another school (no longer private), located in a tiny village near Lake Maninjau, independently initiating communication lessons.<ref>{{cite book |last= Pinchuk|first= Viktor |author-link= |date= |title= Six months by islands... and countries|url= |language= ru|location= Russia |publisher= Brovko|page= 59|isbn=978-5-9908234-0-2}}</ref> [[w:ru: Кротов Антон Викторович|Anton Krotov]], who visited the Sudan with a group of like-minded people in 1999, writes: <blockquote> ''And imagine: the Russian village, say, Yazhilbitsy, and in one of the houses, at nightfall, knock and ask for a night (in broken Russian) five fat blacks with such Baulas... Our village old ladies will be bewildered. And here — quietly. You will knock on the house — you will be allowed, and what moves the master? interest, sincere joy, or an ancient custom of hospitality?'' <ref>{{cite web| author= Krotov A. V.|url=https://www.litmir.me/br/?b=260170&p=47|title= It's you, Africa!|publisher= litmir.me|accessdate=April 23, 2023|lang=ru}}</ref> </blockquote> And this is a description of living in the commune of the Papuans of the [[w:Western Highlands Province|Province of Westerns Highlands]], PNG from a book by the Russian traveler Viktor Pinchuk: <blockquote> ''The structure in which they live is similar to the Mongolian yurt: in the middle of the dark room, (no electricity. — Author), in the concrete niche in the evening they make a fire, in which they bake kau kau — local potatoes. Smoke escapes through the thatched roof. Unaccustomed hard to breathe, and outside it looks like a fire has started. Sleeping present (I counted five), on a special platform, which is built along the perimeter of the walls.'' <ref>{{cite book |last= Pinchuk|first= Viktor |author-link= |date= |title= Six months by islands... and countries|url= |language= ru|location= Russia |publisher= Brovko|page= 130-131|isbn=978-5-9908234-0-2}}</ref> </blockquote> The same author refers to his stay in a small Cuban village: <blockquote> ''According to the situation you can see that they live very poor: furniture at a minimum, household appliances are missing — only an old TV on the bedside table; the food is also not a lot They gave me a little jam of their own preparation. <...> In the evening I looked for a place in the corner under the wall, settling down for the overnight, but the owner stopped me. He took the sleeping mat from my hand and laid it on the bed: "You will sleep here".'' <ref>{{cite book|last= Pinchuk|first= Viktor |author-link= |date= |title= Two hundred days in Latin America|url= |language= ru|location= Russia |publisher= Brovko|page=180|isbn=978-5-9909912-0-0}}</ref> </blockquote> == Gallery I == Photos from trips and expeditions of the Russian traveler Viktor Pinchuk <gallery widths="275px" heights="200px" mode="packed" class="center"> Visiting the pygmies.jpg|Pygmy peoples|[[w:Pygmies|Pygmies]] in Uganda walk naked, traveler should do the same File:Gonimbrasia belina (гусеницы).jpg|Zambians eat [[w:Gonimbrasia belina|caterpillars]], — they should be part of the traveler’s menu in this country File:Papuans.jpg|In such huts live [[w:Indigenous people of New Guinea|Papuans]]. For the time, aboriginal dwelling will be the second home of the traveler. File:Russian traveller Viktor Pinchuk (Khartum, Sudan).jpg|When in the [[w:Sudan|Sudan]], the traveller should wear Muslim clothes File:Russian traveller Viktor Pinchuk (Pentecost Island).jpg|Living with natives of the [[w:Pentecost Island|Pentecost Island]] allows you to explore the local way of life and traditional cuisine File:Viktor Pinchuk in Mauritania.jpg|A European (left) initially finds it difficult to get used to traditional costume in [[w:Mauritania|Mauritania]] </gallery> == Gallery II == Videos from trips and expeditions of the Russian traveler Viktor Pinchuk <gallery widths="230px" heights="230px" class="center"> File:Larvae of the palm weevil.webm|thumbtime=00|[[w:Rhynchophorus ferrugineus|Palm beetle]] larval preparation process <br>(Pompeia village, [[w:Orellana Province|Orellana province]], Ecuador) File:From Vanimo to Wewak by motorboat.webm|thumbtime=02|Traveler must use the same transport as the natives<br>(From [[w:Vanimo|Vanimo]] to [[w:Wewak|Wewak]] by motorboat, [[w:Papua New Guinea|PNG]]) File:Paraguayan sang a song for Russian traveler.webm|[[w:San Rafael del Paraná|A local resident performs a traditional song for a Russian guest<br> ([[w:San Rafael del Paraná|San Rafael del Paraná]], Paraguay) File:Afghan tortillas.webm|thumbtime=10|Manufacture and sale of fresh cakes <br> ([[w:Mazar-i-Sharif|Mazar-i-Sharif]], Afghanistan) File:In an Afghan village.webm|thumbtime=12|Stay of the Russian traveler at the Pashtuns, 2008. (Ariyona village near Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan) </gallery> ==References== {{Reflist|2}} {{commons|Category:Cultural travel}} == Materials in Wikisource project == * Viktor Pinchuk ''[[s:Translation:Very tasty... spider!| "Very tasty... spider!"]]'' * Viktor Pinchuk ''[[s:ru:Крымский гуру на Суматре (Пинчук)|"The Crimean guru in Sumatra"]]'' (in ru) {{BookCat}} {{alphabetical|C}} {{status|100%}} io6d0hhvgk1f1pxw7z2sa7hb5muo6vu 108 471905 4654139 4467332 2026-07-11T19:38:00Z Koavf 16549 4654139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Short description|Caring for an turf field or lawn and landscape using organic horticulture}} {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2024}} [[File:Compost bin at Wanstead & Snaresbrook CC, Wanstead, London.jpg|thumb|Compost bin]] '''Organic lawn management''' or '''organic turf management''' or '''organic land care''' or '''organic landscaping''' is the practice of establishing and caring for an athletic [[turf field]] or [[garden]] [[lawn]] and landscape using [[organic horticulture]], without the use of manufactured inputs such as synthetic [[pesticide]]s or [[artificial fertilizer]]s. It is a component of organic land care and organic [[sustainable landscaping]] which adapt the principles and methods of [[sustainable gardening]] and [[organic farming]] to the care of lawns and gardens.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thisoldhouse.com/lawns/21015220/tips-for-a-lush-organic-lawn|title=Tips for a Lush, Organic Lawn|last=Pandolfi|first=Keith|date=May 14, 2007|website=This Old House|language=en|access-date=March 6, 2020}}</ref> ==Techniques== [[File:CC500BAT.png|thumb|Rechargeable electric mulching-mower]] [[File:20160822Trifolium repens2.jpg|thumb|White clover lawn]] A primary element of organic lawn management is the use of [[compost]]<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/rrr/composting/ U.S. EPA Composting]</ref> and [[compost tea]] to reduce the need for fertilization and to encourage healthy soil that enables turf to resist pests.<ref>[http://www.uos.harvard.edu/fmo/landscape/organiclandscaping/ Organic Landscaping at Harvard University]</ref> A second element is mowing tall (3" – 4") to suppress weeds and encourage deep grass roots,<ref>[http://www.sustland.umn.edu/maint/mowing.htm University of Minnesota Sustainable Urban Landscape Mowing Practices]</ref> and leaving grass clippings and leaves on the lawn as fertilizer.<ref>[http://www.mass.gov/dep/recycle/reduce/dtg.htm MassDEP Don't Trash Grass]</ref> Additional techniques include fertilizing in the fall, not the spring.<ref>[http://ecommons.library.cornell.edu/handle/1813/3574 Cornell University, Lawn Care Without Pesticides]</ref> Organic lawns often benefit from over seeding, slice seeding and aeration more frequently due to the importance of a strong root system. Well-maintained organic lawns are often drought-tolerant. If a lawn does need watering it should be done infrequently but deeply.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.molloy.edu/Documents/Sustainability/lawnCareGuide.pdf|title=Organic Lawn Care|website=Molloy College|access-date=March 2, 2020}}</ref> Other organic techniques for caring for a lawn include [[irrigation]] only when the lawn shows signs of drought stress and then watering deeply – minimizing needless water consumption. Using low volume [[irrigation sprinkler|sprinkler]]s provides more penetration without [[Surface runoff|runoff]]. [[Lawnmower]]s with a [[mulching]] function can useful in reducing fertilizer use by allowing grass clippings and leaves that are cut so minutely that they can settle into the grass inconspicuously to [[decompose]] into the [[soil]]. === Clover lawns === Grass seed mixes used to contain white clover, which provides natural fertilizer, but this practice fell out of favor with the rise of synthetic fertilizer and businesses profiting from the sale of this fertilizer. In recent years, homeowners have returned to the use of clover as a natural fertilization source for lawns. In 2022, the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported on the growing popularity of clover lawns. The ''New York Times'' reported "#cloverlawn has over 65 million views on [[TikTok]]."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kambhampaty |first=Anna P. |date=September 10, 2022 |title=Clover Lawns Are Blooming in Front Yards, and on TikTok |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/10/realestate/clover-grass-lawns.html |access-date=September 17, 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> === Organic pesticides === Organic land managers may use registered pesticides approved under the [[National Organic Program]] in their lawn care programs. These pesticides are generally derived from natural materials and are minimally-processed. Alternatives include the use of [[beneficial insects]] and natural predators such as [[nematode]]s to prevent infestation of lawns with pests such as [[crane fly]] larvae and [[ants]]. Pesticides are allowed under the NOFA Standards for organic land care<ref>NOFA Standards for Organic Land Care, 6th edition, November 2017 https://nofa.organiclandcare.net/the-standards/</ref> but not always used in organic lawn care because proper cultural practices can keep pest populations below action thresholds, such as preventing fungal infections using physical maintenance techniques such as effective mowing and raking. ===Organic fertilizers=== Synthetic (inorganic based) [[fertilizers]] are made in chemical processes, some of which use fossil fuels and contribute to global warming. They also greatly increase the amount of nitrogen entering the global nitrogen cycle which has a serious negative impact on the organization and functioning of the world's ecosystems, including accelerating the loss of biological diversity and decline of coastal marine ecosystems and fisheries.<ref>[http://www.epa.gov/watertrain/nitrogen.html U.S. EPA The Global Nitrogen Cycle]</ref> Nitrogen fertilizer releases N₂O, a greenhouse gas, into the atmosphere after application.<ref>[http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2010/2009GL041675.shtml Carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions in urban turf, Amy Townsend-Small1 and Claudia I. Czimczik1, GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 37, L02707]</ref> Organic fertilizer nitrogen content is typically lower than synthetic fertilizer.<ref>[http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html Arizona Cooperative Extension Organic Fertilizers]</ref> ===Biodiversity=== Organic lawns contribute to [[biodiversity]], by definition, when they contain more than one or two grass species. Examples of additional lawn and grasslike species that can be encouraged in organic lawns include dozens of grass species (eight for ryegrass alone, [[Lawn#Grass alternatives|sedges]], mosses, clover, vetches, trefoils, yarrow, [[Lawn#Ground cover alternatives|ground cover alternatives]], and other mowable plants<ref>[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Lolium&SPECIES_XREF=&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]</ref>).<ref>[http://www.schl.gc.ca/en/co/maho/la/la_004.cfm Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation Low-Maintenance Lawns]</ref> Biodiversity increases the functioning and stress tolerance of ecosystems.<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/content/107/4/1443.abstract Sustaining multiple ecosystem functions in grassland communities requires higher biodiversity]</ref> Lack of biodiversity is a significant environmental issue brought up by the use of lawns with grassroots groups emerging to promote this method of lawn care.<ref>[http://www.organiclandcare.net Northeast Organic Farming Association Organic Land Care Program]</ref> Certain low-growing grass species can also eliminate the need for mowing, thus also being environmentally friendly. [[Clover]] is often mixed with grasses for its ability to fix nitrogen into the soil and fertilize the lawn. == No Mow May == No Mow May is a campaign to encourage homeowners to not mow their lawns during the month of May to support [[pollinator]]s, [[native plants]] and wildlife diversity.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Need an excuse not to mow your lawn? Join 'no mow May' and help pollinators |language=en |work=NPR.org |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/02/1095861475/need-an-excuse-not-to-mow-your-lawn-join-no-mow-may-and-help-pollinators |access-date=June 16, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Roach |first=Margaret |date=June 15, 2022 |title=Yes, You Can Do Better Than the Great American Lawn |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/06/15/realestate/yes-you-can-do-better-than-the-great-american-lawn.html |access-date=June 16, 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The campaign was started in 2019 by [[Plantlife]], a nature conservation charity based in the United Kingdom. In 2020, the city of [[Appleton, Wisconsin]] stopped mowing for the month of May. In 2022, cities around the United States participated in No Mow May. The campaign is supported by the [[Xerces Society]] through its [[Bee City USA]] program, and has described the movement as a "gateway" to creating better habitat for bees when adapted to local conditions and including native wildflowers.<ref>{{Cite web |date=May 30, 2022 |title=Why More Americans Are Rethinking Their Lawns |url=https://modernfarmer.com/2022/05/american-lawns-no-mow-may/ |access-date=June 16, 2022 |website=Modern Farmer |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>No Mow May: A Gateway To Better Landscape Management For Bees, Xerces Society, May 4, 2023, https://www.xerces.org/blog/no-mow-may-gateway-to-better-landscape-management-for-bees</ref> == Locations with organic lawns == Many small properties with lawns around the world are maintained using organic techniques. In the late 20th century, a movement to manage lawns organically began to grow.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Land|first=Leslie|date=April 12, 2007|title=Are Bugs the Pests, or Humans? Organic Lawns Take Hold|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/12/garden/12lawn.html|access-date=September 17, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Some large properties and municipalities require organic lawn management and organic landscaping. They include the following locations: === Ryton Organic Gardens, Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Warwickshire, England === [[File:Painshill Park, view over the lake towards the vineyard.jpg|thumb|A view of Painshill Park over the lake towards the vineyard]] In 1985, the nonprofit [[Garden Organic]], formerly known as the Henry Doubleday Research Association, relocated to its present site where it operates organic, landscaped grounds open to the public. The property is owned by [[Coventry University]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ryton's new garden opens to teach green and healthy ways |url=https://rugbyobserver.co.uk/news/rytons-new-garden-opens-to-teach-green-and-healthy-ways-31117/ |access-date=February 19, 2023 |website=Rugby Observer |language=en}}</ref> ===Highgrove House estate, Gloucestershire, England=== In 1996, [[King Charles III]], then the Prince of Wales, had transitioned the [[Highgrove House]] estate's farm and gardens to organic management.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Aslet|first=Clive|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/royal-family/2018/11/12/rabbit-watching-precious-truffles-meditating-al-fresco-inside/|title=Inside the private world of Prince Charles: What's life really like for our future king?|date=November 12, 2018|work=The Telegraph|access-date=March 6, 2020|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}</ref> === Painshill, Cobham, Surrey, England === In 1998, [[Painshill]] was awarded the [[Europa Nostra|Europa Nostra Medal]] for its restoration of the 18th century organic gardens originally designed by [[Charles Hamilton (MP)|Charles Hamilton]] between 1738 and 1773 using what today are called organic methods.<ref>{{Cite news |date=September 26, 2014 |title=The restoration of Painshill's English landscape garden |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2baf9f98-3f18-11e4-a861-00144feabdc0 |access-date=February 19, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Painshill Landscape Garden {{!}} Surrey – Great British Gardens |url=https://www.greatbritishgardens.co.uk/organic-gardens/item/painshill-cobham.html?category_id=102 |access-date=February 19, 2023 |website=www.greatbritishgardens.co.uk}}</ref> === Common Ground Education Center, Unity, Maine, United States === In 1998, the [[Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners Association]] acquired the 300 acre property in [[Unity, Maine]], and converted the land to organic demonstration fields, gardens, orchards, shade trees and low-impact forestry woodlots. It is the site of the annual [[Common Ground Country Fair]], a fair showcasing organic food and farming.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Common Ground Education Center |url=https://www.mofga.org/our-community/about-mofga/common-ground-education-center/ |access-date=September 24, 2023 |website=Maine Organic Farmers and Gardeners |language=en-US}}</ref> === Vineyard Golf Club, Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, United States === In 2002, the [[Vineyard Golf Club]] opened on Martha's Vineyard with the requirement that it use organic turf management. The first course superintendent, Jeff Carlson, was the recipient of the 2003 GCSAA/Golf Digest Environmental Leaders in Golf Award and is the 2008 winner of the President's Award for [[Environmental Stewardship]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pennington |first=Bill |date=August 17, 2010 |title=Exclusive Golf Course Is Organic, So Weeds Get In |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/17/sports/golf/17vineyard.html |access-date=February 23, 2023 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> ===Harvard University, Massachusetts, United States=== [[File:Harvard Yard in autumn, Boston, Massachusetts, 2015.jpg|thumb|Harvard Yard in autumn]] In 2009, the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported on [[Harvard University]]'s decision to use organic management on all their grounds, which was championed by President [[Drew Gilpin Faust]] and implemented by landscape director Wayne Carbone. The New York Times noted: "Thanks to these efforts, the university has reduced the use of irrigation by 30 percent, according to Mr. Carbone, thus saving two million gallons of water a year. And the 40-year-old orchards at Elmwood, which have been treated with compost tea, are recovering from leaf spot and apple scab, two ailments that had afflicted them."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Raver|first=Anne|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/24/garden/24garden.html|title=The Grass Is Greener at Harvard|date=September 23, 2009|work=The New York Times|access-date=March 3, 2020|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> === High Line, Manhattan, New York, United States === [[File:AHigh Line Park, Section 1a.jpg|thumb|High Line, New York City]] In 2009, the first section of the organically-managed 1.45 mile linear park the [[High Line]] opened on the former [[New York Central Railroad]], an elevated train line spur, on the [[West Side (Manhattan)|west side]] of [[Manhattan]] in New York City. The High Line's design is a collaboration between [[James Corner|James Corner Field Operations]], [[Diller Scofidio + Renfro]], and [[Piet Oudolf]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Roach |first=Margaret |date=2024-06-26 |title=The High Line Opened 15 Years Ago. What Lessons Has It Taught Us? |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/26/realestate/high-line-nyc.html |access-date=2024-06-26 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> ===Takoma Park, Maryland, United States=== Residents Catherine Cummings and Julie Taddeo began a campaign in 2011 to restrict lawncare pesticide use in [[Takoma Park]], [[Maryland]]. City council members Seth Grimes and Tim Male quickly got behind the effort and drafted Takoma Park's Safe Grow Act of 2013, leading to the city council's enactment of the law,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://documents.takomaparkmd.gov/government/city-council/ordinances/2013/ordinance-2013-28.pdf|title=Safe Grow Act of 2013|date=August 12, 2013|language=en-US|access-date=May 4, 2021}}</ref> which went into effect March 1, 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://takomaparkmd.gov/government/police/neighborhood-services/safegrow/|title=Safe Grow|language=en-US|access-date=May 4, 2021}}</ref> ===Ogunquit, Maine, United States=== In 2014, Bill and Judy Baker and other residents convinced the [[Ogunquit]] Town Council to pass a strict pesticide ban requiring organic land care on both public and private property.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://downeast.com/southerncoast/ogunquit-leads-the-way/|title=Ogunquit Leads the Way|last=Wright|first=Virginia M.|date=March 11, 2015|website=Down East|language=en-US|access-date=March 3, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.islandinstitute.org/working-waterfront/ogunquit-lawns-go-organic|title=Ogunquit lawns go organic|last=Idlebrook|first=Craig|date=March 16, 2015|website=Working Waterfront|language=en|access-date=March 3, 2020}}</ref> ===Montgomery County, Maryland, United States=== [[File:The Hiker statue in Deering Oaks, Portland, Maine.jpg|thumb|Deering Oaks in Portland, Maine]] In 2015, Julie Taddeo and Catherine Cummings and Safe Grow Montgomery colleagues campaigned to get [[Montgomery County, Maryland|Montgomery County]], [[Maryland]] to adopt a pesticide ban that required organic lawn management throughout the county on both public and private property. Montgomery County Council President George Leventhal (D-at-large) wrote and introduced Bill 52-14,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md-politics/proposed-ban-on-cosmetic-pesticides-causes-turf-war-in-montgomery-county/2015/03/08/51533626-bdc9-11e4-b274-e5209a3bc9a9_story.html|title=Proposed ban on cosmetic pesticides causes turf war in Montgomery County|last=Turque|first=Bill|date=March 8, 2015|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2021}}</ref> based on Takoma Park's 2013 legislation. The county council enacted Bill 52-14 that October.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bethesdamagazine.com/bethesda-beat/politics/council-passes-general-ban-on-pesticides/|title=Council Passes General Ban on Pesticides|last=Metcalf|first=Andrew|date=October 6, 2015|website=Bethesda Magazine|language=en|access-date=May 4, 2021}}</ref> The ban was challenged in court by local lawn care companies and pesticide industry lobbying group Responsible Industry for a Sound Environment (RISE). In 2017, the ban was overturned by a Circuit Court, and the ruling was appealed. In 2019, a Maryland appeals court upheld the ban.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/md-politics/appeals-court-finds-montgomery-county-pesticide-ban-doesnt-clash-with-state-law/2019/05/02/4e88ed56-6d32-11e9-8f44-e8d8bb1df986_story.html|title=Appeals court finds Montgomery County pesticide ban doesn't clash with state law|last=Barrios|first=Jennifer|date=May 3, 2019|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=March 3, 2020}}</ref> [[File:Vatican Gardens 1.jpg|thumb|Gardens of the Vatican]] ===Irvine, California, United States=== In 2016, [[Non Toxic Irvine]], a group led by citizens Laurie Thompson, Ayn Craciun, Kathleen Hallal, Kim Konte and Bob Johnson with help from City Councilor Christina Shea convinced the City Council to adopt an organic integrated pest management program requiring organic land care on all city property.<ref>{{Cite news|last=D|first=Kelsen|url=https://www.ocweekly.com/how-irvine-became-socals-first-non-toxic-city-7317638/|title=HOW IRVINE BECAME SOCAL'S FIRST NON-TOXIC CITY|date=July 6, 2016|access-date=March 4, 2020}}</ref><ref>Organic Pesticides Program, City of Irvine California https://www.cityofirvine.org/news-media/news-article/organic-pesticides-program Retrieved February 6, 2024</ref> ===Carlsbad, California, United States=== In 2017, Non Toxic [[Carlsbad, California|Carlsbad]] campaigned to get the city to adopt an ordinance requiring organic land care on all city property.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/communities/north-county/sd-no-organic-pesticides-20171206-story.html|title=Carlsbad adopts organic pesticide policy|last=Diehl|first=Phil|date=December 27, 2017|website=San Diego Union-Tribune|language=en-US|access-date=March 4, 2020}}</ref> ===Portland, Maine, United States=== In 2018, Portland Protectors led by [[Avery Yale Kamila]] and Maggie Knowles convinced the [[Portland, Maine|Portland]] [[Portland, Maine City Council|City Council]] to adopt an organic ordinance requiring organic land care on all public and private property.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pressherald.com/2018/01/04/portland-council-approves-tough-synthetic-pesticide-ban/|title=Portland's tough new ban on synthetic pesticides allows few exceptions|last=Billings|first=Randy|date=January 4, 2018|website=Portland Press Herald|access-date=March 6, 2020}}</ref> ===Dover, New Hampshire, United States=== In 2018, the Dover City Council unanimously approved a resolution calling for a "Commitment to Organic Land Management Practices" brought to the Council by resident group [[Non Toxic Dover, NH]] and sponsored by Councilor Dennis Shanahan. The City began an all-organic turf program for City property in 2020.<ref>Dover council votes to go organic on city land, Kimberley Haas, Union Leader, February 28, 2018, https://web.archive.org/web/20180318202103/https://www.unionleader.com/local-government/dover-council-votes-to-go-organic-on-city-land-02282018/</ref><ref>It’s Official – Dover’s Gone Organic!, Non Toxic Dover, NH, June 25, 2020, https://nontoxicdovernh.wordpress.com/2020/06/25/its-official-dovers-gone-organic/</ref> ===Gardens of Vatican City, Rome, Italy === In 2019, Rafael Tornini, head of the Garden and Environment Service of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], announced the 37 acre [[Gardens of Vatican City]] had been transitioning to organic management since 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://aleteia.org/2019/08/02/the-vatican-gardens-are-going-green/|title=The Vatican Gardens are going "green"|last=Caldwell|first=Zelda|date=August 2, 2019|website=Aleteia — Catholic Spirituality, Lifestyle, World News, and Culture|language=en|access-date=March 6, 2020}}</ref> [[File:Fishercatsallstar2stadium.jpg|alt=Delta Dental Stadium|thumb|Delta Dental Stadium, home of the Fisher Cats, is the first professional baseball field to use organic management.]] === Delta Dental Stadium, Manchester, New Hampshire, United States === In 2019, the [[New Hampshire Fisher Cats]] began the transition to make [[Delta Dental Stadium]] the first professional baseball field that is organically managed. [[Stonyfield Farm|Stonyfield]], as part of its #playfree campaign to convert recreational spaces to organic management, supported the field's transition.<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 22, 2019 |title=The New Hampshire Fisher Cats Go Organic |url=https://www.nhpr.org/nh-news/2019-04-22/the-new-hampshire-fisher-cats-go-organic |access-date=February 18, 2023 |website=New Hampshire Public Radio |language=en}}</ref> ===New York City public lands, United States=== In 2021, the New York City Council banned the use of synthetic pesticides by city agencies. The effort was started by teacher Paula Rogovin's kindergarten class at P.S. 290.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Barnard|first=Anne|date=April 24, 2021|title=N.Y.C. Bans Pesticides in Parks With Push From Unlikely Force: Children|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/24/nyregion/pesticide-ban-nyc.html|access-date=September 16, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> === Maui, Hawaii, United States === In 2021, the island of [[Maui County, Hawaii|Maui]] banned synthetic pesticides and fertilizers from all county lands. Community organizers including Autumn Ness, director of Beyond Pesticides' Hawai'i Organic Land Management Program worked to enact the law.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 16, 2021 |title=Pesticide ban victories |url=https://www.ehn.org/banned-pesticides-2655520575/pesticide-ban-victories |access-date=June 3, 2022 |website=EHN |language=en}}</ref> === Baltimore, Maryland, United States === In 2022, a synthetic pesticide ban on public and private property passed by the [[Baltimore City Council]] in 2020 went into effect. It includes a fine of up to $250 for violators.<ref>{{Cite web |date=June 29, 2022 |title=Baltimore city bans pesticide use in public parks, private lawns |url=https://www.wypr.org/wypr-news/2022-06-29/baltimore-city-bans-pesticide-use-in-public-parks-private-lawns |access-date=March 29, 2023 |website=WYPR |language=en}}</ref> == Books == * "NOFA Standards for Organic Land Care 6th Edition Practices for the Design and Maintenance of Ecological Landscapes,"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Michael Almstead|first=Dr. Jamie Banks, et. al, contributors|title=The NOFA Standards for Organic Land Care, 6th Edition|publisher=Northeast Organic Farming Association of Connecticut, Inc.|year=2017|isbn=978-0-692-58435-4}}</ref> Michael Almstead, Dr. Jamie Banks, et al., contributors. Northeast Organic Farming Association of Connecticut, Inc. 2017. * "The Organic Lawn Care Manual: A Natural, Low-Maintenance System for a Beautiful, Safe Lawn," by Paul Tukey. [[Storey Publishing]], LLC. 2007. == See also == *[[Grasscycling]] *[[Organic farming]] *[[Organic horticulture]] *[[Organic movement]] *[[Natural landscaping]] == References == {{Reflist}} 0za1rqkkrrfxix1lwkkbg0fdcluucia 0 474196 4653985 4489971 2026-07-11T11:59:49Z WereSpielChequers 248949 typo 4653985 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- {{incomplete}} --> <!-- Wikipedia format {{TOC right}} --> <!-- Wikibooks format {{TOCright}} --> {{TOC right|limit=3}} <!-- doesn't work with: {{TOC right}} and {{TOC|limit=3}} on separate lines--> ==William Frederic Bardin - Transcriptions and notes== ===Genealogical Overview=== William Frederic Bardin's Time Line in FamilySearch Family Tree <blockquote> * William Frederic Bardin: 2 February 1899 – 8 January 1976; Reference Number: GSS9-TG4​​ * 1899: Age 0; Birth 2 February 1899, Shoreditch, Middlesex, England, United Kingdom * 1901: Age 2; Residence 31 Mar 1901, Shoreditch, London, England, United Kingdom * 1923: Age 23; Marriage 1 January 1923, Queensland, Australia; Spouse: Miriam Esther Piegrome 1901–1968 - GSS9-LB5​​ * 1946: Age 47; Death of Father: 31 August 1946, Queensland, Australia, William Richard Bardin 1871–1946 - KL5G-29Y​​ * 1953: Age 54; Death of Mother: 3 October 1953, Queensland, Australia, Esther Keziah East 1873–1953 - KL5G-292​​ * 1968: Age 69; Death of Spouse: 1968, New South Wales, Australia, Miriam Esther Piegrome 1901–1968 - GSS9-LB5​​ * 1976: Age 76; Death: 8 January 1976, New South Wales, Australia * 1976: Age 77; Burial: 1976, North Ryde, , New South Wales, Australia<ref>{{cite web <!-- Still needs review, should be possible to better describe --> | url =https://www.familysearch.org/tree/person/timeline/GSS9-TG4 | title =William Frederic Bardin's Time Line in FamilySearch Family Tree | last = | first = | date = | website =FamilySearch | publisher =The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints | accessdate =1 June 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> ===Obituary=== Obituary for 4AB in the OTVA Newsletter <blockquote>'''W. F. (Bill) Bardin''' Bill Bardin was born in England and came to Australia with his parents early this century, while still a child. The Bardin family settled in Townsville, Queensland and it was there that Bill first became interested in the new-fangled thing called wireless. His parents thought it was no sort of a career and persuaded him to enter a solicitor's office, but the urge of radio was too great: Bill took a correspondence course with the Marconi School of Wireless, graduating in 1919. To gain experience, he then joined a Melbourne radio firm and in 1923 opened his own radio and electrical business in Townsville. Two years later he joined the engineering staff of 4QG, preparing the station for its official opening in April, 1926. He remained at 4QG during its pioneering years until the P.M.G.'s Department assumed control of the station following nationalisation of the original "A" Class broadcasting stations. In 1931, when Station 4BH, Brisbane was being organised, Bill joined the original engineering staff of that station. 4BH eventually commenced service on 2nd January, 1932. He remained with the station during its first year of operation and then took up radio servicing. In 1933 he joined A.W.A. as an operator in the Coastal Radio Service at VIT, Townsville Radio, and a year later was transferred to the A.W.A. Radio Centre at Pennant Hills. During the war he did two tours of duty in Rabaul. On the closing of Pennant Hills, Bill transferred to Doonside. Unfortunately at Doonside he suffered a nervous breakdown and O.T.C. transferred him to Head Office as a Technical Officer where he was employed in compiling and updating ionospheric prediction information. Bill was always a charming gentleman with a ready smile and will always be remembered for the way he pampered and looked after Frank Marsden when Frank was so crippled with arthritis. During his life and particularly since his retirement in 1964, Bill was a very active "ham", call signs being 4AB and 2ABZ. Many amateurs and members of the Wireless Institute were in attendance at his funeral.<ref>{{cite magazine | author = | title =W. F. Bardin | url =http://www.otva.com/newsltrarch/76APR.PDF | magazine =[[w:Overseas Telecommunications Veterans Association|Overseas Telecommunications Veteran's Association (Aus) Newsletter]] | location =Sydney | publisher = | date =April 1976 | nopp =no | volume =1 | issue =April 1976 | pages =10–11 | accessdate=2 June 2019 | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> ===1890s=== ====1890==== =====1890 01===== =====1890 02===== =====1890 03===== =====1890 04===== =====1890 05===== =====1890 06===== =====1890 07===== =====1890 08===== =====1890 09===== =====1890 10===== =====1890 11===== =====1890 12===== ====1891==== =====1891 01===== =====1891 02===== =====1891 03===== =====1891 04===== =====1891 05===== =====1891 06===== =====1891 07===== =====1891 08===== =====1891 09===== =====1891 10===== =====1891 11===== =====1891 12===== ====1892==== =====1892 01===== =====1892 02===== =====1892 03===== =====1892 04===== =====1892 05===== =====1892 06===== =====1892 07===== =====1892 08===== =====1892 09===== =====1892 10===== =====1892 11===== =====1892 12===== ====1893==== =====1893 01===== =====1893 02===== =====1893 03===== =====1893 04===== =====1893 05===== =====1893 06===== =====1893 07===== =====1893 08===== =====1893 09===== =====1893 10===== =====1893 11===== =====1893 12===== ====1894==== =====1894 01===== =====1894 02===== =====1894 03===== =====1894 04===== =====1894 05===== =====1894 06===== =====1894 07===== =====1894 08===== =====1894 09===== =====1894 10===== =====1894 11===== =====1894 12===== ====1895==== =====1895 01===== =====1895 02===== =====1895 03===== =====1895 04===== =====1895 05===== =====1895 06===== =====1895 07===== =====1895 08===== =====1895 09===== =====1895 10===== =====1895 11===== =====1895 12===== ====1896==== =====1896 01===== =====1896 02===== =====1896 03===== =====1896 04===== =====1896 05===== =====1896 06===== =====1896 07===== =====1896 08===== =====1896 09===== =====1896 10===== =====1896 11===== =====1896 12===== ====1897==== =====1897 01===== =====1897 02===== =====1897 03===== =====1897 04===== =====1897 05===== =====1897 06===== =====1897 07===== =====1897 08===== =====1897 09===== =====1897 10===== =====1897 11===== =====1897 12===== ====1898==== =====1898 01===== =====1898 02===== =====1898 03===== =====1898 04===== =====1898 05===== =====1898 06===== =====1898 07===== =====1898 08===== =====1898 09===== =====1898 10===== =====1898 11===== =====1898 12===== ====1899==== =====1899 01===== =====1899 02===== 4AB's date of birth of 2 Feb 1899 identified in his WW2 service record <blockquote> National Archives of Australia * Title: BARDIN WILLIAM FREDRICK : Service Number - 300061 : Date of birth - 02 Feb 1899 : Place of birth - LONDON ENGLAND : Place of enlistment - TOWNSVILLE : Next of Kin - BARDIN MIRIAM * Contents date range: 1939 - 1948 * Series number: A9301 * Control symbol: 300061 * Citation: NAA: A9301, 300061 * Item barcode: 5548700 * Location: Canberra * Access status: Not yet examined * Date of decision: 01 Jan 1970 * Physical format: PAPER FILES AND DOCUMENTS (allocated at series level) * Records authority class number: 1010873 * Date registered: 20 May 2002<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.naa.gov.au/go.aspx?i=5548700 | title =William Frederick Bardin, Service Record, 1939-1948 | last = | first = | date = | website = | publisher =National Archives of Australia | accessdate =28 May 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> =====1899 03===== =====1899 04===== =====1899 05===== =====1899 06===== =====1899 07===== =====1899 08===== =====1899 09===== =====1899 10===== =====1899 11===== =====1899 12===== ===1900s=== ====1900==== =====1900 01===== =====1900 02===== =====1900 03===== =====1900 04===== =====1900 05===== =====1900 06===== =====1900 07===== =====1900 08===== =====1900 09===== =====1900 10===== =====1900 11===== =====1900 12===== ====1901==== =====1901 01===== =====1901 02===== =====1901 03===== William Bardin identified with his parents at Shoreditch in 1901 Census of England and Wales <blockquote> * Name: William Bardin * Event Type: Census * Event Date: 31 Mar 1901 * Event Place: Shoreditch, London, England, United Kingdom * County: London, Middlesex * Civil Parish: Shoreditch * Ecclesiastical Parish: St Paul Haggerston * Sub-District: Haggerston * Registration District: Shoreditch * Gender: Male * Age: 2 * Relationship to Head of Household: Son * Birth Year (Estimated): 1899 * Birthplace: Shoreditch, London * Schedule Type: 520 * Page Number: 64 * Household Role Sex Age Birthplace * William Bardin Head Male 29 Stepney, London * Esther Bardin Wife Female 28 Shoreditch, London * William Bardin Son Male 2 Shoreditch, London * William Hunt Boarder Male 21 Shoreditch, London * Ellen East Sister Female 21 Shoreditch, London<ref>{{cite web <!-- Copy & paste of citation above --> | url =https://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:X981-Q1M | title =William Bardin in "England and Wales Census, 1901," database, FamilySearch | last = | first = | date = | website =FamilySearch | publisher =The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints | accessdate =1 June 2019 | quote = | separator =,}}</ref></blockquote> =====1901 04===== =====1901 05===== =====1901 06===== =====1901 07===== =====1901 08===== =====1901 09===== =====1901 10===== =====1901 11===== =====1901 12===== ====1902==== =====1902 01===== =====1902 02===== =====1902 03===== =====1902 04===== =====1902 05===== =====1902 06===== =====1902 07===== =====1902 08===== =====1902 09===== =====1902 10===== =====1902 11===== =====1902 12===== ====1903==== =====1903 01===== =====1903 02===== =====1903 03===== =====1903 04===== =====1903 05===== =====1903 06===== =====1903 07===== =====1903 08===== =====1903 09===== =====1903 10===== =====1903 11===== =====1903 12===== ====1904==== =====1904 01===== =====1904 02===== =====1904 03===== =====1904 04===== =====1904 05===== =====1904 06===== =====1904 07===== =====1904 08===== =====1904 09===== =====1904 10===== =====1904 11===== =====1904 12===== 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=====1909 05===== =====1909 06===== =====1909 07===== =====1909 08===== =====1909 09===== =====1909 10===== =====1909 11===== =====1909 12===== ===1910s=== ====1910==== =====1910 01===== =====1910 02===== =====1910 03===== =====1910 04===== =====1910 05===== =====1910 06===== =====1910 07===== =====1910 08===== =====1910 09===== =====1910 10===== =====1910 11===== =====1910 12===== ====1911==== =====1911 01===== =====1911 02===== =====1911 03===== =====1911 04===== =====1911 05===== =====1911 06===== =====1911 07===== =====1911 08===== =====1911 09===== =====1911 10===== =====1911 11===== =====1911 12===== ====1912==== =====1912 01===== =====1912 02===== =====1912 03===== =====1912 04===== =====1912 05===== =====1912 06===== =====1912 07===== =====1912 08===== =====1912 09===== =====1912 10===== =====1912 11===== =====1912 12===== ====1913==== =====1913 01===== =====1913 02===== =====1913 03===== =====1913 04===== =====1913 05===== =====1913 06===== =====1913 07===== =====1913 08===== 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=====1918 01===== =====1918 02===== =====1918 03===== =====1918 04===== =====1918 05===== =====1918 06===== =====1918 07===== =====1918 08===== =====1918 09===== =====1918 10===== =====1918 11===== =====1918 12===== ====1919==== =====1919 01===== =====1919 02===== =====1919 03===== =====1919 04===== =====1919 05===== =====1919 06===== =====1919 07===== =====1919 08===== =====1919 09===== =====1919 10===== =====1919 11===== =====1919 12===== ===1920s=== ====1920==== =====1920 01===== =====1920 02===== =====1920 03===== =====1920 04===== =====1920 05===== =====1920 06===== =====1920 07===== =====1920 08===== =====1920 09===== =====1920 10===== <blockquote>'''THANKS, BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, DEATHS, AND IN MEMORIAMS.''' ASBURY.—In sad but loving memory of my dear sister, Ellen Mary, who departed this life on 30th October, 1918. Our home was bright and happy once When we were all together, But oh how changed it all is now, Since you have gone forever. (Inserted by her loving sister, brother-in-law and nephew, Mr. and Mrs. Bardin and son.) <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63503312 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XXXVI, |issue=12,063 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=30 October 1920 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1920 11===== =====1920 12===== ====1921==== =====1921 01===== =====1921 02===== =====1921 03===== =====1921 04===== =====1921 05===== =====1921 06===== =====1921 07===== =====1921 08===== =====1921 09===== =====1921 10===== =====1921 11===== =====1921 12===== ====1922==== =====1922 01===== =====1922 02===== =====1922 03===== =====1922 04===== =====1922 05===== =====1922 06===== =====1922 07===== =====1922 08===== =====1922 09===== =====1922 10===== =====1922 11===== =====1922 12===== ====1923==== =====1923 01===== Registration of 4AB's marriage to Miriam Esther Piegrome <blockquote> * Qld BDM * '''Marriage registration''': William Frederic Bardin * Marriage date: 01/01/1923 * Spouse's name: Miriam Esther Piegrome * Registration details: 1923/C/817 <ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.familyhistory.bdm.qld.gov.au/ | url-access =free | title =Family history research service | last = | first = | date = | website =Births, deaths, marriages and divorces | publisher =Queensland Government | accessdate =28 May 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> Bardin's marriage notice <blockquote>'''THANKS, BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, DEATHS, AND IN MEMORIAMS.''' . . . MARRIAGE. '''BARDIN''' — PIEGROME.— On the 1st January, 1923, at St. James Cathedral, William Frederic, only son of Mr and Mrs W. R. '''Bardin''', Townsville, to Miriam Esther, youngest daughter of the late A. M. Piegrome. Rev. Canon Robin officiated.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article62461489 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XXXIX, |issue=12,458 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=25 January 1923 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1923 02===== =====1923 03===== =====1923 04===== =====1923 05===== =====1923 06===== =====1923 07===== =====1923 08===== =====1923 09===== =====1923 10===== =====1923 11===== =====1923 12===== ====1924==== =====1924 01===== =====1924 02===== =====1924 03===== =====1924 04===== =====1924 05===== Bardin advertising wireless sets for sale at Townsville <blockquote>'''FOR SALE.''' . . . WIRELESS: Lowest Prices. Complete Sets and all parts necessary for the Radio Experimenter, obtainable from '''W. F. BARDIN''', McIlwraith-street, South Townsville.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61148008 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XXXX, |issue=12,665 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=19 May 1924 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 06===== =====1924 07===== =====1924 08===== Bardin still listed in Wireless Weekly with his Victorian call and address 15 Aug 1924 <blockquote>'''Experimental Transmitting Licenses, VICTORIA.''' Note: The figures at the end of each address indicate the allotted wave length.) . . . 3ZA. — W. F. '''Bardin''', 226 Station St., N. Carlton, 221.<ref>{{Citation | author1=Australasian Radio Relay League. | title=Experimental Transmitting Licenses | journal=The wireless weekly : the hundred per cent Australian radio journal | year= | section=v. ; 24-38 cm. | issue=Vol. 4 No. 18 (15 August 1924) | location=Sydney | publisher=Wireless Press | url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-642861552 | id=nla.obj-642861552 | access-date=3 May 2025 | via=Trove }}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 09===== =====1924 10===== Bardin advertising wireless sets for sale at Townsville <blockquote>'''CLOTHING, HOUSE FURNISHING, ETC.''' . . . LOWEST Prices.— Complete Sets and all parts necessary for the Radio Experimenter. '''W. F. Bardin''', Radio Engineer and Supplier, McIlwraith-street, South Townsville.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article40486573 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[Cairns Post]] |volume=XXXV, |issue=5001 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=7 October 1924 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> In Memoriam notice for Bardin's sister <blockquote>'''THANKS, BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, DEATHS, AND IN MEMORIAMS.''' . . . IN MEMORIAM. ASBURY.— In loving memory of our dear sister and aunt, Ellen Mary, who departed this life, 30th October 1918. Too dearly loved to be forgotten For true love never dies. (Inserted by her loving sister, brother-in-law, nephew, and niece, Mr and Mrs W. R. and '''W. F. Bardin'''.) <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61162314 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XL, |issue=12,806 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=30 October 1924 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 11===== Bardin advertising wireless sets for sale at Townsville <blockquote>'''RADIO!''' Buy your Radio Parts from '''BARDIN''' and receive the Best Goods at Lowest Southern Prices. Expert advice given free by a fully qualified man. W. F. '''BARDIN''', R.E. (Late of Melbourne). Temporary Address:— McILWRAITH ST., ST. TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61162598 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XL, |issue=12,630 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=27 November 1924 |accessdate=2 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1924 12===== Bardin advertising wireless sets for sale at Townsville <blockquote>'''RADIO!''' Buy your Radio Parts from '''BARDIN''' and receive the Best Goods at Lowest Southern Prices. Expert advice given free by a fully qualified man. W. F. '''BARDIN''', R.E. (Late of Melbourne). Temporary Address:— McILWRAITH ST., ST. TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61163363 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XL, |issue=12,636 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=4 December 1924 |accessdate=2 May 2025 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin advertising wireless sets for sale at Townsville directed at Xmas buyers <blockquote>'''A RADIO XMAS.''' Give your boy an interest in the World's Greatest Invention. Buy him a '''BARDIN''' WIRELESS SET that WILL GET GOOD RESULTS and then watch Mum, Dad and all the Family get the Listening-In Habit. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E., McIlwraith-st., SOUTH TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61157762 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XL, |issue=12,643 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=12 December 1924 |accessdate=2 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin waxing lyrical in his advertisements <blockquote>'''XMAS RADIOGRAM.''' Shakespeare was thinking of wire-less when he wrote:— "I'll charm the air to give a sound." — Macbeth. Shakespeare would have accomplished greater things if he had installed a BARDIN RECEIVING SET like all wise wireless enthusiasts are doing at the present time. W. F. Bardin, R.E., McIlwraith-st., SOUTH TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61158494 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XL, |issue=12,651 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=22 December 1924 |accessdate=4 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1925==== =====1925 01===== Bardin still waxing lyrical in his advertisements <blockquote>'''XMAS RADIOGRAM.''' Shakespeare was thinking of wire-less when he wrote:— "I'll charm the air to give a sound." — Macbeth. Shakespeare would have accomplished greater things if he had installed a BARDIN RECEIVING SET like all wise wireless enthusiasts are doing at the present time. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E., McIlwraith-st., SOUTH TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61572990 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=2 January 1925 |accessdate=4 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin advertising AWA valves and from a new location in Townsville <blockquote>'''RADIOGRAM!''' Don't buy just Valves! Buy Radiotrons to get distance and get it clearly. For Quality of Reception and Length of Service, every Experimenter wants A RADIOTRON. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Buildings, TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61574221 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,670 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=15 January 1925 |accessdate=4 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> New Bardin advert <blockquote>'''Wonderful Science!''' Wireless is the most Wonderful Science which has been brought to the service of man. For all Wireless Apparatus get in touch with W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Buildings, TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61571918 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,681 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=28 January 1925 |accessdate=4 May 2025 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 02===== Bardin still advertising his wireless sets <blockquote>'''Wonderful Science!''' Wireless is the most Wonderful Science which has been brought to the service of man. For all Wireless Apparatus get in touch with W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Buildings, TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61570439 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,687 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=4 February 1925 |accessdate=4 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, new wording <blockquote>'''ARE YOU PREPARED?''' Instal a BARDIN RECEIVING SET now, and be prepared to get the concerts broadcasted from the Brisbane State station. ALL PARTS STOCKED. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Buildings, FLINDERS ST., TOWNSVILLE. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61571579 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,691 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=9 February 1925 |accessdate=4 May 2025 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, new wording <blockquote>'''Dependability.''' '''BARDIN''' is the Radio Expert you may depend on when you are requiring parts and accessories or a Complete Set. —My Motto— Highest Quality and Service, but Lowest Prices. W. F. '''BARDIN''', R.E., Page's Building, Flinders-st., TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61574095 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,701 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=20 February 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 03===== New wording for Bardin advertisement <blockquote>'''B-A-Y-Z.''' and buy your Radio parts and accessories from a fully qualified man. Best Goods at Lowest Prices. W. F. '''BARDIN''', R.E., Page's Building, Flinders-st., TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61576614 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,711 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=4 March 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> New wording for Bardin advertisement <blockquote>'''6 POINTS THAT ARE SELLING BARDIN'S RADIO SETS.''' 1. Guaranteed Workmanship. 2. First-grade Material. 3. Lowest Prices. 4. Perfect Reception. 5. Greater Distance. 6. Volume. Join the Throng of Satisfied Customers. W. F. '''BARDIN''', R.E., Page's Building, Flinders-st., TOWNSVILLE. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61576025 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,715 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=9 March 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 04===== Still same wording for Bardin advertisement <blockquote>'''6 POINTS THAT ARE SELLING BARDIN'S RADIO SETS.''' 1. Guaranteed Workmanship. 2. First-grade Material. 3. Lowest Prices. 4. Perfect Reception. 5. Greater Distance. 6. Volume. Join the Throng of Satisfied Customers. W. F. '''BARDIN''', R.E., Page's Building, Flinders-st., TOWNSVILLE. <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60952845 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,748 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=17 April 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 05===== Bardin recycles an earlier advertisement <blockquote>'''RADIO!''' Buy your RADIO PARTS from BARDIN, and receive the Best Goods at Lowest Southern. Prices. Expert Advice given Free by a Fully Qualified Man. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Building, FLINDERS-STREET, TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60949827 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,695 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=6 May 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin responds to delays with establishment of 4QG with new advertisement <blockquote>'''WHY WAIT AND WORRY''' for Brisbane to start Broad-casting. ACT now, and buy a set from BARDIN, and listen to Sydney and Melbourne broadcasting. Demonstrations Arranged. Satisfaction Guaranteed. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Building, FLINDERS-STREET, TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60951323 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,703 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=15 May 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin advertising wireless sets for sale at Townsville <blockquote>'''Advertised Events.''' . . . '''Mr. W. F. Bardin''', Radio Engineer, Townsville, has wireless listening-in sets ready for installation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article40498560 |title=Advertised Events. |newspaper=[[Cairns Post]] |volume=XXXV, |issue=5193 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=18 May 1925 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 06===== Bardin advertising for start of Brisbane broadcasting <blockquote>'''WHY WAIT AND WORRY''' for Brisbane to start Broadcasting. ACT now, and buy a set from '''BARDIN''', and listen to Sydney and Melbourne broadcasting. Demonstrations Arranged. Satisfaction Guaranteed. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Building, FLINDERS-STREET. TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60953060 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,717 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=1 June 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 07===== Bardin advertising for start of Brisbane broadcasting <blockquote>'''WHY WAIT AND WORRY''' for Brisbane to start Broadcasting. ACT now, and buy a set from '''BARDIN''', and listen to Sydney and Melbourne broadcasting. Demonstrations Arranged. Satisfaction Guaranteed. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Building, FLINDERS-STREET. TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60809095 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,746 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=4 July 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin advertising wireless sets for sale at the local Townsville show <blockquote>'''SHOW NOTES.''' Mr. '''F. Bardin''' has an attractive display of radio material at the show in a corner of the Strand Motor stand.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60813498 |title=SNOW NOTES. |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=12,750 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=9 July 1925 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 4AB included in list of amateur transmitting licences Wireless Weekly 31 July 1925 <blockquote>'''Wireless Transmitting Licenses . . . Queensland and New Guinea.''' . . . '''4AB''' - Bardin W. F., McIllwraith St., South Townsville<ref>{{cite magazine | author = | title =Wireless Transmitting Licenses . . . Queensland and New Guinea | url =http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-680504002 | magazine =[[w:Wireless Weekly|Wireless Weekly (Australia)]] | location =Sydney | publisher =Publicity Press Ltd | date =31 July 1925 | nopp =no | volume =6 | issue =14 | pages =16 | accessdate=2 June 2019 | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 08===== Bardin still advertising for start of Brisbane broadcasting <blockquote>'''WHY WAIT AND WORRY''' for Brisbane to start Broadcasting. ACT now, and buy a set from '''BARDIN''', and listen to Sydney and Melbourne broadcasting. Demonstrations Arranged. Satisfaction Guaranteed. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Building, FLINDERS-STREET. TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60811030 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=774 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=6 August 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin included in the list of amateur transmitters for Qld & PNG <blockquote>'''QUEENSLAND AND NEW GUINEA TRANSMITTING LICENSES.''' 4AB '''Bardin, W. F.''', McIllwraith-st., South Townsville.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article153663448 |title=QUEENSLAND AND NEW GUINEA |newspaper=[[w:Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]] |volume=XLV, |issue=194 |location=Tasmania, Australia |date=15 August 1925 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 09===== Bardin still advertising for start of Brisbane broadcasting <blockquote>'''WHY WAIT AND WORRY''' for Brisbane to start Broadcasting. ACT now, and buy a set from '''BARDIN''', and listen to Sydney and Melbourne broadcasting. Demonstrations Arranged. Satisfaction Guaranteed. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Building, FLINDERS-STREET. TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60811136 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=797 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=2 September 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Queensland Times announces that Bardin has been appointed assistant engineer for 4QG <blockquote>'''STATE RADIO APPOINTMENTS.''' The Executive Council yesterday approved of the appointment of Mr. Harold Scott MacCallum as the musical director, of the Queensland Radio Service. Mr. '''W. F. Bardin''', of Townsville, has been appointed assistant engineer of the radio service.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article118596457 |title=STATE RADIO APPOINTMENTS. |newspaper=[[Queensland Times]] |volume=LXVI, |issue=12,220 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=11 September 1925 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=4 (DAILY.) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''PERSONAL.''' . . . '''Mr. W. F. Bardin''', of Townsville has been appointed assistant engineer of the radio service.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article118595343 |title=PERSONAL. |newspaper=[[Queensland Times]] |volume=LXVI, |issue=12,221 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=12 September 1925 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=8 (DAILY.) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin's last advertisement prior to commencing with 4QG <blockquote>'''WHY WAIT AND WORRY''' for Brisbane to start Broadcasting. ACT now, and buy a set from '''BARDIN''', and listen to Sydney and Melbourne broadcasting. Demonstrations Arranged. Satisfaction Guaranteed. W. F. '''Bardin''', R.E. Page's Building, FLINDERS-STREET. TOWNSVILLE.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article60810315 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=XLI, |issue=810 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=17 September 1925 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1925 10===== =====1925 11===== =====1925 12===== ====1926==== =====1926 01===== A broadcaster in Dunedin, NZ was also allocated the callsign 4AB <blockquote>'''New Zealand Broadcasts.''' SOME quite good broadcasting may be had from New Zealand stations by those possessing three or four valve receivers. The stations all operate on a wave band between 200 and 400 metres, and are located in the following places:— 1YC, Whangarei; 1YA and 1YB, Auckland; 2YM, Gisborne; 2YL, Napier; 2GI, Palmerston North; 2AQ, Taihape; 3AC, Christchurch; — VLDN and '''4AB''', Dunedin. An approximate schedule of transmissions is helpful. The regular transmissions are:— Monday: 1YA, 8 to 10.15 p.m.; 1YC, 7.30 to 9.30; 2GI, from 7 p.m.; VLDN, 8 to 10. Tuesday: 1YA, 8 to 10.15 ; 2YM, 3AC, 6.45 to 7.15 and 8 to 10; VLDN, 8 to 10. Wednesday: 3AC, 8 to 10 p.m.; VLDN, 8 to 10. Thursday: 1YC, 7.30 to 9.30 p.m.; 1YA, 8 to 10.15; 2YL, from 7.15 p.m.; 2YM, VLDN, 8 to 10. Friday: 1YC, 7.30 to 9.30; 1YA, 8 to 10.15; 2GI, from 7 p.m.; 3AC, 6.45 to 7.15 and 8 to 10; VLDN, 8 to 10; '''4AB'''. Saturday: 3AC, 8 to 10 p.m.; VLDN, 8 to 10 p.m. Sunday: 1YB, 7 to 10 p.m.; 2YM, 2YL, from 7.15 p.m.; 3AC, 8 to 10 p.m.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article160391279 |title=Magic Wireless |newspaper=[[Sydney Mail]] |volume=XXVIII, |issue=721 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=20 January 1926 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=19 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1926 02===== =====1926 03===== =====1926 04===== =====1926 05===== =====1926 06===== =====1926 07===== =====1926 08===== =====1926 09===== =====1926 10===== =====1926 11===== =====1926 12===== ====1927==== =====1927 01===== =====1927 02===== Bardin participates in the 4QG vs Listeners-In cricket match <blockquote>'''Holiday Cricket. 4QG Versus Listeners-in.''' The Premier (Mr. W. McCormack) was seen in a new role yesterday, having accepted an invitation from Mr. J. W. Robinson (the director of the Queensland Government radio station) to captain a cricket team representing 4QG against a team representing the "listeners-in." The Mayor of Brisbane (Alderman W. A. Jolly) also was present, but he was not seen in cricket flannels. The event was the first annual cricket match of 4QG and "listeners-in." It attracted great attention. It was not intended to be serious cricket, as there were 17 batsmen and the same number of fielders. Some batsmen finding the regulation bat too small, requisitioned a bat, the width of which was about a foot. An official luncheon was held in the John Macdonald grandstand, and the speeches were broadcast. Music from the Hotel Carlton was broadcast by transmitting first to the head station, thence to the Exhibition by means of a land line, and thence the music was rebroadcast. Mr. F. W. Stevens engineered the transmitting. In proposing the toast of the "Listeners-in," the Premier said that the broadcasting station had been an entire success. It had proved a source of enjoyment in Queensland and in other States, and it was becoming a utility. The Mayor proposed the toast of the Radio Station, and said that he realised the value of the station in entertainment. Some time ago, in the country, he had spoken to farmers in lonely places, and they had informed him that their only means of entertainment was through the wireless station. Mr. F. W. Stevens responded on behalf of the station. Other toasts included "The King" (proposed by the chairman) and "The Visitors" (proposed by Mr. C. V. Woodland), The listeners-in won by 197 runs. Scores:— STATION 4QG. First Innings. F. Cory, b. James 6 J. Tyson, b. Blackford 5 C. Woodland, b. Strickland 1 L. H. Pike, b. James 0 W. McCormack, c. and b. Strickland 1 T. Armstrong, c. Butler, b. Steele 1 C. Moran, run out 3 T. Clouston, b. Green 2 L. Fumess, c. McGilvray, b. Butler 5 F. Green, b. McGilvray 14 R. Gibbs, st. Cooper, b. Green 2 L. Reid, b. Hurworth 1 A. N. Robinson, b. Hurworth 0 R. Crick, b. Rush 8 A. Jackson, b. Rush 1 L. Shield, b. Frawley 0 W. J. '''Bardon''' (sic), not out 0 Sundries 1 Total 51 Bowling: James, two for 5; Blackford, one for 6; Strickland, two for 7; Steele, two for 4; Green, two for 12; Butler, one for 6; Hurworth, two for 1; McGilvray, two for 9; Rush, two for 2; Frawley, one for none. LISTENERS-IN. First Innings. J. Rush, c. Armstrong, b. Moran 19 A. Fraser, c. Tyson, b. Fumess 23 E. T. Green, b. Clouston 7 J. Loney, b. Cory 0 R. G. Steele, retired 29 J. Butler, retired 25 A. Hurworth, l.b.w., b. Gibbs 12 J. Blackford, run out 19 W. A. Cooper, retired 26 P. J. Frawley, retired 25 N. Strickland, retired 25 E. C. Jackson, b. Sheil 4 A. James, c. Reid, b. Furness 19 C. H. Jackson, b. Woodland 6 H. R. Thomas, b. Robinson 1 H. J. Green, b. Robinson 4 E. Southward, not out 13 Sundries 3 Total 248 Listeners-in won by 197 runs. Bowling: Woodland, one for 59; Robinson, two for 29; Furness, two for 31; Moran, one for 20; Clouston, one for 15; Cory, one for 26; Pike, none for 9; Gibbs, one for 22; Shiel, one for 21.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article179061269 |title=Holiday Cricket |newspaper=[[The Telegraph]] |issue=16,915 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=18 February 1927 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1927 03===== =====1927 04===== =====1927 05===== =====1927 06===== =====1927 07===== =====1927 08===== =====1927 09===== =====1927 10===== =====1927 11===== =====1927 12===== ====1928==== =====1928 01===== Bardin and his supervisor join the QRTL <blockquote>'''Radio Jottings. . . By "LISTENER"''' . . . '''TRANSMITTERS' LEAGUE.''' "The Queensland Radio Transmitters' League is making excellent progress. Its membership is steadily increasing," said Mr. Leo J. Feenaghty (secretary), who was interviewed by "Listener" yesterday. Mr. Feenaghty said that the official magazine of the league, "QTC," was enjoying a good circulation which extended to India, China, Japan, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, and England. Only that day he received a two dollars bill as a subscription from an American amateur transmitter. Most of Queensland's amateur transmitters have now joined the league, among the most recent of the new members being Mr. F. W. Stevens (chief engineer of 4QG, and owner-operator of experimental station 4SP (Wilston); Mr. W. F. '''Bardin''' (of 4QG), owner-operator of 4AB; Rev. R. J. R. Delbridge, Childers, owner-operator of 4RJ; and Mr. E. E. Gold, Toowoomba, owner-operator of experimental station 4EG and owner of B class broadcasting station 4GR. Mr. Feenaghty states that early next month the league will begin a series of classes in Morse code instruction, transmitting from its Wooloowin station on 35 metres. The classes will be conducted each night except Friday and Saturday, and on Sunday afternoons. General league news will also be broadcast at these sessions.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article179733540 |title=RADIO |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,200 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=18 January 1928 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin attends farewell for 4QG announcer Woodland <blockquote>'''FAREWELL TO 4QG ANNOUNCER.''' A function was held yesterday in honour of Mr. C. V. Woodland, who recently resigned his position as official announcer of Station 4QG, Bris-bane. The catering was in the hands of Mr. McIntosh and Miss Knill Abell, who lent their premises for the occasion. As a token of their good wishes, Mr. McIntosh, on behalf of the staff of 4QG, presented to Mr. Woodland a solid leather attache case and a fountain pen suitably inscribed. Mr. Woodland was also asked to accept for Mrs. Woodland a xylonite hand mirror and powder bowl to match. Those present included Misses M. E. McFarlane and C. Archdall, Mrs. H. Woolmer, Misses E. McLennan, P. McFarlane and R. McAuliffe, Messrs. W. F. Bardin, R. Wight, L. Sheil, H. Scott MacCallum, A. T. Bauer, C. D. Moran, J. Tyson, L. Read, R. Gibbs, H. Humphreys, and R. Wishart.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article179732925 |title=FAREWELL TO 4QG ANNOUNCER. |newspaper=[[The Telegraph]] |issue=17,206 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=25 January 1928 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=5 (SECOND EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous, Bardin attends another farewell for 4QG announcer Woodland <blockquote>'''PERSONAL.''' On Tuesday evening a very happy little function was held in honour of Mr. C. V. Woodland, who recently resigned from his position as official announcer of Station 4QG, Brisbane. In the absence of the director (Mr. J. W. Robinson), who was away on leave, Mr. Stevens presided. During the evening the sentiments expressed by those present indicated the high esteem in which Mr. Woodland was held, and that he would be missed not only by the staff of 4QG, or listeners in Queensland generally, but by listeners throughout the whole of Australasia. As a token of their good wishes, Mr. McIntosh, on behalf of the staff of 4QG, presented to Mr. Woodland a solid leather attache case and a fountain pen, suitably inscribed. Mr. Woodland was also asked to accept for Mrs. Woodland a xylonite hand mirror and powder bowl to match. Mr. Woodland thanked the company for their good wishes, and for the last time repeated the call sign: "Station 4QG, Brisbane, the Queensland Radio Service, now closing down, goodnight everybody, goodnight!" Those present included Misses M. E. McFarlane and C. Archdall, Mrs. H. Woolmer, Misses E. McLennan, P. McFarlane and R. McAuliffe, Messrs. '''W. F. Bardin''', R. Wight, L. Sheil, H. Scott MacCallum, A. T. Bauer, C. D. Moran, J. Tyson, L. Read, R. Gibbs, H. Humphreys, and R. Wishart.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21217237 |title=PERSONAL. |newspaper=[[The Brisbane Courier]] |issue=21,841 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=26 January 1928 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=16 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1928 02===== =====1928 03===== =====1928 04===== =====1928 05===== Bardin manages the landline for broadcast of Eisteddfod at Rockhampton <blockquote>'''LARGE ATTENDANCES AT SATURDAYS SESSIONS. PART OF NIGHT'S PROGRAMME BROADCAST BY 4QG.''' . . . The Fifth Eisteddfod, under the auspices of the Rockhampton Eisteddfod Association, was continued on Saturday morning, afternoon, and evening. The attendances were very satisfactory, more especially at the evening session, when the hall of the School of Arts was packed. All the sessions were very enjoyable. As only one choir — the Rockhampton Musical Union Choir—competed for the chief choral contest, the new Paling Cup for the choir and medal for the conductor were not at stake. The Musical Union was, of course, awarded the first cash prize of £40. The children's choral contest was won by the Girls' Grammar School Choir, who thus become sole owners of the "Bulletin" Cup, having won the contest twice in succession. The piano champion solo was won by Miss Enith Clarke, of Brisbane, formerly of Rockhampton, who thus won the Beale Cup. The female chorus was won by the Rockhampton Musical Union, the female sacred solo by Miss Elsa Masters, the violin champion solo by Miss Nellie Hall (Bundaberg), the only competitor, and the champion recitation by Miss Estelle Carew. For the first time in the history of Rockhampton, part of the musical programme was broadcast. By arrangement with the Eisteddfod Association. Mr. '''W. F. Bardin''', engineer of 4QG, Brisbane, relayed the Eisteddfod performance from 9 o'clock on Saturday night, the amplifier and microphone being in suitable positions. The programme was conveyed over the land line to 4QG. and then broadcast. 4QG made itself responsible for the entire arrangements and the broadcast from Brisbane was excellent.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article54621076 |title=Rockhampton Eisteddfod |newspaper=[[Morning Bulletin]] |issue=19,896 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=7 May 1928 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''SATURDAY'S SESSIONS.''' Rockhampton, May 7, 1928. The Fifth Eisteddfod, under the auspices of the Rockhampton Eisteddfod Association, was continued on Saturday morning, afternoon, and evening. The attendances were very satisfactory, more especially at the evening session, when the hall of the School of Arts was packed. All the sessions were very enjoyable. For the first time in the history of Rockhampton, part of the musical programme was broadcast. By arrangement with the Eisteddfod Association, Mr. '''W. F. Bardin''', engineer of 4QG, Brisbane, relayed the Eisteddfod performance from 9 o'clock on Saturday night, the amplifier and microphone being in suitable positions. The programme was conveyed over the landline to 4QG, and then broadcast. 4QG made itself responsible for the entire arrangements and the broadcast from Brisbane was excellent.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article69852929 |title=SATURDAY'S SESSIONS. |newspaper=[[The Capricornian]] |volume=53, |issue=20 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=17 May 1928 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=19 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''EISTEDDFOD BROADCAST.''' The relay of items, rendered at the Rockhampton Eisteddfod last Saturday night, per medium of 4QG, was heard throughout Queensland and other States and was rather an important event as regards a long distance relay. The distance was 424 miles over land line to Brisbane. The items as picked up by the microphone in the Rockhampton School of Arts, were amplified and then passed over the line to other amplifiers in Brisbane before eventually being broadcasted by 4QG, Brisbane. Although transmission was not quite as loud as items played at the studio in Brisbane, it was a worthwhile venture, and reflects credit on the Eisteddfod Committee, and the Queensland Radio Service. Mr. Bardin, well known as 4AB, was in charge of the equipment at the School of Arts, and during his stay in the city called upon several local amateurs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article69852802 |title=EISTEDDFOD BROADCAST. |newspaper=[[The Capricornian]] |volume=53, |issue=20 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=17 May 1928 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=67 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1928 06===== Bardin operating a receiver for 4QG to pick up the transmissions by the Southern Cross <blockquote>'''PACIFIC FLIGHT. The Story by Radio.''' LISTENERS to 4QG were not slow to appreciate the efforts of the station to keep the world posted with news of the Southern Cross, and many complimentary letters have been received at the station. The station was operated until almost midnight on the Monday night, and gave the latest messages from the 'plane until that time. Again on the Tuesday morning, at the commencement of the morning session at half-past ten, the latest messages from the 'plane were again given to the public. Reception direct from the Southern Cross in Brisbane was effected by Mr. F. W. Stevens, assistant director of 4QG at his experimental station at Wilston, and by Mr. R. E. McIntosh, second engineer at 4QG, at his experimental station at Hawthorne. AT Wilston Mr. Stevens received direct from the 'plane, and by direct land line kept the station In touch. At a little distance from the station Messrs. '''Bardin''' and Stephenson, of the staff, also operated other receivers. At 4QG Mr. R. E. Mclntosh, who, in the absence of Mr. Stevens, acted as chief engineer, carried out some remarkable transmission with a shortwave receiver of his own design, situated only about 20ft. or so away from the main transmitter; and, using merely an arm's length of wire as an aerial, he kept in almost constant communication with the Southern Cross, even during the time the main transmitter at 4QG was in operation. No trap of any description was em ployed, and the set used a detector valve without any radio frequency amplification of any sort whatever. When once the 'plane left Suva 4QG broadcast progress reports con cerning it at regular intervals during the main programme, and on several occasions the actual signals from the 'plane itself were amplified and re layed from Wilston by the station, so that people sitting at home could listen to them quite easily. When these signals were broadcast by 4QG the whirr of a propeller came through quite clearly, and as the Southern Cross plunged and was tossed about during a heavy storm the varying speeds of the propellor could be noticed. This propellor was not one of the aeroplane's own propellors driven by the whirlwind engines, but was the propellor on the generator of the wireless gear. The high-tension current in the Southern Cross was supplied by a wind-driven generator, and it was the variations in speed of the propellor on this piece of apparatus which came through so clearly as the machine bumped into air pockets, and which held thousands of listeners spellbound.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22949533 |title=PACIFIC FLIGHT. |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=21 June 1928 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=59 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''WIRELESS WAVES. 4QG AND THE SOUTHERN CROSS.''' During the voyage of the Southern Cross from Honolulu to Suva, Station 4QG was in constant communication with the 'plane the whole way through, and at various hours broadcast its position and its messages to the public. The station was operated until almost midnight on the Monday night, and gave the latest messages from the 'plane until that time. On the Tuesday morning, at the commencement of the session at 10.30 the latest messages from the 'plane were again given to the public. Reception direct from the Southern Cross in Brisbane was effected by Mr. F. W. Stevens, Assistant Director of 4QG, at his experimental station at Wilston, and by Mr. R. E. McIntosh, Second Engineer at 4QG, at his experimental station at Hawthorne. The man behind the wireless messages was Mr. James Warner, the radio operator on the Southern Cross. '''THE OPERATOR.''' Mr. Warner, like his friend, Lieut. Harry Lyon the navigator, is a typical American, and his character is marked with a quaint streak of humour. Occasionally during the progress of the flight some of his messages even at a time when the party was literally dicing with death were such as to raise a smile on the faces of those who picked them up. Naturally, Mr. Warner was greatly interested in hearing something about the reception of his signals in Brisbane. In conversation with the Director of Station 4QG, he expressed a certain amount of surprise that the signals from the 'plane should have come through so clearly, even at the very moment that the Southern Cross left San Francisco. The apparatus, he said, was of excellent workmanship and gave splendid results, but the power was very low, and when it was considered that the transmission was coming from the 'plane, even Mr. Warner himself was more than surprised to think that so perfect a log of all his messages had been kept in Brisbane. The value of Mr. Warner's work was stressed in a speech made by Mr. C. T. P. Ulm at the dinner given by the Premier on the Saturday night to the intrepid airmen. Mr. Ulm said that while radio had kept the world informed of their progress, it had also carried out a very much more valuable work. The reception of signals from two or three different points had enabled the navigator of the Southern Cross to take bearings, and so work out the 'plane's position. This had resulted in their being able to land quite safely in Brisbane. Wireless was said to be very interesting from the point of view of giving the world progress reports of the Southern Cross from hour to hour, but it had been of even greater importance to the aviators, because it had meant that their safety had been assured. During the time the 'plane was between San Francisco and Honolulu, Mr. Ulm said, the United States Navy was in constant touch with them, and something like 110 vessels were ready at a moment's notice to speed towards the 'plane had the motors failed and the aviators been in danger of drowning. '''BRISBANE RECEPTION.''' From the time the Southern Cross left San Francisco on its long journey across the ocean its wireless signals were picked up by engineers attached to 4QG. The progress of the 'plane was thus followed and from time to time announcements regarding its position, the speed at which it was travelling, its altitude, and the messages from its crew were broadcast to wondering thousands. Wireless put the news of the 'plane's landing at Suva across the 1500 mile space to Brisbane in the twinkling of an eye and 4QG. was able to tell its listeners of the arrival there. News of the departure from Suva was also broadcast and during the last stage of the flight 4QG operated continuously throughout the night, giving messages from Captain Kingsford Smith and his companions. Two or three receiving sets were operated in order to effect transmission. At Wilston, Mr. Stevens (Chief Engineer) received direct from the 'plane and by direct land line kept the station in touch. At a little distance from the station, Messrs. '''Bardin''' and Stephenson of the staff also operated other receivers. At 4QG Mr. R. E. McIntosh, who, in the absence of Mr. Stevens, acted as Chief Engineer, carried out some remarkable transmissions with a short wave receiver of his own design, situated only 20 feet or so away from the main transmitter. Using merely an arm's length of wire as an aerial he kept in almost constant communication with the Southern Cross, even during the time the main transmitter at 4QG was in operation. No trap of any description was employed. He used a detector valve without any radio frequency amplification of any sort whatever. When once the 'plane left Suva 4QG broadcast progress reports concerning it at regular intervals during the main programme, and on several occasions the actual signals from the 'plane itself were amplified and relayed from Wilston by the station, so that people sitting at home could listen to them quite easily. '''SYDNEY ARRANGEMENTS.''' The efficacy of the short wave was shown clearly in the recent transmission of the arrival of the Pacific filers (states a 2FC. writer). On the ordinary wave length it would have been impossible for interstate and New Zealand stations to relay the description of this epic feat. 2FC opened on short wave — 28.5 metres — at 6 a.m. on the Saturday, and special messages of greeting were sent to the overseas stations, particularly the B.B.C., WGY, Schenectady, and WMAK, Buffalo, all of which have rebroadcast 2FC on previous occasions. The interstate and New Zealand stations were also called. The transmission of the arrival of the Southern Cross was carried out in conjunction with Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia) Ltd., on the dual wave lengths of 28.5 and 442 metres, between 7 and 8 a.m. The short wave was carried on until 10.20 a.m, and between 9 and 10.20 a.m. the description was taken from 4QG, Brisbane. Telegraphic advice from 6WF was received: "Everything successfully rebroadcast since short wave started. Delighted and many thanks." A later telegram said reception was "word perfect." <ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article114204953 |title=WIRELESS WAVES. |newspaper=[[Queensland Times]] |volume=LXVIII, |issue=13,080 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=23 June 1928 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=12 (DAILY.) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 4AB apparently broadcasting on '''shortwave''' <blockquote>'''WIRELESS NOTES, HINTS, AND ADVICE. (By "The DX HOUND.") AMATEUR TESTS.''' There in no doubt that there is plenty to interest owners of short wave receivers who do not understand the Morse code. In addition to the regular transmission of stations, PCJJ Holland, 2XAF and 2XAD America, 5SW England, JHBB Japan, and RFM Russia, there are many amateur transmitters in regular operation. On one Sunday afternoon the following stations were heard:— 7DX, 2LC, 2RC, 5DX, 4MF, and 4AB. 4AB by the way is an engineer in 4QG.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article178815437 |title=WIRELESS |newspaper=[[Warwick Daily News]] |issue=2813 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=29 June 1928 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1928 07===== =====1928 08===== Brief summary of Bardin's equipment at station 4AB <blockquote>'''RADIO NOTES. (By "DX Hound.")''' . . . '''AMATEUR STATIONS.''' OA4AB, operated by W. F. '''Barden''' (sic, Bardin), Archibald-street, Fairfield, Brisbane. The transmitter consists of the Hartley circuit, and the aerial is of the single wire type. DX heard at 4AB includes AC, AJ, DA, OZ, OH, NO. Reports are always welcome at 4AB and may be sent c/o 4QG, at which place 4AB is an engineer. 4AB is received at R8 here.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article178819504 |title=RADIO NOTES |newspaper=[[Warwick Daily News]] |issue=2854 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=16 August 1928 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1928 09===== =====1928 10===== =====1928 11===== =====1928 12===== ====1929==== =====1929 01===== =====1929 02===== =====1929 03===== =====1929 04===== 4AB backs up the technical team supporting the Atalanta <blockquote>'''WIRELESS PREPARATION. SPLENDID WORK AT SHORT NOTICE.''' The Director of the Queensland Radio Service (Mr. J. W. Robinson) referred yesterday morning to the manner in which the wireless preparations were made for the equipping of the Atalanta. "Station 4QG's part in the search," he said, "was a comparatively small one, and in relating what was done I do not desire to take any credit which really belongs to that very highly efficient organisation — Qantas. Mr. Brain, the pilot of the Atalanta, got in touch with 4QG at a late hour on Thursday afternoon, and advised that a request had been made to his company to send the 'plane, and asked if it would be possible to equip it with wireless. The Acting Premier, Mr. M. J. Kirwan, on being approached, instructed me to do my utmost to help. The notice was short, and did not leave very much time for testing, but the matter was urgent, and the staff of the station worked very hard on the job. Mr. Stevens (my deputy) volunteered to act as operator, and his services were accepted. He has had considerable experience as an operator in both ship and shore radio stations before becoming associated with broadcasting, and therefore was a good man for the job. Almost all the available staff concentrated on the task of equipping the 'plane, and were assisted by several persons outside the service, notably Messrs. Chandler, of J. B. Chandler and Co., and R. Farley, of Motor Supplies Ltd., who left their respective homes, came into the city, and opened their stores, so that 4QG might have the choice of any parts or apparatus required. Mr. Stevens fitted a small short wave receiver, designed and constructed by himself, and was assisted by Messrs. Tyson and Bauer, who voluntarily remained on duty all night. '''PRAISE WHERE DUE.''' "It must be remembered that the equipping of the 'plane itself would not have been of much use without the creation of a ground organisation, and in regard to this I cannot speak too highly of the worked performed by Mr. R. E. McIntosh, senior engineer of 4QG. He spent almost all the night in the company of Mr. Stevens, and completed arrangements with him for the working of traffic from the 'plane. Mr. McIntosh and Mr. Stephenson, of the staff, were then relieved of all station duties, and from the time the 'plane left took turns to maintain a continuous watch for signals. On Sunday Mr. McIntosh maintained this watch for more than 14 hours, a task which any listener who has worn headgear for half an hour at a stretch will realise is not a comfortable one. The relieving of Messrs. McIntosh and Stephenson from their work in the station left the staff shorthanded, but operators and engineers who were normally off duty immediately reported at 4QG and worked voluntarily to keep the normal broadcasting service running. Mr. '''Bardin''' and Mr. Bauer, engineers, both spent the whole of their weekends on duty. In the meantime the organisation had been extended further afield. The Federal wireless authorities advised Air Force officials, and Amalgamated Wireless in Sydney, was given full information regarding the call sign and wave lengths to be used by Mr. Stevens during the flight. As I stated previously, the whole of the credit of the search belongs to Qantas, but I feel sure the public will be interested to learn of the manner in which the members of the station at 4QG exerted their utmost endeavours. Mr Stevens played the central part, but was loyally supported by every other member of the staff."<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21398332 |title=WIRELESS PREPARATION |newspaper=[[The Brisbane Courier]] |issue=22,226 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=23 April 1929 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=7 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1929 05===== =====1929 06===== =====1929 07===== =====1929 08===== =====1929 09===== =====1929 10===== =====1929 11===== =====1929 12===== ===1930s=== ====1930==== =====1930 01===== =====1930 02===== =====1930 03===== =====1930 04===== =====1930 05===== Bardin departs amateur broadcasting on 250 metres for shortwave work on 40 metres <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' Old Bill of 4QG '''VK4AB''' has deserted the 250 metre band and has gone back to brass pounding on the 40 metre band where he has worked several Yanks already. Power 6½ watts, FB, OB.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184434879 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17921 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=14 May 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=11 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' Things generally on the 40 metre band are no good at all at present. Oh, for 32 metres! . . . '''VK4AB''' working 40 metres.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184445049 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,927 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=21 May 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=10 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1930 06===== Bardin working yanks on 40 metres <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' recently landed a W2 station at 8 p.m. (our time).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184443358 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,939 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=4 June 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=10 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' and VK4AT have been working DX on 20 and 40 metres, VK4WK has been fairly silent lately.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184436417 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17951 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=18 June 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=16 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin now operating on the 20 metre band <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' was working on 20 metres on Sunday.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184441850 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17957 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=25 June 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=16 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1930 07===== Bardin working on his station equipment <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' is building a new control panel, and is doing a bit of brass pounding on 40 metres. He says there is nothing on 20 metres.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article197634088 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,975 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=16 July 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=16 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin testing telephony on 40 metres <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' is testing phone on 40 metres, He anticipates 100 per cent modulation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article197631996 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,981 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=23 July 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin reported in Sydney on "experimental band" amateur broadcasting? <blockquote>'''BY METRE. Australian Experimenters.''' The greatest activity prevails within the experimental band, and the Australians are not lacking. The following stations were operating on Sunday, 13th inst.: N.S.W.: 2XK, 2JT, 2XI, 2HB, 2SS, 2GQ, 2LS, 2ZK, 2JH, 2NS, 2HM; Victoria: 3JU, 3XA, 3VR, 3UK, 3DX, 3RZ, 3LZ, 3BZ, 3AB, 3AX, 3RB, 3LE, 3BW, 3KY; Queensland: 4RB, 4RU, 4JU, '''4AB'''; South Australia: 5BP, 5IT; Tasmania: 7PJ.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article106249965 |title=BY METRH. |newspaper=[[The Catholic Press]] |issue=1801 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=24 July 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin taking advantage of improved conditions on 40 metres <blockquote>'''AMATEUR NOTES. CONDITIONS ON 40 IMPROVE. By "Q.R.A."''' Conditions locally on the 40-metre band have been a little brighter this week, but on 20 metres the outlook is as dull as ever. . . . VK'S. 4NA, '''4AB''', 4MM, of Queensland. have been heard often of late, and at good strength. VR4FB, of Coorparoo, in Queensland, and local 5RX, had a long chat on 40 metres on Tuesday evening.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article30497446 |title=AMATEUR NOTES |newspaper=[[The Advertiser]] |location=South Australia |date=26 July 1930 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' Conditions on the 40 metre band have become a little more tolerable and the Queensland signals seem to be getting out much better. . . . '''VK4AB''' is working DX on 40 metres occasionally.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article197644739 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,987 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=30 July 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=14 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1930 08===== Bardin continues his tests of 40 metre telephony <blockquote>'''Among the Amateurs.''' Within a few weeks the amateurs who have so ably filled the gap as far as Brisbane is concerned, on the 250 metre band, will have to shift down to the 175 metre band, because of the establishment of the new B class broadcasting stations 4BC and 4BK on 233 and 217 metres respectively. This is unfortunate in some respects, but the amateurs who worked so consistently on this band realise that more broadcasting actions are required and so they are moving down to 175 metres with pleasure, knowing that though their experimental work they have endeavoured to give the listeners the variety which they sought. PIONEER WORKERS. It cannot be denied that the amateurs pioneered transmission and reception below 300 metres. Some years ago radio engineers when experimenting on short waves found that they disappeared after a certain distance and they at once jumped to the conclusion that such waves were useless for long distance work. In 1919 radio engineers declared that wave lengths below 200 metres would never be of commercial value, and enormous sums of money were spent on the erection of stations of large power and ultralong wave length. But amateurs were continuing their experiments on short waves and soon they were showing to the world that the low bands were more suitable for long distance communication in Morse than the higher bands. The amateurs discovered what the professionals missed — that when shortwave messages disappeared after going a certain distance they did not do so altogether but merely skipped a distance and reappeared again. Since that time increasing attention had been paid by commercial interests to wave lengths below 200 metres. VK4NW can claim to be the most consistent station on the 250-metre band. This station has done all in his power to make his experimental work interesting. Other stations who have been doing good work are 4CG, 4GO, 4LW, 4WN, 4RB, VK4HW, VK4AW, 4MF (old 4WI), 4JU, and 4GW. The 4th District has livened up again on phone tests on 40 metres, 4JU, 4FB, and 4HW have held duplex and triplex tests. 4GG and 4JR have also been testing phone. VK4MM tries phone sometimes, as also does 4CG. One of the old gang, VK4HB, had a duplex chat on Sunday from 4HW's shack with 4JU. VK2LE and VK2RB held a two-way phone test with 4JU on Sunday, and both stations were o.k. VK2HM was "butting in" on 2RB's wave. 4AT, '''4AB''', and VK4SP have also been testing out very fine phone on the 40-metre band. 2GR, VK2GS, 2LS, 2RF, 2GV, 2HG, 2OZ, 2NS, 2HB, 2CS, and several other two's have been on phone on 40 metres. 3RG, 3XA, 3NM, and many other three have been on phone on 40 metres. VK4CG has been working on 250 metres quite a lot of late experimenting with microphones. 4NW and 4GO have both been doing good work on the 250 metre band. VK4JO, 4RW, and 4FB have lately landed a few "W" (American) stations, and this points to a change for the better. VK2RB has been putting phone over to America. VK4AH, VK4LL, 4AM, 4NA, 4GW, and VK4BS have been active on 40 metres. VK4RJ at last has brought his phone up to a good standard.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article197630091 |title=Among the Amateurs |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,993 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=6 August 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''AMATEUR NOTES. SHORT WAVES BETTER. By "QRA"''' Conditions have considerably improved with the DX stations heard here and worked this week on the short waves in South Australia. . . . VK'S 5WH, 5BP, '''4AB''', 3GT, and 2HC were all heard back again, on the 40 metre band.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article30500619 |title=AMATEUR NOTES |newspaper=[[The Advertiser]] |location=South Australia |date=9 August 1930 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=19 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> As previous <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' VK4HW, 4FB, 4GW, '''4AB''', 4AT, 4JU, 4GG, 4JR, 2RB, 2GR, 2LS, 2LZ, 2HC, 2HM, 2HG, 2KL, 3XA, 3NM, 5IT, and many others have been working on phone the 40 metre band. . . . '''VK4AB''' has been working quite a lot on 40 metres testing telephony.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article197640796 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=17,999 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=13 August 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=17 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Bardin experiments with a different modulation system on 40 metres <blockquote>'''Amateur Stations.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' is trying out another system of modulation on the 40-metre band.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article197640040 |title=Amateur Stations |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=18,005 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=20 August 1930 |accessdate=30 May 2019 |page=20 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1930 09===== <blockquote>'''Amateur Notes.''' . . . . '''VK4AB relays 4QG''' on 40 metres a lot. . . . The following stations were testing phone on 40 metres last Sunday: 2GV, VK3RG, VK2GH, '''4AB''', 4GA, 2LZ, VK2RB.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article188277146 |title=Amateur Notes |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=18,017 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=3 September 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''AMATEUR NOTES.''' . . . ZL'S 1AK, 1BN, 2GP, and 2GW were the best of the New Zealand amateurs heard this week, while VK's 4RJ, 4FB, '''4AB''', 4AH, and 4AM were the best of the Queensland stations.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article29833532 |title=AMATEUR NOTES |newspaper=[[The Advertiser]] |location=South Australia |date=6 September 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=19 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''Amateur Stations.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' on 40 metres relaying tests.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article188273061 |title=Amateur Stations |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=18,023 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=10 September 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''Amateur Stations.''' Static has made the 40 and 80 metre bands most uninteresting during the week. DX has been answering, but static and interference have spoilt contacts. . . . VK2HG, 2LX, 2LZ, 2HC, 2NS, '''4AB''', 4BS, 4FB, 4MF, 3KA, 2EK, 2GR, 2JF, 2OM, 2JZ, 4RJ, 2MH, 2GS and many others were on phone during the week. . . . The 40 metres band was fairly quiet during the week-end from VK2 phone stations. VK2HG was on CQ, but did not hear '''4AB''' and 4JU call him.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article188283898 |title=Amateur Stations |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=18,029 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=17 September 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''Amateur Stations.''' . . . The following stations have been heard.— On 40 metres: VK2OJ, VK5MF, VK5BO, AC2CO, W9GV. VK3EM, VK6FL, VK6FM, VK4AH, VK4AM, VK3PP, VK7JK, VK3YL, VK3ZO, VK3LU, VK5IT, ZL4BN, ZL4AM, VK3NQ, VK3JR, VK3TM, PK3BQ, PK1JR, PK3CR, J3CK, J1DR, W6CUH, W6AM, VK5WR, VK2SA, VK4GW, VK2SK, VK2DP, VK4NA, VK4AW, VK4FB, VK4WH, VK4VH, W6BSK, KA1JR, VK6DX, VK6PK, W6BCK, KA1JR, VK6DX, VK6PK, VK2HM, VKX2HM, VK3LU, VK4MM, '''VK4AB''', VK7CH, VK2OW, VK2GR, VK2HC, VK2JF, VK2NS, VK3WL, VK2KZ, VK2LX, VK4NW, VK5XK, VK5MB, VK5WH, VK5BY.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article188280113 |title=Amateur Stations |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=18,035 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=24 September 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=16 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1930 10===== <blockquote>'''Notes from a Log.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' has been testing phone on 40 metres.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184788430 |title=Notes from a Log |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=18,041 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=1 October 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=12 (5 O'CLOCK CITY EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''Short Waves. Notes from a Log.''' Mr. F. Nolan (VK4VU) writes as follows on short wave and amateur activities:— . . . '''VK4AB''', VK4AT, and VK4AJ on 40 metres.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184786504 |title=Short Waves |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |issue=18,047 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=8 October 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=4 (SECOND EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''FUNERAL NOTICE.''' THE FRIENDS AND RELATIVES of Mr. and Mrs. W. Cheyne and Family, Mr. W. Cheyne (Senr.), Mr. and Mrs. B. Comerford and Family, Mr. and Mrs. W. Robinson, Mr. and Mrs. G. Cheyne and family, Mr. J. Cheyne, Misses Mary, Elizabeth and Minnie Cheyne, Mr. and Mrs. P. Mc-Carthy, Mr. and Mrs. A. Siener, Mr. and Mrs. '''W. F. Bardin''' and Family (Brisbane), Mr. and Mrs. J. McManus and Family (Cairns), and Mr. and Mrs. E. C. McGovern are respectfully in-vited to attend the FUNERAL of their late beloved Son, Brother, Grand-son, Nephew and Cousin, WILLIAM CHEYNE, which will move from his late residence, 10th Avenue, Railway Estate, THIS (Wednesday) AFTER-NOON, at 4 o'clock. F. HEATLEY AND SONS, LTD., Undertakers. 'Phones, Day 1130; Night 771.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61041144 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=LII, |issue=248 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=29 October 1930 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1930 11===== <blockquote>'''FUNERAL NOTICE.''' THE Friends and Relatives of Mrs. E. A. Morris, Mr. E. Morris, Mr. and Mrs. W. Morris and Family, Mr. and Mrs. S. Morris and Family, Mr. and Mrs. W. Burke and Family, Mr. and Mrs. H. Ferguson and Family, Mr. and Mrs. '''W. Bardin''' and Family, are respectfully invited to attend the FUNERAL of their late beloved Son, Brother, Brother-in-law, Uncle, and Nephew, "HENRY MORRIS," which will move from the District Hospital, THIS FRIDAY AFTERNOON at 3 o'clock for the new cemetery. ROONEYS LIMITED. Funeral Directors. Phones: Day 400, Night 870.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61063347 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=LIII, |issue=265 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=6 November 1931 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1930 12===== ====1931==== =====1931 01===== =====1931 02===== =====1931 03===== =====1931 04===== =====1931 05===== =====1931 06===== =====1931 07===== =====1931 08===== =====1931 09===== =====1931 10===== =====1931 11===== Sunday Mail columnist opines that quality of 4QG's transmissions has decreased since former 4QG engineers (including Bardin) dispensed with <blockquote>'''TO THE POWERS THAT BE. Some Questions From the Listeners.''' Since the State Government rendered radio listeners such admirable service in installing Queensland's first permanent broadcasting station in 1925, many changes have taken place in the broadcasting world. The first change, from the viewpoint of our discussion, was that in the method of control of the activities of our A class station, 4QG. On the expiration of the different permits throughout Australia for the operation of A class stations, the programme side was handed over to the Australian Broadcasting Company to control, and the Postmaster General's Department assumed control, of the technical side of broadcasting. All we radio listeners expected great things from such a combination of undoubted ability, but these expectations have not been realised. Why? At the moment the position is this: If you ask any dozen set owners which station they listen-in to most, by far the great majority will answer that one or other of the B class stations, 4BC or 4BK, give the bulk of the radio entertainment in the home. The installation of these B class stations proved to be the second important event of Brisbane's radio history. '''REASON FOR COMPLAINTS.''' There appears to be a continual complaint levelled at 4QG on account of the "hum" associated with the transmission, which cannot be heard from the B stations; also that 4QG has not the same degree of quality which is such a marked feature of both B class stations. This should not be so with an A class station. Is it because the transmitter at 4QG has not beep kept up with the rapidly advancing radio science, and thus any programme from this station does not consequently enjoy such superior conditions as those from the B class stations? If this state of affairs is existing, is not the onus on the P.M.G. to give the broadcasting company better facilities to please their radio listeners? We listeners understand that the P.M.G.'s Department receives one-half of the licence fees collected, and this is showing them a handsome profit; thus it should be in a position to purchase any necessary new plant to bring the station up to date; and then to keep it that way. Another viewpoint about this "hum" trouble and inferior quality of transmission is the question: Is it due to technical reasons? Readers may remember that 15 months after the assumption of control of A class station broadcasting by the A.B.C.— P.M.G. combination, the P.M.G. dispensed with the services of the former 4QG technical staff, the senior members of which were highly trained and widely experienced broadcast engineers, regarded as among the leaders of their profession in Australia. These men were replaced by members of the P.M.G. staff, and as the radio public seem to think, junior members. Where did these men obtain their experience, and is it of equal quality to the men who were discharged? Admitted that the P.M.G.'s Department has many high-class engineers, and that the employees of this department deal with kindred subjects, it was not known that the P.M.G. had experienced radio engineers who had specialised in broadcasting as member of the staff. '''ENTITLED TO THE BEST.''' By law all radio listeners must pay a licence fee, so surely they are entitled to the best, or at least as good as that rendered by stations which have to see to their own income. Is this transmission noise and inferior quality due to inexperience on the part of the operators? It is a general opinion that 4QG's standard of transmission has fallen off since April iast. Apart from these technical drawbacks, a large measure of the popularity of the B stations is due to the brighter atmosphere associated with their transmissions. They have infused personality into their programmes. This personality seems to appeal to the majority much more than the formality of 4QG'S studios. It is saying a great deal for the B class stations, when we realise that they have the disability of advertising to contend with, whereas 4QG has none. Another way in which our B class stations have shown 4QG a point is in the more harmonious blending of their programmes, particularly recorded music. In view of recent events in the record world it is impossible to say what will happen to records for broadcasting purposes; at all events, in this respect, 4QG could give this matter careful consideration. 4QG certainly gives us a wonderful service in many respects, particularly in special features; nevertheless the main body of listeners listen in to the B station, not so much because of better programmes, but on account of the brightness and naturalness. The announcers seem to be in the room with you, talking as you would expect a friend to do, yet no dignity is lost. Now, 4QG, do you not think that something after the style of our B stations would appeal to your listeners, for they are human beings, not a body of unnatural people, whose minds fail to pass through all the normal reactions? We listeners think it is up to the powers that be to see what can be done to improve the tone of the principal station, and make it again Queensland's leading broadcasting centre.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article97919452 |title=TO THE POWERS THAT BE |newspaper=[[Sunday Mail]] |issue=440 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=1 November 1931 |accessdate=11 July 2019 |page=13 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> 4AB included in list of amateur transmitting licences WW 27 November 1931 <blockquote>'''Supplement - Amateur Transmitters . . . Queensland.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' W. F. Bardin .. .. .. Archibald Street, Fairfield<ref>{{cite magazine | author = | title =Supplement - Amateur Transmitters . . . Queensland | url =http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-721318240 | magazine =[[w:Wireless Weekly|Wireless Weekly (Australia)]] | location =Sydney | publisher =Wireless Newspapers Ltd | date =31 July 1925 | nopp =no | volume =18 | issue =23 | pages =XXII | accessdate=2 June 2019 | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> =====1931 12===== ====1932==== =====1932 01===== =====1932 02===== =====1932 03===== =====1932 04===== =====1932 05===== <blockquote>'''TODAY'S RADIO TALK THE OLD BILL CUP CONTESTS. AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF RADIO.''' Cup contests have been arranged with one idea — to create everlasting brotherhood among VK "hams." The contests are open to any and every licensed transmitter in Australia, with no restriction as to club or society. The cup has been donated by Mr. '''W. F. Bardin''' (VK4RB [sic, 4AB]), the chairman of the contest committee of the A.I.R. '''Conditions.''' Entrants must notify the secretary of the contest committee, Mr. W. F. Chapman (VK4XL), Violet-avenue, Yeronga, of their intention to participate in the contest. The applications should be in writing, and will be received by him at any time, whether the contest is in progress or not. The first contest starts on June 1, 1932, and ends on December 31, 1932. The second contest commences immediately on the conclusion of the first one, which will be January 1, 1933, and the second ends on May 31, 1933. "Hams" must keep an authentic log of all Q.S.O.'s over each period, and a copy should be forwarded to VK4XL. A minimum of 15 minutes constitutes a Q.S.O. The contest committee reserves the right to confirm any Q.S.O. in any manner it deems fit. There will be two contests of this nature each year, therefore the cup may change hands twice each year. The station which holds the trophy three times becomes the outright possessor of it. '''Sock Chewers' Club.''' In order to become a member of the Sock Chewers' Club it is necessary to participate in a 45 minutes Q.S.O. on the 80 metres band with some other member of the club on matters other than radio topics. S.C.C. members are under no obligation to the A.I.R. Certificates are issued to S.C.C. members, and are suitable for framing. Certificates are issued to any Australian amateur on production of the necessary proofs for scrutiny by the A.I.R. The service is solid and genuine, and comes as a boon long awaited by Australian amateur transmitters. All certificates issued by the A.I.A. in contests are free, but a small charge is made for S.C.C. and W.A.C. certificates, covering incidentals. For further information call or write VK4JU, VK4YG, or any of the A.I.R. gang.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article186482225 |title=TODAY'S RADIO TALK |newspaper=[[Daily Standard]] |issue=6038 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=24 May 1932 |accessdate=28 May 2019 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1932 06===== <blockquote>'''"OLD BILL" CUP.''' Mr. '''W. F. Bardin''', M.I.R.E., of 4BH, engineering staff, has always been noted as a keen wireless enthusiast. He is chairman of the contest committee of the A.I.R., and has presented a cup to be contested twice yearly among the amateurs. The idea of the contests is to bind the wireless amateurs closer together, and help them to a state of greater efficiency. Mr. Bardin himself is well-known as an amateur broadcaster, and it is his own experiences that have prompted him to donate the "Old BilI" Cup.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article180031482 |title=STATION 4BH |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=8 June 1932 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=6 (FIRST EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1932 07===== =====1932 08===== =====1932 09===== =====1932 10===== =====1932 11===== =====1932 12===== <blockquote>'''4BH CELEBRATES FIRST BIRTHDAY.''' Brisbane's youngest B class station, 4BH, is just celebrating its first birthday. It looks behind at a year full of lusty achievements, and claims certain innovations which have improved the tone of radio as its own. Says a birthday bulletin from 4BH:— Definitely the station can claim to have moulded musical taste, for its programmes have always been distinguished by a good admixture of classical and light classical music. 4BH was the first B station in Queensland to inaugurate a Sunday midday session. It was also the first B class station in Queensland to announce the advent of a breakfast session, and commenced its early morning transmission on its third day. It is pleasant to consider the widespread popularity of its present breakfast sessions in view of its pioneer work in this regard. 4BH has made many notable relays. '''Charity Helped.''' In connection with the recent installation ot wireless headphones at the General Hospital, 4BK took an active part in this appeal and collected surprising sums. This success with charity appeals was repeated with the recent Christmas cheer appeal, when toys, food, and dainties were provided by the station for over 2000 destitute families — all made possible by the generosity of listeners. With the interest in test cricket and Shield matches 4BH again gives its listeners outstanding service. Full arrangements have been made with southern stations to give all scores, and each evening of the test matches the famous authority, Captain E. W. Ballantyne, speaks through Station 2UW, 3UZ, and 5DN, and through to 4GR, Toowoomba. '''Technical Side.''' "On the technical side, the station is composed of the famous Telefunken equipment, and part of its success must be credited to that. A faultless transmission, with 100 per cent modulation, has always made 4BH a favorite, while as regards country listeners, in some parts the station can claim to monopolise them. Letters come from all the northern part of the State, from the Gulf country, etc., reporting reception of 4BH as their only Queensland station. 4BH operates on 1380 kilocycles, employing the same power as that with which it started — 600 watts. There is no more penetrating B class station in Queensland than 4BH. The system of modulation, etc., employed gives the maximum amount of punch to be got from the transmission. Weekly reports come in from American listeners, both on the eastern and western seaboards, and also from Canada, and there is a large daily mail from New Zealand. The engineering staff consists of Mr. Thorston Gedda (chief), Mr. '''W. Bardin''', M.I.R.E. (well known to amateurs as the man behind VK4AB), Mr. N. Cruikshanks, and Mr. C. Moran.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article184990399 |title=4BH CELEBRATES FIRST BIRTHDAY. |newspaper=[[Daily Standard]] |issue=6227 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 December 1932 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>(Start Photo Caption) '''STAFF OF RADIO STATION 4BH.''' Inset: Major J. Cox (advertising manager), J. Sinclair Wheeler (advertising). Standing, left to right, Miss M. Dkyer (office), Messrs. N. Cruickshand (engineer), C. Moran (engineer), Thorsten Gedda (chief engineer), '''W. Bardin''', M.I.R.E. (engineer), N. McCormick (requests and records), Miss Philp (office). Sitting, left to right: John Chrlstopher, Ivy Ray (announcer), Walter P. Ryn (manager), Frank Gorman ("Kanga"), Miss Viven Driver (official accompanist).(End Photo Caption)<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article179219232 |title=STAFF OF RADIO STATION 4BH |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 December 1932 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=3 (FIRST EDITION) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1933==== =====1933 01===== =====1933 02===== =====1933 03===== =====1933 04===== =====1933 05===== Bardin still listed with call VK4AB in Qld <blockquote>'''A Complete List of Experimental Stations.''' Call Sign. Licensee. Address. . . . QUEENSLAND. VK4AB W. F. '''Bardin''', Archibald Street, Fairfield.<ref>{{Citation | author1=Australasian Radio Relay League. | title=A Complete List of Experimental Stations | journal=The wireless weekly : the hundred per cent Australian radio journal | year= | section=v. ; 24-38 cm. | issue=Vol. 21 No. 19 (12 May 1933) | location=Sydney | publisher=Wireless Press | url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.obj-713754682 | id=nla.obj-713754682 | access-date=3 May 2025 | via=Trove }}</ref></blockquote> =====1933 06===== <blockquote>'''Australian Institute of Radio.''' . . . '''4AB''' is using crystal now, and is getting out much stronger. He was heard well on fone with JU. He is busy with the 200-metre 'phone transmitter for the A.J.R.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22186024 |title=Australian Institute of Radio. |newspaper=[[The Brisbane Courier]] |issue=23,518 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=16 June 1933 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''A.I.R. Notes.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' has worked the U.S.A. with his new crystal control rig within a few hours of its completion, using a B eliminator for power supply, having a total output of 180 volts.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22188461 |title=A.I.R. Notes. |newspaper=[[The Brisbane Courier]] |issue=23,524 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=23 June 1933 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1933 07===== <blockquote>'''A.I.R. Notes.''' Although conditions have not been the best during the past week the members of the A.I.R. have been get-ting the QSO's well. . . . '''VK4AB''' has been silent.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22195371 |title=A.I.R. Notes. |newspaper=[[The Brisbane Courier]] |issue=23,542 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=14 July 1933 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> <blockquote>'''A.I.R. Club Notes.''' . . . '''VK4AB''' was heard working inter-State stations; he operates when time permits.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article22197534 |title=A.I.R. Club Notes. |newspaper=[[The Brisbane Courier]] |issue=23,548 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=21 July 1933 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=5 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1933 08===== =====1933 09===== =====1933 10===== Bardin returns to Townsville and advertising radio repairs <blockquote>'''RADIO Repairs!''' Guarantee you satisfaction. Radio Service, like everything else, has its own specialists — some better than others. Consult the Best. W. F. '''Bardin''', M.LR.E. late Engineer Broadcasting Station 4QG. Ring 1257.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article61711683 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=LV, |issue=250 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=19 October 1933 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=1 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1933 11===== =====1933 12===== ====1934==== =====1934 01===== =====1934 02===== =====1934 03===== =====1934 04===== =====1934 05===== List of amateur broadcasters in Qld with wavelengths 24 May 1934 including 4AB Townsville <blockquote>'''QUEENSLAND AMATEURS.''' 193 metres, VK4SS, Coorparoo, Brisbane; 200, VK4JU, Brisbane; 200, VK4LG, Laidley; 201, VK4RJ, Hamilton, Brisbane; 203, VK4RM, Mackay; 204, VK4RV, Cunnamulla; 204, VK4VH, Townsville; 204, VK4KL, Cairns; 205, VK4PC, Sandgate; 206, VK4JO, Gympie; 212, VK4LW, Ashgrove; 214, '''VK4AB''', Townsville; 218, VK4GS, Paddington, Brisbane; 218, VK4PK, Ipswich; 230, VK4JN, Mitchelton, Brisbane; 231, VK4GG, Chinchilla; 234, VK4QL, Paddington, Brisbane; 238, VK4PW, Ipswich.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article23335712 |title=A AND B CLASS STATIONS |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=24 May 1934 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=49 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> List of amateur broadcasters in Qld with wavelengths 31 May 1934 including 4AB Townsville <blockquote>'''On The Air Next Week.''' . . . '''QUEENSLAND AMATEURS.''' 193 metres, VK4SS, Coorparoo, Brisbane; 200, VK4JU, Brisbane; 200, VK4LG, Laidley; 201, VK4RJ, Hamilton, Brisbane; 203, VK4RM, Mackay; 204, VK4RV, Cunnamulla; 204, VK4VH, Townsville; 204, VK4KL, Cairns; 205, VK4PC, Sandgate; 206, VK4JO, Gympie; 212, VK4LW, Ashgrove; 214, '''VK4AB''', Townsville; 218, VK4GS, Paddington, Brisbane; 218, VK4PK, Ipswich; 230, VK4JN, Mitchelton, Brisbane; 231, VK4GG, Chinchilla; 234, VK4QL, Paddington, Brisbane; 238, VK4PW, Ipswich.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article23335951 |title=On The Air Next Week |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 May 1934 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=49 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1934 06===== List of amateur broadcasters in Qld with wavelengths 7 June 1934 including 4AB Townsville <blockquote>'''QUEENSLAND AMATEURS.''' 193 metres, VK4SS, Coorparoo, Brisbane; 200, VK4JU, Brisbane; 200, VK4LG, Laid-ley; 201, VK4RJ, Hamilton. Brisbane; 203, VK4RM, Mackay; 204, VK4RV, Cunnamulla; 204, VK4VH, Townsville; 204, VK4KL, Cairns; 205, VK4PC, Sandgate; 206, VK4JO, Gympie; 212, VK4LW, Ashgrove; 214, '''VK4AB''', Townsville; 218, VK4GS, Paddington, Brisbane; 218, VK4PK, Ipswich; 230. VK4JN, Mitchelton, Brisbane; 231, VK4GG, Chinchilla; 234, VK4QL, Paddington, Brisbane; 238, VK4PW, Ipswich.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article23336191 |title=A AND B CLASS STATIONS |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=7 June 1934 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=49 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> List of amateur broadcasters in Qld with wavelengths 21 June 1934 including 4AB Townsville <blockquote>'''QUEENSLAND AMATEURS.''' 193 metres, VK4SS, Coorparoo, Brisbane; 200, VK4JU, Brisbane; 200, VK4LG, Laidley; 201, VK4RJ, Hamilton, Brisbane; 203, VK4RM, Mackay; 204, VK4RV, Cunnamulla; 204, VK4VH, Townsville; 204, VK4KL, Cairns; 205, VK4PC, Sandgate; 206, VK4JO, Gympie; 212, VK4LW, Ashgrove; 214, '''VK4AB''', Townsville; 218, VK4GS, Paddington, Brisbane; 218, VK4PK, Ipswich; 230, VK4JN, Mitchelton, Brisbane; 231, VK4GG, Chinchilla; 234, VK4QL, Paddington, Brisbane; 238, VK4PW, Ipswich.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article23336591 |title=On The Air Next Week |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=21 June 1934 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=49 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1934 07===== List of amateur broadcasters in Qld with wavelengths 21 June 1934 including 4AB Townsville <blockquote>'''QUEENSLAND AMATEURS.''' 193 metres, VK4SS, Coorparoo, Brisbane; 200, VK4JU, Brisbane; 200, VK4LG, Laid-ley; 201, VK4RJ, Hamilton, Brisbane; 203, VK4RM, Mackay; 204, VK4RV, Cunna-mulla; 204, VK4VH, Townsville; 204, VK4KL, Cairns; 205, VK4PC, Sandgate; 206, VK4JO, Gympie; 212, VK4LW, Ashgrove; 214, '''VK4AB''', Townsville; 218, VK4GS, Paddington, Brisbane; 218, VK4PK, Ipswich; 230, VK4JN, Mitchelton, Brisbane; 231, VK4GG, Chinchilla; 234, VK4QL, Paddington, Brisbane; 238, VK4PW, Ipswich.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article23337008 |title=On The Air Next Week |newspaper=[[The Queenslander]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=5 July 1934 |accessdate=1 June 2019 |page=49 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1934 08===== =====1934 09===== =====1934 10===== =====1934 11===== =====1934 12===== ====1935==== =====1935 01===== =====1935 02===== =====1935 03===== =====1935 04===== =====1935 05===== =====1935 06===== =====1935 07===== =====1935 08===== =====1935 09===== =====1935 10===== =====1935 11===== =====1935 12===== ====1936==== =====1936 01===== =====1936 02===== =====1936 03===== =====1936 04===== =====1936 05===== =====1936 06===== =====1936 07===== =====1936 08===== =====1936 09===== =====1936 10===== =====1936 11===== =====1936 12===== ====1937==== =====1937 01===== 4AB's (now operating as VK2ABZ) home damaged in major storm <blockquote>'''BROKEN WINDOWS.''' The storm struck practically the whole length of Church-street, Carlingford, and Dundas. Mr. W. Bardin, of Carlingford, who operates the amateur wireless station '''2ABZ''', had 17 windows in his home broken, and his wireless mast shattered. Iron from Mr. M. Graham's home, a few yards away, was flung 30 feet into the air. The front verandah of the Graham's house was knocked off, many windows were broken, and the fence round the tennis court was blown over.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17306140 |title=FORTITUDE OF INJURED CHILDREN. |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |issue=30,909 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=26 January 1937 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1937 02===== =====1937 03===== =====1937 04===== =====1937 05===== =====1937 06===== =====1937 07===== =====1937 08===== =====1937 09===== =====1937 10===== =====1937 11===== =====1937 12===== ====1938==== =====1938 01===== =====1938 02===== =====1938 03===== =====1938 04===== =====1938 05===== Bardin now employed by AWA, returns to Rabaul posting <blockquote>'''Mr. W. F. Bardin''', of Sydney, passed through by the Montoro on his return to Rabaul.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article62240443 |title=GOSSIP. |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=LX, |issue=120 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=21 May 1938 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1938 06===== =====1938 07===== =====1938 08===== =====1938 09===== =====1938 10===== =====1938 11===== =====1938 12===== ====1939==== 4AB's WW2 service record <blockquote> National Archives of Australia * Title: BARDIN WILLIAM FREDRICK : Service Number - 300061 : Date of birth - 02 Feb 1899 : Place of birth - LONDON ENGLAND : Place of enlistment - TOWNSVILLE : Next of Kin - BARDIN MIRIAM * Contents date range: 1939 - 1948 * Series number: A9301 * Control symbol: 300061 * Citation: NAA: A9301, 300061 * Item barcode: 5548700 * Location: Canberra * Access status: Not yet examined * Date of decision: 01 Jan 1970 * Physical format: PAPER FILES AND DOCUMENTS (allocated at series level) * Records authority class number: 1010873 * Date registered: 20 May 2002<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.naa.gov.au/go.aspx?i=5548700 | title =William Frederick Bardin, Service Record, 1939-1948 | last = | first = | date = | website = | publisher =National Archives of Australia | accessdate =28 May 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> =====1939 01===== =====1939 02===== =====1939 03===== =====1939 04===== =====1939 05===== =====1939 06===== =====1939 07===== =====1939 08===== =====1939 09===== =====1939 10===== =====1939 11===== =====1939 12===== ===1940s=== ====1940==== =====1940 01===== =====1940 02===== =====1940 03===== =====1940 04===== =====1940 05===== =====1940 06===== =====1940 07===== =====1940 08===== =====1940 09===== =====1940 10===== =====1940 11===== =====1940 12===== ====1941==== =====1941 01===== =====1941 02===== =====1941 03===== =====1941 04===== =====1941 05===== =====1941 06===== =====1941 07===== =====1941 08===== =====1941 09===== =====1941 10===== =====1941 11===== =====1941 12===== ====1942==== =====1942 01===== =====1942 02===== =====1942 03===== =====1942 04===== =====1942 05===== =====1942 06===== =====1942 07===== =====1942 08===== =====1942 09===== =====1942 10===== =====1942 11===== =====1942 12===== ====1943==== =====1943 01===== =====1943 02===== =====1943 03===== =====1943 04===== =====1943 05===== =====1943 06===== =====1943 07===== =====1943 08===== =====1943 09===== =====1943 10===== =====1943 11===== =====1943 12===== ====1944==== =====1944 01===== =====1944 02===== =====1944 03===== =====1944 04===== =====1944 05===== =====1944 06===== =====1944 07===== =====1944 08===== =====1944 09===== =====1944 10===== =====1944 11===== =====1944 12===== ====1945==== =====1945 01===== =====1945 02===== =====1945 03===== =====1945 04===== =====1905 05===== =====1945 06===== =====1945 07===== =====1945 08===== =====1945 09===== =====1945 10===== =====1945 11===== =====1945 12===== ====1946==== =====1946 01===== =====1946 02===== =====1946 03===== =====1946 04===== =====1946 05===== =====1946 06===== =====1946 07===== <blockquote>'''Funeral Notices.''' ASBURY.— The Relatives & Friends of Mrs. Chas. Asbury, of 134 Princess St., Kangaroo Point; Mr. & Mrs. Bert Asbury & Family; Mr. & Mrs. '''W. Bardin'''; Mrs. H. Lane (Townsville); Clare & Jack MacIntosh, are invited to attend the Funeral of her beloved Husband, their Father, Father-in-law, Grandfather & Brother-in-law Charles Asbury (late of Townsville), to leave the Funeral Parlour, 45 Adelaide Street, City, for the Crematorium, Mount Thompson, after service commencing at 10.15 o'clock, To-morrow (Tuesday) Morning. No flowers by request.— CANNON & CRIPPS LTD., Funeral Directors.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article188723178 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=15 July 1946 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=4 (CITY FINAL LAST MINUTE NEWS) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1946 08===== Qld death registration for 4AB's father William Richard Bardin <blockquote> * Qld BDM * '''Death registration''': William Richard Bardin * Death date: 31/08/1946 * Mother's name: Ruth Abbott * Father/parent's name: James William * Registration details: 1946/B/8226 <ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.familyhistory.bdm.qld.gov.au/ | url-access =free | title =Family history research service | last = | first = | date = | website =Births, deaths, marriages and divorces | publisher =Queensland Government | accessdate =28 May 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> Funeral notice for 4AB's father William Richard Bardin <blockquote>'''Funeral Notices.''' BARDIN.— The Relatives & Friends of Mrs. W. R. Bardin, Snr., of 26 Hawthorne Street, New Farm, Mr. & Mrs. '''W. Bardin''' & Family, Jnr. (Sydney), Mr. & Mrs. Bert Asbury & Family, Mrs. L. Morris, Mrs. K. Ferguson & Family are invited to attend the Funeral of her beloved Husband, their Father, Father-in-law, Grandfather, Brother & Uncle, William Richard Bardin, to leave St. Michael & All Angels' Church, Brunswick Street, New Farm, for the Crematorium, Mount Thompson, after Service commencing at 9.45 o'clock on Monday Morning. No flowers by request.— CANNON & CRIPPS LTD., Funeral Directors.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article188725702 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[w:Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 August 1946 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=4 (SPORTS FINAL) |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1946 09===== =====1946 10===== Engagement notice for Bardin's daughter <blockquote>'''ROWE — BARDIN.'''— The Engagement is announced of Melba, only daughter of Mr. and Mrs. W. F. '''Bardin''', of Dundas, to Alan, only son of Mr. and Mrs. W. B. Rowe, of Eastwood.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article18000172 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |issue=33,960 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=26 October 1946 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=32 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1946 11===== =====1946 12===== ====1947==== =====1947 01===== =====1947 02===== =====1947 03===== =====1947 04===== =====1947 05===== =====1947 06===== =====1947 07===== =====1947 08===== In memoriam notice for 4AB's father <blockquote>'''IN MEMORIAM.''' '''BARDIN, William Richard'''.— In loving memory of my dear Husband, our Father, Father-in-law, and Grandfather, who died 31st August, 1946. Many a lonely heartache, Many a silent tear; But always a beautiful memory Of one we loved so dear. Sadly missed by his loving Wife, Son, Daughter-in-law, and Grandchildren. BARDIN, William.— In loving memory of my dear Brother and our uncle, who died 31st August, 1946. Lovingly remembered in our home. Inserted by his loving Sister Lou, and Nieces Kate and Phil. BARDIN, William Richard.— In loving memory of our dear Uncle (Nunky), who died 31st August, 1946. Always so good, loving, and kind. What a beautiful memory to leave behind. Inserted by Phil and Bert, Betty and Albert.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article98316373 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[Sunday Mail]] |issue=906 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 August 1947 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=14 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1947 09===== =====1947 10===== =====1947 11===== =====1947 12===== ====1948==== =====1948 01===== =====1948 02===== =====1948 03===== =====1948 04===== =====1948 05===== =====1948 06===== =====1948 07===== =====1948 08===== In memoriam notice for father of 4AB <blockquote>'''IN MEMORIAM.''' BARDIN, William Richard.— In loving memory of my dear Husband, who passed away 31st August, 1946. Asleep in God's beautiful garden. Inserted by his loving Wife, Son, Daughter-in-law, Grandchildren. BARDIN, William.— In loving memory of my dear Brother & our Uncle, who died 31st August, 1946. Inserted by his loving Sister Lou, and Nieces Kate & Phil. BARDIN, William Richard.— In lov-ing memory of our dear Uncle (Nunky), whom God called to rest August 31st, 1946. Lovingly remembered by Phil and Bert, Betty and Albert Asbury (Townsville).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article49920945 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[The Courier-mail]] |issue=3671 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 August 1948 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1948 09===== =====1948 10===== =====1948 11===== =====1948 12===== ====1949==== =====1949 01===== =====1949 02===== =====1949 03===== =====1949 04===== =====1949 05===== =====1949 06===== =====1949 07===== =====1949 08===== =====1949 09===== =====1949 10===== =====1949 11===== =====1949 12===== ===1950s=== ====1950==== =====1950 01===== =====1950 02===== =====1950 03===== =====1950 04===== =====1950 05===== =====1950 06===== =====1950 07===== =====1950 08===== In memoriam notice for 4AB's father <blockquote>'''IN MEMORIAM.''' . . . BARDIN, William Richard.— In loving memory of my dear Husband, who de-parted this life August 31st, 1946. It is lonely here without you. Sadness marks my way. The world has never been the same. Since you were called away. Inserted by his loving Wife, Son, Daughter-in-law, Grand-daughter, Grandson. BARDIN, William Richard.— In loving memory of my dear Brother and our Uncle, who died 31st August, 1946. Deep in our hearts a memory is kept. Inserted by his loving Sister Lou, and Nieces Kate and Phil.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article49726935 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[The Courier-mail]] |issue=4294 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 August 1950 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=16 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1950 09===== =====1950 10===== =====1950 11===== =====1950 12===== ====1951==== =====1951 01===== =====1951 02===== =====1951 03===== =====1951 04===== =====1951 05===== =====1951 06===== =====1951 07===== =====1951 08===== In memoriam notice for 4AB's father <blockquote>'''IN MEMORIAM.''' . . . '''BARDIN, William Richard'''.— In lov-ing memory of my dear Husband, who departed this life August 31st, 1946. It is lonely here without you, Sadness marks my way. The world has never been the same Since you were called away. Inserted by his loving Wife and Family. '''BARDIN, William Richard'''.— In lov-ing memory of my dear Brother and our Uncle, who died 31st August 1946. Deep in our hearts a memory is kept. Inserted by his loving Sister, Lou and Nieces, Kate and Phil.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article50220898 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[The Courier-mail]] |issue=4605 |location=Queensland, Australia |date=31 August 1951 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1951 09===== =====1951 10===== =====1951 11===== =====1951 12===== <blockquote>'''OBITUARY .''' . . . The death occurred at the week-end of one of Townsville's oldest residents, Mrs. Eliza McCarthy, in her 85th year. The late Mrs. McCarthy was a native of Hull, England. She landed in Townsville 70 years ago and had lived here ever since. Many years ago she and her husband conducted a grocery store and post office in Palmer Street, South Townsville. Mrs. McCarthy is survived by four daughters, Mesdames J. McManus (Brisbane), W. Cheyne (Townsville), E. C. McGovern (U.S.A.), and '''W. F. Bardin''' (N.S.W.)<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63396892 |title=OBITUARY |newspaper=[[Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=LXXI |location=Queensland, Australia |date=17 December 1951 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> Funeral notice for Bardin's mother-in-law <blockquote>'''FUNERAL NOTICE MCCARTHY''': The Relatives and Friends of Mr. and Mrs. J. McManus (Brisbane), Mr. and Mrs. W. Cheyne (No. 29 10th Avenue, Railway Estate), Mr. and Mrs. E. C. McGovern and Family (Calfornia, U.S.A.), Mr. and Mrs. W. F. Bardin and Son (Eastwood, N.S.W.), Mr. and Mrs. Les Hart and Family, Mr. Gordon Cheyne, Mr. and Mrs. H. Golman (Cairns), Mr. and Mrs. N. Shanks (Brisbane), Mr. and Mrs. K. McManus and Family (Brisbane), Mr. and Mrs. N. McManus and Family (Sydney), Mr. and Mrs. D. Karanges and Family (Brisbane), Mr. and Mrs. V. McNaughton and Family, Mr and Mrs. A. Rowe (Sydney), and the Owens Families, Gordonvale and Innisfail, are respectfully invited to attend the FUNERAL of their beloved Mother, Mother-in-law, Grandmother, Great Grandmother and Aunt, ELIZA McCARTHY, which will move from the Mortuary chapel, Hanran Street, City, THIS (MONDAY) AFTERNOON at 2 o'clock. Interment at the New Cemetery. F. HEATLEY & SONS PTY. LTD. Undertakers Phone. Day 4037; Night 5271<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63396906 |title=Advertising |newspaper=[[The Townsville Daily Bulletin]] |volume=LXXI |location=Queensland, Australia |date=17 December 1951 |accessdate=5 May 2025 |page=2 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> ====1952==== =====1952 01===== =====1952 02===== =====1952 03===== =====1952 04===== =====1952 05===== =====1952 06===== =====1952 07===== =====1952 08===== =====1952 09===== =====1952 10===== =====1952 11===== =====1952 12===== ====1953==== =====1953 01===== =====1953 02===== =====1953 03===== =====1953 04===== =====1953 05===== =====1953 06===== =====1953 07===== =====1953 08===== =====1953 09===== =====1953 10===== Qld death registration for 4AB's mother Esther Keziah Bardin <blockquote> * Qld BDM * '''Death registration''': Esther Keziah Bardin * Death date: 03/10/1953 * Mother's name: Katherine Jane Vile * Father/parent's name: Joseph East * Registration details: 1953/B/45648 <ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.familyhistory.bdm.qld.gov.au/ | url-access =free | title =Family history research service | last = | first = | date = | website =Births, deaths, marriages and divorces | publisher =Queensland Government | accessdate =1 June 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> Funeral notice for 4AB's mother <blockquote>'''FUNERAL NOTICES.''' BARDIN.— The Relatives and Friends of Mr. and Mrs. '''W. F. Bardin''' and Family (Sydney), Mrs. R. A. Morris, and Mrs. C. E. Ferguson and Family are invited to attend the Funeral of their beloved Mother, Mother-in-law, Grandmother, Sister-in-law, and Aunt, Esther Keziah Bardin, to leave the Funeral Parlour, 45 Adelaide Street, City, This (Monday) Afternoon, after service commencing at 12.45 o'clock, for the Crematorium, Mt. Thompson. CANNON & CRIPPS, LTD., A.F.D.A., Funeral Directors.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article51074385 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[The Courier-mail]] |location=Queensland, Australia |date=5 October 1953 |accessdate=31 May 2019 |page=12 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref></blockquote> =====1953 11===== =====1953 12===== ====1954==== =====1954 01===== =====1954 02===== =====1954 03===== =====1954 04===== =====1954 05===== =====1954 06===== =====1954 07===== =====1954 08===== =====1954 09===== =====1954 10===== =====1954 11===== =====1954 12===== ====1955==== =====1955 01===== =====1955 02===== =====1955 03===== =====1955 04===== =====1955 05===== =====1955 06===== =====1955 07===== =====1955 08===== =====1955 09===== =====1955 10===== =====1955 11===== =====1955 12===== ====1956==== =====1956 01===== =====1956 02===== =====1956 03===== =====1956 04===== =====1956 05===== =====1956 06===== =====1956 07===== =====1956 08===== =====1956 09===== =====1956 10===== =====1956 11===== =====1956 12===== ====1957==== =====1957 01===== =====1957 02===== =====1957 03===== =====1957 04===== =====1957 05===== =====1957 06===== =====1957 07===== =====1957 08===== =====1957 09===== =====1957 10===== =====1957 11===== =====1957 12===== ====1958==== =====1958 01===== =====1958 02===== =====1958 03===== =====1958 04===== =====1958 05===== =====1958 06===== =====1958 07===== =====1958 08===== =====1958 09===== =====1958 10===== =====1958 11===== =====1958 12===== ====1959==== =====1959 01===== =====1959 02===== =====1959 03===== =====1959 04===== =====1959 05===== =====1959 06===== =====1959 07===== =====1959 08===== =====1959 09===== =====1959 10===== =====1959 11===== =====1959 12===== ===1960s=== ====1960==== =====1960 01===== =====1960 02===== =====1960 03===== =====1960 04===== =====1960 05===== =====1960 06===== =====1960 07===== =====1960 08===== =====1960 09===== =====1960 10===== =====1960 11===== =====1960 12===== ====1961==== =====1961 01===== =====1961 02===== =====1961 03===== =====1961 04===== =====1961 05===== =====1961 06===== =====1961 07===== =====1961 08===== =====1961 09===== =====1961 10===== =====1961 11===== =====1961 12===== ====1962==== =====1962 01===== =====1962 02===== =====1962 03===== =====1962 04===== =====1962 05===== =====1962 06===== =====1962 07===== =====1962 08===== =====1962 09===== =====1962 10===== =====1962 11===== =====1962 12===== ====1963==== =====1963 01===== =====1963 02===== =====1963 03===== =====1963 04===== =====1963 05===== =====1963 06===== =====1963 07===== =====1963 08===== =====1963 09===== =====1963 10===== =====1963 11===== =====1963 12===== ====1964==== =====1964 01===== =====1964 02===== =====1964 03===== =====1964 04===== =====1964 05===== =====1964 06===== =====1964 07===== =====1964 08===== =====1964 09===== =====1964 10===== =====1964 11===== =====1964 12===== ====1965==== =====1965 01===== =====1965 02===== =====1965 03===== =====1965 04===== =====1965 05===== =====1965 06===== =====1965 07===== =====1965 08===== =====1965 09===== =====1965 10===== =====1965 11===== =====1965 12===== ====1966==== =====1966 01===== =====1966 02===== =====1966 03===== =====1966 04===== =====1966 05===== =====1966 06===== =====1966 07===== =====1966 08===== =====1966 09===== =====1966 10===== =====1966 11===== =====1966 12===== ====1967==== =====1967 01===== =====1967 02===== =====1967 03===== =====1967 04===== =====1967 05===== =====1965 06===== =====1965 07===== =====1967 08===== =====1967 09===== =====1967 10===== =====1967 11===== =====1967 12===== ====1968==== NSW BDM death registration for 4AB's spouse MIRIAM ESTHER BARDIN <blockquote> * Death registration * Name: '''BARDIN, MIRIAM ESTHER''' * Registration Number: 10979/1968 * Father's Given Name(s): ARTHUR MOSS * Mother's Given Name(s): ELIJAH * Registration District: ST LEONARDS<ref>{{cite web | url =https://familyhistory.bdm.nsw.gov.au/lifelink/familyhistory/search/marriages?16 | url-access =free | title =Deaths Search | last = | first = | date = | website =Registry of Births, Deaths & Marriages | publisher =New South Wales Government, Department of Justice | accessdate =1 June 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> Find A Grave Index for spouse of William Frederick Bardin <blockquote> * Name: '''Miriam Esther Bardin''' * Birth: Unknown * Event Type: Burial * Event Date: 1968 * Event Place: New South Wales, Australia * Photograph Included: N * Death Date: 29 Dec 1967 * Cemetery: Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium, North Ryde, Ryde City, New South Wales, Australia * Memorial ID: 145277542<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/145277542/miriam-esther-bardin | title =Miriam Esther Bardin burial entry at Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium | last =Tipton <!-- https://www.findagrave.com/about --> | first =Jim | date = | website = | publisher =Find A Grave | accessdate =1 June 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> =====1968 01===== =====1968 02===== =====1968 03===== =====1968 04===== =====1968 05===== =====1968 06===== =====1968 07===== =====1968 08===== =====1968 09===== =====1968 10===== =====1968 11===== =====1968 12===== ====1969==== =====1969 01===== =====1969 02===== =====1969 03===== =====1969 04===== =====1969 05===== =====1969 06===== =====1969 07===== =====1969 08===== =====1969 09===== =====1969 10===== =====1969 11===== =====1969 12===== ===1970s=== ====1970==== =====1970 01===== =====1970 02===== =====1970 03===== =====1970 04===== =====1970 05===== =====1970 06===== =====1970 07===== =====1970 08===== =====1970 09===== =====1970 10===== =====1970 11===== =====1970 12===== ====1971==== =====1971 01===== =====1971 02===== =====1971 03===== =====1971 04===== =====1971 05===== =====1971 06===== =====1971 07===== =====1971 08===== =====1971 09===== =====1971 10===== =====1971 11===== =====1971 12===== ====1972==== =====1972 01===== =====1972 02===== =====1972 03===== =====1972 04===== =====1972 05===== =====1972 06===== =====1972 07===== =====1972 08===== =====1972 09===== =====1972 10===== =====1972 11===== =====1972 12===== ====1973==== =====1973 01===== =====1973 02===== =====1973 03===== =====1973 04===== =====1973 05===== =====1973 06===== =====1973 07===== =====1973 08===== =====1973 09===== =====1973 10===== =====1973 11===== =====1973 12===== ====1974==== =====1974 01===== =====1974 02===== =====1974 03===== =====1974 04===== =====1974 05===== =====1974 06===== =====1974 07===== =====1974 08===== =====1974 09===== =====1974 10===== =====1974 11===== =====1974 12===== ====1975==== =====1975 01===== =====1975 02===== =====1975 03===== =====1975 04===== =====1975 05===== =====1975 06===== =====1975 07===== =====1975 08===== =====1975 09===== =====1975 10===== =====1975 11===== =====1975 12===== ====1976==== =====1976 01===== NSW BDM death registration for William Frederic Bardin <blockquote> * '''Death registration''' * Name: BARDIN, WILLIAM FREDERICK * Registration Number: 1528/1976 * Father's Given Name(s): WILLIAM RICHARD * Mother's Given Name(s): ESTHER KAZIAH * Registration District: blank<ref>{{cite web | url =https://familyhistory.bdm.nsw.gov.au/lifelink/familyhistory/search/marriages?16 | url-access =free | title =Deaths Search | last = | first = | date = | website =Registry of Births, Deaths & Marriages | publisher =New South Wales Government, Department of Justice | accessdate =1 June 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> Find A Grave Index: William Frederick Bardin <blockquote> * Name: William Frederick Bardin * Event Type: Burial * Event Date: 1976 * Event Place: North Ryde, , New South Wales, Australia * Photograph Included: N * Death Date: 08 Jan 1976 * Cemetery: Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/145277543/william-frederick-bardin | title =William Frederick Bardin burial entry at Macquarie Park Cemetery and Crematorium | last =Tipton <!-- https://www.findagrave.com/about --> | first =Jim | date = | website = | publisher =Find A Grave | accessdate =1 June 2019 | quote = | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> =====1976 02===== =====1976 03===== =====1976 04===== Obituary for 4AB in the OTVA Newsletter <blockquote>'''W. F. (Bill) Bardin''' Bill Bardin was born in England and came to Australia with his parents early this century, while still a child. The Bardin family settled in Townsville, Queensland and it was there that Bill first became interested in the new-fangled thing called wireless. His parents thought it was no sort of a career and persuaded him to enter a solicitor's office, but the urge of radio was too great: Bill took a correspondence course with the Marconi School of Wireless, graduating in 1919. To gain experience, he then joined a Melbourne radio firm and in 1923 opened his own radio and electrical business in Townsville. Two years later he joined the engineering staff of 4QG, preparing the station for its official opening in April, 1926. He remained at 4QG during its pioneering years until the P.M.G.'s Department assumed control of the station following nationalisation of the original "A" Class broadcasting stations. In 1931, when Station 4BH, Brisbane was being organised, Bill joined the original engineering staff of that station. 4BH eventually commenced service on 2nd January, 1932. He remained with the station during its first year of operation and then took up radio servicing. In 1933 he joined A.W.A. as an operator in the Coastal Radio Service at VIT, Townsville Radio, and a year later was transferred to the A.W.A. Radio Centre at Pennant Hills. During the war he did two tours of duty in Rabaul. On the closing of Pennant Hills, Bill transferred to Doonside. Unfortunately at Doonside he suffered a nervous breakdown and O.T.C. transferred him to Head Office as a Technical Officer where he was employed in compiling and updating ionospheric prediction information. Bill was always a charming gentleman with a ready smile and will always be remembered for the way he pampered and looked after Frank Marsden when Frank was so crippled with arthritis. During his life and particularly since his retirement in 1964, Bill was a very active "ham", call signs being 4AB and 2ABZ. Many amateurs and members of the Wireless Institute were in attendance at his funeral.<ref>{{cite magazine | author = | title =W. F. Bardin | url =http://www.otva.com/newsltrarch/76APR.PDF | magazine =[[w:Overseas Telecommunications Veterans Association|Overseas Telecommunications Veteran's Association (Aus) Newsletter]] | location =Sydney | publisher = | date =April 1976 | nopp =no | volume =1 | issue =April 1976 | pages =10–11 | accessdate=2 June 2019 | separator =, }}</ref></blockquote> =====1976 05===== =====1976 06===== =====1976 07===== =====1976 08===== =====1976 09===== =====1976 10===== =====1976 11===== =====1976 12===== ====1977==== =====1977 01===== =====1977 02===== =====1977 03===== =====1977 04===== =====1977 05===== =====1975 06===== =====1975 07===== =====1977 08===== =====1977 09===== =====1977 10===== =====1977 11===== =====1977 12===== ====1978==== =====1978 01===== =====1978 02===== =====1978 03===== =====1978 04===== =====1978 05===== =====1978 06===== =====1978 07===== =====1978 08===== =====1978 09===== =====1978 10===== =====1978 11===== =====1978 12===== ====1979==== =====1979 01===== 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10===== =====1987 11===== =====1987 12===== ====1988==== =====1988 01===== =====1988 02===== =====1988 03===== =====1988 04===== =====1988 05===== =====1988 06===== =====1988 07===== =====1988 08===== =====1988 09===== =====1988 10===== =====1988 11===== =====1988 12===== ====1989==== =====1989 01===== =====1989 02===== =====1989 03===== =====1989 04===== =====1989 05===== =====1989 06===== =====1989 07===== =====1989 08===== =====1989 09===== =====1989 10===== =====1989 11===== =====1989 12===== ===1990s=== ====1990==== =====1990 01===== =====1990 02===== =====1990 03===== =====1990 04===== =====1990 05===== =====1990 06===== =====1990 07===== =====1990 08===== =====1990 09===== =====1990 10===== =====1990 11===== =====1990 12===== ====1991==== =====1991 01===== =====1991 02===== =====1991 03===== =====1991 04===== =====1991 05===== =====1991 06===== =====1991 07===== =====1991 08===== =====1991 09===== =====1991 10===== =====1991 11===== =====1991 12===== ====1992==== =====1992 01===== =====1992 02===== =====1992 03===== =====1992 04===== =====1992 05===== =====1992 06===== =====1992 07===== =====1992 08===== =====1992 09===== =====1992 10===== =====1992 11===== =====1992 12===== ====1993==== =====1993 01===== =====1993 02===== =====1993 03===== =====1993 04===== =====1993 05===== =====1993 06===== =====1993 07===== =====1993 08===== =====1993 09===== =====1993 10===== =====1993 11===== =====1993 12===== ====1994==== =====1994 01===== =====1994 02===== =====1994 03===== =====1994 04===== =====1994 05===== =====1994 06===== =====1994 07===== =====1994 08===== =====1994 09===== =====1994 10===== =====1994 11===== =====1994 12===== ====1995==== =====1995 01===== =====1995 02===== =====1995 03===== =====1995 04===== =====1995 05===== =====1995 06===== =====1995 07===== =====1995 08===== =====1995 09===== =====1995 10===== =====1995 11===== =====1995 12===== ====1996==== =====1996 01===== =====1996 02===== =====1996 03===== =====1996 04===== =====1996 05===== =====1996 06===== =====1996 07===== =====1996 08===== =====1996 09===== =====1996 10===== =====1996 11===== =====1996 12===== ====1997==== =====1997 01===== =====1997 02===== =====1997 03===== =====1997 04===== =====1997 05===== =====1995 06===== =====1995 07===== =====1997 08===== =====1997 09===== =====1997 10===== =====1997 11===== =====1997 12===== ====1998==== =====1998 01===== =====1998 02===== =====1998 03===== =====1998 04===== =====1998 05===== =====1998 06===== =====1998 07===== =====1998 08===== =====1998 09===== =====1998 10===== =====1998 11===== =====1998 12===== ====1999==== =====1999 01===== =====1999 02===== =====1999 03===== =====1999 04===== =====1999 05===== =====1999 06===== =====1999 07===== =====1999 08===== =====1999 09===== =====1999 10===== =====1999 11===== =====1999 12===== ==References== {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} 3quh5utkvm7xu5yl5xmcktqzhqbg1gv 0 475052 4654081 4652118 2026-07-11T19:15:50Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4654081 wikitext text/x-wiki =Bonds= ==Ionic== This occurs between oppositely charged ions (atoms or molecules which have gained or lost electrons). An example of an ionically bonded compound is NaCl. The sodium exists as a positive ion, Na⁺. It loses the electron in its 3s¹ sub-shell, giving it a stable electron configuration of 1s² 2s² 2p⁶, or [Ne]. This electron is donated into the 3p sub-energy level of the chlorine atom, which then forms a chloride ion, Cl^-. This also now has a stable electron configuration of 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ or [Ar]. The force of attraction (called the "electrostatic force of attraction") between these two ions, caused by their opposite charges, is the ionic bond. The ions arrange themselves into "giant ionic lattices", which are regular, repeating structures. In NaCl, every Na⁺ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl^- ions, and every Cl^- ion is surrounded by 6 Na⁺ ions. Ionic compounds are usually white and crystalline in appearance. They have high melting and boiling points, as a lot of energy is required to overcome the electrostatic forces of attraction. They can, however, be disrupted by polar solvents, such as water. Ionic compounds are often, therefore, soluble in water. Ionic compounds are brittle - they shatter when forced to change shape. Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when solid because there is no way for electrical charge to travel through the material. However if molten, or in solution, the ions can move and carry an electrical current. ==Covalent== The term covalent bond is used to describe the bonds in compounds that result from the sharing of one or more pairs of electrons. This is usually indicated as (for example) H-F for a single pair of electrons, O=O for double bonds (two pairs of electrons) and N≡N for a triple bond. The electron pair creates a 'bond' between the two atoms because it attracts the nucleus of each atom and therefore resists the separation of the two atoms. A co-ordinate bond (more correctly called a dative covalent bond) is a covalent bond in which both electrons come from the same atom. Coordinate bonds are shown using an arrow from the atom that doated the two electrons. For example, :NH₃ has a lone pair of electrons it can use to form a bond with BH₃, where the boron atom only has 6 outer electrons. The bond between N and B is shown as H₃B←NH₃. Notice how, where possible, we alter the chemical formula to help show which atom bonds to which. We could write BH₃←NH₃ but it does not help to show that it is the N bonding to the B. Another example: Two :NH₃ molecules will form coordinate bonds with an Ag⁺ ion. The ion that forms has the structure [H₃N→Ag←NH₃]⁺. ==Metallic== Positive ions are arranged in a lattice with a sea of delocalised (free) electrons. The force of attraction between the delocalised electrons and positively charged ions holds the structure together. [[A-level_Chemistry/WJEC/Module_1/Solids#Metallic_bonding|See the next chapter for full details]] =Intermolecular Forces= The bonds which act between a molecules are called intermolecular forces. The word intermolecular means, "between molecules". There are three kinds of intermolecular forces. ==Van Der Waals Forces== Van der Waals forces are forces which attract two molecules together without actually forming bonds. This definition excludes ionic bonding and hydrogen bonding. Some sources, incorrectly, also exclude dipole-dipole forces or include hydrogen bonding. ===Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole Forces=== Also known as ID-ID forces, Instantaneous Dipole-Induced Dipole forces, Temporary Dipole-Induced Dipole forces, London forces or Dispersion forces. These are the weakest of the intermolecular forces, but they are always present, and even pull atoms of noble gases together. [[Image:Fuerza de London.svg|thumb|centre|400px|Induced dipole-induced dipole forces occur in nonpolar molecules such as O₂. In a), an oxygen molecule has its electrons randomly distributed. In b), due to their random movement, the electrons sometimes concentrate in certain regions of the molecule, causing polarity. In c), the negative region of the first molecule repels the electrons of a nearby molecule, polarising it as well. In d), the opposite poles of the molecules attract each other.]] ID-ID forces are stronger if the molecules have more electrons, or if they have larger surface areas. For example, the boiling points of propane, butane and methylpropane are -42 °C, -0.5 °C and -12 °C respectively. Propane has the lowest boiling point; It is the smallest molecule, with the fewest electrons and the smallest surface area. Butane and methylpropane are isomers, with the same number of electrons (34) in each molecule. Methylpropane has a smaller surface area than butane because the methylpropane molecule is more branched - it is closer to being spherical than the long butane molecule. {{Gallery | align = center | whitebg = yes | File:Propane-3D-balls-B.png | Propane boils at -42 °C | File:Butane-3D-balls.png | Butane boils at -0.5 °C | File:Isobutane-3D-balls.png | MethylPropane boils at -12 °C }} ===Dipole-Dipole Forces=== If two molecules are both dipoles, they will attract one another; The positive end of one dipole will attract the negative end of the other dipole, and vice-versa. These are stronger forces than ID-ID forces. Dipole-Dipole forces are occasionally called Keesom forces. [[Image:Acetone dipole-dipole.jpg|300px|thumb|Two propanone ("acetone") molecules attract one another if their dipoles (δ+ to δ- partial charges) are aligned.]] ==Hydrogen Bonding== This is the strongest type of intermolecular force. Hydrogen bonds only occur between a hydrogen atom and a lone pair of electrons on a nitrogen (N), oxygen (O) or fluorine (F) atom. The H atom must have a strong partial charge (δ+), and this will be because the H atom is bonded to another N, O or F atom. The electronegative atom (N, O or F) pulls electrons away from the hydrogen so that, on the opposite side to the bond, the hydrogen appears almost like an unshielded proton. Hydrogen bonds have a particular geometry. The N, O or F lone pair will have a specific angle relative to the other electron pairs, according to VSEPR theory. The X-H···X angle has to be close to 180° [[Image:H-Bruecke-delta.svg|200px|thumb|left|Two water molecules form a hydrogen bond if the O-H bond of one molecule lines up with the lone pair on the O atom of the second molecule. The O-H···O angle will be close to 180°]] = Shapes of Molecules - VSEPR Theory = {{Wikipedia|molecular geometry}} Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR) is used to predict the shape of a molecule. "Valence shell electrons" are simply the electrons in the outer shell of an atom. Electrons are usually in pairs, and they repel one another. The shape of the molecule is a natural consequence of electrostatic repulsion between every electron pair. You can use the so-called ''AXE method'' to calculate the shape of a molecule. "A" represents which atom's geometry we want to analyse. "X" represents anything bonded to atom A, either atoms or groups of atoms, whether bonded with a single, double or triple bond. Lone pairs are labelled E. A molecule with three lone pairs and two atoms/groups bonded to it would be denoted AX₂E₃. The table below shows how X and E and molecular shape are related. {| class="wikitable" style="margin:auto 0;" |- ! AXE label ! X<br><small>(substituents)</small> ! E<br><small>(lone pairs)</small> ! Shape ! 2D diagram<br><small>lone pairs shown</small> ! 2D diagram <br><small>lone pairs not shown</small> ! 3D model<br><small>lone pairs shown</small> ! 3D model<br><small>lone pairs not shown</small> ! Examples |- ! AX₁E₀ | style="text-align:center"|1 | style="text-align:center"|0 | Linear | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:dihydrogen|H₂]] |- ! AX₂E₀ | style="text-align:center"|2 | style="text-align:center"|0 | Linear | [[Image:AX2E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Linear-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:beryllium chloride|BeCl₂]]<br>[[w:mercury(II) chloride|HgCl₂]]<br>[[w:carbon dioxide|CO₂]] |- ! AX₁E₁ | style="text-align:center"|1 | style="text-align:center"|1 | Linear | [[Image:AX1E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:cyanide|CN⁻]] |- ! AX₃E₀ | style="text-align:center"|3 | style="text-align:center"|0 | Trigonal planar | [[Image:AX3E0-side-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E0-side-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Trigonal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:boron trifluoride|BF₃]]<br>[[w:carbonate|CO₃²⁻]]<br>[[w:nitrate|NO₃⁻]]<br>[[w:sulfur trioxide|SO₃]] |- ! AX₂E₁ | style="text-align:center"|2 | style="text-align:center"|1 | Bent | [[Image:AX2E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2-bent-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Bent-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:nitrite|NO₂⁻]]<br>[[w:sulfur dioxide|SO₂]]<br>[[w:ozone|O₃]] |- ! AX₁E₂ | style="text-align:center"|1 | style="text-align:center"|2 | Linear | [[Image:AX1E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:allotropes of oxygen#dioxygen|O₂]] |- ! AX₄E₀ | style="text-align:center"|4 | style="text-align:center"|0 | Tetrahedral | [[Image:AX4E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Tetrahedral-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:methane|CH₄]]<br>[[w:ammonium|NH₄⁺]]<br>[[w:phosphate|PO₄³⁻]]<br>[[w:sulfate|SO₄²⁻]]<br>[[w:perchlorate|ClO₄⁻]] |- ! AX₃E₁ | style="text-align:center"|3 | style="text-align:center"|1 | Trigonal pyramidal | [[Image:AX3E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3-pyramidal-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Pyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:ammonia|NH₃]]<br>[[w:phosphorus trichloride|PCl₃]] |- ! AX₂E₂ | style="text-align:center"|2 | style="text-align:center"|2 | Bent | [[Image:AX2E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2-bent-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Bent-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:water (molecule)|H₂O]]<br>[[w:hydrogen sulfide|H₂S]]<br>[[w:oxygen difluoride|OF₂]]|- |- ! AX₁E₃ | style="text-align:center"|1 | style="text-align:center"|3 | Linear | [[Image:AX1E3-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E3-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX1E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:hydrogen chloride|HCl]] |- ! AX₅E₀ | style="text-align:center"|5 | style="text-align:center"|0 | Trigonal Bipyramidal | [[Image:AX5E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX5E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:Trigonal-bipyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Trigonal-bipyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:phosphorus pentachloride|PCl₅]] |- ! AX₄E₁ | style="text-align:center"|4 | style="text-align:center"|1 | Seesaw | [[Image:AX4E1-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4-seesaw-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Seesaw-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:sulfur tetrafluoride|SF₄]] |- ! AX₃E₂ | style="text-align:center"|3 | style="text-align:center"|2 | T-shaped | [[Image:AX3E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX3-T-shaped-2D.png|100px]] | [[Image:AX3E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:T-shaped-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:chlorine trifluoride|ClF₃]]<br>[[w:bromine trifluoride|BrF₃]] |- ! AX₂E₃ | style="text-align:center"|2 | style="text-align:center"|3 | Linear | [[Image:AX2E3-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX2E3-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Linear-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:xenon difluoride|XeF₂]]<br>[[w:triiodide|I₃⁻]] |- ! AX₆E₀ | style="text-align:center"|6 | style="text-align:center"|0 | Octahedral | [[Image:AX6E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX6E0-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX6E0-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Octahedral-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:sulfur hexafluoride|SF₆]] |- ! AX₅E₁ | style="text-align:center"|5 | style="text-align:center"|1 | Square pyramidal | [[Image:AX5E1-2D-1.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX5-square-pyramidal-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX5E1-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Square-pyramidal-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:chlorine pentafluoride|ClF₅]]<br>[[w:bromine pentafluoride|BrF₅]] |- ! AX₄E₂ | style="text-align:center"|4 | style="text-align:center"|2 | Square Planar | [[Image:AX4E2-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4-square-planar-2D.svg|100px]] | [[Image:AX4E2-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[Image:Square-planar-3D-balls.png|100px]] | [[w:xenon tetrafluoride|XeF₄]] |} == Methane molecule == There are multiple ways to show the structure of a molecule like methane. Dot-cross diagrams show each pair of electrons in the outer shell (the "valence electrons"). The 3D shape depends on the number of independent valence electron pairs. {{Gallery | align = center | whitebg = yes | File:Methane-2D-dot-cross.png | dot-cross diagram | File:Methan Lewis.svg | displayed structure | File:Methane-3D-balls.png | ball-and-stick model | File:Methane-3D-vdW.png | spacefilling model | File:Methane-2D-small.png | representation with 'wedge' and 'hash' bonds | File:Methane tetrahedral lines.svg | connecting the H-atoms shows the tetrahedral structure }} == Ammonia molecule == {{Gallery | align = center | whitebg = yes | File:Ammonia-2D-dot-cross.png | dot-cross diagram | File:Ammonia-with-lone-pairs-3D-balls.png | ball-and-stick model with lone pair displayed | File:Ammonia-3D-balls.png | ball-and-stick model without lone pair displayed | File:Ammonia lone electron pair.svg | structural drawing with lone pair displayed }} == Water molecule == {{Gallery | align = center | whitebg = yes | File:Water-2D-dot-cross.png | dot-cross diagram | File:Water-with-lone-pairs-3D-balls.png | ball-and-stick model with lone pairs displayed | File:Water-3D-balls.png | ball-and-stick model without lone pairs displayed | File:Molecular shape - water.svg |structural drawing with lone pairs displayed }} == Tetrahedra == You have probably come across tetrahedra before in maths, although you most likely called them triangle-based pyramids. Tetrahedra have four vertices (corners), four faces and six edges. Each face is an equilateral triangle. The tetrahedron is one of the most important shapes in chemistry because a very great many molecules contain them. Tetrahedral molecules don't actually contain little pyramids. What they do contain is a central atom bonded to four other atoms. The four atoms surrounding the central atom occupy positions that you can imagine as the vertices of a tetrahedron. In the image gallery below, the central atom is coloured magenta and the surrounding atoms are coloured white. {{Gallery | align = center | whitebg = yes | File:Tetrahedron-1-3D-balls.png |<div style="text-align: center;">a tetrahedral molecule</div> | File:Tetrahedron-2-3D-balls.png |<div style="text-align: center;">to see the tetrahedron, connect the surrounding atoms with lines</div> | File:Tetrahedron-3-3D-balls.png |<div style="text-align: center;">the lines form the edges of the tetrahedron</div> | File:Tetrahedron-4-3D-balls.png | | File:Tetrahedral-angle-3D-balls.png |<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral angle ≈ 109.5°</div> | File:AX4E0-2D.svg |<div style="text-align: center;">chemists represent tetrahedra using hashed and wedged bonds</div> | File:Methane-2D-small.png |<div style="text-align: center;">this is how chemists represent methane</div> | File:Methane tetrahedral lines.svg |<div style="text-align: center;">connecting the H-atoms shows the tetrahedron</div> | File:Methane-2D-flat-small.png |<div style="text-align: center;">this 'flat' representation - GCSE-style - is simpler but less realistic</div> }} The angle between any two bonds in a tetrahedral molecule is approximately 109.5°. The tetrahedral angle can be calculated as accurately as required because it is equal to cos⁻¹(–⅓). == Octahedra == You may or may not have met an octahedron before. Octahedra have six vertices (corners), eight faces and twelve edges. Each face is an equilateral triangle. Octahedra are very important in chemistry because many complex ions formed by metals are octahedral. <gallery class="center"> Image:Octahedron-1-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">an octahedral molecule</div> Image:Octahedron-2-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">to see the octahedron, connect the surrounding atoms with lines</div> Image:Octahedron-3-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">the lines form the edges of the octahedron</div> Image:Octahedron-4-3D-balls.png Image:Octahedral-angle-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral angle = 90° exactly</div> Image:AX6E0-2D.svg|<div style="text-align: center;">chemists represent octahedra using hashed and wedged bonds</div> Image:Sulfur-hexafluoride-2D-small.svg|<div style="text-align: center;">this is how chemists represent sulfur hexafluoride, SF₆</div> Image:Sulfur-hexafluoride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">a ball-and-stick model of SF₆</div> </gallery> == Common molecular geometries == <gallery class="center"> Image:Linear-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear</br>X-A-X angle: 180°</div> Image:Bent-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">bent</br>X-A-X angle: 104.5° (in H₂O)</div> Image:Trigonal-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar</br>X-A-X angle: 120°</div> Image:Pyramidal-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal pyramidal</br>X-A-X angle: 107° (in NH₃)</div> Image:Square-planar-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">square planar</br>X-A-X angle: 90°</div> Image:Tetrahedral-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral</br>X-A-X angle: 109.5°</div> Image:Trigonal-bipyramidal-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal bipyramidal</br>X-A-X angles: 90° and 120°</div> Image:Octahedral-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral</br>X-A-X angle: 90°</div> </gallery> == Further examples == === Example molecules === <gallery class="center"> Image:Carbon-dioxide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear: CO₂</div> Image:Hydrogen-sulfide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">bent: H₂S</div> Image:Boron-triiodide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar: BI₃</div> Image:Ammonia-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">pyramidal: NH₃</div> Image:Xenon-tetrafluoride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">square planar: XeF₄</div> Image:Methane-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral: CH₄</div> Image:Phosphorus-pentachloride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal bipyramidal: [[w:phosphorus pentachloride|PCl₅]]</div> Image:Sulfur-hexafluoride-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">octahedral: [[w:sulfur hexafluoride|SF₆]]</div> </gallery> The shape of a molecule can affect its polarity. CO₂, BI₃, XeF₄, PCl₅ and SF₆ all have '''polar ''bonds'''''. However, the geometry of the bonds is '''symmetrical''' and the polarity of the bonds in each molecule will cancel out, leaving a '''non-polar ''molecule'''''. A polar molecule must have polar bonds '''and''' an asymmetrical structure. CF₄ and CH₂Cl₂ are similar molecules. The C-F bonds are more polar than the C-Cl bonds (and C-H bonds are hardly polar at all). However, CF₄ is symmetrical and therefore it is non-polar. CF₄ boils at -127.8 °C and CH₂Cl₂ boils at 39.6 °C. The lighter, but asymmetrical, molecule CH₂F₂ boils at -51.7 °C. === Example ions === <gallery class="center"> Image:Hydroxide-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">linear:<br>[[w:hydroxide|hydroxide]], OH⁻</div> Image:Carbonate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar:<br>[[w:carbonate|carbonate]], CO₃²⁻</div> Image:Nitrate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal planar:<br>[[w:nitrate|nitrate]], NO₃⁻</div> Image:Hydronium-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">trigonal pyramidal:<br>[[w:hydronium|hydronium]], H₃O⁺</div> Image:Thiosulfate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:thiosulfate|thiosulfate]], S₂O₃²⁻</div> Image:Sulfate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:sulfate|sulfate]], SO₄²⁻</div> Image:Phosphate-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:phosphate|phosphate]], PO₄³⁻</div> Image:Ammonium-3D-balls.png|<div style="text-align: center;">tetrahedral:<br>[[w:ammonium|ammonium]], NH₄⁺</div> </gallery> ==Answering Questions== Many questions on this topic will ask about two or more chemicals and give you information such as: * Chemical A has a higher boiling point than chemical B * Chemical A has a higher melting point than chemical B * Chemical A is less volatile than chemical B * Chemical A is a solid and chemical B is a gas * Chemical A is a solid and chemical B is a liquid * Chemical A is a liquid and chemical B is a gas If the chemicals are small molecules, in every case, you can immediately say that '''Chemical A has stronger intermolecular bonds''' than Chemical B. If the chemicals are ionic, metallic or giant covalent structures, you can immediately say that '''Chemical A has strong bonds''' than Chemical B. Now, you need to identify the bonds. If the chemicals have different types of bond, you have an answer: For example, "Chemical A has hydrogen bonds which are stronger than the dipole-dipole forces in chemical B". If the chemicals have the same bonds, then you need to dig deeper, why are these bonds stronger in chemical A? Dipole-dipole bonds depend on the strength of the dipole i.e. the differences in electronegativity. Induced dipole-induced dipole forces are stronger if the molecules have larger surfaces and/or more electrons. Metallic bonds are stronger if the metals release more electrons and/or form smaller ions (compare group 1, 2 and 3 metals). Ionic bonds are stronger if the ionic charges are large and/or the ions are small. {{BookCat}} bwmz42nnptvykup8x4dtu081kt74y13 2 477288 4654196 4607776 2026-07-12T11:16:00Z Xhungab 545789 4654196 wikitext text/x-wiki a. * [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definite_matrix#Decomposition Definite matrix: Gram matrix]] g9d8x3oqtdokpcw23rhulmw2khkcs8q 4654197 4654196 2026-07-12T11:17:47Z Xhungab 545789 4654197 wikitext text/x-wiki a. * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definite_matrix#Decomposition Wikipedia: Definite matrix: Gram matrix] ciny95kbomh3inqco5emawdlknfz4kd 0 479515 4654155 4653514 2026-07-11T23:55:48Z Thierry Dugnolle 2807160 /* Preliminary: a theory of essences */ 4654155 wikitext text/x-wiki ''- ... I'm willing to join you in examining virtue and inquiring into what it could be.'' ''- But how will you inquire into this, Socrates, when you don't at all know what it is? For what sort of thing, from among those you don't know, will you put forward as the thing you're inquiring into? And even if you really encounter it, how will you know that this is the thing you didn't know?'' ''- I understand the sort of thing you want to say, Meno. Do you see what an eristic argument you're introducing, that its not possible for someone to inquire either into that which he knows or into that which he doesn't know? For he wouldn't inquire into that which he knows (for he knows it, and there is no need for such a person to inquire); nor into that which he doesn't know (for he doesn't even know what he'll inquire into).'' (Plato, ''Meno'' 80de, translated by Gail Fine, in ''The possibility of inquiry, Meno's paradox from Socrates to Sextus'', 2014) Reason is about thinking and acting well, acquiring knowledge and using it wisely. Reason dictates that knowledge must be reflective. If we don't know that we know, then it's not rational knowledge. To be rational, we must therefore know how to observe knowledge. To search, one must know what one is searching for. One must know how to observe whether one has found what one is searching for; otherwise, it is vain to search for it. To search for knowledge, therefore, one must know how to observe knowledge. Epistemology is knowledge about knowledge. It provides the laws for observing all knowledge. We can think of irrational forms of knowledge: animal knowledge, wordless knowledge, and unreflective knowledge. Epistemology in the broad sense is rational knowledge about all knowledge, whether rational or not. Epistemology in the strict sense is rational knowledge about rational knowledge. This book is devoted to epistemology in the strict sense. Throughout this text, knowledge always means rational knowledge. Knowledge is a truth obtained through good work. To observe knowledge, therefore, one must observe truth and goodness. We can distinguish three forms of truth: logical truth, truth about Nature, and ethical truth. The first chapter of this book is devoted to logical truth, the next to truth about Nature and ethical truth. The third chapter is devoted to epistemology. Logical, or mathematical, truths are the truths about everything that is logically possible. To be logically possible is to be absolutely possible. Nothing can exist without being logically possible. Logical truths are the most general. Truths about Nature are the truths about matter, life, and mind. Ethical truths are the truths about good and evil. We understand good and evil through ideals. An ideal prescribes good and forbids evil. An ideal is like an instrument for observing good and evil. Epistemology (in the strict sense) is fundamentally ethical knowledge because it defines an ideal of rational knowledge. This ideal is like an instrument for observing reason. By providing the laws for observing knowledge, epistemology gives us the ability to observe all forms of knowledge. We acquire knowledge by observing that it is knowledge. Epistemology thus provides the ability to acquire all forms of knowledge. This short treatise is a user's guide to reason because it gives the most fundamental principles of the most fundamental sciences, from which all knowledge can be based, and because it shows how to observe and acquire all knowledge. == Preliminary: a theory of essences == An essence is a property, a quality, a concept, an attribute, and a predicate. All these terms are treated here as synonymous. A relation between two terms, x and y, is a property of the ordered pair (x, y). For instance, love is a property of (x, y) if and only if x loves y. (x, y) must be distinguished from (y, x) because "x loves y" differs from "y loves x". x is essential to y if and only if y cannot exist without x. x is an essential property of y if and only if y cannot exist without possessing property x. The essence of a being is the conjunction of its essential properties. The essence of a being is the conjunction of the essences that are essential to that being. A conjunction of properties is itself a property; therefore, the essence of a being is an essence. It is essential for an essence to be capable of attribution. Even an essence that is attributed to nothing—such as "being a nothingness," since nothing is a nothingness—can be falsely attributed to a being. A predicate is a statement containing free variables. For example, x and y are the free variables of the predicate "x loves y". A predicate is predicated, or attributed, when its free variables are replaced by constants. A predicate is an expression that names a concept and can be identified with the concept it names. When we observe that a being possesses a property, we simultaneously observe the presence of that being and the presence of its property. Essences exist in our world as soon as they hold true for at least one being within that world. Our world is part of their world. Their world is the world of all possibilities, and our world is included in it. x is an essence if and only if there exists a system of laws such that an attribution of x is true if it is a logical consequence of those laws. The essence of an essence—the essential property of an essence—is to reveal the truth when it is attributed in accordance with its laws. If there were no law, there would be no essence, because to be an essence, there must be laws governing its attribution. If there were no essence, there would be nothing, because to exist, one must possess properties. Therefore, if there were no law, there would be nothing. In the beginning was the law. One must distinguish between beauty and the essence of beauty. Both are essences, yet they differ. Beauty is the property of being beautiful. The essence of beauty is the property of revealing the truth when it is attributed in accordance with the laws of beauty. These are two distinct properties. It is beautiful to reveal the truth about beauty. This is a law of beauty. Thus, beauty possesses the property of being beautiful. Beauty itself is beautiful. It is a truly beautiful essence. It is like a goddess revealing the beauty of all that is beautiful. Being a property is a property. Being an essence is an essence—which may be named "the essence" just as cowardice is names the property of being a coward. What is the essence of the essence? What is the essential property of the property of being a property? The essence of the essence is the property of revealing the truth when it is attributed in accordance with the fundamental law of the essence: x is an essence if and only if there exists a system of laws such that an attribution of x is true if it is a logical consequence of those laws. To effectively pursue the truth, one must know the laws governing the attribution of concepts; otherwise, we speak haphazardly and never know whether what we say is true. Knowledge of these laws is therefore essential for acquiring knowledge. This short treatise sets forth the most fundamental laws regarding the attribution of the most fundamental concepts. These laws are the ever-flowing source of all knowledge and truth—insofar as we can discover them through diligent inquiry. If you drink from this water, you will always know how to quench your thirst for knowledge. {{BookCat}} llfz3nl8lnm7i5kzn98fd0xdmxisgl3 110 482970 4654087 4633296 2026-07-11T19:17:14Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654087 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''A''' is for '''A'''ardvark</div> [[File:Orycteropus afer afer 78448701.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 8zxgglldrqbjuzo8rcyw7makpe28jk4 110 482971 4654091 4633297 2026-07-11T19:17:43Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654091 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''B''' is for '''B'''aboon</div> [[File:Hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) female.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] colfoiamg9rr6aavkx80wx6mjhshxtl 110 482972 4654092 4633298 2026-07-11T19:18:47Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654092 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''C''' is for '''C'''heetah</div> [[File:Cheetah Umfolozi SouthAfrica MWegmann.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 7rxm2i0vbk7fg993jqy270jd4dvcy9c 110 482973 4654093 4633299 2026-07-11T19:19:02Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654093 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''D''' is for '''D'''uck</div> [[File:Water reflection of a domestic duck in a pond at golden hour in Don Det Laos - side view.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] fuylta0cjf4zge95iwumr6vewkvvnv0 110 482974 4654094 4633300 2026-07-11T19:19:07Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654094 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''E''' is for '''E'''lephant</div> [[File:African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) male Kruger.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 99kft2x25xzrcwo1mjsfemjs8cz93tb 110 482975 4654095 4633301 2026-07-11T19:19:16Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654095 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''F''' is for '''F'''lamingo</div> [[File:PHOENICOPTERIDAE IN SHENZHEN SAFARI PARK.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] by5nfaucos6704go3pveoaiiopcpz46 110 482976 4654096 4633302 2026-07-11T19:19:22Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654096 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''G''' is for '''G'''azelle</div> [[File:022 Grant's gazelle in the Serengeti National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 40bblp9300311mfi31cvay99ageerur 110 482977 4654097 4633303 2026-07-11T19:19:28Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654097 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''H''' is for '''H'''ippopotamus</div> [[File:Hippo (Hippopotamus amphibius) (16485955207).jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 8i2c7tlbxrzd1c2rcx7rd4fn9xkojpv 110 482978 4654098 4633304 2026-07-11T19:19:32Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654098 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''I''' is for '''I'''mpala</div> [[File:Impala (Aepyceros melampus) male Kruger 2.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] blw1859zev3aespjyiwmot2cq44mt7f 110 482979 4654100 4633305 2026-07-11T19:19:52Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654100 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''J''' is for '''J'''ackal</div> [[File:Jackal Cape cross 2009.JPG|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] et4hi23st6kdyg2tnckfvyvjeavbbgg 110 482980 4654103 4633306 2026-07-11T19:20:23Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654103 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''K''' is for '''K'''udu</div> [[File:Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) male Kruger.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] ogcb1lrnfl42nrbzk9gna47g5h8ufea 110 482981 4654104 4633307 2026-07-11T19:20:29Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654104 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''L''' is for '''L'''ion</div> [[File:León (Panthera leo), parque nacional de Tarangire, Tanzania, 2024-05-24, DD 47.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] j1bvmbais8rsp1rtvli0hmkc2t29n9p 110 482982 4654105 4633308 2026-07-11T19:20:34Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654105 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''M''' is for '''M'''ongoose</div> [[File:170 Banded mongoose at sunset in Etosha National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] lfufa9usitw2q6mxx7wgr3ivqdtrf90 110 482983 4654106 4633309 2026-07-11T19:20:39Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654106 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''N''' is for '''N'''yala</div> [[File:Tragelaphus angasii 320641826.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] sxozfpjf8bpzuvk1r6mpbhgu2fdxdgj 110 482984 4654107 4633310 2026-07-11T19:20:41Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654107 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''O''' is for '''O'''ryx</div> [[File:Oryx gazella -Etosha National Park, Namibia-8.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 9xqd08ovwncupaf4n9i1ajt88mgq26o 110 482985 4654109 4633311 2026-07-11T19:20:49Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654109 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''P''' is for '''P'''eacock</div> [[File:099 Indian peafowl in Jim Corbett National Park Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] mfn30jtsiat1f2qklxw95op43bv1b3s 110 482986 4654110 4633312 2026-07-11T19:20:55Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654110 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''Q''' is for '''Q'''uelea</div> [[File:Red-billed quelea (Quelea quelea aethiopica) male breeding plumage yellow.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] qw1oi73wixlnhjblxt1g9kuiwcf4yth 110 482987 4654111 4633313 2026-07-11T19:21:01Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654111 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''R''' is for '''R'''hinoceros</div> [[File:108 Male White rhinoceros walking in the Kalahari Desert of Namibia Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] k3uedj3jynidtr5lqcy95sbgs3fsmjs 110 482988 4654112 4633314 2026-07-11T19:21:06Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654112 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''S''' is for '''S'''erval</div> [[File:Serval (Leptailurus serval), parque nacional Serengueti, Tanzania, 2024-05-26, DD 01.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] qbkw3x0vkh2ityq5gjukrczg2e2vxuv 110 482989 4654113 4633326 2026-07-11T19:21:08Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654113 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''T''' is for '''T'''iger</div> [[File:Bandhavgarh National Park.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 31clovj97hloyrdv9nuoqubuntvodzn 110 482990 4654114 4633317 2026-07-11T19:21:11Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654114 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''U''' is for '''U'''ganda Kob</div> [[File:Ugandan kob (Kobus kob thomasi) male 2.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 3y2bdhsp9e9zj5xyeurep78tsyvr0xk 110 482991 4654115 4633319 2026-07-11T19:21:17Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654115 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''V''' is for '''V'''ervet</div> [[File:Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) Maputo.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 12q8wf4t3u2zxtuwbg3bw1y4at9o18l 110 482992 4654117 4633321 2026-07-11T19:21:22Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654117 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''W''' is for '''W'''ildebeest</div> [[File:Blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus taurinus) male Namibia.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 79keoququcdsan01vi1ro30jj2d5mzc 110 482993 4654119 4633322 2026-07-11T19:21:26Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654119 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''X''' is for '''X'''erus</div> [[File:Xerus inauris.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] 9pcixqhe6cpzcrte7dqba9dau9t8tkn 110 482994 4654120 4633323 2026-07-11T19:21:30Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654120 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''Y''' is for '''Y'''ellow-Billed Hornbill</div> [[File:Tockus leucomelas -Kalahari Desert, Botswana -8.jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] jb4qngmpf7tibbamoabnil3iz78skan 110 482995 4654122 4633325 2026-07-11T19:21:38Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654122 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: center; font-size: 400%;">'''Z''' is for '''Z'''ebra</div> [[File:Zebra (Botswana Reserve).jpg|500px|center]] [[Category:Book:Wikijunior:African Animal Alphabet]] f9jcew69emkpny2x7hwwrwb6pz9ixim 828 483676 4654191 4638186 2026-07-12T06:25:17Z Addonian1123 3471203 4654191 wikitext text/x-wiki '''This is not a snadbox.''' 4pgkyu9vb11ej0qtzbbpm84azn48eu7 4654192 4654191 2026-07-12T06:25:39Z Addonian1123 3471203 4654192 wikitext text/x-wiki '''This is not a sandbox.''' qlhvd3pi87l5qk42vktt9lwur11yhl1 0 484110 4653987 4642090 2026-07-11T12:03:33Z 一隻北極熊 3609960 4653987 wikitext text/x-wiki [[file:Taiwan NASA Terra MODIS 23791.jpg|thumb|Taiwan]] '''Taiwan''' (Traditional Chinese:台灣), located on the Pacific ocean, is a country with a complex history. It is a rich mosaic shaped by its indigenous roots, successive waves of colonization, and a modern transformation into a thriving democracy and global technological powerhouse. Learning the Taiwan history can help you understand more about the Taiwanese culture. This book will introduce all of the Taiwanese history, from the Prehistorical Era to the Modern day Taiwan. Have fun learning! '''Note:''' Not to be confused with ''History of Republic of China'', which is the government in Taiwan, started in 1912 in mainland China, and retreated to Taiwan in 1949. {{BookCat}} oigatjkh4w7lgaky9jxat9il7k4eyxe 2 484215 4654148 4651903 2026-07-11T23:15:30Z Tenshi Hinanawi 3513579 -3 4654148 wikitext text/x-wiki # [2026-07-06 01:39] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Gimmy Wails]] # [2026-07-06 01:45] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Mike.lifeguard/Archive 30]] # [2026-07-06 02:06] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Adrignola/2010/11]] # [2026-07-06 02:09] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Mike.lifeguard/Archive 15]] # [2026-07-06 02:27] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Mike.lifeguard/Archive 7]] # [2026-07-06 02:28] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Mike.lifeguard/Archive 2]] # [2026-07-06 02:39] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[MediaWiki:Abusefilter-warning-interrogative]] # [2026-07-06 02:53] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[Wikibooks:Arbitration/Panic2k4 vs. SBJohnny]] # [2026-07-06 03:41] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Adrignola/2010/10]] # [2026-07-06 03:42] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by 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(Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Granddad]] # [2026-07-06 13:53] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Mike.lifeguard/Archive 18]] # [2026-07-06 14:07] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Adrignola/2009/06]] # [2026-07-06 14:11] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Adrignola/2010/04]] # [2026-07-06 14:12] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Adrignola/2010/03]] # [2026-07-06 14:16] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Adrignola/2009/12]] # 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[2026-07-06 19:13] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[Wikibooks:Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License]] # [2026-07-06 19:16] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Adrignola/2010/01]] # [2026-07-06 19:20] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[MediaWiki:Abusefilter-warning-whitespace]] # [2026-07-06 19:22] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User:Perl~enwikibooks]] # [2026-07-06 19:23] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[User talk:Mike.lifeguard/Archive 4]] # [2026-07-06 19:56] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by 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talk:Mike.lifeguard/Archive 13]] # [2026-07-06 21:56] (Task 1): Either edit conflicted on page, the page is protected, or stopped by exclusion compliance, failed to edit [[MediaWiki:Abusefilter-warning-hidden]] kuk664q4455csg85u6z2bebrf16tytq 0 484603 4654187 4653538 2026-07-12T03:08:50Z JustTheFacts33 3434282 /* Position 8, Engine */ 4654187 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Warning}}{{clear}} ===Positions 1–3, World Manufacturer Identifier:=== * YS3 - Saab passenger car * YK1 - Saab passenger car made by Valmet in Finland ('81-'83) * JF4 - Saab passenger car made by Subaru in Japan ('05-'06 9-2X) * 3G0 - Saab MPV made by GM in Mexico ('11 9-4X) * 5S3 - Saab MPV made by GM in US ('05-'09 9-7X) ===Positions 4, Model Line:=== * A = 900 (1st gen. - '81-'93, '94 convertible) * C = 9000 ('86-'98) * D = 900 (2nd gen. - '94-'98 3-d/5-d, '95-'98 convertible) * D = 9-3 (1st gen. - '99-'02, '03 convertible) * E = 9-5 (1st gen. - '99-'09) * F = 9-3 (2nd gen. - '03-'11 4-d, '04-'11 convertible, '06-'11 wagon) * G = 9-5 (2nd gen. - '10-'11) ===Positions 6, Body Style:=== * 2 = 2-dr. sedan ('85-'86 900) * 3 = 3-dr. hatchback ('81-'98 900, '99-'02 9-3) * 4 = 4-dr. sedan ('81-'93 900, '03-'11 9-3, '89-'95 9000, '99-'11 9-5) * 5 = 5-dr. hatchback ('94-'98 900, '99-'02 9-3, '86-'92 9000) * 5 = 5-dr. wagon ('99-'09 9-5 wagon/SportCombi, '06-'11 9-3 SportCombi) * 6 = 5-dr. hatchback ('93-'98 9000) * 7 = 2-dr. convertible ('86-'98 900, '99-'11 9-3) ===Positions 7, Transmission: ('84+)=== * 5 = 5-spd. manual ('84-'93 900, '94 900 convertible, '86-'98 9000) * 6 = 3-spd. automatic ('84-'93 900, '94 900 convertible) * 6 = 6-spd. manual ('03-'07 9-3) * 8 = 4-spd. automatic ('94-'98 900, '99-'02 9-3, '03 9-3 convertible, '86-'98 9000, '99-'01 9-5) * 9 = 5-spd. automatic ('02-'07 9-5) * 1 = 6-spd. automatic ('06-'07 9-3 Aero 2.8T) * 1 = 6-spd. automatic, FWD ('08-'09 9-3 Aero 2.8T) * 2 = 6-spd. automatic, AWD ('08-'09 9-3 Aero 2.8T, '08 9-3 Turbo X, '09 9-3 2.0T XWD) * 5 = 5-spd. manual, FWD ('08-'09 9-5) * 6 = 6-spd. manual, FWD ('08-'09 9-3) * 7 = 6-spd. manual, AWD ('08-'09 9-3 Aero 2.8T, '08 9-3 Turbo X, '09 9-3 2.0T XWD) * 9 = 5-spd. automatic, FWD ('08-'09 9-3 2.0T FWD, '08-'09 9-5) * A = 6-spd. automatic, FWD ('11 9-5) * B = 6-spd. automatic, AWD ('10-'11 9-3, '10-'11 9-5) * C = 5-spd. automatic, FWD ('10-'11 9-3) * M = 6-spd. manual, FWD ('10-'11 9-3, '11 9-5) * N = 6-spd. manual, AWD ('10-'11 9-3) ===Position 8, Engine=== *A = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B235L I4 ('04-'05 9-5 Arc) *B = 2.3L DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B234I I4 ('98 900 S 5-d/convertible) *E = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B235E Light-pressure turbo I4 <br> ('99 9-5 2.3T, '00-'01 9-5 2.3T Base model, '00 9-5 Gary Fisher Edition wagon, '02-'05 9-5 Linear) *G = 2.3L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B235R high output I4 ('99-'02 9-3 Viggen, '00-'05 9-5 Aero, '06-'09 9-5) *H = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B205L std. output I4 ('00-'01 9-3 base model) *J = 2.8L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM High Feature Saab A28NER V6 (RPO code: LAU) ('10-'11 9-5) *K = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B205R high output I4 ('00-'02 9-3 SE 5-d, '00-'03 9-3 SE convertible) *N = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B204L std. output I4 ('98 900 S Turbo 3-d, '98 900 SE Turbo, '99 9-3 base model, SE w/auto. trans., Early '99 9-3 SE w/man. trans.) *P = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve Saab H engine B204R high output I4 (Mid '99 9-3 SE w/man. trans.) *R = 2.8L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM High Feature Saab B284R high output V6 <br> ('08-'09 9-3 Aero XWD 4-d/wagon, '08 9-3 Turbo X XWD 4-d/wagon, '09 9-3 Aero FWD convertible) *R = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] Gas/E85 Flex-Fuel (Biopower) DOHC 16-valve Direct injection GM Ecotec Gen II Saab A20NFT I4 (RPO code: LHU) ('11 9-5) *S = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve GM Ecotec Gen I Saab B207L Light-pressure turbo I4 ('03-'05 9-3 Linear) *U = 2.8L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM High Feature Saab B284L V6 ('06-'08 9-3 Aero FWD) *Y = 2.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 16-valve GM Ecotec Gen I Saab B207R high output I4 ('03 9-3 Arc, Vector, '04-'05 9-3 Arc, Aero, '06-'11 9-3 2.0T) *Z = 3.0L turbo [[w:Intercooler|IC]] DOHC 24-valve GM/Opel 54° V6 Saab B308E ('99 9-5 V6, '00-'01 9-5 SE, '02-'03 9-5 Arc) ===Position 9, Check Digit=== [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Check digit |Check digit]] ===Position 10, Model Year: === [[Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN codes)/Model year|Model year]] ===Position 11, Production Plant:=== * 1: Trollhattan, Sweden (Line 1: '81-'85 900, Line A: '86-'98 9000, '03-'11 9-3) * 2: Trollhattan, Sweden (Line 2: '81-'85 900, Line B: '86-'98 900, '88-'91 9000) * 2: Trollhattan, Sweden (Line A: '99-'02 9-3) * 3: Arlov, Sweden ('85-'90 900) * 3: Trollhattan, Sweden (Line B: '99-'09 9-5) * 4: Trollhattan, Sweden ('10-'11 9-5) * 5: Malmo, Sweden ('90-'91 900) * 6: Graz, Austria (Magna Steyr plant: '04-'10 9-3 convertible) * 7: Uusikaupunki, Finland (Valmet plant - '85-'98 900, '99-'03 9-3) * 9: Trollhattan, Sweden (Prototype Line) * G: Ota, Gunma prefecture, Japan [Subaru plant] ('05-'06 Saab 9-2X w/5-spd. man. trans.) * H: Ota, Gunma prefecture, Japan [Subaru plant] ('05-'06 Saab 9-2X w/4-spd. auto. trans.) * S: Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila, Mexico [GM plant] ('11 9-4X) * 2: Moraine, Ohio, US [GM plant] ('05-'09 9-7X) '''Positions 12–17, Serial Number''' {{BookCat}} ho2qcnv0n2qbh2q37e5b47dnfywpfdl 0 484618 4653993 4653712 2026-07-11T13:12:49Z TenshiBot 3610521 [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions/TenshiBot|Task 1]]: Fix [[mw:Help:Extension:Linter|Linter]] errors 4653993 wikitext text/x-wiki {{rfd}} = Earthinators = <div style="text-align: center;">''A youth‑led, community‑driven open movement for environmental action and climate resilience.''</div> == Introduction == Earthinators is a global, youth‑led movement founded in 2020 in Devbhoomi (Uttarakhand, India). It combines citizen science, open data, education, and direct action to build climate resilience in every nation. This book explains the movement’s philosophy, its open‑access resources, and how you can participate. == How This Book Is Organised == The chapters below are written by volunteers and can be edited by anyone. If you’d like to contribute, please read the [[Wikibooks:Welcome|Wikibooks guide]] first. == Table of Contents == # [[/Our Story – The Birth of Earthinators/]] # [[/Heat, Light, Love – The Core Philosophy/]] # [[/SOS: Revive Earth – The Global Environmental Data Platform/]] # [[/The Earthinators Climate School/]] # [[/EarthNOW – Real‑time Climate Intelligence/]] # [[/Earthinators Play – Comics and Games for Sustainability/]] # [[/The SOS Protocol: Sound, Share, Start/]] # [[/The Green Plan and Local Projects/]] # [[/How to Start or Join a Country Chapter/]] # [[/Templates, Tools, and Resources for Action/]] == Open Educational Resources == Earthinators offers several free, open‑source learning tools that are described in this book. These include the Earthinators Climate School, the SOS: Revive Earth platform, EarthNOW news dashboard, and Earthinators Play comics and games. == Published Children’s Book == '''Rasika's Green Adventures''' is a beautifully illustrated children’s educational book series published by Earthinators. It introduces young readers (ages 6–10) to climate change, forests, oceans, wildlife, renewable energy, and recycling through stories, activities, and easy‑to‑understand science. You can find it on Google Books by searching for "Rasika's Green Adventures". == External Links == * Earthinators wiki: earthinators.miraheze.org * Wikidata: [[wikidata:Q103824308|Earthinators (Q103824308)]] * Official site: sites.google.com/view/earthinators == License == This book is released under the Creative Commons Attribution‑ShareAlike 4.0 International license (CC‑BY‑SA 4.0). You are free to share and adapt it for any purpose, as long as you give appropriate credit and share alike. [[Category:Climate change]] [[Category:Environmental education]] [[Category:Open educational resources]] [[Category:Earthinators]] srr2p1p6aasri7ay0i3dt77vc7yx9w5 2 484782 4654047 2026-07-11T18:24:59Z Heisenberg0420 3179662 Created page with "Hello, my name is Ahsan, and I am currently an undergraduate BSc. student majoring in '''<u>biochemistry</u>'''!" 4654047 wikitext text/x-wiki Hello, my name is Ahsan, and I am currently an undergraduate BSc. student majoring in '''<u>biochemistry</u>'''! envy0uod11442ctwcy1zmexdb5jzg5d 14 484784 4654135 2026-07-11T19:36:56Z Koavf 16549 Created blank page 4654135 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 4654136 4654135 2026-07-11T19:37:04Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Wikibooks administration]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654136 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Wikibooks administration]] fl7by89j9cbidwds77g6t814lt61aaf 14 484785 4654137 2026-07-11T19:37:10Z Koavf 16549 Created blank page 4654137 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 4654138 4654137 2026-07-11T19:37:16Z Koavf 16549 added [[Category:Wikibooks maintenance]] using [[Help:Gadget-HotCat|HotCat]] 4654138 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Wikibooks maintenance]] s5rmpbq8hji2sgscifb3ktimq3ufich 0 484787 4654150 2026-07-11T23:44:17Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 Created page with "'''4BC''' is a radio station in [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was establish..." 4654150 wikitext text/x-wiki '''4BC''' is a radio station in [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> 41i6dkgbri08owf6gi229ypytjyhqnu 4654151 4654150 2026-07-11T23:47:01Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 4654151 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[Burnie]], [[Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> 20iscf777e5ehjyru2361e5ec7d87n3 4654153 4654151 2026-07-11T23:48:29Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 4654153 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> df991qqlbqg068378crnra8903206gc 4654154 4654153 2026-07-11T23:55:12Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* History */ 4654154 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ===Predecessors=== From 1930, Burnie was served intermittently by L. Jensen's amateur broadcasting station 7LJ. Circa 1931 Bruce Craw's amateur station was also providing a sporadic amateur broadcasting service to Burnie. ===Commencement=== ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> 2p8zp0epej4jp17obfiqt4u5fvldxzx 4654157 4654154 2026-07-12T00:09:22Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* Predecessors */ 4654157 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ===Predecessors=== From at least June 1930, Burnie was served intermittently by L. Jensen's amateur broadcasting station 7LJ. Circa 1931 Bruce Craw's amateur station was also providing a sporadic amateur broadcasting service to Burnie. ===Commencement=== ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> rg13dox0l7jopru16bq46apwdb7vb0f 4654159 4654157 2026-07-12T00:10:10Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* Predecessors */ 4654159 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ===Predecessors=== From at least June 1930, Burnie was served intermittently by "Lon" Jensen's amateur broadcasting station 7LJ. Circa 1931 Bruce Craw's amateur station was also providing a sporadic amateur broadcasting service to Burnie. ===Commencement=== ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> daqp0hx16ndcst53bztwd84xf37ads7 4654160 4654159 2026-07-12T00:14:21Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* Predecessors */ 4654160 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ===Predecessors=== From at least June 1930[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/84943927#], Burnie was served intermittently by "Lon" Jensen's amateur broadcasting station 7LJ. Circa 1931 Bruce Craw's amateur station was also providing a sporadic amateur broadcasting service to Burnie. ===Commencement=== ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> jt0ga22lvupftwzi295d41su5cvjyuk 4654161 4654160 2026-07-12T00:17:31Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* History */ 4654161 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ===Predecessors=== From at least June 1930[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/84943927], Burnie was served intermittently by "Lon" Jensen's[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_wireless_telegraphy_and_broadcasting_in_Australia/Topical/Biographies/Laurence_Richard_Hopkins_Jensen/Notes] amateur broadcasting station 7LJ. Circa 1931 Bruce Craw's amateur station was also providing a sporadic amateur broadcasting service to Burnie. ===Commencement=== ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> c8sywgqjmk4vj77n4vhgfa2ntmfl042 4654162 4654161 2026-07-12T00:22:31Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* Predecessors */ 4654162 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ===Predecessors=== From at least June 1930[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/84943927], Burnie was served intermittently by "Lon" Jensen's[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_wireless_telegraphy_and_broadcasting_in_Australia/Topical/Biographies/Laurence_Richard_Hopkins_Jensen/Notes] amateur broadcasting station 7LJ. From at least October 1931[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/67887284] Bruce Craw's amateur station was also providing a sporadic amateur broadcasting service to Burnie. ===Commencement=== ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> macf76ss0q0qutquw2fcxe6wwlrcb80 4654163 4654162 2026-07-12T00:25:19Z Samuel.dellit 1387936 /* Transmission History */ 4654163 wikitext text/x-wiki '''7BU''' is a radio station in [[w:Burnie|Burnie]], [[w:Tasmania|Tasmania]], owned by [[Tapt Media]]. It broadcasts on 882 [[kHz]] [[AM broadcasting|AM]] and is Brisbane's only commercial [[talk radio|talkback]] station. While the station's broadcasting facility is at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]], its transmitting tower is located in [[Wynnum West]]. ==History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} ===Predecessors=== From at least June 1930[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/84943927], Burnie was served intermittently by "Lon" Jensen's[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_wireless_telegraphy_and_broadcasting_in_Australia/Topical/Biographies/Laurence_Richard_Hopkins_Jensen/Notes] amateur broadcasting station 7LJ. From at least October 1931[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/67887284] Bruce Craw's amateur station was also providing a sporadic amateur broadcasting service to Burnie. ===Commencement=== ==Transmission History== {{Expand section|date=May 2010|small=no}} 4BC was one of the first radio stations in Brisbane. It was established in 1930 by [[John Beals Chandler]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper = [[The Brisbane Courier]] |title = 4BC. New Wireless Station. Auspicious Opening. |date = 18 August 1930 | page = 12 |url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21536978|access-date = 7 May 2010}}</ref> an electrical appliance retailer and later [[Lord Mayor of Brisbane]]. In March 1937 the station was sold for [[Australian pound|£A]]50,000 (equivalent to ${{Inflation|AU|0.1|r=1|1930}} million in {{Inflation/year|AU}}) to the [[Australian Broadcasting Company]] who took control in April.<ref>{{cite news|title=Station 4BC Sold|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 March 1937 |page= 19|access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36875565}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = New Company Takes Over 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 13 April 1937 |page= 23 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article36902870}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title = £50,000 Paid for Station 4BC|newspaper = [[The Courier-Mail]]|date = 9 October 1937 |page= 14 |access-date = 18 November 2010|url = http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article37910929}}</ref> The station changed owners multiple times before being brought by Southern Cross Broadcasting (later Fairfax Radio). The original studio was located in the Wintergarden Building in Queen St and in 1954 the station moved to the corner of Wharf and Adelaide St into what was originally a vinegar factory. The original transmitter site was located at Fig Tree Pocket and was a two tower 5&nbsp;kW directional array. In 1988 the studio was relocated to 30 Macrossan St and that installation included a K_u band [[satellite]] uplink for the first time. In 2004 the station moved from its CBD location at 30 Macrossan Street to new purpose-built premises at [[Cannon Hill, Queensland|Cannon Hill]] in 2004.<ref>{{Cite news | edition = 1 – First with the news | issn = 1322-5235 | page = 39 | last = Hele | first = Michelle | title = Radio stations 4BC and 4BH all set for big move to Cannon Hill | work = [[The Courier-Mail]] | date = 6 August 2004 }}</ref> Fairfax acquired ownership in 2007. In mid-2022, former 4KQ breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark joined the station's weekday breakfast slot. In September 2024, after two years of being on air in the breakfast slot, breakfast team Laurel, Gary and Mark departed the station after a series of low ratings. Peter Fegan took over as Breakfast presenter. ==Studio History== ==Programming== In December 2013, 4BC management unveiled an almost complete replacement of on-air talent for 2014. Most continued into early 2015.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |title=4BC Line-up for 2014 |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=4 December 2013 |website=4BC |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140115004704/http://www.4bc.com.au/blogs/4bc-blog/4bc-lineup-for-2014/20131204-2ypjj.html |archive-date=15 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> However, in April 2015, management announced a number of programs would be immediately axed, and a number of announcing staff made redundant, following the merger of [[Fairfax Media#Radio|Fairfax Radio Network]] and [[Tapt Media|Macquarie Radio Network]]. These included long-time presenter and newsreader Walter Williams, Loretta Ryan, Ian Skippen, and former [[Seven News]] reporter Patrick Condren.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |title=Media Statement from 4BC |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=10 April 2015 |website=4BC |access-date=10 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150411115734/http://www.4bc.com.au/news/media-statement-from-4bc-20150410-1migjp.html |archive-date=11 April 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Prior to April 2015, 4BC produced all of its own programming, including a Queensland-wide morning program, from Brisbane which were presented by local announcers. In April 2015, most of those programs were axed with the exception of one local [[drive time|afternoon drive]] show.<ref>(10 April 2015) [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-10/4bc-presenter-ian-skippen-patrick-condren-sacked/6383798 High-profile 4BC presenters sacked following Fairfax and Macquarie merger deal], ABC News. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref><ref>(16 April 2015) [https://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/struggling-radio-jock-ben-davis-survives-4bc-cull/news-story/4b03dc77a4061d93f1c98cfa7791525f Struggling jock Ben Davis survives 4BC cull], ''[[The Courier-Mail]]''. Retrieved 17 January 2020.</ref> pub84wg6cpiabn5tsot5fl094csjwmg 3 484789 4654189 2026-07-12T04:04:05Z MathXplore 3097823 Notifying author of speedy deletion nomination 4654189 wikitext text/x-wiki == I have added a tag to a page you created == Hi! I'm MathXplore, and I recently reviewed your page, [[:6885 in every base!]]. I have added a tag to the page, because it <strong>may meet the [[Wikibooks:Deletion policy#Speedy deletions|criteria for speedy deletion]].</strong> This means that it can be deleted at any time. The reason I provided was: <blockquote><strong>Out of scope</strong></blockquote> If you believe that your page should not be deleted, please post a message on [[Talk:6885 in every base!|the page's talk page]] explaining why. <strong>If your reasoning is convincing, your page may be saved.</strong> If you have any questions or concerns, please [[User talk:MathXplore|let me know]]. Thank you! <!-- Substituted from User:JJPMaster/CurateThisPage/authorMsg --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:04, 12 July 2026 (UTC) b0yt03n0jwogix4fe43r61cv7iut7mf 10 484790 4654193 2026-07-12T06:26:34Z Addonian1123 3471203 Created page with "{{tmbox | type = content | image = {{#if:{{{icon|}}}|[[File:{{{icon|}}}|40x40px]]}} | text = <big>This page is the '''header''' for a talk page. '''Please do not leave messages directly here.'''</big><br>If you want to start a new discussion or reply to an existing one, please go to {{#if: {{{1|}}} | [[{{{1}}}|the current talk page]] | [[{{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}|the current talk page]] or [[Wikibooks:Reading room|the Reading room]]}}. }}<hr><includeonly>__NONEWSE..." 4654193 wikitext text/x-wiki {{tmbox | type = content | image = {{#if:{{{icon|}}}|[[File:{{{icon|}}}|40x40px]]}} | text = <big>This page is the '''header''' for a talk page. '''Please do not leave messages directly here.'''</big><br>If you want to start a new discussion or reply to an existing one, please go to {{#if: {{{1|}}} | [[{{{1}}}|the current talk page]] | [[{{NAMESPACE}}:{{BASEPAGENAME}}|the current talk page]] or [[Wikibooks:Reading room|the Reading room]]}}. }}<hr><includeonly>__NONEWSECTIONLINK__{{Check talk}} [[Category:Talk page header templates]]</includeonly><noinclude> {{documentation}}[[Category:Wikibooks maintenance templates]] </noinclude> 6t1fmj858rxmuov495ph7jtmxghi57e 1 484791 4654195 2026-07-12T10:44:19Z Proverbwoman31 3613796 /* Earth Science/Stars, Galaxies, and the Universe */ new section 4654195 wikitext text/x-wiki == Earth Science/Stars, Galaxies, and the Universe == Studying stars, galaxies, and the universe completely changes how you look at the night sky because it forces you to think about how insanely huge space actually is. It is crazy to realize that every heavy element on Earth was literally forged inside a dying star through nuclear fusion, meaning the phrase "we are all made of stardust" is actually just straight-up chemistry. Learning about this stuff means diving into how stars live and die, how gravity holds different shapes of galaxies together, and the evidence behind the Big Bang, like redshift and cosmic microwave background radiation. It can be hard to wrap your brain around the idea that space itself is expanding like a loaf of raisin bread in the oven, especially since a lot of people think space has an actual "edge" or that stars burn out just because they ran out of oxygen. [[User:Proverbwoman31|Proverbwoman31]] ([[User talk:Proverbwoman31|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Proverbwoman31|contribs]]) 10:44, 12 July 2026 (UTC) t6qwu7207xqu2ezo83jl3rwfqejlwl0