Wikibooks enwikibooks https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.48.0-wmf.4 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikibooks Wikibooks talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk Cookbook Cookbook talk Transwiki Transwiki talk Wikijunior Wikijunior talk Subject Subject talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 5327 4681582 4627946 2026-11-11T12:09:26Z 一隻北極熊 3609960 4681582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}} {{TOCright}} ==Number System (數字系統)== {{wikipedia|Chinese Numerals}} ===基本用字=== {{audio|Zero to ten in Mandarin Chinese.ogg|Listen to audio}} *0: 〇 (零)： líng *1: 一 (壹) yī *2: 二 (Traditional:貳; simplified:贰) èr *3: 三 (Traditional:叁; simplified:叁) sān *4: 四 (肆) sì *5: 五 (伍) wǔ *6: 六 (Traditional:陸; simplified:陆) liù *7: 七 (柒) qī *8: 八 (捌) bā *9: 九 (玖) jiǔ *10: 十 (拾) shí *100: 百 (佰) bǎi *1,000: 千 (仟) qiān *10,000: 万 (萬) wàn (1'0000) *100,000: 十万 (拾萬) shíwàn (10'0000) *1,000,000: 一百万 (壹佰萬) yībǎi wàn (100'0000) *100,000,000: 一亿 (壹億) yīyì (1'0000'0000) *1,000,000,000,000: 一兆 yīzhào (1'0000'0000'0000) The parenthesized entries are the complex and formal forms, which are used mainly in notarized, official documents, and when writing checks. An exception is zero; the complex form is much more widely used than a casual circle. The complex forms are known in English as banker's anti-fraud numerals, in Chinese as 大寫 (simplified Chinese: 大写; Hanyu Pinyin: ''dàxiě;'' which is the same term for "capital letter"). They are necessary because, since normal Chinese characters are so simple, a forger could easily change 三十 to 五千 with just three strokes. See [[w:Chinese_numerals#Standard numbers|Standard numbers]] for more information. Some Chinese characters used as complex and formal numerals have other uses as well, possible as heteronyms. For example: *貳''èr'' can also mean "to betray". *肆''sì'' can also mean "to be impudent". *伍''wǔ'' can also mean "military" figuratively and be a surname. It can also mean "line" when said as "队伍" *陸 means six formally when pronounced ''liù'', but "land" or a surname when pronounced ''lù''. *拾''shí'' can also mean "to pick up". ===個十百千萬 Larger Numbers=== *十一 shíyī ''(eleven)'' *十二 shí'èr ''(twelve)'' 等(děng) etc. *二十一 èrshíyī ''(twenty-one)'' *二十二 èrshí'èr ''(twenty-two)'' 等 etc. *一百 yībǎi ''(one hundred)'' *一百零一 yībǎi líng yī ''(one hundred one)'' *一百五十八 yībǎi wǔshíbā ''(one hundred fifty eight)'' *二百三十 èrbǎi sānshí ''(two hundred thirty)'' 等 etc. *一千 yīqiān ''(one thousand)'' *七千二百五十三 qīqiān èrbǎi wǔshísān ''(seven thousand two hundred fifty-three)'' 等 etc. *一萬 yīwàn ''(one myriad'' or ''ten thousand)'' *四萬三千 sìwàn sānqiān ''(forty-three thousand)'' 等 etc. ==更大的數字（億兆） Even Larger Numbers== *一億五千萬 yīyì wǔqiān wàn (1'5000'0000) ''150,000,000 (one hundred fifty million)'' *兩億零八十萬 liǎngyì líng bāshí wàn (2'0080'0000) ''200,800,000'' (two hundred million eight hundred thousand) 等 etc. ==中文中零的用法 The Use of Zero in Chinese== If a number ends in zero, there is no need to include the Chinese character for zero. For example, *350: 三百五十 *1350: 一千三百五十 *1600: 一千六百 However, if the zero character does not end the number (i.e., it is followed by a non-zero character), it is necessary to include the zero character, while the "tens-place" characters are dropped. For example, *305: 三百零五 (''not'' 三百零<s>十</s>五) *1035: 一千零三十五 (''not'' 一千零<s>百</s>三十五) Note that the "十" in the first example and the "百" in the second example are dropped. If a zero digit is followed by one or more zero digits, only one zero character is need. For example, *1006: 一千零六 (''not'' 一千零零六) *300,250: 三十萬零二百五十 (30'0250) *8,000,300: 八百萬零三百 (800'0300) ==數字手勢 Chinese Gestures for Numbers== <gallery> Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Eins.jpg|1 一 yī Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Zwei.jpg|2 二 èr Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Drei.jpg|3 三 sān Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Vier.jpg|4 四 sì Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Fuenf.jpg|5 五 wǔ Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Sechs.jpg|6 六 liù Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Sieben.jpg|7 七 qī Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Acht.jpg|8 八 bā Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Neun.jpg|9 九 jiǔ Image:Chinesische.Zahl.Zehn.jpg|10 十 shí </gallery> Note:hand signs are the same as Western hand signs. Except for six, hold out your thumb and pinky. For seven, make a "peacock head" by putting all of your fingers on your thumb. For eight, hold your thumb and second finger facing up. For nine, make your second finger look like a hook and then hold it out facing up. Also, Gestures for Numbers may depend on the location, like Taiwan Gestures for Numbers is different from Mainland China. Source: [[commons:數字手勢]] {{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}} {{BookCat}} if7zh3trqt0rop3ll3dx9ss27bqm2et 0 13215 4681840 4681388 2026-11-12T10:46:14Z UNITED UAV Official 3631002 /* Practical GIS */ Cite the official USGS National Map Viewer in the first step 4681840 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} == Introduction == GIS is an organised collection of computer programs, computer, geographic data, and people. This definition gives you the components that make up GIS. People who know how to use computer (hardware) and programme (software) to provide information (from geographic data) are able to solve a problem or answer a specific question. == What is GIS? == Geographic Information Systems provide a method for integrating and analyzing spatial (digital map based) information such as "where is the nearest movie theater?" alongside related non-spatial information (what movies are playing there?). GIS have three major capabilities (computer mapping, spatial analysis and spatial database) and can operate on a range of platforms (desktop/laptop computer, Internet, PDA, etc.). Many people are becoming far more familiar with seeing the results both textually—for example, when their phone shows them the nearest pub—and on open map systems such as Google Maps. Where in the past people had to literally use pencils and string on a paper map to find their nearest school, a computer can do this now extremely quickly an accurately, as long as all the information has been entered correctly in the first place. In a broader context, GIS involves people and often brings a philosophy of change. For example, in 1994, the New York Police Department introduced GIS to locate crime 'hot-spots', analyze underlying problems and devise strategies and solutions to deal with the problems. Since 1993, violent crime has dropped by two-thirds in New York City.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/nypd/html/pct/cspdf.html|title=New York Crime Statistics}}</ref> This strategy, known as COMPSTAT, has expanded to cities and jurisdictions across the United States and around the world. === GIS Software === One leading GIS software vendor is ESRI, based in Redlands, California, which offers ArcGIS for the desktop, ArcGIS Server for Internet mapping, ArcPad for PDAs and a range of other products and services for developers. Other popular GIS software packages are available from Cadcorp, Intergraph, MapInfo, Manifold and Autodesk. ERDAS Imagine, ENVI, Idrisi, and PCI Geomatica are geared towards remote sensing i.e. analysis of satellite/aircraft images. There are many third-party extensions and utilities for ArcGIS and other GIS and raster software platforms. Currently, [http://opensourcegis.org/ open source GIS software] options can be chosen from the first OS GIS package [http://grass.itc.it/ GRASS], recent open source options are [http://www.diva-gis.org/ DIVA GIS], [http://www.qgis.org/ QGIS], and [http://udig.refractions.net/ uDig]. There are efforts underway, through the [http://www.opengis.org/ Open GIS Consortium] to provide interoperability among spatial data formats and software. The leading contender for spatial data storage is another open source package called [http://postgis.refractions.net/ PostGIS], which is a spatial extension to the open source database [[PostgreSQL]]. == What Is Topology? == [[w:Topology|Topology]] is the branch of mathematics concerned with spatial properties in special the continuous deformations of objects, such as deformations that involve stretching (but no tearing or gluing) and how they connect together. In geography this is an indispensable tool for map-making in expressing relevant geographic information, especially in [[w:Topological map|topological maps]]. === A Brief History Of Topology === === Topology In Mathematics === === Navigation === === Why Is Geospatial Topology Important In A GIS? === Geospatial analysis provides a unique perspective on the world. It is a tool with which to examine events, patterns, and processes that operate on or near the surface of our planet. To have this tool interact with the relevant topological information is a must; providing greater understanding of how rivers flow, weather is affected by terrain, or even how humans and other animals flow or choose a specific habitat. This kind of information can only be gathered and made useful if topological information is present in the GIS. == Spatial Data == Spatial data comes in two major formats, as vector or raster data. The main difference is that a raster is usually a static background picture used to illustrate, whereas a vector is an intelligent ladder of information that can be selected and searched. '''Vector (points, lines, polygons)''' Vector data often represents anthropogenic (human) features such as roads, buildings, political boundaries (counties, congressional districts, etc.), and other features such as lakes and rivers. Vector data is scalable without loss of resolution and is generally represented by XYZ points in a Cartesian frame reference. '''Raster (grids/images)''' Raster data is pixellated data, and the more pixels that map the data, the better the resolution. However, if raster data is enlarged, it simply enlarges the pixels, which then leads to a loss of resolution. There are many moves being made to make raster data more usable/searchable as it is much faster to collect, unlike vectors where each piece of data usually has a manual input origin. Raster data is usually derived from satellite imagery or aerial photography (known as remote sensing). Ordinary cameras are only sensitive to visible light. Satellite sensors can capture not only visible light, but also the thermal, microwave, infrared or other types of energy emanating from the Earth's surface. This extra data provides information about sea surface temperatures, vegetation, ozone, etc. Remote sensing is also used to study other planets and extraterrestrial bodies, such as Mars. === Aerial photographs and orthoimages === An uncorrected aerial photograph records the scene from the camera's viewpoint. Camera tilt and changes in terrain elevation can shift where features appear and cause the scale to vary across the image. An '''orthoimage''' (also called an '''orthophoto''') corrects these geometric effects so the image has a uniform map scale. In a GIS, it can serve as a basemap for overlaying other layers and measuring distances within the accuracy of the underlying data.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-digital-orthophoto-quadrangle-doq-or-orthoimage |title=What is a digital orthophoto quadrangle (DOQ) or orthoimage? |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=February 1, 2022}}</ref> [[File:Orthophoto vs airphoto.jpg|thumb|center|480px|alt=Two views of the same pipeline: its path appears bent in the aerial photograph and straight in the orthoimage.|U.S. Geological Survey comparison near Arkton, Virginia. The same straight pipeline appears bent in the uncorrected aerial photograph and straight in the orthoimage.]] === Data Integrity === === Persistent Storage and Vendor Independence === === Practical GIS === '''Exercise: Compare aerial imagery with a road layer''' # Open the USGS National Map Viewer.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apps.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |title=The National Map Viewer |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey}}</ref> In the '''Basemap Gallery''', select '''USGS Imagery Only Base Map from The National Map'''. Zoom in on a road junction in the United States until you can see the pavement in the imagery. # Open the '''Layer List''' and turn on '''Transportation'''. Without moving or zooming the map, turn the layer off and back on. Compare the roads visible in the aerial image with the lines drawn in the transportation layer. # Describe one place where the layers agree. If a road appears in only one layer or the two positions differ, check when each dataset was collected or updated and consider whether the datasets depict the same features. === Data sources === The U.S. Federal Government offers a wealth of spatial data for free or at cost, with major offerings from the [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey (USGS)], [http://www.nsas.gov/ NASA] and the [http://tiger.census.gov/ U.S. Census Bureau]. State governments also serve spatial data through GIS portals such as [http://www.state.ma.us/mgis/ MassGIS]. As well, many local governments have detailed GIS data of tax parcels, roads, buildings, etc. Other governments around the world also offer spatial data, though not necessarily for free. Private industry also offers GIS data, with TeleAtlas/GDT offering a wealth of vector data, while Ikonos and DigitalGlobe (QuickBird) provide high-resolution satellite imagery. Some public-domain data sources are listed at http://visual.wiki.taoriver.net/moin.cgi/EarthMapTool . == Spatial Relationships == === Catalog of Common Spatial Relationships === === Complete Examples Of Geospatial Topology === == List of Pictures, Diagrams, Tables, Charts and Figures == == List of Formulas == == Glossary == ==References== {{reflist}} {{shelves|Geographic information systems}} {{alphabetical|G}} {{status|0%}} k52w5nb0vh2ertwl22bsc4l4vp83dwt 4681843 4681840 2026-11-12T10:57:39Z UNITED UAV Official 3631002 /* Practical GIS */ Clarify export and imagery acquisition dates and cite USGS guidance 4681843 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOCright}} == Introduction == GIS is an organised collection of computer programs, computer, geographic data, and people. This definition gives you the components that make up GIS. People who know how to use computer (hardware) and programme (software) to provide information (from geographic data) are able to solve a problem or answer a specific question. == What is GIS? == Geographic Information Systems provide a method for integrating and analyzing spatial (digital map based) information such as "where is the nearest movie theater?" alongside related non-spatial information (what movies are playing there?). GIS have three major capabilities (computer mapping, spatial analysis and spatial database) and can operate on a range of platforms (desktop/laptop computer, Internet, PDA, etc.). Many people are becoming far more familiar with seeing the results both textually—for example, when their phone shows them the nearest pub—and on open map systems such as Google Maps. Where in the past people had to literally use pencils and string on a paper map to find their nearest school, a computer can do this now extremely quickly an accurately, as long as all the information has been entered correctly in the first place. In a broader context, GIS involves people and often brings a philosophy of change. For example, in 1994, the New York Police Department introduced GIS to locate crime 'hot-spots', analyze underlying problems and devise strategies and solutions to deal with the problems. Since 1993, violent crime has dropped by two-thirds in New York City.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/nypd/html/pct/cspdf.html|title=New York Crime Statistics}}</ref> This strategy, known as COMPSTAT, has expanded to cities and jurisdictions across the United States and around the world. === GIS Software === One leading GIS software vendor is ESRI, based in Redlands, California, which offers ArcGIS for the desktop, ArcGIS Server for Internet mapping, ArcPad for PDAs and a range of other products and services for developers. Other popular GIS software packages are available from Cadcorp, Intergraph, MapInfo, Manifold and Autodesk. ERDAS Imagine, ENVI, Idrisi, and PCI Geomatica are geared towards remote sensing i.e. analysis of satellite/aircraft images. There are many third-party extensions and utilities for ArcGIS and other GIS and raster software platforms. Currently, [http://opensourcegis.org/ open source GIS software] options can be chosen from the first OS GIS package [http://grass.itc.it/ GRASS], recent open source options are [http://www.diva-gis.org/ DIVA GIS], [http://www.qgis.org/ QGIS], and [http://udig.refractions.net/ uDig]. There are efforts underway, through the [http://www.opengis.org/ Open GIS Consortium] to provide interoperability among spatial data formats and software. The leading contender for spatial data storage is another open source package called [http://postgis.refractions.net/ PostGIS], which is a spatial extension to the open source database [[PostgreSQL]]. == What Is Topology? == [[w:Topology|Topology]] is the branch of mathematics concerned with spatial properties in special the continuous deformations of objects, such as deformations that involve stretching (but no tearing or gluing) and how they connect together. In geography this is an indispensable tool for map-making in expressing relevant geographic information, especially in [[w:Topological map|topological maps]]. === A Brief History Of Topology === === Topology In Mathematics === === Navigation === === Why Is Geospatial Topology Important In A GIS? === Geospatial analysis provides a unique perspective on the world. It is a tool with which to examine events, patterns, and processes that operate on or near the surface of our planet. To have this tool interact with the relevant topological information is a must; providing greater understanding of how rivers flow, weather is affected by terrain, or even how humans and other animals flow or choose a specific habitat. This kind of information can only be gathered and made useful if topological information is present in the GIS. == Spatial Data == Spatial data comes in two major formats, as vector or raster data. The main difference is that a raster is usually a static background picture used to illustrate, whereas a vector is an intelligent ladder of information that can be selected and searched. '''Vector (points, lines, polygons)''' Vector data often represents anthropogenic (human) features such as roads, buildings, political boundaries (counties, congressional districts, etc.), and other features such as lakes and rivers. Vector data is scalable without loss of resolution and is generally represented by XYZ points in a Cartesian frame reference. '''Raster (grids/images)''' Raster data is pixellated data, and the more pixels that map the data, the better the resolution. However, if raster data is enlarged, it simply enlarges the pixels, which then leads to a loss of resolution. There are many moves being made to make raster data more usable/searchable as it is much faster to collect, unlike vectors where each piece of data usually has a manual input origin. Raster data is usually derived from satellite imagery or aerial photography (known as remote sensing). Ordinary cameras are only sensitive to visible light. Satellite sensors can capture not only visible light, but also the thermal, microwave, infrared or other types of energy emanating from the Earth's surface. This extra data provides information about sea surface temperatures, vegetation, ozone, etc. Remote sensing is also used to study other planets and extraterrestrial bodies, such as Mars. === Aerial photographs and orthoimages === An uncorrected aerial photograph records the scene from the camera's viewpoint. Camera tilt and changes in terrain elevation can shift where features appear and cause the scale to vary across the image. An '''orthoimage''' (also called an '''orthophoto''') corrects these geometric effects so the image has a uniform map scale. In a GIS, it can serve as a basemap for overlaying other layers and measuring distances within the accuracy of the underlying data.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-digital-orthophoto-quadrangle-doq-or-orthoimage |title=What is a digital orthophoto quadrangle (DOQ) or orthoimage? |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |date=February 1, 2022}}</ref> [[File:Orthophoto vs airphoto.jpg|thumb|center|480px|alt=Two views of the same pipeline: its path appears bent in the aerial photograph and straight in the orthoimage.|U.S. Geological Survey comparison near Arkton, Virginia. The same straight pipeline appears bent in the uncorrected aerial photograph and straight in the orthoimage.]] === Data Integrity === === Persistent Storage and Vendor Independence === === Practical GIS === '''Exercise: Compare aerial imagery with a road layer''' # Open the USGS National Map Viewer.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apps.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |title=The National Map Viewer |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey}}</ref> In the '''Basemap Gallery''', select '''USGS Imagery Only Base Map from The National Map'''. Zoom in on a road junction in the United States until you can see the pavement in the imagery. # Open the '''Layer List''' and turn on '''Transportation'''. Without moving or zooming the map, turn the layer off and back on. Compare the roads visible in the aerial image with the lines drawn in the transportation layer. # Describe one place where the layers agree. If a road appears in only one layer or the two positions differ, check when each dataset was collected or updated and consider whether the datasets depict the same features. An orthomosaic’s export date does not establish when its source images were captured. Check the imagery metadata for the acquisition date.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-often-orthoimagery-national-map-updated-and-what-are-acquisition-dates |title=How often is orthoimagery in The National Map updated and what are the acquisition dates? |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey}}</ref> === Data sources === The U.S. Federal Government offers a wealth of spatial data for free or at cost, with major offerings from the [http://www.usgs.gov/ United States Geological Survey (USGS)], [http://www.nsas.gov/ NASA] and the [http://tiger.census.gov/ U.S. Census Bureau]. State governments also serve spatial data through GIS portals such as [http://www.state.ma.us/mgis/ MassGIS]. As well, many local governments have detailed GIS data of tax parcels, roads, buildings, etc. Other governments around the world also offer spatial data, though not necessarily for free. Private industry also offers GIS data, with TeleAtlas/GDT offering a wealth of vector data, while Ikonos and DigitalGlobe (QuickBird) provide high-resolution satellite imagery. Some public-domain data sources are listed at http://visual.wiki.taoriver.net/moin.cgi/EarthMapTool . == Spatial Relationships == === Catalog of Common Spatial Relationships === === Complete Examples Of Geospatial Topology === == List of Pictures, Diagrams, Tables, Charts and Figures == == List of Formulas == == Glossary == ==References== {{reflist}} {{shelves|Geographic information systems}} {{alphabetical|G}} {{status|0%}} t2f5aewdz6bnos2hbb5rf4m1ym4gh14 0 15053 4681580 4681577 2026-11-11T11:59:29Z 一隻北極熊 3609960 4681580 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}} Here's a list of some nations and regions, with their names in Chinese. Note that the country's name can also be used as an adjective. For example, 日本货/日本貨 (rìběn huò) means "Japanese goods," and is derived from 日本 (rìběn; Japan) and 货/貨 (huò; goods). As an aside, China imports a good number of products from Japan. Between 2001 and 2007, it was the greatest exporter to China, beating the European Union, South Korea, and Taiwan.<ref> {{cite web | url = http://www.starmass.com/china_review/imports_exports/china_top_import_source.htm | title = China Imports by Main Countries | accessdate = 22 June 2012 | author = Starmass International}} </ref> You could also say 日本椅子 (rìběn yǐzi; Japanese chair), 日本食品 (rìběn shípǐn; Japanese food products), and 日本动画片/日本動畫片 (rìběn dònghuà piàn; Japanese cartoons). Terms like these can be shortened, for example, 日货/日貨 means the same thing. You can see 日 is an adjective which means "pertaining to Japan," i.e., "Japanese." Another way to describe its function is that it acts like a "root," much like in English. Headlines are often abbreviated this way. For example, 中俄合作 (zhōng é hézuò) can mean "China and Russia cooperate" or "Sino-Russian cooperation." In common conversation, however, excessive abbreviation is undesirable, because it often leads to ambiguity. [[File:2002 Standard World Map by China.jpg|thumb|2002 Standard World Map by China]] ;References {{Reflist}} == Asia 亚洲 / 亞洲 ''Yàzhōu'' == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" <!--border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="6"--> |+East Asia 东亚 / 東亞 ''Dōngyà'' | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | China || 中国 || 中國 || ''Zhōngguó'' |- | Hong Kong || colspan="2" | 香港 || ''Xiānggăng'' |- | Japan || colspan="2" | 日本 || ''Rìbĕn'' |- | Macao || 澳门 || 澳門 || ''Àomén'' |- | North Korea || 朝鲜/北朝鲜/北韩 || 朝鮮/北朝鮮/北韓 ||''Cháoxǐan/Běicháoxǐan/BěiHán'' |- | South Korea || 韩国/南韓 || 韓國/南韓 ||''Hánguó/Nánhán '' |- | Taiwan || 台湾 || 臺灣/台灣 || ''Táiwan'' |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ Southeast Asia 东南亚 / 東南亞 ''Dōngnányà'' | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Brunei || 文莱 || 汶萊 || ''Wénlái'' |- | Cambodia || 柬埔寨 || 柬埔寨 ||''Jiănpŭzhài'' |- | East Timor || 东帝汶 || 東帝汶 || ''Dōngdìwèn'' |- | Indonesia || 印度尼西亚（印尼）|| 印度尼西亞（印尼）||''Yìndùníxīyă（Yìnní）'' |- | Laos || 老挝（寮国）|| 老撾（寮國）|| Lǎowō ''（Liáoguó）'' |- | Malaysia || 马来西亚（大马）|| 馬來西亞（大馬）||''Măláixīyă（Dàmǎ）'' |- | Myanmar || 缅甸 || 緬甸 || ''Miăndiàn'' |- | Philippines || 菲律宾 || 菲律賓 || ''Fēilǜbīn'' |- | Singapore || colspan="2" | 新加坡 || ''Xīnjiāpō'' |- | Thailand || 泰国 || 泰國 || ''Tàiguó'' |- | Vietnam || colspan="2" | 越南 || ''Yuènán'' |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ South Asia 南亚 / 南亞 ''Nányà'' | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Bangladesh || 孟加拉国 || 孟加拉國 || ''Mèngjiālāguó'' |- | Bhutan || colspan="2" | 不丹 || ''Bùdān'' |- | India || colspan="2" | 印度 || ''Yìndù'' |- | Maldives || 马尔代夫 || 馬爾地夫|| ''Mă'ěrdàifū(Simplified)'' ''Mă'ěrdìfū(Traditional)'' |- | Nepal || 尼泊尔 || 尼泊爾 || ''Níbó'ěr'' |- | Pakistan || colspan="2" | 巴基斯坦 || ''Bājīsītăn'' |- | Sri Lanka || 斯里兰卡 || 斯里蘭卡 || ''Sīlĭlánkă'' |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ Central Asia 中亚 / 中亞 ''Zhōngyà'' | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Afghanistan || colspan="2" | 阿富汗 || ''Āfùhàn'' |- | Kazakhstan || 哈萨克斯坦 || 哈薩克（哈薩克斯坦）|| ''Hāsàkèsītǎn'' |- | Kyrgyzstan || 吉尔吉斯坦 || 吉爾吉斯（吉爾吉斯坦）|| ''Jíěrjísīsītǎn'' |- | Mongolia || colspan="2" | 蒙古 || ''Ménggŭ'' |- | Tajikistan || 塔吉克斯坦 || 塔吉克 || ''Tăjíkèsītǎn'' |- | Turkmenistan || 土库曼斯坦 || 土庫曼（土庫曼斯坦）|| ''Tŭkùmànsītǎn'' |- | Uzbekistan || 乌兹别克斯坦 || 烏茲別克（烏茲別克斯坦）|| ''Wūzībiékèsītǎn'' |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ Southwest Asia (Middle East) 西南亚（中东）/ 西南亞（中東）''Xīnányà'' (''Zhōngdōng'') | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Armenia || 亚美尼亚 || 亞美尼亞 || ''Yàmĕiníyà'' |- | Azerbaijan || 阿塞拜疆 || 亞塞拜然 || ''Āsàibàijiāng(Simplified)'' Y''àsàibàirán(Traditional)'' |- | Bahrain || colspan="2" | 巴林 || ''Bālín'' |- | Cyprus || 塞浦路斯 || 塞浦勒斯 || ''Sàipǔlùsī'' |- | Georgia || 格鲁吉亚 || 喬治亞 || ''Gélǔjíyà(Simplified)'' ''Qiáozhìyà(Traditional)'' |- | Iran || colspan="2" | 伊朗 || ''Yīlăng'' |- | Iraq || colspan="2" | 伊拉克 || ''Yīlākè'' |- | Israel || colspan="2" | 以色列 || ''Yǐsèliè'' |- | Jordan || 约旦 || 約旦 || ''Yuēdàn'' |- | Kuwait || colspan="2" | 科威特 || ''Kēwēitè'' |- | Lebanon || colspan="2" | 黎巴嫩 || ''Líbānèn'' |- | Oman || colspan="2" | 阿曼 || ''Āmàn'' |- | Qatar || 卡塔尔 || 卡達 || ''Kǎtǎ'ĕr(Simplified)'' ''Kǎdá(Traditional)'' |- | Saudi Arabia || 沙特阿拉伯 || 沙烏地阿拉伯|| ''Shātè'ālābó(Simplified)'' ''Shāwūdìālābó(Traditional)'' |- | Syria || 叙利亚 || 敘利亞 || ''Xùlìyà'' |- | Turkey || colspan="2" | 土耳其 || ''Tǔ'ĕrqí'' |- | United Arab Emirates || 阿拉伯联合酋长国 || 阿拉伯聯合大公國|| ''Ālābó Liánhé Qiúzhǎngguó(Simplified)'' ''Ālābó liánhé dàgōngguó(Traditional'') |- | Yemen || 也门 || 葉門|| ''Yĕmén(Simplified)'' ''Yèmén(Traditional)'' |} == Oceania 大洋洲 ''Dàyángzhōu'' == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Australia || 澳大利亚（澳洲）|| 澳大利亞（澳洲）|| ''Àodàlìyà (Aòzhōu)'' |- | Kiribati || 基里巴斯 || 吉里巴斯 || ''Jīlǐbāsī'' |- | Fiji || 斐济 || 斐濟 || ''Fěijì'' |- | Marshall Islands || 马绍尔群岛 || 馬紹爾群島 || ''Mǎshào'ěr Qúndǎo'' |- | Micronesia ||密克罗尼西亚 || 密克羅尼西亞|| ''Mìkèluóníxīyà'' |- | Nauru || 瑙鲁 || 諾魯 || ''Nǎolǔ'' |- | New Zealand || 纽西兰（新西兰）|| 紐西蘭|| ''Niŭxīlán (Xīnxīlán)'' |- | Palau || 帕劳 || 帛琉|| ''Bóliú(Traditional)'' ''Pàláo(Simplified)'' |- | Papua New Guinea || 巴布亚新几内亚 || 巴布亞新幾內亞 || ''Bābùyà Xīnjǐnèiyà'' |- | Samoa ||萨摩亚 || 薩摩亞 || ''Sàmóyà'' |- | Solomon Islands || 所罗门群岛 || 所羅門群島 || ''Suǒluómén Qúndǎo'' |- | Tonga || 汤加 || 東加（湯加）|| ''Tāngjiā'' |- | Tuvalu || 图瓦卢 || 吐瓦魯|| ''Tùwǎlú (Túwǎlǔ)'' |- | Vanuatu || 瓦努阿图 || 萬那杜|| ''Wǎnǔ'ātú(Simplified)'' ''Wànnàdù(Traditional)'' '')'' |} == America 美洲 ''Měizhōu'' == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ North America 北美洲 ''Běi Měizhōu'' | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Canada || colspan="2" | 加拿大 || ''Jiānádà'' |- | Cuba || colspan="2" | 古巴 || ''Gŭbā'' |- | Mexico ||colspan="2" | 墨西哥 || ''Mòxīgē'' |- | United States || 美国 || 美國 || ''Měiguó'' |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ Central America 中美洲 ''Zhōngměizhōu'' | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Belize || 伯利兹 || 貝里斯 ||''Bólìzī/Bèilǐsī'' |- | Costa Rica || 哥斯达黎加 || 哥斯大黎加 ||''Gēsīdálíjīa'' |- | El Salvador || 萨尔瓦多 || 薩爾瓦多 ||''Sà'ěrwǎduō'' |- | Guatemala || 危地马拉 || 瓜地馬拉 ||''Wēidìmālā/Guādìmǎlā'' |- | Honduras || 洪都拉斯 || 宏都拉斯 ||''Hóngdūlāsī'' |- | Nicaragua || colspan="2" | 尼加拉瓜 ||''Níjiālāguā'' |- | Panama || 巴拿马 || 巴拿馬 ||''Bānámǎ'' |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ Caribbean Islands 加勒比 Jiālèbǐ Qǔndǎo | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Antigua and Barbuda || 安提瓜和巴不达 || 安提瓜和巴布達 || ''Āntíguā hé Bābùdá'' |- | Bahamas || 巴哈马 || 巴哈馬 || ''Bāhāmǎ'' |- | Barbados || colspan="2" | 巴巴多斯 || ''Bābāduōsī'' |- | Dominica || 多米尼加 || 多明尼加 || ''Duōmǐníjiā'' |- | Dominican Republic || 多米尼加共和国 || 多明尼加共和國 || ''Duōmǐníjiā Gònghéguó'' |- | Grenada || 格林纳达 || 格瑞那達 || ''Gélínnàdá/Géruìnàdá '' |- | Haiti || colspan="2" | 海地 || ''Hǎidì'' |- | Jamaica || 牙买加 || 牙買加 || ''Yámǎijiā'' |- | Puerto Rico || colspan="2" | 波多黎各 || ''Bōduōlígè'' |- | St. Kitts and Nevis || 圣基茨和尼维斯 || 聖基茨和尼維斯 || ''Shèngjīcí hé Níwéisī'' |- | St. Lucia || 圣卢西亚 || 聖露西亞 || ''Shèng Lúxīyà /Shèng Lùxīyà'' |- | St. Vincent and the Grenadines || 圣文森特和格林纳丁斯 || 聖文森和格林納丁斯 || ''Shèng Wénsēntè hé Gélínnàdīngsī'' |- | Trinidad and Tobago || 特里尼达和多巴哥 || 千里達 || ''Tèlǐnídá hé Duōbāgē/Qiānlǐdá'' |} {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" |+ South America 南美洲 ''Nán Měizhōu'' | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Argentina || colspan="2" | 阿根廷 || ''Āgēntíng'' |- | Bolivia || 玻利维亚 || 玻利維亞 || ''Bōlìwéiyà'' |- | Brazil || colspan="2" | 巴西 || ''Bāxī'' |- | Chile || colspan="2" | 智利 || ''Zhìlì'' |- | Colombia || 哥伦比亚 || 哥倫比亞 || ''GēLúnBǐYà'' |- | Ecuador || 厄瓜多尔 || 厄瓜多爾 || ''Èguāduō'ěr'' |- | Falkland Islands (UK) || 马尔维纳斯群岛 || 福克蘭群島 || ''Mǎ'ěrwéinàsī Qúndǎo/Fúkèlán Qúndǎo'' |- | French Guiana (France) || 法属圭亚那 || 法屬蓋亞那 || ''Fáshǔ Guīyànà/Fàshǔ Guīyǎnà'' |- | Guyana || 圭亚那 || 蓋亞那（圭亞那）|| ''Guīyànà/Guīyǎnà'' |- | Paraguay || colspan="2" | 巴拉圭 || ''Bālāguī'' |- | Peru || 秘鲁 || 秘魯 || ''BìLŭ'' (not ''MìLŭ'') |- | Suriname || 苏里南 || 蘇里南 || ''Sŭlĭnán'' |- | Uruguay || 乌拉圭 || 烏拉圭 || ''Wūlāguī'' |- | Venezuela || colspan="2" | 委内瑞拉 || ''Wěinèiruìlā'' |} == Europe 欧洲 / 歐洲 ''Ōuzhōu'' == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Albania || 阿尔巴尼亚 || 阿爾巴尼亞 || ''Ā'ěrbāníyà (mainland)<br /> Ā'ěrbāníya (Taiwan)'' |- | Andorra || 安道尔 || 安道爾 || ''Āndào'ěr'' |- | Austria || 奥地利 || 奧地利 || ''Àodìlì'' |- | Armenia || 亚美尼亚 || 亞美尼亞 || ''Yàměiníyà(mainland)̀ <br>Yǎměiníyǎ (Taiwan)'' |- | Azerbaijan || 阿塞拜疆 || 阿塞拜疆 || ''Āsàibàijiāng'' |- | Belarus || 白俄罗斯 || 白俄羅斯 ||''Bái'éluósī'' |- | Belgium || 比利时 || 比利時 || ''Bǐlìshí'' |- | Bosnia and Herzegovina || 波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那 || 波士尼亞赫塞哥維納 || ''Bōsīníyǎ hé hēisāigēwéinà(mainland) <br>Bōshìníyǎhèsāigēwéinà (Taiwan)'' |- | Bulgaria || 保加利亚 || 保加利亞 || ''Bǎojiālìyà (mainland) <br>Bǎojiālìyǎ (Taiwan)'' |- | Croatia || 克罗地亚 || 克羅埃西亞 || ''Kèluódìyà (mainland) <br>Kèluódìyǎ (Taiwan)'' |- | Czech Republic || colspan="2" | 捷克 ||''Jiékè'' |- | Denmark || 丹麦 || 丹麥 || ''Dānmài'' |- | Estonia || 爱沙尼亚 || 愛沙尼亞 || ''Àishāníyà (mainland) <br>Àishāníyǎ (Taiwan)'' |- | France || 法国 || 法國 || ''Fǎguó (mainland)<br> Fàguó (Taiwan)'' |- | Finland || 芬兰 || 芬蘭 || ''Fēnlán'' |- | Georgia || 格鲁吉亚 || 佐治亞 || ''Gélǔjíyà (mainland)<br> Zuǒzhìyǎ (Taiwan)'' |- | Germany || 德国 || 德國 || ''Déguó'' |- | Greece || 希腊 || 希臘 || ''Xīlà'' |- | Hungary || 匈牙利 || 匈牙利 || ''Xiōngyálì'' |- | Iceland || 冰岛 || 冰島 || ''Bīngdǎo'' |- | Ireland || 爱尔兰 || 愛爾蘭 || ''Ài'ěrlán'' |- | Italy || colspan="2" | 意大利 || ''Yìdàlì'' |- | Latvia || 拉脱维亚 || 拉脫維亞 || ''Lātuōwéiyà (mainland) <br>Lātuōwéiyǎ (Taiwan)'' |- | Liechtenstein || colspan="2" | 列支敦士登 || ''Lièzhīdūnshìdēng'' |- | Lithuania || colspan="2" | 立陶宛 || ''Lìtáowăn'' |- | Luxembourg || 卢森堡 || 盧森堡 || ''Lúsēnbǎo'' |- | Macedonia || 马其顿 || 馬其頓 || ''Mǎqídùn'' |- | Malta || 马耳他 || 馬耳他 || ''Mǎ'ěrtā'' |- | Moldova || 摩尔多瓦 || 摩爾多瓦 || ''Mó'ěrduōwā'' |- | Monaco || 摩纳哥 || 摩納哥 || ''Mónàgē'' |- | Netherlands || 荷兰 || 荷蘭 || ''Hélán'' |- | Norway || colspan="2" | 挪威 || ''Nuówēi'' |- | Poland || 波兰 || 波蘭 || ''Bōlán'' |- | Portugal || colspan="2" | 葡萄牙 || ''Pútáoyá'' |- | Romania || 罗马尼亚 || 羅馬尼亞 || ''Luómǎnǐyà'' |- | Russia || 俄罗斯 || 俄羅斯 ||''Éluósī'' |- | San Marino ||圣马力诺 || 聖馬力諾 || ''Shèng Mǎlìnuò'' |- | Serbia and Montenegro || 塞尔维亚和黑山 || 塞爾維亞和蒙特內哥羅 || ''Sài'érwéiyà hé HēIshān'' |- | Slovakia || colspan="2" | 斯洛伐克 || ''Sīluòfákè'' |- | Slovenia || 斯洛文尼亚 || 斯洛維尼亞 ||''Sīluòwénníyà'' |- | Spain || colspan="2" | 西班牙 || ''Xībānyá'' |- | Switzerland || colspan="2" | 瑞士 || ''Ruìshì'' |- | Sweden || colspan="2" | 瑞典 || ''Ruìdiǎn'' |- | Turkey || colspan="2" | 土耳其 || ''Tǔ'ěrqí'' |- | Ukraine || 乌克兰 || 烏克蘭 || ''Wūkèlán'' |- | United Kingdom || 英国 || 英國 || ''Yīngguó'' |} == Africa 非洲 ''Fēizhōu'' == {| class="wikitable" width="100%" style="text-align: center" | width="25%" | '''English<br />英文''' | width="25%" | '''Simplified<br />简体字''' | width="25%" | '''Traditional<br />繁體字''' | width="25%" | '''Pinyin<br />拼音''' |- | Algeria || 阿尔及利亚 || 阿爾及利亞 || ''Ā'ěrjílìyà'' |- | Angola || 安哥拉 || 安哥拉 || ''Āngēlā'' |- | Benin || 贝宁 || 貝寧 || ''Bèiníng'' |- | Botswana ||博斯瓦纳 || 波札那 || ''Bósīwǎnà'' |- | Burkina Faso ||布基纳法索 || 布吉納法索 || ''Bùjīnàfǎsuǒ'' |- | Burundi || 布隆迪 || 蒲隆地 || ''Búlóngdí'' |- | Cameroon ||喀麦隆 || 喀麥隆 || ''Kāmàilóng'' |- | Cape Verde || 佛得角 || 維德角 || ''Fódéjiǎo/Wéidéjiǎo'' |- | Central African Republic || 中非共和国 || 中非共和國 || ''Zhōngfēi Gònghéguó'' |- | Chad || 乍得 || 查德 || ''Zhādé/Chádé'' |- | Comoros || colspan="2" | 科摩罗 || ''Kēmóluó'' |- | Democratic Republic of the Congo || 刚果民主共和国 || 剛果民主共和國 || ''Gāngguǒ Mínzhǔ Gònghéguó'' |- | Republic of the Congo ||刚果共和国 || 剛果共和國 || ''Gāngguǒ Gònghéguó'' |- | Côte d'Ivoire || 象牙海岸/科特迪瓦 || 象牙海岸 || ''Xiàngyá Hǎi'àn/ Kētèdíwǎ'' |- | Djibouti || 吉布提 || 吉布地 || ''Jíbùtí'' |- | Egypt || 埃及 || 埃及 || ''Āijí'' |- | Equatorial Guinea || 赤道几内亚 || 赤道幾內亞 || ''Chìdào Jĭnèiyà'' |- | Eritrea || colspan="2" | 厄立特里亚 || ''Èlìtèlǐyà'' |- | Ethiopia || 埃塞俄比亚 || 衣索比亞 || ''Āisài'ébǐyà'' |- | Gabon || 加蓬 || 加彭 || ''Jiāpéng'' |- | The Gambia || 冈比亚 || 甘比亞 || ''Gāngbǐyà/Gānbǐyà'' |- | Ghana || 加纳 || 迦魶 || ''Jiānà'' |- | Guinea || 几内亚 || 幾內亞 || ''Jǐnèiyà'' |- | Guinea-Bissau || 几内亚比绍 || 幾內亞比索 || ''Jǐnèiyà-bǐshào'' |- | Kenya || 肯尼亚 || 肯亞 || ''Kěnníyà/Kěnyǎ'' |- | Lesotho || 莱索托 || 賴索托 || ''Láisuǒtuō'' |- | Liberia || 利比里亚 || 賴比瑞亞 || ''Lìbǐlǐyà'' |- | Libya || 利比亚 || 利比亞 || ''Lìbǐyà'' |- | Madagascar || 马达加斯加 || 馬達加斯加 || ''Mǎdájiāsījiā'' |- | Malawi || 马拉维 || 馬拉威 || ''Mǎlāwéi'' |- | Mali || 马里 || 馬利 || ''Mǎlǐ'' |- | Mauritania || 毛里塔尼亚 || 茅利塔尼亞 || ''Máolǐtǎníyà'' |- | Mauritius || colspan="2" | 毛里求斯 || ''Máolǐqiúsī'' |- | Morocco || 摩洛哥 || 摩洛哥 || ''Móluògē'' |- | Mozambique || 莫桑比克 || 莫三比克 || ''Mòsāngbǐkè'' |- | Namibia || 纳米比亚 || 納米比亞 || ''Nàmǐbǐyà'' |- | Niger || colspan="2" | 尼日尔 || ''Nírì'ěr'' |- | Nigeria || 尼日利亚 || 奈及利亞 || ''Nírìlìyà'' |- | Rwanda || 卢旺达 || 盧安達 || ''Lúwàngdá'' |- | São Tomé and Príncipe || 圣多美与普林西比 || 聖多美及普林西比 || ''Shèng Duōměi yǔ Pǔlínxībǐ'' |- | Senegal || 塞内加尔 || 塞內加爾 || ''Sàinèijiā'ěr'' |- | Seychelles || 塞舌尔 || 塞席爾 || ''Sàishé'ér'' |- | Sierra Leone || 塞拉利昂 || 獅子山 || ''Sàilālì'áng'' |- | Somalia || 索马里 || 索馬利亞 || ''Suǒmǎlǐ'' |- | South Africa || 南非 || 南非 || ''Nánfēi'' |- | Sudan || 苏丹 || 蘇丹 || ''Sūdān'' |- | Swaziland || 斯威士兰 || 史瓦濟蘭 || ''Sīwēishìlán'' |- | Tanzania || 坦桑尼亚 || 坦尚尼亞 || ''Tǎnsāngníyà'' |- | Togo || 多哥 || 多哥 || ''Duōgē'' |- | Tunisia || 突尼斯 || 突尼西亞 || ''Tūníxīyà'' |- | Uganda || 乌干达 || 烏干達 || ''Wūgāndá'' |- | Zambia || 赞比亚 || 尚比亞 || ''Zànbǐyà'' |- | Zimbabwe || 津巴布韦 || 辛巴威 || ''Jīnbābùwéi'' |} ---- {{Chinese (Mandarin)TOC}} {{BookCat}} 780v4inxe32vzuiu56u0g0m3sxemwdb 110 16597 4681737 4510434 2026-11-11T20:20:24Z Skafbgjsabfvds 3631118 4681737 wikitext text/x-wiki Like this? <big>CAT</big>{{featured book}} {{Wikijunior Big Cats}} '''This page is for the [[Wikijunior]] ''Big Cats'' project.''' When working on this project, remember that it is aimed at children. It's more important to be understood than to be precisely accurate on every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler ones would work. If you have made contributions to this Wikibook and would like to have formal credit for being an author, please add your name to the [[/Authors|List of all Wikijunior Wild Cats Authors]]. ==Complete Wikibook== These are all the modules of the Wikibook compiled to form a single page. Keep in mind that this will take some time to load, due to the large number of images in these articles as well as simply the length of this Wikibook. === PDF Version === * [[media:Wikijunior-Big Cats.pdf|Click here to download a PDF version]] (as of December 11th, 2005. pp. 65) [[Category:Books with PDF version]] * Also viewable at [http://www.scribd.com/doc/2490736/Wikijunior-Big-Cats Scribd] with a more appealing layout === HTML Version === * [[Wikijunior Big Cats/Complete Edition|Complete Wikijunior Big Cats]] ==Main Articles== The articles that this will include are: '''INTRODUCTION''' * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Foreword|Foreword]] a note to the parents. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Meet The Cats|Meet the Cats]] some facts about cats and what makes them special '''THE GREAT CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Lion|Lion]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tiger|Tiger]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Leopard|Leopard]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Jaguar|Jaguar]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Snow leopard|Snow leopard]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Clouded leopard|Clouded leopard]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Marbled cat|Marbled cat]] '''SWIFT CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Cheetah|Cheetah]] '''SMALL NEW WORLD CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Puma|Puma]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Lynx and bobcats|Lynx and bobcats]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Ocelot|Ocelot]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Margay|Margay]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Jaguarundi|Jaguarundi]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Rusty spotted cat|Rusty-spotted cat]] '''SMALL OLD WORLD CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Caracal|Caracal]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Serval|Serval]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Manul|Manul]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Wildcat|Wild cat]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Sand cat|Sand cat]] '''HYBRIDS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tigons and Ligers|Tigons and Ligers]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Pumapards|Pumapards]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Marozi|Marozi]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tigards|Tigards]] '''MORE TOPICS''' * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Raising young|How do cats raise their young?]] – Learn how cats raise their young. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Fossil History|Fossil History]] – Sabretooth tigers, Cave lions, and Bears, oh my! * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/In danger of extinction|In Danger of Extinction]] – Be aware of the danger cats may be in. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Keeping cats|Keeping Cats]] – An interview with a zoo keeper on how big cats are "kept" * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Classification|Cat Classification]] – How scientists name and organize cats. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Glossary|Glossary]] – Define general terms children may not understand from context. '''PROPOSAL FOR FRONT COVER''' [[Image:Wikijunior bigcats frontpag.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Dark gray with tiger]] {{wikipedia|Big cat}} {{Shelves|Wikijunior The Natural World}} {{Alphabetical|B}} {{status|100%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[ca:Viquijúnior:Grans felins]] [[de:Wikijunior Großkatzen]] [[es:Wikichicos/Grandes felinos]] [[fr:Wikijunior:Les félins]] [[it:Wikijunior Grandi felini]] [[pl:Wikijunior:Zwierzęta/Koty]] [[pt:Grandes felinos]] [[fi:Wikijunior Isot kissat]] [[zh:Wikijunior:大猫]] mgf4updgeoymf5w6v3hxbutvq0jrnae 4681741 4681737 2026-11-11T20:20:31Z NDG 3510220 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Skafbgjsabfvds|Skafbgjsabfvds]] ([[User talk:Skafbgjsabfvds|talk]]) to last version by Tegel 4218459 wikitext text/x-wiki {{featured book}} {{Wikijunior Big Cats}} '''This page is for the [[Wikijunior]] ''Big Cats'' project.''' When working on this project, remember that it is aimed at children. It's more important to be understood than to be precisely accurate on every detail. Use technical vocabulary when you need to, but don't use big words where simpler ones would work. If you have made contributions to this Wikibook and would like to have formal credit for being an author, please add your name to the [[/Authors|List of all Wikijunior Wild Cats Authors]]. ==Complete Wikibook== These are all the modules of the Wikibook compiled to form a single page. Keep in mind that this will take some time to load, due to the large number of images in these articles as well as simply the length of this Wikibook. === PDF Version === * [[media:Wikijunior-Big Cats.pdf|Click here to download a PDF version]] (as of December 11th, 2005. pp. 65) [[Category:Books with PDF version]] * Also viewable at [http://www.scribd.com/doc/2490736/Wikijunior-Big-Cats Scribd] with a more appealing layout === HTML Version === * [[Wikijunior Big Cats/Complete Edition|Complete Wikijunior Big Cats]] ==Main Articles== The articles that this will include are: '''INTRODUCTION''' * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Foreword|Foreword]] a note to the parents. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Meet The Cats|Meet the Cats]] some facts about cats and what makes them special '''THE GREAT CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Lion|Lion]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tiger|Tiger]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Leopard|Leopard]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Jaguar|Jaguar]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Snow leopard|Snow leopard]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Clouded leopard|Clouded leopard]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Marbled cat|Marbled cat]] '''SWIFT CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Cheetah|Cheetah]] '''SMALL NEW WORLD CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Puma|Puma]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Lynx and bobcats|Lynx and bobcats]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Ocelot|Ocelot]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Margay|Margay]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Jaguarundi|Jaguarundi]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Rusty spotted cat|Rusty-spotted cat]] '''SMALL OLD WORLD CATS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Caracal|Caracal]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Serval|Serval]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Manul|Manul]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Wildcat|Wild cat]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Sand cat|Sand cat]] '''HYBRIDS''' [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tigons and Ligers|Tigons and Ligers]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Pumapards|Pumapards]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Marozi|Marozi]], [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tigards|Tigards]] '''MORE TOPICS''' * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Raising young|How do cats raise their young?]] – Learn how cats raise their young. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Fossil History|Fossil History]] – Sabretooth tigers, Cave lions, and Bears, oh my! * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/In danger of extinction|In Danger of Extinction]] – Be aware of the danger cats may be in. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Keeping cats|Keeping Cats]] – An interview with a zoo keeper on how big cats are "kept" * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Classification|Cat Classification]] – How scientists name and organize cats. * [[Wikijunior:Big Cats/Glossary|Glossary]] – Define general terms children may not understand from context. '''PROPOSAL FOR FRONT COVER''' [[Image:Wikijunior bigcats frontpag.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Dark gray with tiger]] {{wikipedia|Big cat}} {{Shelves|Wikijunior The Natural World}} {{Alphabetical|B}} {{status|100%}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ [[ca:Viquijúnior:Grans felins]] [[de:Wikijunior Großkatzen]] [[es:Wikichicos/Grandes felinos]] [[fr:Wikijunior:Les félins]] [[it:Wikijunior Grandi felini]] [[pl:Wikijunior:Zwierzęta/Koty]] [[pt:Grandes felinos]] [[fi:Wikijunior Isot kissat]] [[zh:Wikijunior:大猫]] l0vrf29ghnc45uf2sotlzb3rro8z3g4 0 22716 4681589 4681575 2026-11-11T12:24:05Z 一隻北極熊 3609960 4681589 wikitext text/x-wiki The horizontal stroke is a very common stroke, going horizontally from left to right. It is found in some form in nearly every Korean letter, especially the vowels. [[File:一-order.gif|thumb|Stroke order of the horizontal stroke]] Examples of the horizontal stroke: {| border |'''C'''hinese characters || all the strokes of: 一 二 三 <br> the second and third strokes of 上 <br> the first stroke of the tree radical: 木、村、枚 <br> the last two strokes of the sun radical: 日、早、昔 <br> the last three strokes of the eye radical: 目、省、眠 <br> and so on |- |'''J'''apanese kana ¹ || Katakana: エ、オ、キ、ケ、コ、サ、チ、テ、ナ、ニ、ホ、モ、ユ、ヨ、ラ、ロ、ヲ |- |'''K'''orean jamo || ㄷ, ㅌ, ㄸ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅃ, ㅈ, ㅉ, ㅊ, ㅋ, ㅌ, ㅍ, ㅎ, ㅏ, ㅐ, ㅑ, ㅒ, ㅓ, ㅔ, ㅕ, ㅖ, ㅗ, ㅘ, ㅙ, ㅚ, ㅛ, ㅜ, ㅝ, ㅞ, ㅟ, ㅠ, ㅡ, ㅢ |} <small>¹ It's harder to determine what a stroke is in hiragana, since hiragana is inherently cursive. Stroke-like shapes can be found in あ、お、き、け、さ、す、せ、た、ち、な、は、ほ、ま、む、も、よ、を.<br></small> In general, a horizontal stroke is defined by the following properties: # They slant upwards. #* Theoretically, all horizontal strokes should slant upwards at a very slight angle. # They start hard and end hard. #* Horizontal strokes don't trail off. The instant before you lift your pencil / pen off the paper should be one where you're applying force onto the paper. #* '''However''', there is a tendency where horizontal strokes '''do''' trail off, if they are on the left half of a character, is not joined by another stroke on the right end, and is the last stroke in that side of the character. This arises naturally, because the pen / pencil / brush goes on immediately to write the right side of the character without stopping. Also as a result of this, the stroke tends to point diagonally upwards, and straight. # They may curve down at the end. #* Like the dot stroke, this is mostly a consequence of the second point above. As you apply more and more force you tend to draw your hand closer to your body, hence curving the stroke downwards. #* However, please don't overdo this. This feature should be a natural result of point 2 above. If you find yourself curving the stroke deliberately, then you're definitely overdoing it. If it doesn't curve, then leave it. Horizontal strokes don't need to curve &mdash; this applies here even more than it does with the dot stroke. Let's take a look at three examples, the Chinese character for "three", the Japanese katakana ''ni'', and the Korean syllable for ''pa'': [[File:CJK 1-02-01.png|400px]]<br> All of the strokes of "three", all of the strokes of "mi", and first, fourth, and last strokes for "pi" all show the properties of horizontal strokes. To show a situation where the horizontal doesn't trail off, here are two Chinese characters, for "bean" and "head"(Traditional), respectively. [[File:CJK 1-02-02.PNG]] Note that the traditional character "bean" is found on the left side of the character for "head". The last stroke of "bean", a horizontal stroke, is made to trail off and point up. {{BookCat}} bvzjiuzqshy9212u6j89i4rn25yz1hi 4681590 4681589 2026-11-11T12:26:38Z 一隻北極熊 3609960 4681590 wikitext text/x-wiki The horizontal stroke is a very common stroke, going horizontally from left to right. It is found in some form in nearly every Korean letter, especially the vowels. [[File:一-order.gif|thumb|Stroke order of the horizontal stroke]] Examples of the horizontal stroke: {| border |'''C'''hinese characters || all the strokes of: 一 二 三 <br> the second and third strokes of 上 <br> the first stroke of the tree radical: 木、村、枚 <br> the last two strokes of the sun radical: 日、早、昔 <br> the last three strokes of the eye radical: 目、省、眠 <br> and so on |- |'''J'''apanese kana ¹ || Katakana: エ、オ、キ、ケ、コ、サ、チ、テ、ナ、ニ、ホ、モ、ユ、ヨ、ラ、ロ、ヲ |- |'''K'''orean jamo || ㄷ, ㅌ, ㄸ, ㄹ, ㅁ, ㅂ, ㅃ, ㅈ, ㅉ, ㅊ, ㅋ, ㅌ, ㅍ, ㅎ, ㅏ, ㅐ, ㅑ, ㅒ, ㅓ, ㅔ, ㅕ, ㅖ, ㅗ, ㅘ, ㅙ, ㅚ, ㅛ, ㅜ, ㅝ, ㅞ, ㅟ, ㅠ, ㅡ, ㅢ |} <small>¹ It's harder to determine what a stroke is in hiragana, since hiragana is inherently cursive. Stroke-like shapes can be found in あ、お、き、け、さ、す、せ、た、ち、な、は、ほ、ま、む、も、よ、を.<br></small> In general, a horizontal stroke is defined by the following properties: # They slant upwards. #* Theoretically, all horizontal strokes should slant upwards at a very slight angle. # They start hard and end hard. #* Horizontal strokes don't trail off. The instant before you lift your pencil / pen off the paper should be one where you're applying force onto the paper. #* '''However''', there is a tendency where horizontal strokes '''do''' trail off, if they are on the left half of a character, is not joined by another stroke on the right end, and is the last stroke in that side of the character. This arises naturally, because the pen / pencil / brush goes on immediately to write the right side of the character without stopping. Also as a result of this, the stroke tends to point diagonally upwards, and straight. # They may curve down at the end. #* Like the dot stroke, this is mostly a consequence of the second point above. As you apply more and more force you tend to draw your hand closer to your body, hence curving the stroke downwards. #* However, please don't overdo this. This feature should be a natural result of point 2 above. If you find yourself curving the stroke deliberately, then you're definitely overdoing it. If it doesn't curve, then leave it. Horizontal strokes don't need to curve &mdash; this applies here even more than it does with the dot stroke. Let's take a look at three examples, the Chinese character for "three", the Japanese katakana ''ni'', and the Korean syllable for ''pa'': [[File:CJK 1-02-01.png|400px]]<br> All of the strokes of "three", all of the strokes of "mi", and first, fourth, and last strokes for "pi" all show the properties of horizontal strokes. To show a situation where the horizontal doesn't trail off, here are two Chinese characters, for "bean" and "head"(Traditional), respectively. [[File:CJK 1-02-02.png|400px]] Note that the traditional character "bean" is found on the left side of the character for "head". The last stroke of "bean", a horizontal stroke, is made to trail off and point up. {{BookCat}} jj9m6mkt5rt2o5dxwsidwgi6rx9yvkp 102 36532 4681720 1695060 2026-11-11T19:29:03Z ~2026-59825-22 3631113 Improve grammar and flow 4681720 wikitext text/x-wiki {{technique}} ==What is Basting?== Basting is a method where you use a liquid to moisten food, particularly meat, while you are cooking it. This liquid could be anything from pan dripping, to melted fat or any other liquid. Doing this keeps the meat or other food moist and can improve the color or flavor of the food which you are cooking. ==How to Baste?== It is actually quite simple, you can use whichever tool you may have in your kitchen, ranging from a simple spoon to a [[Cookbook:Baster|baster]]. You then simply scoop up whichever liquid you are choosing to use and pour it over the top of the meat, etc. during the cooking process to ensure a great result with both color and flavour. 6pvldjximmfpujztq0vad3e63533u5z 0 104156 4681606 4646458 2026-11-11T13:17:22Z Littlefairy37 3629963 4681606 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |Exchange variation |parent=[[../|Philidor defence]] }} == 3...exd4 · Exchange variation == Black takes on d4, defusing the central tension. This is the main continuation. White now recaptures, usually with the knight [[/4. Nxd4|'''4. Nxd4''']]. Recapturing with the queen [[/4. Qxd4|'''4. Qxd4''']] is playable but allows Black to develop Nc6 with tempo. Then, having resolved the issue of e5, Black must concentrate on developing their pieces, lest they fall too far behind White. This typically means Black plays ...Be7, ...Nf6, and castles short. Alternatives to dealing with the f8 bishop―...g7 to fianchetto (the Larsen variation) or ...d5 exd5 Qxd5 (the Paulsen attack)―have been tried but are probably too slow. Alternatively, if White wants some 19th-century action, they can gambit the pawn with either '''[[/4. Bc4/]]''' or '''[[/4. c3/]]'''. ==Theory table== {{ChessTable}} '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 d6 3.d4 exd4''' <table border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4"> <tr> <th></th> <th align="left">4</th> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"><span style="font-size: small;"></span></th> <td>[[/4. Nxd4|Nxd4]]<br>-</td> <td>=</td> </tr> <tr> <th align="right"><span style="font-size: small;"></span></th> <td>[[/4. Qxd4|Qxd4]]<br>-</td> <td>=</td> </tr> </table> {{ChessMid}} ==References== {{reflist}} {{wikipedia|Philidor Defence}} '''Bibliography''' {{BCO2}} * [[wikipedia:Larry_Kaufman|Kaufman, Larry]] (2004). ''The Chess Advantage in Black and White''. {{ISBN|0-8129-3571-3}}. * [[wikipedia:Vasily_Panov|Panov, Vasily]] (1973). ''Teoría de Aperturas, Tomo I: Aperturas Abiertas - Aperturas Semiabiertas''. {{ISBN|84-270-0132-0}}. * [[wikipedia:Eric_Schiller|Schiller, Eric]] (2002). ''Standard Chess Openings''. {{ISBN|1-58042-048-6}}. ==== External links ==== *{{cite book |author=ChessBase|date=2023|title=Philidor Defence|url=https://shop.chessbase.com/en/openings/philidor }} *{{cite book |author=Chess Openings for Beginners |date=2009|title=Philidor Defense: General Information|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Y5sthOWJ4Q&t=12s }} *{{cite book |author=ChessPathways |date=2019|title=PHILIDOR DEFENSE|url=https://chesspathways.com/chess-openings/kings-pawn-opening/philidor-defense/ }} *{{cite book |author=ChessPathways |date=2019|title=The Philidor Defense|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0d5EU7rNkqs&t=6s }} *{{cite book |author=Chess Simplified |date=2019|title=Philidor Defence|url=https://simplifychess.com/philidor-defence/index.html }} *{{cite book |author=HangingPawns|date=2019|title=Introduction to the Philidor Defense|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q4bp4qlRqGg }} *{{cite book |author=Marsh, Sean (ChessAble)|date=2021|title=Chess Opening Basics: The Philidor Defense|url=https://www.chessable.com/blog/chess-opening-basics-the-philidor-defense/}} *{{cite book |author=Prem, Krishna |date=2012 |title=Chess openings - Philidor Defence |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKCMXf4g1HU}} *{{cite book |author=The Chess Website|date=2012|title=Philidor Defense - Chess Openings|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mAf-YuGPYMo }} *{{cite book |author=Solomon, Ruddell (TheChessGiant)|date=2021|title=Chess Openings: Learn to Play the Philidor Defense!|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2WztzXJuLo0 }} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} r3avy2eb7xq7n5egn64lutel2bk2wzs 4 112405 4681757 4681260 2026-11-11T23:54:26Z Pine 504037 /* November 2026 Wikimedia Café: the Newcomer homepage & Home experience */ new section 4681757 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:CHAT|WB:RR/G|WB:GENERAL}} {{TOC left|limit=3}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(60d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 |key = 7a0ac23cf8049e4d9ff70cabb5649d1a }} Welcome to the '''General reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about the Wikibooks project in general. For proposals for improving Wikibooks, see the [[../Proposals/]] reading room. {{clear}} [[Category:Reading room]] == Call for administrators == Any experienced editor who has a good understanding of Wikibooks' policies should consider applying for administrator permissions at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]]. Thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 22:10, 5 August 2026 (UTC) :Is there a page here that describes what admins do? I am curious because I checked [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:ListUsers?username=&group=sysop&wpsubmit=&wpFormIdentifier=mw-listusers-form&limit=50 List of admins] and I see that there are already quite a few admins here and wonder which areas have a shortage. :Just curious. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:56, 16 September 2026 (UTC) ::[[Wikibooks:Administrators]]. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 01:09, 16 September 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks project is not defined by goal == If it is for texbooks why is it called Wikibooks? It should be called Wikitextbooks! If it is for textbooks why does it contain cookbooks? For textbooks it's not supposed to have a [[Wikibooks:Featured books]]. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 09:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :It's "textbooks" broadly construed: guides, manuals, how-tos, etc. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:15, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::So we should change "Wikibooks:Featured books" to "Wikibooks:Featured texts". [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:17, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::I disagree and even if I agreed, it would be priority #49,389. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 11:20, 1 September 2026 (UTC) ::::It's according to community consensus that says this website contains textbooks not books. [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:23, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :::::"[[wb:WIW|Simply, Wikibooks is a collection of open-content textbooks.]]" [[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 11:26, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Most textbooks are made by collaboration of some authors, co-authors and editors. Wikibooks help pages and guidelines remain silent when it comes to stages of writing a new texbooks. Even [[Using Wikibooks]] is not complete emough for enthusiasts. --[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]] ([[User talk:Vivairan2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Vivairan2|contribs]]) 18:13, 3 September 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Vivairan2|Vivairan2]], In my opinion this is a good question. I wish more users would chime in. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:10, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == Wishlist 2027, invitation to share feedback == Hi, I’m [[m:User:SPerry-WMF|Sonja]] and I lead some of the [[mw:Contributors|teams]] at the Foundation who will be responsible for picking up wish work under the new wishlist process. As you may know, the [[m:Community_Wishlist|Community Wishlist]] started out as an annual process through which Wikimedia contributors submit and vote on technical improvements they would like the Wikimedia Foundation to work on. The main goal of it is and has been to improve the editing experience by making changes and features the community asks for specifically. In recent years, the process behind the wishlist has changed, and we’ve heard from many of you that it no longer meets many community members’ needs. So now, the Foundation is designing a new process with the community to improve how wishes are triaged, voted on, and prioritized in a way that is transparent, balanced across project families and language editions, and takes into account what the Foundation can deliver. I would like to get community input specifically on these three stages of the Wishlist process: * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#triage|'''triage stage''']], meaning how wishes are fleshed out, organized and filtered prior to voting ** We recommend to have a working group, including volunteers from various wikis and Wikimedia Foundation staff to work through this together * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#vote|'''voting stage''']], including who may vote and how votes are structured * The [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#postvote|'''post-vote stage''']], including how to bring equity into what work is prioritized ** One way to do this is to rank wishes within 3 categories: Large Wikipedias or covering all wikis, small and medium-sized Wikipedias, and '''sister projects''', so that top-voted wishes from smaller projects also get attention This message is an abstract of the full proposed process. As you [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|read the proposed ideas on Meta]] (available in your language), please speak up about whether you think this will work well or if there are ways to make it stronger. Regarding the timeline, this consultation is open for two weeks. You can post your feedback on Meta (in your preferred language) or in response below. For this year’s cycle, [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#timeline|we plan]] to have the wish submission period in late October/early November and the triage process completed by late November. To respect the end-of-year holiday season, voting would happen in early to mid January. This first voting cycle is meant as a first step to try out a new process, and there will be more opportunities to provide feedback along the way, so that we can figure out the best process for future years together. [[oldwikisource:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 13:52, 1 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you to everyone who engaged in the discussion around [[m:Talk:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027|the proposal from August 26]]. We've processed your feedback and [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027&diff=prev&oldid=31041090 made changes] accordingly. Note that we weren’t able to implement all of it for this cycle, mostly for logistical reasons, but this is merely meant to be a first step and we will continue to improve this process with you all before we run through the next cycle. We plan to use [[m:Community_Wishlist/Community_Wishlist_2027#Updated_Community_Wishlist_Process_2027/2028|this updated version]] for the Wishlist 2027, and we look forward to hearing from you all during the submission and voting periods. :[[:M:User:SPerry-WMF|SPerry-WMF]], delivered by [[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]] ([[User talk:Trizek (WMF)|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Trizek (WMF)|contribs]]) 14:49, 17 September 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:SPerry-WMF|User:SPerry-WMF]],@[[User:Trizek (WMF)|Trizek (WMF)]]: Thank you for posting info regarding the wishlist to the English Wikibooks. I am sure there are many new users here who can benefit. ::I used to participate in those discussions years ago and I know a lot of effort goes into making discussions useful not only for users of wikipedia, but also for the many language versions of the smaller wikimedia projects such as Wikibooks. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 16:28, 19 September 2026 (UTC) == Who is allowed to delete pages here? == On Aug 14, 2026 a user by the name of Max deleted a page I created in my user space. I don't see max in the list of admins here. Do they have the right to delete pages? Is there any documentation here I can consult? Thanks in advance, [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 22:38, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :We have local admins who have the technical ability to delete pages and virtually all material deleted here would be done by us (I'm one of them). A fairly small amount of users have global rights across all Wikimedia Foundation wikis and they will very rarely make deletions (e.g. if there are some kind of legal implications to material). [[User:Ottawahitech/American politics]] was deleted by [[User:Max]], who has [[Special:UserRights/Max|no special rights here]] but is one of the [[:m:Global sysops|global sysops]] I mentioned earlier. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 22:55, 15 September 2026 (UTC) : Probably unrelated to the above, but Ottawahitech should do that with their account, unless if they are blocked. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 23:33, 15 September 2026 (UTC) ::Agreed and [[User:Ottawahitech]] is not blocked here, so no idea why he's using a temp account. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:43, 15 September 2026 (UTC) :::There may be many reasons registered users are "editing" without logging in. Is it possible that they want to go about peacefully without attracting too much attention? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 15:01, 16 September 2026 (UTC) :::: We neither have a policy nor a guideline about this, probably. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:12, 20 September 2026 (UTC) ::::Notwithstanding a claim that the temp account is actually User:Ottawahitech, we have no idea that they are the same person. If the temp account is the same person, and they want to have a user space page, they can create temp account ones. The registered user account pages are intended for that registered user account and not as a dumping ground for anyone to create pages. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 08:29, 13 October 2026 (UTC) == Assistance to get page reviewed == My page is a translation page: [[Baiyi Zhuan]] It is a single page, it is translated according to my own ability and familiarity with the language with a disclosure on external tools. I would like it to get reviewed if possible as I do not have the rights. [[User:Taitesena|Taitesena]] ([[User talk:Taitesena|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Taitesena|contribs]]) 11:19, 18 September 2026 (UTC) == Translation of books == Hello, I would like to translate books from other Wikibooks into English. Are there any guidelines regarding how to do this? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:34, 20 September 2026 (UTC) : This has yet to be expanded, but you might want to take a look at [[Wikibooks:Content translation]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:13, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == Feedback on Wikibooks redirect == I would like your feedback on my proposal to make [[Wikibooks:Username|this page]] redirect to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]? I would do it myself, but it is not possible due to the fact that [[Wikibooks:Username]] can only be made by admins. This is because [[Wikibooks:Username policy]] also links to [[Using Wikibooks/Setting Up A User Account#Choosing a Username|this page]]. Regards, [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:37, 21 September 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 00:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :This seems like a good idea to me. [[User:Alextejthompson|''Alextejthompson'']] (''Ping me or leave a message on my [[User talk:Alextejthompson|talk page]]'') 17:49, 21 September 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}, I restored the redirect per consensus here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:03, 13 October 2026 (UTC) == Pages created by [[User:Sisterian]] == I have checked with AI checkers (GPTZero, ZeroGPT) and they claim that these pages have been made with the use of GenAI. I do not know whether this is correct or not; because yes, AI checkers can and do make mistakes. I have tried reaching out to the person via talk page, to no response. I am asking for input just to see what the future of these pages are. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 12:00, 22 September 2026 (UTC) :Thank you for flagging this @[[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]]. I have looked at these pages personally, and there is fairly conclusive evidence that this user has been using genAI/LLMs for their contributions. I have warned them accordingly. Cheers —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:50, 22 September 2026 (UTC) == I'm in the process of creating a separate page describing the removal of admin permissions == As the section title says, please see [[User:Codename Noreste/sandbox]] and feel free to make any adjustments. We might consider moving this to [[Wikibooks:Administrators/De-adminship]] someday. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:05, 24 September 2026 (UTC) == Your feedback wanted: Remove ''(Language link added:) and similar'' edits from Special:RecentChanges == ''(Apologies for posting in English. You can help by translating it)'' Hello, I’m Danny from [[:en:w:Wikimedia_Deutschland|Wikimedia Deutschland’s]] [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects|Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects]] team.<br/> We have been investigating and examining how Wikidata’s use in the [[Special:RecentChanges]] and [[Special:Watchlist]] pages can be made to be more useful, or less ‘noisy’ (fewer edits that have little value to the reader). We are currently exploring to make a change in the volume and the type of Wikidata edits that appear in these pages, and '''we need your feedback''' to help us ensure this is a positive change for the Wikis and won’t disrupt your workflows.<br/> Language links are also known as sitelinks or interlanguage links and describe when a Wikidata item is connected to a Wiki, adding it to the language dropdown tool for other connected Wikis. [[File:Types of Lang Link changes.png|x350px|frame|A variety of "Language Link" edits as seen in the Recent Changes feed]] The request for feedback is whether you support the removal of these language link edits from the Recent Changes and Watchlist feed, or would you oppose such a change and if so, why? Please share you thoughts on the dedicated '''[[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|metawiki Talk page]]'''. Further information about this change: [[m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|m:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Hide_Language_Link_edits]] Thank you for any participation or feedback you give, -- [[m:User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] 11:46, 25 September 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31080832 --> == FlaggedRevs again == <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved to [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> == Wikidata Sitelink changes in Recent Changes and Watchlist == ''(Apologies for cross-posting in English, translating it will help spread the message)'' Editors on group 1 wikis, including Wikiquote, Wikibooks, Wikiversity, Wikivoyage, and Wikisource, will no longer see notifications on [[Special:RecentChanges|Recent Changes]] and [[Special:Watchlist|Watchlist]] when a link to ''another'' language version of a page is added, removed, or changed in its Wikidata item. This change will begin on '''October 5 at 07:00 UTC''' as a two-week trial to reduce high-volume, low-value notifications and make higher-value changes easier to identify. Editors who rely on these notifications should be aware of the change and can share feedback or concerns on the [[m:Wikidata For Wikimedia Projects/Clearer Wikidata Edit Summaries/Hide Language Link edits|project]] or [[m:Talk:Wikidata_For_Wikimedia_Projects/Clearer_Wikidata_Edit_Summaries/Hide_Language_Link_edits|talk page]].<br/>Please reach out if you have any questions, thank you! -- [[User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|Danny Benjafield (WMDE)]] ([[User_talk:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)|talk]]) sent via [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 12:42, 1 October 2026 (UTC) <!-- Message sent by User:Danny Benjafield (WMDE)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Danny_Benjafield_(WMDE)/MassMessage_test_list&oldid=31106967 --> == Approved Revs extension == If we were to have this extension, we should only limit this to the Wikijunior namespace, since we will eventually stop using FlaggedRevs, unless if we want Approved Revs to work in another namespace. Remember, this is not a vote, but an overall discussion. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 01:17, 11 October 2026 (UTC) == An apology == Due to the removal of the <code>editor</code> and <code>autoreview</code> user groups and my failure to immediately correct the [https://github.com/JJPMaster/jjpmaster-bot-enwb-t1 code of my bot], the markAdmins gadget data has not been updated for 39 hours. I apologize if anyone has been affected. [https://github.com/JJPMaster/jjpmaster-bot-enwb-t1/commit/65e615ef04d82500674a3711f2d99fe7cd8968d0 This commit] corrected the problem. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 06:05, 17 October 2026 (UTC) == October 2026 Wikimedia Café: legal issues on Commons, and WMF Board selection process == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> Hello! There will be two '''[https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Wikimedia Café]''' discussion opportunities in October. In a change from the usual Café practice, this month's sessions will have different topics. Anyone who meets the Café attendance criteria is welcome to attend either or both sessions. Session A will happen on Saturday, 24 October 2026 at 15:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1792854000 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe. This session will feature [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:PBradley-WMF Wikimedia Foundation lawyer Phil Bradley-Schmieg]. We will discuss legal issues on Wikimedia Commons, including complexities of international law. (I am hoping that in a future month, a similar Café session will be offered at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific.) Session B will happen on Sunday, 25 October 2026 at 03:00 UTC ([https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1792897200 timestamp converter]), at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific, we will discuss [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2027/Proposed_eligibility_criteria proposed changes to how Wikimedia Foundation Board candidates are selected]. The latest proposals are much different from the earlier July 2026 proposals. The due date for feedback on current proposals is 27 October, and Wikimedians are welcome to participate on the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Talk:Wikimedia_Foundation_elections/2027/Proposed_eligibility_criteria proposal talk page] regardless of Café attendance. Please see the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Café] page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_attend_the_session how to register]! To subscribe or unsubscribe for Café notices on your talk page please [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 go here]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">༄ᨒ𖠰 Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 06:22, 18 October 2026 (UTC) == Speedy deletion and the deletion policy == Right now, I am trying to figure out how to split the speedy deletion and deletion policy, but the deletion policy has a meaningful content section which might either be moved to the speedy deletion page or not. Do abandoned pages also count as (not) meaningful content? Also, the spam, vandalism and nonsense, and test page reasons could probably be separate, instead of together. Otherwise, this seems to be confusing. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:28, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] just making sure I understand—what was the reasoning for splitting them? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:06, 3 November 2026 (UTC) == Proposal for the Wikibooks Magazine == Hello, Just wanted to note that there is a proposal for the Wikibooks Magazine on [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals#Wikibooks Magazine|this page]]. Please share your thoughts. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 03:34, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == need help splitting a childrens book == hi i am a newcomer and i really need some help i am writing a childrens book but it has turned into one GIANT piece of reading i need help learning how to break this book up into chapters ( note that i tried to do it thats how it became giant.) or sub pages so it is easy to read thank you with peace,[[User:Phoenix3452|Phoenix3452]] ([[User talk:Phoenix3452|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Phoenix3452|contribs]]) 15:32, 23 October 2026 (UTC) :I posted a welcome message on your talk page that may be helpful. Let me know if you are still confused after taking a look. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 21:18, 23 October 2026 (UTC) == Call for new administrators == Any experienced editors (especially patrollers) who have a good understanding of this project's policies and guidelines may put their name for administrator permissions at [[Wikibooks:Requests for permissions]]. We are looking for active administrators to better help with the maintenance of this project, thank you. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:04, 27 October 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks Magazine == Feel free to submit your ideas for the next Wikibooks Magazine on [[Wikibooks talk:Magazine/1]]. Thank you. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 22:14, 28 October 2026 (UTC) == Possible Wikibooks import of ''Slash and burn'' == Hello. There is a deletion discussion ongoing on English Wikisource related to the [[s:Slash and burn]], a translation of a Norwegian book to which various editorial changes have been made. These include non-original illustrations, an added foreword, headings that do not correspond to the original table of contents, and other alterations (see [[s:Wikisource:Proposed deletions#Slash and burn]]). Wikisource, however, aims to remain faithful to the original source. I suggested that importing the text into Wikibooks might be a possible solution, but I do not know whether it would be of interest to your project. I do not know what the outcome of the discussion will be, but would Wikibooks be willing to host it? -- [[User:Jan.Kamenicek|Jan.Kamenicek]] ([[User talk:Jan.Kamenicek|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jan.Kamenicek|contribs]]) 21:29, 30 October 2026 (UTC) :Hello @[[User:Jan.Kamenicek|Jan.Kamenicek]]. :As long as the page complies with [[Wikibooks:WIW|the policy on What Wikibooks Is]], I believe that would be great! :--[[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 09:49, 2 November 2026 (UTC) == November 2026 Wikimedia Café: the Newcomer homepage & Home experience == <div class="border-box" style="background-color: var(--background-color-warning-subtle, #f8eaba); max-width: 875px; padding: 5px; border: 1px solid black; margin: 5px; color: var(--clr-dark)"> <div class="box" style="float:left; padding-top: 10px; padding-right: 10px; padding-left: 10px; padding-bottom: 10px;">[[File:Wikimedia Café logo in plain SVG format.svg|60px|alt=The logo for the Wikimedia Café]]</div> '''The Wikimedia Foundation's Contributor teams are migrating the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Growth/Personalized_first_day/Newcomer_homepage Newcomer homepage] to a new experience called [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Home Home].''' This page will evolve with users, introducing them to new personalized opportunities based on their interests, and helping them develop into experienced contributors. In November 21–22 sessions of the Wikimedia Café, [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/User:KStoller-WMF Kirsten Stoller] (senior product manager, Growth) and [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/User:Samwalton9_(WMF) Sam Walton] (senior product manager, Moderator Tools) will share an overview of this feature, plans for its future, and demos of interactive prototypes which we can explore together. A quote which I hope will inspire your attendance or at least good wishes, from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Hopper Grace Hopper]: "The most important thing I've accomplished, other than building the compiler, is training young people. They come to me, you know, and say, 'Do you think we can do this?' I say, 'Try it.' And I back 'em up. They need that. I keep track of them as they get older and I stir 'em up at intervals so they don't forget to take chances." This month's schedule: * Session A: 21 November at 16:00 UTC [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1795276800 (timestamp converter)], at a time friendly to the Americas, Africa, and Europe * Session B: 22 November at 04:00 UTC [https://zonestamp.toolforge.org/1795320000 (timestamp converter)], at a time friendly to Asia and the Pacific '''Please see the [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 Café] page for more information, including [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9#How_to_register how to register]!''' Attendees of the Café are encouraged to bring a favorite beverage. (In the eternal words of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Luc_Picard Captain Picard], "Tea, Earl Grey, hot.") To subscribe or unsubscribe for Café notices on your talk page please [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_message_delivery/Targets/Wikimedia_Caf%C3%A9 go here]. <br /> [[File:Buntstifte Eberhard Faber crop 64h.jpg|860px|alt=cropped image of colored pencils]]</div> <span style="white-space:nowrap;">[[User:Pine|<span style="color:#01796f; text-shadow:#00BFFF 0 0 1.0em">༄ᨒ𖠰 Pine</span>]] [[User talk:Pine|<span style="color:DeepSkyBlue">(<b style="color:#FFDF00;text-shadow:#FFDF00 0 0 1.0em">✉</b>)</span>]]</span> 23:54, 11 November 2026 (UTC) p233g47tl33l75rtgplk6c01iasbaan 13 121759 4681601 4623903 2026-11-11T12:53:02Z Ltypestar2 3524220 /* I have a question */ new section 4681601 wikitext text/x-wiki This is a great idea, but where do these tag-things go? [[User:Mike.lifeguard|Mike.lifeguard]] 23:04, 13 May 2007 (UTC) == Tell users about the 5-tilde shortcut == Can we add that you can use the shortcut 08:53, 16 May 2007 (UTC) for the date, e.g. <pre>{{stage|25%|~~~~~}}</pre> --[[User:YanWong|Yan]] 08:53, 16 May 2007 (UTC) :{{done}} ''' &ndash; [[User:Mike.lifeguard|<span style="color:Indigo">Mike.lifeguard</span>]]''' | ^{[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|<span style="color:Indigo">talk</span>]]} 16:02, 14 September 2007 (UTC) == The Template == Should the development stages be removed when the book is considered completed? --[[User:S.Örvarr.S|Stefán Örvarr Sigmundsson]] 23:01, 23 August 2007 (UTC) :No; leave them so readers can tell that the section is "complete." ''' &ndash; [[User:Mike.lifeguard|<span style="color:Indigo">Mike.lifeguard</span>]]''' | ^{[[User talk:Mike.lifeguard|<span style="color:Indigo">talk</span>]]} 16:02, 14 September 2007 (UTC) == Add ja-link, please == Please add the interlink "[[ja:Help:進捗状況]]". --[[User:Freetrashbox|Freetrashbox]] ([[User talk:Freetrashbox|talk]]) 14:18, 18 February 2009 (UTC) : [[Image:Yes_check.svg|15px| ]] '''できた''' --[[User:Swift|Swift]] ([[User talk:Swift|talk]]) 16:43, 18 February 2009 (UTC) ::Thank you! --[[User:Freetrashbox|Freetrashbox]] ([[User talk:Freetrashbox|talk]]) 11:20, 19 February 2009 (UTC) == Turkish interwiki link == Please add Turkish link: [[:tr:Yardım:Gelişim durumu]]. [[User:rama|rama]] ([[User talk:Srhat|talk]]) 14:43, 5 May 2009 (UTC) : [[Image:Yes_check.svg|15px| ]] '''Done''' --[[User:Swift|Swift]] ([[User talk:Swift|talk]]) 18:44, 5 May 2009 (UTC) == Layout problems == My browser seems to be having difficulty displaying this whole page. Does anyone else have this problem? Perhaps a more traditional article layout would be more appropriate.[[User:Circuitboardsushi|Circuitboardsushi]] ([[User talk:Circuitboardsushi|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Circuitboardsushi|contribs]]) 22:59, 29 December 2011 (UTC) == I have a question == Does the stage thing be allowed to be used in regular pages? I used one in https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chess_Opening_Theory/1._e4/1...e5/2._Nf3/2...Nc6/3._Nc3/3...Nf6/4._Nxe5/4...Nxe4, but I don't know if that's allowed, its not even the main page. Is it allowed? [[User:Ltypestar2|Ltypestar2]] ([[User talk:Ltypestar2|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ltypestar2|contribs]]) 12:53, 11 November 2026 (UTC) dwmr04g3wo2pfpc3tnbrdxss5dsbj4v 0 124012 4681844 4084887 2026-11-12T11:00:41Z CommonsDelinker 49843 Replacing Combat_deuxième_croisade.jpg with [[File:Bataille_de_Damas_(1148)_-_Français_22495.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR2|Criterion 2]] (meaningless or ambiguous name) · Nom de 4681844 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Weapons and Warfare== Weapons and warfare played a vital role in the Middle Ages. They were used to conquer and defend territories. The strength of your army became the currency of the realm. If you weren’t a soldier or noble, you were a peasant in the feudalistic society. The weapons, such as the sword, pike, and spear, were a way of life. Political problems turned into military problems, starting wars and feuds. The shield also played an important role. Many soldiers forsook the shield for their swords, but the more organized armies had strategy. This led to the growth of kingdoms, and the end of feudalism, sending Europe into the Renaissance era. During the Middle Ages, fighting and death reached an all-time high. Even though this was happening, military skill and tactics were a joke compared to Greek, Roman, Persian, etc. warfare styles. The weapons and armor had, of sorts, degenerated, and the fortifications had become cheap wooden walls with houses inside. With the Church’s domination over Europe, everyone was pitted against each other to win favor in the eyes of the Christian God. So with the mix of constant war, Catholic followers were eager and willing to kill their neighbor to earn kudos with the Church. It was a very dangerous, primitive time. [[File:Bataille de Damas (1148) - Français 22495.jpg|thumb|Artwork depicting a battle during the Crusades.]] Two of the biggest wars that happened during the Middle Ages were the Crusades and the 100 Year War. Each was a massive series of battles, where thousands died on each side. The weapons never changed much, even though the Middle Ages were over 600 years. The Crusades and 100 Year War weaponry varied from battle to battle, but they all kept the same basic weapon format. Most of the poorer infantry would use simple iron swords and pikes, simple wooden or iron shields, and, if possible, simple leather armor. The "slingers" or archers would generally have simple slings or short bows. And the typical cavalry would generally have a long sword and shield, and leather or iron armor. As the Middle Ages continued, weapons became more advanced and more powerful. Swords became stronger and sharper, so the killing of the enemy would be much faster and easier. The English started using longbows instead of small bows so that larger, longer arrows could be shot from a farther distance. Knights wore more flexible armor, so extra movement could give them the upper hand in a battle. Siege weapons became bigger and better, especially because of the invention of European gunpowder, so simple catapults became long-range trebuchets and castle walls became obsolete with the first cannon. Because of these advances, battles, and then wars, became faster and a lot more dangerous. ==Castles and Defense== [[File:Bodiam-castle-10My8-1197.jpg|thumb|A castle surrounded by a moat.]] A castle is defined as a fortified stronghold or a fortified residence of a lord or other important person. During the Middle Ages, castles were revolutionary in there architecture, impenetrability, and defense capabilities, they were the heart of defense efforts, and the peak of defensive capability for several decades and throughout many wars, including the crusades. They were designed to be safe against charges from cavalry and knights. They were built to withstand long sieges and extended battles. Because of there importance and there reputation as safe havens, castles often employed many staff and housed large amounts of well equipped defense forces, to operate war equipment and fight off attackers. A castle is made up of many parts, all vital to its running smoothly. A moat is a ditch dug around a castle, as a fortification, and filled with water to prevent attackers from entering. A drawbridge is a bridge across a deep ditch, often a moat, which may be raised or lowered to restrict or allow entrance into a castle. A portcullis, is a sliding timber or iron gate suspended over a gateway, which can be raised or lowered to allow or prevent access to various areas. They are much like metal doors. Inside a castle are many rooms. There are towers, dungeons, halls, and more. ==Armor== [[File:Paulus Hector Mair Tjost fig2.jpg|thumb|Art depicting jousting]] After the crusades, weapons started to change more. In fact, a sport was created where you fight for fun. Jousting and tilting were sports where you wore special armor and rode on a horse with a long 14-foot-pole called a lance. The point of the game was to run at the other person making them fall of the horse with your lance. You need to protect yourself with a shield. With the lance, you must thrust into a target on their shoulder. This is extremely thick armor for extra protection. It had poor flexibility and did not look good, but it was extremely strong and weighed from 80-100 pounds. This was one of three kinds of steel armor. The next kind of armor is decorative armor. It had very good flexibility and looked very fancy. It was not used for fighting but just for decoration. It wasn’t very thick and it weighed from 20-70 pounds. This kind of armor was worn at parades and ceremonies. Only wealthy people wore this. It was very artistic. The last and most important type of armor was combat armor. It was extremely complicated, though strong, flexible, and it looked good. It consisted of over 200 pieces. It weighed from 45 to 80 pounds. It had built in joints and could be used for any occasion. It was easy to get back on a horse if you fell off with this armor. This armor included a helmet that was properly ventilated and you can see well with it on. ==The results of the 100 Year War== [[File:Lenepveu, Jeanne d'Arc au siège d'Orléans.jpg|thumb|upright|The 100 Year War helped create nationalistic feelings among the populations of participating countries.]] Intense Nationalistic feeling grew in both England and France. Most of the war was fought on French soil so there were great population and property loses that weakened France for the next hundred years. England lost territory in France but it allowed the English kings to centralize their power further and concentrate only on the English nobles. New weapons were introduced which weakened the power of the Knights and the castle, thus ensuring the destruction of the feudal system in both England and France. The system continued in many of the Eastern European region especially Russia but was absent in Spain, Portugal, city-states in Inlay, Prussia, and the Holy Roman Empire. {{Status|50%}} {{BookCat}} k1fow7c0g7j4xcv8iuxig44p8qcin5z 8 135468 4681751 4679814 2026-11-11T21:02:25Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 add policy up for discussion to get more feedback 4681751 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="text-align: left; display: inline-block;"> <ul> <li>[[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals#Discussion on whether to create an extended mover user group|A community consultation is underway regarding the creation of an extended mover user group]].</li> <li>Submit your ideas for the next [[Wikibooks talk:Magazine/1|Wikibooks magazine]]! Anyone can submit ideas!</li> <li>Draft policy [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] is [[Wikibooks:Reading_room/Proposals#Approve_Wikibooks:Manual_of_Style|up for community discussion]]. Consider weighing in on the conversation! </li> </ul> </div> 7ehuxpzc33smq7x20ukt6ruokhtg6hk 4 140081 4681787 4680910 2026-11-12T08:10:40Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread (older than 14 days) to [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/2026/October]] 4681787 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Header}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance/Archives/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(14d) |counter = 1 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} == Ruchichuahan reported by MathsScienceNerd1 == * {{userlinks|Ruchichuahan}} Advertisement, spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Ruchichuahan/ --> [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 07:28, 29 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:05, 29 October 2026 (UTC) == BoiaBoiaMans reported by Morkoz == * {{userlinks|BoiaBoiaMans}} Long-term abuse. <!-- USERREPORTED:/BoiaBoiaMans/ --> [[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 19:23, 1 November 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Globally locked}} —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:08, 2 November 2026 (UTC) == CU Request == @[[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] can I get a CU on the following, who are mass-creating pages with thematic overlap? <div style="column-count: 3"> * [[User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox]] * [[User:KushKumar46/sandbox]] * [[User:Surajshinde2005/sandbox]] * [[User:Tangirala Pavan kumar reddy/sandbox]] * [[User:D542006P/sandbox/Time Division Multiplexing]] * [[User:Apsohal/sandbox]] * [[User:Gang tribute/sandbox]] * [[User:Shoobisediting/sandbox]] * [[User:Anandu SN/sandbox]] * [[User:YubiIsthere/sandbox]] * [[User:Raginikumari123/sandbox]] * [[User:Sandeep912133/sandbox]] * [[User:SandeepLPU/sandbox]] * [[User:Bodepalli reddy/sandbox]] * [[User:Badepalli praveen kumar reddy/sandbox]] * [[User:Eren Reddy/sandbox]] * [[User:Hayan R/sandbox]] * [[User:Abhi9441/sandbox]] * [[User:Dhillonnn/sandbox]] * [[User:Ritwik2418/sandbox]] * [[User:Akshgoel/sandbox]] * [[User:Shubham1240/sandbox]] * [[User:Cornor-02/sandbox]] * [[User:Dhanush0715/sandbox]] * [[User:Bojja Mahesh Yadav/sandbox]] * [[User:KashyavPradhan07/sandbox]] * [[User:Sarabjitlpu/sandbox]] * [[User:AmeenSharaf007/sandbox]] * [[User:QuillNova/sandbox]] * [[User:Avishkar pathak/sandbox]] * [[User:Reyansh68/sandbox2]] * [[User:Bojja Mahesh Yadav/sandbox/Introduction]] * [[User:PushpenderSingh369/sandbox/ArUco Markers]] * [[User:Atharv Karande]] * [[User:Bojja Mahesh Yadav/sandbox/1.4 Objectives of the Study]] * [[User:Wikilalithbook/sandbox]] * [[User:Aditya31Raj/sandbox]] * [[User:Deepakdasari09/sandbox]] * [[User:Ronak0830/sandbox]] * [[User:Chand2006/sandbox]] * [[User:Parmindersingh0830/sandbox]] * [[User:Sonupandit2580/sandbox]] * [[User:Thanuj1212/Power Electronics in Electric Vehicles]]</div> Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:47, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :I have assumed it is a school or educational project, but I will take a closer look. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:15, 4 November 2026 (UTC). :The accounts appear to be related, but not closely enough to be socks. I suspect they are students editing from the same institution on a range of devices. The main issue here seems to be the use of LLMs to create garbage that might then get pasted into a book. Unfortunately it is difficult to communicate with a large group like this. Usually their teacher also creates an account, but I haven't been able to identify one. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 12:21, 4 November 2026 (UTC) ::Thank you for checking! I was also suspecting something similar, and the mass low-quality content addition isn't great. I've mentioned this elsewhere on wiki, but I've noticed accounts taking advantage of the fact that we're more lenient about sandbox content as a loophole to protect against genAI content deletion. I'm inclined to enforce the AI content ban in sandboxes too, since it can't exactly become "un-generated" by AI, and it would be problematic for it to wind up in mainspace. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:01, 4 November 2026 (UTC) :::I've deleted a bunch of these. @[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] is there any way to use the edit filter for this? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 15:10, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :::: Please email me the specific content/titles, and I'll see what I can do. Thanks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:11, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Report concerning [[Special:Contribs/~2026-58721-39|~2026-58721-39]] == Vandalism, removing content from pages. [[User:Veritas Sapientiae|Veritas Sapientiae]] ([[User talk:Veritas Sapientiae|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Veritas Sapientiae|contribs]]) 08:13, 4 November 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 14:04, 4 November 2026 (UTC) == [[Special:IPContributions/170.185.36.211/16]] == '''Reason for reporting:''' cross-wiki abuse ([[:v:Special:IPContributions/170.185.36.211/16]], Cc: {{Reply to|Koavf|Codename Noreste}}, Wikiversity custodians) [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:26, 7 November 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 02:38, 7 November 2026 (UTC) :{{done}}/doing here and at en.wv. Thanks. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 02:39, 7 November 2026 (UTC) 5efc9rzr5rthcd321drpunknuoutpkc 0 144547 4681773 4592340 2026-11-12T07:14:26Z Shocksingularity 3513085 Fixed things that are not scientifically accurate and some weird language, fixed some grammar 4681773 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Black Hole Milkyway.jpg|right|thumb|250px|In this chapter, we will explore the nature of the Black Hole, how they come to be, and the history of the theories behind them.]] A black hole is an object that has a gravitational field so powerful that nothing, not even [[Astronomy/Properties of Light and other Electromagnetic Radiation|light]], can escape. A black hole is bounded by an '''event horizon''', within which the gravitational force becomes so strong that it traps anything that falls in forever. Although black holes do not emit electromagnetic radiation themselves, they can be indirectly observed through their interaction with proximate objects. In general relativity, black holes are predicted to contain singularities. In the simplest model of a black hole, all paths through spacetime, called '''geodesics''', lead to and terminate at a single point. This point is a singularity and at this singularity, the curvature of spacetime is infinite. Black holes are predicted to form either following the collapse of a massive [[Astronomy/Stars/Introduction|star]] or through the collision of two neutron stars. The former is, however, believed to be far more common because neutron star mergers are extremely rare. There are several different types of black holes, and they are categorized by their mass. The smallest type of black hole is called the stellar black hole: It is formed by the gravitational collapse of a massive star. Stellar black holes have masses that range from 3 to 100 solar masses. We've found many stellar black holes in our Milky Way Galaxy. The second and rarest type of black hole is called an intermediate-mass black hole. These black holes weigh hundreds to tens of thousands of solar masses and are found in the center of globular clusters. Astronomers believe that colliding stars may have formed these intermediate-mass black holes. The largest type of black hole is called a supermassive black holes. Supermassive black holes are usually found in the center of galaxies and there is even one in the Milky Way. We aren't yet sure how black holes this big form. One theory is that a black hole forms from a massive star and takes in enormous amounts of matter over the course of millions or billions of years. Another theory is that many black holes form from massive stars and they merge into a supermassive black hole. Many aspects of the black hole model still pose unanswered questions, and the nature of the black hole remains largely unknown. Numerous theories as to the properties, structure, and interior of black holes have been proposed, and the black hole is a regularly seen element of science fiction. Some even propose that black holes could lead to be gateways to other universes or parallel realities with radically different physical laws. Many of these theories remain unknown because they depend on how gravity works at very small scales, which is not yet understood. In the following topic, we'll look at these theories, while exploring what is already known about black holes, as well as the history of the concept of objects with a gravitational field so strong that nothing can escape. We will discuss the properties of the black hole, the impact these properties have on the surrounding spacetime and the matter around them, and how these properties, as well as the effects they cause, can be used to detect black holes in the universe. Finally, we'll examine the life of the black hole, from its birth in the blazing remains of a destroyed star to its gradual evaporation.. ;Table of contents #[[General Astronomy/Life of the Black Hole|Life of the Black Hole]] #[[General Astronomy/Black Holes in Hiding|Black Holes in Hiding]] #[[General Astronomy/History of the Black Hole|History of the Black Hole]] #[[General Astronomy/The Theory of the Naked Singularity|The Theory of the Naked Singularity]] #[[General Astronomy/Spaghettification|Spaghettification]] {{BookCat}} a662gxvq4dr8fakjzkwnm2ankw2abvy 4 155682 4681719 4681446 2026-11-11T19:17:01Z Codename Noreste 3441010 /* Discussion on whether to create an extended mover user group */ addition: CC to @Kittycataclysm. (-) ([[mw:c:Special:MyLanguage/User:JWBTH/CD|CD]]) 4681719 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == {{closed|Has been implemented —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:24, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}}Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::::Just checking in here—was this resolved/completed? I see [[MediaWiki:Gadget-Subpages.js]], and I assume everything is now taken care of in terms of WB-wide installation? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:14, 30 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: This was already resolved, feel free to close this. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:09, 30 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I like proposal and I think it would be an improvement. Having the breadcrumbs twice, as in the current system, creates a redundant ui element. I also think the formatting around the forward slashes in the "new" version better conveys that they have specific technical meaning and are not part of the name of the page. --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:52, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == {{closed|[[phab:T440519]] was done, sending FlaggedRevs down to the void. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:52, 27 October 2026 (UTC)}} <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :: There was the outdated [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] before this project used FlaggedRevs. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:22, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} the removal of FlaggedRevs from Wikibooks. It's a redundant extension that's not useful in this wiki. --[[User:Agusbou2015|Agusbou2015]] ([[User talk:Agusbou2015|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Agusbou2015|contribs]]) 21:53, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Support}}. Several years ago I spent hundreds of hours trying to do the first review of every page. I managed to get all the root pages done but only got as far as "E" for the other pages. While I was doing this I stopped reviewing changes - and in that time over a 1,000 out of date pages were in the list. I concluded it was an impossible task unless lots of people joined in the work but that didn't happen and I doubt it ever will. I do think it has value for Wikijunior in showing the last reviewed page rather than the possibly offensively vandalised latest revision, but other than that it's a waste of time. At some point the extension will get fully deprecated and we'll be forced to stop using it anyway. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 09:53, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :Will <code>patroller</code> be granted automatically? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :: Unfortunately, no. Since we will stop using FlaggedRevs, the patroller user group will not be granted automatically and thus will have to be manually given out by administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: And are we planning on giving back the <code>patroller</code> right to existing reviewers? Or will they have to manually reapply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:30, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I have a plan: any former reviewer who has been active recently in the past two years will have patroller rights. This will be done to reduce a huge amount of inactive former reviewers. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:26, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::Keep the name the same; just remove the reviewer right. After all, patrolling is a form of reviewing. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 18:52, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: Do we have to use the term {{tq|reviewing}} instead of {{tq|patrolling}}? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:57, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Is there a reason that we should not simply give the reviewer group the <code>patrol</code> right, and keep the auto-granting going? [[Wikibooks:Reviewers#Automatic criteria]] does not appear to be FlaggedRevs-specific, so auto-promotion should still be able to continue even without FlaggedRevs, and reviewers could simply become patrollers (in the technical sense). [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 07:55, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I believe that would require some additional code on InitialiseSettings.php, and as for <code>reviewer</code>, I'm not sure we should still use that user group term over <code>patroller</code> as per the point {{tq|Special groups on small wikis}} on [[m:Limits to configuration changes]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:58, 10 October 2026 (UTC) : If you take a look at the extended content, I also included what I also proposed too. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:19, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :{{comment}}. The [[mw:Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]] is not recommended for production use, per Mediawiki. On this basis alone we should discontinue use of it. However, we haven't determined if page patrolling is the best replacement. There are [[mw:Content approval extensions|alternative extensions]] and the mediawiki page for FlaggedRevs specifically recommends [[mw:Extension:Approved Revs|'''Approved Revs extension''']]. We should determine which of page patrolling or these extensions is the most appropriate antivandalism tool first. (after all, according to [[Help:Tracking_changes#Reviewing_pages]], the purpose of FlaggedRevs is to be "our primary counter-vandalism tool"). --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:48, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :: Approved Revs would require significant testing and approval per [[mw:Writing an extension for deployment]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:35, 7 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == {{closed|As of now, unregistered users can no longer create non-discussion pages. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}} {{tracked|T443449|resolved}} Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : In that case, I have no objections here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:03, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :I would propose the use of autoconfirmed, to better patrol new pages that are being created. There are countless advertisement pages being created on Wikibooks, usually in the user's userpage. The use of a registered account proposed by Omphalographer therefore may have some limitations. I agree with the proposal to make new pages strictly autoconfirmed. If a user wishes to create a page, there could be a feature for reviewers/patrollers to check such pages that are being created. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:36, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :: You might want to read my point about limits to configuration changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:53, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :Why turn off potential good contributors by telling them they must register AND log-in in order to contribute? The problem at Wikibooks right now is the dearth of contributions, not vandalism, I think (?). :* Anons are already precluded from editing pages that have been "protected" by admins. :* Anon user contributions are automatically marked for Review before they become public :* There are less than 500 anon accounts that have contributed more than one edit to Wikibooks? :Is it really necessary to stop us from contributing to Wikibooks? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:19, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|~2026-40500-29}} The initial question was not whether registered accounts can contribute, it is whether temporary accounts can create pages. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:48, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::Isn't the creation of new pages a subset of potential contributions to Wikibooks? Are you saying that some members in good standing of this community are only allowed to correct obvious spelling and grammar mistakes by others? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 19:23, 11 October 2026 (UTC) ::::That message was to {{comment}} that this discussion was about creating pages, not about whether anonymous users can contribute. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:22, 13 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]], is your response considered an objection? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:55, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :Limiting page creation to registered users might reduce new spam/promotional/out of scope pages. I disagree with 2026-405000-29 that requiring account registration is unnecessarily burdensome for new editors. :I don't know where the number <500 anon accounts have contributed more than one edit comes from and it seems unlikely to me: that would mean there have only been 23 anon editors per year since wikibooks was founded. Looking at Special:RecentChanges there seems to be four or five anon editors a day. :Overall I think it is a reasonable restriction. I can't speak to the technical aspects of this change (re configuration changes, vs. autoconfirmed patrolling, etc) but if it is easy to implement I support it. [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 10:13, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ::i think setting limitations to configuration changes would affect those who are unregistered users.anyway it is ::a good idea though but let's think about it outside the box [[User:Luhesa Kahuma|Luhesa Kahuma]] ([[User talk:Luhesa Kahuma|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Luhesa Kahuma|contribs]]) 22:47, 30 October 2026 (UTC) : I see consensus here to implement this change, but I will wait one more day before I implement the patch on Gerrit. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:02, 2 November 2026 (UTC) :{{done|I filed [[phab:T443449]]}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:40, 3 November 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Add inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders? == I am proposing that we include inactivity policies for both patrollers and uploaders, which include no edits or logged actions for two years. I previously proposed this for [now former] reviewers, but someone probably objected. Now, if their rights are removed for inactivity, they can request them back at [[WB:RFP]] (without prejudice), unless the rights were removed for cause (such as a vote of confidence). Edit: Someone also proposed inactivity policies for importers (and possibly import uploaders too), which are sensitive permissions. I initially forgot to include that permission when creating this proposal, but now I am also proposing for importer permissions to have an inactivity policy. Which procedure should we choose if we agree on the inactivity policy proposals? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:18, 18 October 2026 (UTC) : {{Oppose}} - There is no need for inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders, since there is no harm in keeping patrollers and uploaders in the current roles. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:09, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :: I have to disagree here. Some larger projects have their own inactivity policies for patrollers, such as [[m:Meta:Patrollers#Removal of access]] on Meta-Wiki and [[w:en:WP:NPPREVOKE]] (new page reviewers on English Wikipedia, a similar permission). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:34, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]], who was previously TechVindicator. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: I will say that it seems odd to propose these policies for patrollers and uploaders without proposing an equivalent for [[WB:importers|importers]], when that's arguably a far more sensitive role. I do at least support an inactivity policy for importers, and am as yet neutral vis-à-vis patrollers and uploaders. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:05, 21 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] I've edited my proposal to also include both importers and import uploaders. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) == Approving [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]] as a policy == I created this draft policy two years ago, and would like to see whether the community is willing to approve it now. I have substituted it in its current form (00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC)) below: {{hidden archive top|Policy text}} Sometimes, there will be a book that has a lot of information that was very useful at the time, but has become out of date over time. There are generally two procedures that can be followed here. ;For books that aren't up to date, but can be reasonably updated This category applies to books that, for instance, have not been updated with new information in a few years, but where the subject still exists and new information can be found about it. In this scenario, you should add the {{tlx|Outdated}} tag to the top of the book, and post on its discussion page explaining what should be updated. Or, you can always just [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]] and update it yourself! ;For books that cannot be reasonably updated This category includes books that are so outdated that their subject either no longer exists, or has changed so much since the book was written that it is virtually unrecognizable, and it would be nearly impossible to update it satisfactorily. These books should generally not be deleted, as they do provide valuable information, but should not be easily accessible to readers looking for recent information. Here, the following instructions should be followed. If the case is unambiguous: # Add {{tlx|Archived}} to the top of the book. Doing this will also remove it from search engine indexes, unless you override this by using {{tlx|Archived|2=noindex=false}}. # Move the book to a subpage of [[Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive]]. # Replace the content of the redirect left behind after the move with {{tlx|Soft redirect|2=Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive/<book title>}}. # (''optional'') Inform the author(s) of the book of your decision. If the case is ambiguous: Follow these steps if there is any reasonable doubt about if the book can be updated. # Follow the instructions at {{Section link|Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Deletion}} to file a request. Make sure to note that the request is for archiving, not deletion. # The proposal for archiving will be discussed. # If consensus has been reached to archive the book, any uninvolved user may close the discussion and follow the instructions in {{Section link|#If the case is unambiguous}}. Otherwise, the book will remain as is. {{hidden archive bottom}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : I have a question, is there any difference if we approve this as a guideline (common sense) compared to as a policy? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:24, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: That would also be fine; I'm not exactly sure if the delineation between guidelines and policies on Wikibooks is as clearly defined as on Wikipedia. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:27, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: I would suggest approving this as a guideline should an experienced, yet uninvolved editor may use their judgment and common sense when dealing with outdated books. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} for approval as a guideline, as I said and mentioned above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:45, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as guideline —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:22, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks Magazine == I am proposing that we create a magazine quarterly, or bimonthly detailing latest news on Wikibooks (and maybe ''some'' current affairs, considering the shutdown of Wikinews, though this is unlikely). <br> If it were to be approved, it would be inspired by the WikiKids magazine in Dutch [https://wikikids.nl/Wikikids:Magazine/11 link], though with a Wikibooks feel. A user could propose something for the next Wikibooks Magazine on the talk page of [[Wikibooks:Magazine]], including ideas for the next Wikibooks magazine. It would be promoted on the front page (and maybe) on the MediaWiki Sitenotice, providing information about the next edition. On Wikikids, the project has been going on since 2024, and since then there have been 11 editions. What do you think? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:20, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|Codename Noreste}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:36, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|JJPMaster}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:04, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :I '''weak support''' a '''quarterly''' publication. There isn't a ton of activity here compared to many other <abbr>WMF</abbr> wikis, so there won't be quite as much to report as there is at (e.g.) [[:w:en:WP:SIGNPOST]] or [[:wikt:en:WIktionary:The Headword]] but that said, having a publication could encourage engagement by showing what hard work others are doing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:36, 21 October 2026 (UTC) : Because of the low activity, should the releases be biannual (every six months)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) ::I would support a quarterly publication, given the fact that Wikibooks does not have enough traffic (in my opinion) to justify a bimonthly publication, but, at the same time, the idea of a biannual publication seems relatively infrequent. Furthermore, the magazine would follow the quarterly format used on WikiKids. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 03:47, 23 October 2026 (UTC) : We can do that with [[Wikibooks:Magazine]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:00, 27 October 2026 (UTC) ::I will create a page about what the Wikibooks Magazine on the page provided, and the editions that will follow. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 07:32, 28 October 2026 (UTC) == Discussion on whether to create an extended mover user group == Currently, patrollers (formerly reviewers) have the <code>suppressredirect</code> user right as well as a rate limit per InitialiseSettings.php. However, I am consulting with the community if we: # Remove <code>suppressredirect</code> from patrollers # Add <code>suppressredirect</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> as well as include <code>delete-redirect</code> (for deleting redirects with a single revision) and <code>move-subpages</code> (to move all subpages of a book in a single action) # Also include <code>noratelimit</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> instead of using a custom rate limit (optional), or increase the limit to 500 This is because, per the principle of least privilege, patrollers should be responsible for marking new pages as patrolled and reverting vandalism/spam, while extended movers are trustworthy users (usually non-admins) responsible for moving books, et al. <s>This is ''not'' a proposal to implement the extended mover user group, but rather a community consultation.</s> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:48, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: Relevant prior discussion can be found [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2020/December#Suppress redirect feature|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 20:21, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :Oppose, don't see the point. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 11:12, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :: Oddly enough, while patrollers have a rate limit of moving more pages in under a minute, they do not have <code>move-subpages</code> (which allows them to move a book and its subpages in a single action). Without that mechanism to move subpages, they will have to perform some additional moves by hand. Because of that, I said that <code>move-subpages</code> will be added to the extended mover user group. Since that user group is considered a somewhat privileged (non-admin) user group, it will be granted to trustworthy users who have a demonstrated need for it, provided that they have a history of moving pages without causing some sort of disruption during the process. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:43, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :::Why not just add it in the patroller group? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:47, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :::: Because I believe <code>move-subpages</code> can arguably be considered a sensitive user right which may be prone to page move vandalism or other misuse, and correct me if I'm wrong but some patrollers have experience with moving pages, while others may use <code>patrol</code> and <code>rollback</code> solely to perform anti-vandalism and patrolling duties. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:02, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :What are the current requirements to become a patroller? The same as what we used to have for reviewers? And, do we have currently have prerequisites for <code>extendedmover</code>? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::# For now, I would suggest we utilize the same requirements as we did with reviewers, but we do NOT have autopromotion. ::# Typically, a candidate for <code>extendedmover</code> should and must have a history of moving pages without causing disruption, or have made lots of requests to admins to move whole books. A prerequesite is that the candidate must have patroller rights. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:31, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:17, 11 November 2026 (UTC) == Enabling wgUseRCPatrol == Some of our sister projects have <code><nowiki>wgUseRCPatrol</nowiki></code> enabled, but on the other hand, we do not. I think we should enable this so that we can also focus on reviewing edits in the recent changes, not just new pages. [[Wikibooks:Patrolling]] can also include information about this once we enable it here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:39, 27 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}}. This would mimic the functionality of FlaggedRevs when reviewing pages and would help detect vandalism much easier. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 04:35, 2 November 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} per above.--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 03:20, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] == [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] is technically still only a draft, though in many ways we use it as a guideline. I'm therefore opening a community discussion here with the goal of approving it as a guideline. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:10, 7 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:55, 8 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as proposer —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:54, 10 November 2026 (UTC) ch6wx16ofugrg0ku1eubxrrqk1ggxs0 4681745 4681719 2026-11-11T20:41:42Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 /* Discussion on whether to create an extended mover user group */ Reply 4681745 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == {{closed|Has been implemented —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:24, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}}Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::::Just checking in here—was this resolved/completed? I see [[MediaWiki:Gadget-Subpages.js]], and I assume everything is now taken care of in terms of WB-wide installation? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:14, 30 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: This was already resolved, feel free to close this. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:09, 30 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I like proposal and I think it would be an improvement. Having the breadcrumbs twice, as in the current system, creates a redundant ui element. I also think the formatting around the forward slashes in the "new" version better conveys that they have specific technical meaning and are not part of the name of the page. --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:52, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == {{closed|[[phab:T440519]] was done, sending FlaggedRevs down to the void. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:52, 27 October 2026 (UTC)}} <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :: There was the outdated [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] before this project used FlaggedRevs. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:22, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} the removal of FlaggedRevs from Wikibooks. It's a redundant extension that's not useful in this wiki. --[[User:Agusbou2015|Agusbou2015]] ([[User talk:Agusbou2015|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Agusbou2015|contribs]]) 21:53, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Support}}. Several years ago I spent hundreds of hours trying to do the first review of every page. I managed to get all the root pages done but only got as far as "E" for the other pages. While I was doing this I stopped reviewing changes - and in that time over a 1,000 out of date pages were in the list. I concluded it was an impossible task unless lots of people joined in the work but that didn't happen and I doubt it ever will. I do think it has value for Wikijunior in showing the last reviewed page rather than the possibly offensively vandalised latest revision, but other than that it's a waste of time. At some point the extension will get fully deprecated and we'll be forced to stop using it anyway. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 09:53, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :Will <code>patroller</code> be granted automatically? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :: Unfortunately, no. Since we will stop using FlaggedRevs, the patroller user group will not be granted automatically and thus will have to be manually given out by administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: And are we planning on giving back the <code>patroller</code> right to existing reviewers? Or will they have to manually reapply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:30, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I have a plan: any former reviewer who has been active recently in the past two years will have patroller rights. This will be done to reduce a huge amount of inactive former reviewers. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:26, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::Keep the name the same; just remove the reviewer right. After all, patrolling is a form of reviewing. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 18:52, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: Do we have to use the term {{tq|reviewing}} instead of {{tq|patrolling}}? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:57, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Is there a reason that we should not simply give the reviewer group the <code>patrol</code> right, and keep the auto-granting going? [[Wikibooks:Reviewers#Automatic criteria]] does not appear to be FlaggedRevs-specific, so auto-promotion should still be able to continue even without FlaggedRevs, and reviewers could simply become patrollers (in the technical sense). [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 07:55, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I believe that would require some additional code on InitialiseSettings.php, and as for <code>reviewer</code>, I'm not sure we should still use that user group term over <code>patroller</code> as per the point {{tq|Special groups on small wikis}} on [[m:Limits to configuration changes]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:58, 10 October 2026 (UTC) : If you take a look at the extended content, I also included what I also proposed too. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:19, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :{{comment}}. The [[mw:Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]] is not recommended for production use, per Mediawiki. On this basis alone we should discontinue use of it. However, we haven't determined if page patrolling is the best replacement. There are [[mw:Content approval extensions|alternative extensions]] and the mediawiki page for FlaggedRevs specifically recommends [[mw:Extension:Approved Revs|'''Approved Revs extension''']]. We should determine which of page patrolling or these extensions is the most appropriate antivandalism tool first. (after all, according to [[Help:Tracking_changes#Reviewing_pages]], the purpose of FlaggedRevs is to be "our primary counter-vandalism tool"). --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:48, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :: Approved Revs would require significant testing and approval per [[mw:Writing an extension for deployment]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:35, 7 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == {{closed|As of now, unregistered users can no longer create non-discussion pages. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}} {{tracked|T443449|resolved}} Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : In that case, I have no objections here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:03, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :I would propose the use of autoconfirmed, to better patrol new pages that are being created. There are countless advertisement pages being created on Wikibooks, usually in the user's userpage. The use of a registered account proposed by Omphalographer therefore may have some limitations. I agree with the proposal to make new pages strictly autoconfirmed. If a user wishes to create a page, there could be a feature for reviewers/patrollers to check such pages that are being created. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:36, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :: You might want to read my point about limits to configuration changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:53, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :Why turn off potential good contributors by telling them they must register AND log-in in order to contribute? The problem at Wikibooks right now is the dearth of contributions, not vandalism, I think (?). :* Anons are already precluded from editing pages that have been "protected" by admins. :* Anon user contributions are automatically marked for Review before they become public :* There are less than 500 anon accounts that have contributed more than one edit to Wikibooks? :Is it really necessary to stop us from contributing to Wikibooks? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:19, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|~2026-40500-29}} The initial question was not whether registered accounts can contribute, it is whether temporary accounts can create pages. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:48, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::Isn't the creation of new pages a subset of potential contributions to Wikibooks? Are you saying that some members in good standing of this community are only allowed to correct obvious spelling and grammar mistakes by others? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 19:23, 11 October 2026 (UTC) ::::That message was to {{comment}} that this discussion was about creating pages, not about whether anonymous users can contribute. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:22, 13 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]], is your response considered an objection? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:55, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :Limiting page creation to registered users might reduce new spam/promotional/out of scope pages. I disagree with 2026-405000-29 that requiring account registration is unnecessarily burdensome for new editors. :I don't know where the number <500 anon accounts have contributed more than one edit comes from and it seems unlikely to me: that would mean there have only been 23 anon editors per year since wikibooks was founded. Looking at Special:RecentChanges there seems to be four or five anon editors a day. :Overall I think it is a reasonable restriction. I can't speak to the technical aspects of this change (re configuration changes, vs. autoconfirmed patrolling, etc) but if it is easy to implement I support it. [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 10:13, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ::i think setting limitations to configuration changes would affect those who are unregistered users.anyway it is ::a good idea though but let's think about it outside the box [[User:Luhesa Kahuma|Luhesa Kahuma]] ([[User talk:Luhesa Kahuma|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Luhesa Kahuma|contribs]]) 22:47, 30 October 2026 (UTC) : I see consensus here to implement this change, but I will wait one more day before I implement the patch on Gerrit. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:02, 2 November 2026 (UTC) :{{done|I filed [[phab:T443449]]}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:40, 3 November 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Add inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders? == I am proposing that we include inactivity policies for both patrollers and uploaders, which include no edits or logged actions for two years. I previously proposed this for [now former] reviewers, but someone probably objected. Now, if their rights are removed for inactivity, they can request them back at [[WB:RFP]] (without prejudice), unless the rights were removed for cause (such as a vote of confidence). Edit: Someone also proposed inactivity policies for importers (and possibly import uploaders too), which are sensitive permissions. I initially forgot to include that permission when creating this proposal, but now I am also proposing for importer permissions to have an inactivity policy. Which procedure should we choose if we agree on the inactivity policy proposals? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:18, 18 October 2026 (UTC) : {{Oppose}} - There is no need for inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders, since there is no harm in keeping patrollers and uploaders in the current roles. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:09, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :: I have to disagree here. Some larger projects have their own inactivity policies for patrollers, such as [[m:Meta:Patrollers#Removal of access]] on Meta-Wiki and [[w:en:WP:NPPREVOKE]] (new page reviewers on English Wikipedia, a similar permission). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:34, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]], who was previously TechVindicator. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: I will say that it seems odd to propose these policies for patrollers and uploaders without proposing an equivalent for [[WB:importers|importers]], when that's arguably a far more sensitive role. I do at least support an inactivity policy for importers, and am as yet neutral vis-à-vis patrollers and uploaders. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:05, 21 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] I've edited my proposal to also include both importers and import uploaders. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) == Approving [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]] as a policy == I created this draft policy two years ago, and would like to see whether the community is willing to approve it now. I have substituted it in its current form (00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC)) below: {{hidden archive top|Policy text}} Sometimes, there will be a book that has a lot of information that was very useful at the time, but has become out of date over time. There are generally two procedures that can be followed here. ;For books that aren't up to date, but can be reasonably updated This category applies to books that, for instance, have not been updated with new information in a few years, but where the subject still exists and new information can be found about it. In this scenario, you should add the {{tlx|Outdated}} tag to the top of the book, and post on its discussion page explaining what should be updated. Or, you can always just [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]] and update it yourself! ;For books that cannot be reasonably updated This category includes books that are so outdated that their subject either no longer exists, or has changed so much since the book was written that it is virtually unrecognizable, and it would be nearly impossible to update it satisfactorily. These books should generally not be deleted, as they do provide valuable information, but should not be easily accessible to readers looking for recent information. Here, the following instructions should be followed. If the case is unambiguous: # Add {{tlx|Archived}} to the top of the book. Doing this will also remove it from search engine indexes, unless you override this by using {{tlx|Archived|2=noindex=false}}. # Move the book to a subpage of [[Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive]]. # Replace the content of the redirect left behind after the move with {{tlx|Soft redirect|2=Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive/<book title>}}. # (''optional'') Inform the author(s) of the book of your decision. If the case is ambiguous: Follow these steps if there is any reasonable doubt about if the book can be updated. # Follow the instructions at {{Section link|Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Deletion}} to file a request. Make sure to note that the request is for archiving, not deletion. # The proposal for archiving will be discussed. # If consensus has been reached to archive the book, any uninvolved user may close the discussion and follow the instructions in {{Section link|#If the case is unambiguous}}. Otherwise, the book will remain as is. {{hidden archive bottom}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : I have a question, is there any difference if we approve this as a guideline (common sense) compared to as a policy? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:24, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: That would also be fine; I'm not exactly sure if the delineation between guidelines and policies on Wikibooks is as clearly defined as on Wikipedia. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:27, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: I would suggest approving this as a guideline should an experienced, yet uninvolved editor may use their judgment and common sense when dealing with outdated books. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} for approval as a guideline, as I said and mentioned above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:45, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as guideline —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:22, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks Magazine == I am proposing that we create a magazine quarterly, or bimonthly detailing latest news on Wikibooks (and maybe ''some'' current affairs, considering the shutdown of Wikinews, though this is unlikely). <br> If it were to be approved, it would be inspired by the WikiKids magazine in Dutch [https://wikikids.nl/Wikikids:Magazine/11 link], though with a Wikibooks feel. A user could propose something for the next Wikibooks Magazine on the talk page of [[Wikibooks:Magazine]], including ideas for the next Wikibooks magazine. It would be promoted on the front page (and maybe) on the MediaWiki Sitenotice, providing information about the next edition. On Wikikids, the project has been going on since 2024, and since then there have been 11 editions. What do you think? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:20, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|Codename Noreste}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:36, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|JJPMaster}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:04, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :I '''weak support''' a '''quarterly''' publication. There isn't a ton of activity here compared to many other <abbr>WMF</abbr> wikis, so there won't be quite as much to report as there is at (e.g.) [[:w:en:WP:SIGNPOST]] or [[:wikt:en:WIktionary:The Headword]] but that said, having a publication could encourage engagement by showing what hard work others are doing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:36, 21 October 2026 (UTC) : Because of the low activity, should the releases be biannual (every six months)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) ::I would support a quarterly publication, given the fact that Wikibooks does not have enough traffic (in my opinion) to justify a bimonthly publication, but, at the same time, the idea of a biannual publication seems relatively infrequent. Furthermore, the magazine would follow the quarterly format used on WikiKids. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 03:47, 23 October 2026 (UTC) : We can do that with [[Wikibooks:Magazine]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:00, 27 October 2026 (UTC) ::I will create a page about what the Wikibooks Magazine on the page provided, and the editions that will follow. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 07:32, 28 October 2026 (UTC) == Discussion on whether to create an extended mover user group == Currently, patrollers (formerly reviewers) have the <code>suppressredirect</code> user right as well as a rate limit per InitialiseSettings.php. However, I am consulting with the community if we: # Remove <code>suppressredirect</code> from patrollers # Add <code>suppressredirect</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> as well as include <code>delete-redirect</code> (for deleting redirects with a single revision) and <code>move-subpages</code> (to move all subpages of a book in a single action) # Also include <code>noratelimit</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> instead of using a custom rate limit (optional), or increase the limit to 500 This is because, per the principle of least privilege, patrollers should be responsible for marking new pages as patrolled and reverting vandalism/spam, while extended movers are trustworthy users (usually non-admins) responsible for moving books, et al. <s>This is ''not'' a proposal to implement the extended mover user group, but rather a community consultation.</s> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:48, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: Relevant prior discussion can be found [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2020/December#Suppress redirect feature|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 20:21, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :Oppose, don't see the point. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 11:12, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :: Oddly enough, while patrollers have a rate limit of moving more pages in under a minute, they do not have <code>move-subpages</code> (which allows them to move a book and its subpages in a single action). Without that mechanism to move subpages, they will have to perform some additional moves by hand. Because of that, I said that <code>move-subpages</code> will be added to the extended mover user group. Since that user group is considered a somewhat privileged (non-admin) user group, it will be granted to trustworthy users who have a demonstrated need for it, provided that they have a history of moving pages without causing some sort of disruption during the process. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:43, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :::Why not just add it in the patroller group? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:47, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :::: Because I believe <code>move-subpages</code> can arguably be considered a sensitive user right which may be prone to page move vandalism or other misuse, and correct me if I'm wrong but some patrollers have experience with moving pages, while others may use <code>patrol</code> and <code>rollback</code> solely to perform anti-vandalism and patrolling duties. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:02, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :What are the current requirements to become a patroller? The same as what we used to have for reviewers? And, do we have currently have prerequisites for <code>extendedmover</code>? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::# For now, I would suggest we utilize the same requirements as we did with reviewers, but we do NOT have autopromotion. ::# Typically, a candidate for <code>extendedmover</code> should and must have a history of moving pages without causing disruption, or have made lots of requests to admins to move whole books. A prerequesite is that the candidate must have patroller rights. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:31, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:17, 11 November 2026 (UTC) :::Just to clarify, are you saying we no longer have autopromotion at this time? Or, are you proposing that we could remove the autopromotion for patrollers? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:41, 11 November 2026 (UTC) == Enabling wgUseRCPatrol == Some of our sister projects have <code><nowiki>wgUseRCPatrol</nowiki></code> enabled, but on the other hand, we do not. I think we should enable this so that we can also focus on reviewing edits in the recent changes, not just new pages. [[Wikibooks:Patrolling]] can also include information about this once we enable it here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:39, 27 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}}. This would mimic the functionality of FlaggedRevs when reviewing pages and would help detect vandalism much easier. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 04:35, 2 November 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} per above.--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 03:20, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] == [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] is technically still only a draft, though in many ways we use it as a guideline. I'm therefore opening a community discussion here with the goal of approving it as a guideline. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:10, 7 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:55, 8 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as proposer —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:54, 10 November 2026 (UTC) p4s059er9icb3g83vo48ox5lyr0kzpb 4681825 4681745 2026-11-12T09:49:21Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4681825 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == {{closed|Has been implemented —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:24, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}}Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::::Just checking in here—was this resolved/completed? I see [[MediaWiki:Gadget-Subpages.js]], and I assume everything is now taken care of in terms of WB-wide installation? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:14, 30 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: This was already resolved, feel free to close this. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:09, 30 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I like proposal and I think it would be an improvement. Having the breadcrumbs twice, as in the current system, creates a redundant ui element. I also think the formatting around the forward slashes in the "new" version better conveys that they have specific technical meaning and are not part of the name of the page. --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:52, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == {{closed|[[phab:T440519]] was done, sending FlaggedRevs down to the void. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:52, 27 October 2026 (UTC)}} <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :: There was the outdated [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] before this project used FlaggedRevs. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:22, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} the removal of FlaggedRevs from Wikibooks. It's a redundant extension that's not useful in this wiki. --[[User:Agusbou2015|Agusbou2015]] ([[User talk:Agusbou2015|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Agusbou2015|contribs]]) 21:53, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Support}}. Several years ago I spent hundreds of hours trying to do the first review of every page. I managed to get all the root pages done but only got as far as "E" for the other pages. While I was doing this I stopped reviewing changes - and in that time over a 1,000 out of date pages were in the list. I concluded it was an impossible task unless lots of people joined in the work but that didn't happen and I doubt it ever will. I do think it has value for Wikijunior in showing the last reviewed page rather than the possibly offensively vandalised latest revision, but other than that it's a waste of time. At some point the extension will get fully deprecated and we'll be forced to stop using it anyway. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 09:53, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :Will <code>patroller</code> be granted automatically? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :: Unfortunately, no. Since we will stop using FlaggedRevs, the patroller user group will not be granted automatically and thus will have to be manually given out by administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: And are we planning on giving back the <code>patroller</code> right to existing reviewers? Or will they have to manually reapply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:30, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I have a plan: any former reviewer who has been active recently in the past two years will have patroller rights. This will be done to reduce a huge amount of inactive former reviewers. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:26, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::Keep the name the same; just remove the reviewer right. After all, patrolling is a form of reviewing. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 18:52, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: Do we have to use the term {{tq|reviewing}} instead of {{tq|patrolling}}? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:57, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Is there a reason that we should not simply give the reviewer group the <code>patrol</code> right, and keep the auto-granting going? [[Wikibooks:Reviewers#Automatic criteria]] does not appear to be FlaggedRevs-specific, so auto-promotion should still be able to continue even without FlaggedRevs, and reviewers could simply become patrollers (in the technical sense). [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 07:55, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I believe that would require some additional code on InitialiseSettings.php, and as for <code>reviewer</code>, I'm not sure we should still use that user group term over <code>patroller</code> as per the point {{tq|Special groups on small wikis}} on [[m:Limits to configuration changes]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:58, 10 October 2026 (UTC) : If you take a look at the extended content, I also included what I also proposed too. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:19, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :{{comment}}. The [[mw:Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]] is not recommended for production use, per Mediawiki. On this basis alone we should discontinue use of it. However, we haven't determined if page patrolling is the best replacement. There are [[mw:Content approval extensions|alternative extensions]] and the mediawiki page for FlaggedRevs specifically recommends [[mw:Extension:Approved Revs|'''Approved Revs extension''']]. We should determine which of page patrolling or these extensions is the most appropriate antivandalism tool first. (after all, according to [[Help:Tracking_changes#Reviewing_pages]], the purpose of FlaggedRevs is to be "our primary counter-vandalism tool"). --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:48, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :: Approved Revs would require significant testing and approval per [[mw:Writing an extension for deployment]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:35, 7 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == {{closed|As of now, unregistered users can no longer create non-discussion pages. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}} {{tracked|T443449|resolved}} Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : In that case, I have no objections here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:03, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :I would propose the use of autoconfirmed, to better patrol new pages that are being created. There are countless advertisement pages being created on Wikibooks, usually in the user's userpage. The use of a registered account proposed by Omphalographer therefore may have some limitations. I agree with the proposal to make new pages strictly autoconfirmed. If a user wishes to create a page, there could be a feature for reviewers/patrollers to check such pages that are being created. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:36, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :: You might want to read my point about limits to configuration changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:53, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :Why turn off potential good contributors by telling them they must register AND log-in in order to contribute? The problem at Wikibooks right now is the dearth of contributions, not vandalism, I think (?). :* Anons are already precluded from editing pages that have been "protected" by admins. :* Anon user contributions are automatically marked for Review before they become public :* There are less than 500 anon accounts that have contributed more than one edit to Wikibooks? :Is it really necessary to stop us from contributing to Wikibooks? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:19, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|~2026-40500-29}} The initial question was not whether registered accounts can contribute, it is whether temporary accounts can create pages. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:48, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::Isn't the creation of new pages a subset of potential contributions to Wikibooks? Are you saying that some members in good standing of this community are only allowed to correct obvious spelling and grammar mistakes by others? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 19:23, 11 October 2026 (UTC) ::::That message was to {{comment}} that this discussion was about creating pages, not about whether anonymous users can contribute. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:22, 13 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]], is your response considered an objection? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:55, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :Limiting page creation to registered users might reduce new spam/promotional/out of scope pages. I disagree with 2026-405000-29 that requiring account registration is unnecessarily burdensome for new editors. :I don't know where the number <500 anon accounts have contributed more than one edit comes from and it seems unlikely to me: that would mean there have only been 23 anon editors per year since wikibooks was founded. Looking at Special:RecentChanges there seems to be four or five anon editors a day. :Overall I think it is a reasonable restriction. I can't speak to the technical aspects of this change (re configuration changes, vs. autoconfirmed patrolling, etc) but if it is easy to implement I support it. [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 10:13, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ::i think setting limitations to configuration changes would affect those who are unregistered users.anyway it is ::a good idea though but let's think about it outside the box [[User:Luhesa Kahuma|Luhesa Kahuma]] ([[User talk:Luhesa Kahuma|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Luhesa Kahuma|contribs]]) 22:47, 30 October 2026 (UTC) : I see consensus here to implement this change, but I will wait one more day before I implement the patch on Gerrit. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:02, 2 November 2026 (UTC) :{{done|I filed [[phab:T443449]]}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:40, 3 November 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Add inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders? == I am proposing that we include inactivity policies for both patrollers and uploaders, which include no edits or logged actions for two years. I previously proposed this for [now former] reviewers, but someone probably objected. Now, if their rights are removed for inactivity, they can request them back at [[WB:RFP]] (without prejudice), unless the rights were removed for cause (such as a vote of confidence). Edit: Someone also proposed inactivity policies for importers (and possibly import uploaders too), which are sensitive permissions. I initially forgot to include that permission when creating this proposal, but now I am also proposing for importer permissions to have an inactivity policy. Which procedure should we choose if we agree on the inactivity policy proposals? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:18, 18 October 2026 (UTC) : {{Oppose}} - There is no need for inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders, since there is no harm in keeping patrollers and uploaders in the current roles. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:09, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :: I have to disagree here. Some larger projects have their own inactivity policies for patrollers, such as [[m:Meta:Patrollers#Removal of access]] on Meta-Wiki and [[w:en:WP:NPPREVOKE]] (new page reviewers on English Wikipedia, a similar permission). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:34, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]], who was previously TechVindicator. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: I will say that it seems odd to propose these policies for patrollers and uploaders without proposing an equivalent for [[WB:importers|importers]], when that's arguably a far more sensitive role. I do at least support an inactivity policy for importers, and am as yet neutral vis-à-vis patrollers and uploaders. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:05, 21 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] I've edited my proposal to also include both importers and import uploaders. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) == Approving [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]] as a policy == I created this draft policy two years ago, and would like to see whether the community is willing to approve it now. I have substituted it in its current form (00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC)) below: {{hidden archive top|Policy text}} Sometimes, there will be a book that has a lot of information that was very useful at the time, but has become out of date over time. There are generally two procedures that can be followed here. ;For books that aren't up to date, but can be reasonably updated This category applies to books that, for instance, have not been updated with new information in a few years, but where the subject still exists and new information can be found about it. In this scenario, you should add the {{tlx|Outdated}} tag to the top of the book, and post on its discussion page explaining what should be updated. Or, you can always just [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]] and update it yourself! ;For books that cannot be reasonably updated This category includes books that are so outdated that their subject either no longer exists, or has changed so much since the book was written that it is virtually unrecognizable, and it would be nearly impossible to update it satisfactorily. These books should generally not be deleted, as they do provide valuable information, but should not be easily accessible to readers looking for recent information. Here, the following instructions should be followed. If the case is unambiguous: # Add {{tlx|Archived}} to the top of the book. Doing this will also remove it from search engine indexes, unless you override this by using {{tlx|Archived|2=noindex=false}}. # Move the book to a subpage of [[Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive]]. # Replace the content of the redirect left behind after the move with {{tlx|Soft redirect|2=Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive/<book title>}}. # (''optional'') Inform the author(s) of the book of your decision. If the case is ambiguous: Follow these steps if there is any reasonable doubt about if the book can be updated. # Follow the instructions at {{Section link|Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Deletion}} to file a request. Make sure to note that the request is for archiving, not deletion. # The proposal for archiving will be discussed. # If consensus has been reached to archive the book, any uninvolved user may close the discussion and follow the instructions in {{Section link|#If the case is unambiguous}}. Otherwise, the book will remain as is. {{hidden archive bottom}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : I have a question, is there any difference if we approve this as a guideline (common sense) compared to as a policy? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:24, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: That would also be fine; I'm not exactly sure if the delineation between guidelines and policies on Wikibooks is as clearly defined as on Wikipedia. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:27, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: I would suggest approving this as a guideline should an experienced, yet uninvolved editor may use their judgment and common sense when dealing with outdated books. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} for approval as a guideline, as I said and mentioned above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:45, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as guideline —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:22, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks Magazine == I am proposing that we create a magazine quarterly, or bimonthly detailing latest news on Wikibooks (and maybe ''some'' current affairs, considering the shutdown of Wikinews, though this is unlikely). <br> If it were to be approved, it would be inspired by the WikiKids magazine in Dutch [https://wikikids.nl/Wikikids:Magazine/11 link], though with a Wikibooks feel. A user could propose something for the next Wikibooks Magazine on the talk page of [[Wikibooks:Magazine]], including ideas for the next Wikibooks magazine. It would be promoted on the front page (and maybe) on the MediaWiki Sitenotice, providing information about the next edition. On Wikikids, the project has been going on since 2024, and since then there have been 11 editions. What do you think? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:20, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|Codename Noreste}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:36, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|JJPMaster}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:04, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :I '''weak support''' a '''quarterly''' publication. There isn't a ton of activity here compared to many other <abbr>WMF</abbr> wikis, so there won't be quite as much to report as there is at (e.g.) [[:w:en:WP:SIGNPOST]] or [[:wikt:en:WIktionary:The Headword]] but that said, having a publication could encourage engagement by showing what hard work others are doing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:36, 21 October 2026 (UTC) : Because of the low activity, should the releases be biannual (every six months)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) ::I would support a quarterly publication, given the fact that Wikibooks does not have enough traffic (in my opinion) to justify a bimonthly publication, but, at the same time, the idea of a biannual publication seems relatively infrequent. Furthermore, the magazine would follow the quarterly format used on WikiKids. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 03:47, 23 October 2026 (UTC) : We can do that with [[Wikibooks:Magazine]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:00, 27 October 2026 (UTC) ::I will create a page about what the Wikibooks Magazine on the page provided, and the editions that will follow. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 07:32, 28 October 2026 (UTC) == Discussion on whether to create an extended mover user group == Currently, patrollers (formerly reviewers) have the <code>suppressredirect</code> user right as well as a rate limit per InitialiseSettings.php. However, I am consulting with the community if we: # Remove <code>suppressredirect</code> from patrollers # Add <code>suppressredirect</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> as well as include <code>delete-redirect</code> (for deleting redirects with a single revision) and <code>move-subpages</code> (to move all subpages of a book in a single action) # Also include <code>noratelimit</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> instead of using a custom rate limit (optional), or increase the limit to 500 This is because, per the principle of least privilege, patrollers should be responsible for marking new pages as patrolled and reverting vandalism/spam, while extended movers are trustworthy users (usually non-admins) responsible for moving books, et al. <s>This is ''not'' a proposal to implement the extended mover user group, but rather a community consultation.</s> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:48, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: Relevant prior discussion can be found [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2020/December#Suppress redirect feature|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 20:21, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :Oppose, don't see the point. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 11:12, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :: Oddly enough, while patrollers have a rate limit of moving more pages in under a minute, they do not have <code>move-subpages</code> (which allows them to move a book and its subpages in a single action). Without that mechanism to move subpages, they will have to perform some additional moves by hand. Because of that, I said that <code>move-subpages</code> will be added to the extended mover user group. Since that user group is considered a somewhat privileged (non-admin) user group, it will be granted to trustworthy users who have a demonstrated need for it, provided that they have a history of moving pages without causing some sort of disruption during the process. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:43, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :::Why not just add it in the patroller group? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:47, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :::: Because I believe <code>move-subpages</code> can arguably be considered a sensitive user right which may be prone to page move vandalism or other misuse, and correct me if I'm wrong but some patrollers have experience with moving pages, while others may use <code>patrol</code> and <code>rollback</code> solely to perform anti-vandalism and patrolling duties. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:02, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :What are the current requirements to become a patroller? The same as what we used to have for reviewers? And, do we have currently have prerequisites for <code>extendedmover</code>? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::# For now, I would suggest we utilize the same requirements as we did with reviewers, but we do NOT have autopromotion. ::# Typically, a candidate for <code>extendedmover</code> should and must have a history of moving pages without causing disruption, or have made lots of requests to admins to move whole books. A prerequesite is that the candidate must have patroller rights. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:31, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:17, 11 November 2026 (UTC) :::Just to clarify, are you saying we no longer have autopromotion at this time? Or, are you proposing that we could remove the autopromotion for patrollers? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:41, 11 November 2026 (UTC) == Enabling wgUseRCPatrol == Some of our sister projects have <code><nowiki>wgUseRCPatrol</nowiki></code> enabled, but on the other hand, we do not. I think we should enable this so that we can also focus on reviewing edits in the recent changes, not just new pages. [[Wikibooks:Patrolling]] can also include information about this once we enable it here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:39, 27 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}}. This would mimic the functionality of FlaggedRevs when reviewing pages and would help detect vandalism much easier. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 04:35, 2 November 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} per above.--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 03:20, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] == [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] is technically still only a draft, though in many ways we use it as a guideline. I'm therefore opening a community discussion here with the goal of approving it as a guideline. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:10, 7 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:55, 8 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as proposer —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:54, 10 November 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:Editing Guidelines]]? == Even though [[Wikibooks:EDITGUIDE|'''WB:EDITGUIDE''']] is still a draft, it will be a very useful guideline for newcomers. I still think the draft needs improvement since I have come from [[Wikimedia/Wikipedia|Wikipedia]] and I might have mixed up some rules—so it's fine if you don't support the decision. If it needs improvement, you can '''edit''' '''the draft and improve it''' or you can '''tell me what to edit and improve it'''. |15:17pm—12 November 2026 ([[wikipedia:Indian_Standard_Time|Indian Standard Time]]) | hod4fm38og7pu1ig6jq8hf13h2rzxb6 4681827 4681825 2026-11-12T09:50:35Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4681827 wikitext text/x-wiki __NEWSECTIONLINK__ {{Discussion Rooms}} {{Shortcut|WB:RFC|WB:PROPOSALS}} {{TOC left<!--|limit=2-->}} Welcome to the '''Proposals reading room'''. On this page, Wikibookians are free to talk about suggestions for improving Wikibooks. {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/%(year)d/%(monthname)s |algo = old(120d) |counter = 1 |key = 1f2adc5eee951900b65c7b981b786191 |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 1 }} {{clear}} <!--Take threads to archive below this line--> <!--Add new threads to bottom of page--> == New gadget to browse subpages == {{closed|Has been implemented —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:24, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}}Hi all! I developed a gadget to easily browse subpages through a collapsible menu, that I think might be useful in Wikibooks. Here's a little demo video: [[File:Subpages_gadget_demo.webm|frameless]] To test it yourself, add the following to [[Special:MyPage/common.js|your common.js]]: <syntaxhighlight lang="javascript"> mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' ); </syntaxhighlight> If you find it useful, I can enable it as a gadget to make it generally available from the preferences. Thoughts? Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks relies heavily on subpages, so this is a nice addition. Merci. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 16:43, 2 July 2026 (UTC) :This could be extremely useful for books here!! I'll note, though, that it doesn't work quite right with the vector legacy skin (what I use). —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 01:20, 3 July 2026 (UTC) : @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] I will be the one in charge installing this as a gadget since there is no objection, but what dependecies does this gadget need to use? You might also want to read Kittycataclysm's suggestion above. ''Muchos saludos''. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color:#0024FF">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 23:08, 9 July 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]] Hi! I just fixed the issue with Vector legacy and also for other skins. Regarding dependencies, this gadget requires <code>mediawiki.api</code> and <code>@wikimedia/codex</code>. If you want to take care of the installation, please do not copy-paste the source code, but rather load the global version using <code>mw.loader.load( '//www.mediawiki.org/w/load.php?modules=ext.gadget.Global-Subpages' );</code>, like other [[mw:Global gadgets|global gadgets]]. Thanks! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 14:22, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::: I put the code on the gadgets definition page @[[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]], but feel free to fix what I placed. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] ([[User talk:Codename Noreste|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Codename Noreste|contribs]]) 21:45, 22 July 2026 (UTC) ::::Just checking in here—was this resolved/completed? I see [[MediaWiki:Gadget-Subpages.js]], and I assume everything is now taken care of in terms of WB-wide installation? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 16:14, 30 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: This was already resolved, feel free to close this. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:09, 30 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Breadcrumbs in the title == Hi! I think breadcrumbs would be more intuitive, compact and cleaner if they were integrated into the title rather than below it, like so: <gallery> Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (before).png|Current breadcrumbs Wikisource breadcrumbs proposal (after).png|Proposed breadcrumbs </gallery> What do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 16:02, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I appreciate the effort, but I don't see a big difference or that one would be more usable than another. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:14, 17 August 2026 (UTC) :I like proposal and I think it would be an improvement. Having the breadcrumbs twice, as in the current system, creates a redundant ui element. I also think the formatting around the forward slashes in the "new" version better conveys that they have specific technical meaning and are not part of the name of the page. --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:52, 7 October 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? == Some of the text was based off of the global CheckUser policy, but in this case, should we approve [[Wikibooks:CheckUser]] as a local policy? There is a special clause allowing stewards to perform checks even during non-emergency situations (as set in [[Wikibooks:Global rights policy]]). I have yet to include a part where users may request CU checks. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 21:55, 13 September 2026 (UTC) :I'm somewhat just unsure on what the benefit of making this policy would be. Sure, there's strength in policy, of course. But this seems to be doing fine overall as an information page, no? It doesn't differ very much from the global CU policy, so I'm not sure that a page without any Wikibooks-specific information really benefits from policy status. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:22, 14 September 2026 (UTC) :I would {{support}} this. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:26, 20 September 2026 (UTC) == FlaggedRevs again == {{closed|[[phab:T440519]] was done, sending FlaggedRevs down to the void. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:52, 27 October 2026 (UTC)}} <div class="cd-moveMark">''Moved from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/General#FlaggedRevs again]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 1 October 2026 (UTC)''</div> Hi all. I already know there were various topics over the years about this subject, but I was considering for the project on whether we should remove this extension from this project, and go back to using MediaWiki's page patrol system. Currently, there is a backlog of more than 3000 unreviewed edits (some going back as far as a few years ago); that’s why I started this discussion here. {{collapse top}} * <code>autoreview</code> and <code>editor</code> would be <code>autopatrolled</code> and <code>patroller</code>, respectively. * <code>wgUseNPPatrol</code> and <code>wgUseFilePatrol</code> would be re-enabled for English Wikibooks. * <code>autopatrol</code> and <code>patrol</code> would be re-assigned back to sysops and their respective user groups. * <code>patroller</code> would also have <code>rollback</code> and <code>suppressredirect</code> and its rate limit untouched. {{collapse bottom}} Best, [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:56, 30 September 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} the removal of FlaggedRevs. Inasmuch as the extension works at all, it works best when it is used selectively on projects like Wikipedia, for individual high-traffic pages with lots of watchers which are subject to vandalism or controversy. Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 15:51, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :{{s}} I don't see any way that backlog ever gets cleared, frankly, and if it isn't going to be cleared, we might as well go to something easier, which is the normal page patrol system, which works well off of [[Special:NewPages]] already. [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 00:31, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{neutral}} - Wikibooks is not a good use case for this extension, and with 3000 unreviewed edits with no progress at all, it does make sense to remove it. On the other hand, there could be a WikiProject to review each of these edits. For this reason, I am voting neutral [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:41, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :: There was the outdated [[Wikibooks:New page patrol]] before this project used FlaggedRevs. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:22, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} the removal of FlaggedRevs from Wikibooks. It's a redundant extension that's not useful in this wiki. --[[User:Agusbou2015|Agusbou2015]] ([[User talk:Agusbou2015|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Agusbou2015|contribs]]) 21:53, 3 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Support}}. Several years ago I spent hundreds of hours trying to do the first review of every page. I managed to get all the root pages done but only got as far as "E" for the other pages. While I was doing this I stopped reviewing changes - and in that time over a 1,000 out of date pages were in the list. I concluded it was an impossible task unless lots of people joined in the work but that didn't happen and I doubt it ever will. I do think it has value for Wikijunior in showing the last reviewed page rather than the possibly offensively vandalised latest revision, but other than that it's a waste of time. At some point the extension will get fully deprecated and we'll be forced to stop using it anyway. [[User:MarcGarver|MarcGarver]] ([[User talk:MarcGarver|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MarcGarver|contribs]]) 09:53, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :Will <code>patroller</code> be granted automatically? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 13:24, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :: Unfortunately, no. Since we will stop using FlaggedRevs, the patroller user group will not be granted automatically and thus will have to be manually given out by administrators. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:46, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: And are we planning on giving back the <code>patroller</code> right to existing reviewers? Or will they have to manually reapply? [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:30, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I have a plan: any former reviewer who has been active recently in the past two years will have patroller rights. This will be done to reduce a huge amount of inactive former reviewers. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 12:26, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::Keep the name the same; just remove the reviewer right. After all, patrolling is a form of reviewing. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 18:52, 8 October 2026 (UTC) ::::: Do we have to use the term {{tq|reviewing}} instead of {{tq|patrolling}}? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:57, 8 October 2026 (UTC) :::{{ping|Codename Noreste}} Is there a reason that we should not simply give the reviewer group the <code>patrol</code> right, and keep the auto-granting going? [[Wikibooks:Reviewers#Automatic criteria]] does not appear to be FlaggedRevs-specific, so auto-promotion should still be able to continue even without FlaggedRevs, and reviewers could simply become patrollers (in the technical sense). [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 07:55, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::: I believe that would require some additional code on InitialiseSettings.php, and as for <code>reviewer</code>, I'm not sure we should still use that user group term over <code>patroller</code> as per the point {{tq|Special groups on small wikis}} on [[m:Limits to configuration changes]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:58, 10 October 2026 (UTC) : If you take a look at the extended content, I also included what I also proposed too. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:19, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :{{comment}}. The [[mw:Extension:FlaggedRevs|FlaggedRevs extension]] is not recommended for production use, per Mediawiki. On this basis alone we should discontinue use of it. However, we haven't determined if page patrolling is the best replacement. There are [[mw:Content approval extensions|alternative extensions]] and the mediawiki page for FlaggedRevs specifically recommends [[mw:Extension:Approved Revs|'''Approved Revs extension''']]. We should determine which of page patrolling or these extensions is the most appropriate antivandalism tool first. (after all, according to [[Help:Tracking_changes#Reviewing_pages]], the purpose of FlaggedRevs is to be "our primary counter-vandalism tool"). --[[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 14:48, 7 October 2026 (UTC) :: Approved Revs would require significant testing and approval per [[mw:Writing an extension for deployment]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 16:35, 7 October 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Disable (some) page creation by temporary accounts == {{closed|As of now, unregistered users can no longer create non-discussion pages. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC)}} {{tracked|T443449|resolved}} Creating a new book, or adding a chapter to an existing book, is a significant action, and users performing this action should be available to discuss it. Additionally, in practice, most page creations by temp accounts are out of scope, if not outright vandalism. (See https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=create for some examples.) As such, I'd like to propose that the wiki require a registered account to create pages in any non-talk namespace. Temporary accounts will still be able to edit existing pages, or to create talk pages to start discussions. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 18:48, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : From a technical point of view, this would require moving <code>createpage</code> from unregistered users (<code><nowiki>*</nowiki></code>) to registered users (<code>user</code>), but that would mean every non-registered user may not be able to create pages in every namespace, but talk pages. : Another solution would be to add [[mw:Extension:ArticleCreationWorkflow]] to this project, but we don't have a system to create drafts (or similar). : And a final solution would be to create an edit filter disallowing unregistered users from creating pages in mainspace. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:43, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :: Just to note, please read the first point of [[m:Limits to configuration changes#Changes that are likely to be declined]] (Disable non-autoconfirmed page creation). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:50, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::What I'm proposing is that we require a registered account for page creation, not autoconfirmed. enwiki (as well as a few other wikis) already use this configuration - it's not new. [[User:Omphalographer|Omphalographer]] ([[User talk:Omphalographer|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Omphalographer|contribs]]) 19:58, 1 October 2026 (UTC) :::: Okay, but I provided some alternatives above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 20:06, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : In that case, I have no objections here. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:03, 6 October 2026 (UTC) :I would propose the use of autoconfirmed, to better patrol new pages that are being created. There are countless advertisement pages being created on Wikibooks, usually in the user's userpage. The use of a registered account proposed by Omphalographer therefore may have some limitations. I agree with the proposal to make new pages strictly autoconfirmed. If a user wishes to create a page, there could be a feature for reviewers/patrollers to check such pages that are being created. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 13:36, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :: You might want to read my point about limits to configuration changes. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:53, 9 October 2026 (UTC) :Why turn off potential good contributors by telling them they must register AND log-in in order to contribute? The problem at Wikibooks right now is the dearth of contributions, not vandalism, I think (?). :* Anons are already precluded from editing pages that have been "protected" by admins. :* Anon user contributions are automatically marked for Review before they become public :* There are less than 500 anon accounts that have contributed more than one edit to Wikibooks? :Is it really necessary to stop us from contributing to Wikibooks? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 00:19, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :: {{ping|~2026-40500-29}} The initial question was not whether registered accounts can contribute, it is whether temporary accounts can create pages. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:48, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :::Isn't the creation of new pages a subset of potential contributions to Wikibooks? Are you saying that some members in good standing of this community are only allowed to correct obvious spelling and grammar mistakes by others? [[Special:Contributions/~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]] ([[User talk:~2026-40500-29|talk]]) 19:23, 11 October 2026 (UTC) ::::That message was to {{comment}} that this discussion was about creating pages, not about whether anonymous users can contribute. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 07:22, 13 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:~2026-40500-29|~2026-40500-29]], is your response considered an objection? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:55, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :Limiting page creation to registered users might reduce new spam/promotional/out of scope pages. I disagree with 2026-405000-29 that requiring account registration is unnecessarily burdensome for new editors. :I don't know where the number <500 anon accounts have contributed more than one edit comes from and it seems unlikely to me: that would mean there have only been 23 anon editors per year since wikibooks was founded. Looking at Special:RecentChanges there seems to be four or five anon editors a day. :Overall I think it is a reasonable restriction. I can't speak to the technical aspects of this change (re configuration changes, vs. autoconfirmed patrolling, etc) but if it is easy to implement I support it. [[User:JCrue|JCrue]] ([[User talk:JCrue|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JCrue|contribs]]) 10:13, 12 October 2026 (UTC) ::i think setting limitations to configuration changes would affect those who are unregistered users.anyway it is ::a good idea though but let's think about it outside the box [[User:Luhesa Kahuma|Luhesa Kahuma]] ([[User talk:Luhesa Kahuma|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Luhesa Kahuma|contribs]]) 22:47, 30 October 2026 (UTC) : I see consensus here to implement this change, but I will wait one more day before I implement the patch on Gerrit. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:02, 2 November 2026 (UTC) :{{done|I filed [[phab:T443449]]}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:40, 3 November 2026 (UTC) {{end closed}} == Add inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders? == I am proposing that we include inactivity policies for both patrollers and uploaders, which include no edits or logged actions for two years. I previously proposed this for [now former] reviewers, but someone probably objected. Now, if their rights are removed for inactivity, they can request them back at [[WB:RFP]] (without prejudice), unless the rights were removed for cause (such as a vote of confidence). Edit: Someone also proposed inactivity policies for importers (and possibly import uploaders too), which are sensitive permissions. I initially forgot to include that permission when creating this proposal, but now I am also proposing for importer permissions to have an inactivity policy. Which procedure should we choose if we agree on the inactivity policy proposals? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 22:18, 18 October 2026 (UTC) : {{Oppose}} - There is no need for inactivity policies for patrollers and uploaders, since there is no harm in keeping patrollers and uploaders in the current roles. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:09, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :: I have to disagree here. Some larger projects have their own inactivity policies for patrollers, such as [[m:Meta:Patrollers#Removal of access]] on Meta-Wiki and [[w:en:WP:NPPREVOKE]] (new page reviewers on English Wikipedia, a similar permission). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:34, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]], who was previously TechVindicator. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:01, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: I will say that it seems odd to propose these policies for patrollers and uploaders without proposing an equivalent for [[WB:importers|importers]], when that's arguably a far more sensitive role. I do at least support an inactivity policy for importers, and am as yet neutral vis-à-vis patrollers and uploaders. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 02:05, 21 October 2026 (UTC) :: @[[User:JJPMaster|JJPMaster]] I've edited my proposal to also include both importers and import uploaders. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) == Approving [[Wikibooks:Outdated books]] as a policy == I created this draft policy two years ago, and would like to see whether the community is willing to approve it now. I have substituted it in its current form (00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC)) below: {{hidden archive top|Policy text}} Sometimes, there will be a book that has a lot of information that was very useful at the time, but has become out of date over time. There are generally two procedures that can be followed here. ;For books that aren't up to date, but can be reasonably updated This category applies to books that, for instance, have not been updated with new information in a few years, but where the subject still exists and new information can be found about it. In this scenario, you should add the {{tlx|Outdated}} tag to the top of the book, and post on its discussion page explaining what should be updated. Or, you can always just [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]] and update it yourself! ;For books that cannot be reasonably updated This category includes books that are so outdated that their subject either no longer exists, or has changed so much since the book was written that it is virtually unrecognizable, and it would be nearly impossible to update it satisfactorily. These books should generally not be deleted, as they do provide valuable information, but should not be easily accessible to readers looking for recent information. Here, the following instructions should be followed. If the case is unambiguous: # Add {{tlx|Archived}} to the top of the book. Doing this will also remove it from search engine indexes, unless you override this by using {{tlx|Archived|2=noindex=false}}. # Move the book to a subpage of [[Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive]]. # Replace the content of the redirect left behind after the move with {{tlx|Soft redirect|2=Wikibooks:Outdated books/Archive/<book title>}}. # (''optional'') Inform the author(s) of the book of your decision. If the case is ambiguous: Follow these steps if there is any reasonable doubt about if the book can be updated. # Follow the instructions at {{Section link|Wikibooks:Requests for deletion#Deletion}} to file a request. Make sure to note that the request is for archiving, not deletion. # The proposal for archiving will be discussed. # If consensus has been reached to archive the book, any uninvolved user may close the discussion and follow the instructions in {{Section link|#If the case is unambiguous}}. Otherwise, the book will remain as is. {{hidden archive bottom}} [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:16, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : I have a question, is there any difference if we approve this as a guideline (common sense) compared to as a policy? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:24, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: That would also be fine; I'm not exactly sure if the delineation between guidelines and policies on Wikibooks is as clearly defined as on Wikipedia. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 00:27, 20 October 2026 (UTC) ::: I would suggest approving this as a guideline should an experienced, yet uninvolved editor may use their judgment and common sense when dealing with outdated books. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 00:29, 20 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} for approval as a guideline, as I said and mentioned above. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:45, 27 October 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as guideline —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:22, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Wikibooks Magazine == I am proposing that we create a magazine quarterly, or bimonthly detailing latest news on Wikibooks (and maybe ''some'' current affairs, considering the shutdown of Wikinews, though this is unlikely). <br> If it were to be approved, it would be inspired by the WikiKids magazine in Dutch [https://wikikids.nl/Wikikids:Magazine/11 link], though with a Wikibooks feel. A user could propose something for the next Wikibooks Magazine on the talk page of [[Wikibooks:Magazine]], including ideas for the next Wikibooks magazine. It would be promoted on the front page (and maybe) on the MediaWiki Sitenotice, providing information about the next edition. On Wikikids, the project has been going on since 2024, and since then there have been 11 editions. What do you think? [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:20, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|Codename Noreste}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 00:36, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :{{Courtesy ping|JJPMaster}} [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 23:04, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :I '''weak support''' a '''quarterly''' publication. There isn't a ton of activity here compared to many other <abbr>WMF</abbr> wikis, so there won't be quite as much to report as there is at (e.g.) [[:w:en:WP:SIGNPOST]] or [[:wikt:en:WIktionary:The Headword]] but that said, having a publication could encourage engagement by showing what hard work others are doing. ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:36, 21 October 2026 (UTC) : Because of the low activity, should the releases be biannual (every six months)? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:29, 22 October 2026 (UTC) ::I would support a quarterly publication, given the fact that Wikibooks does not have enough traffic (in my opinion) to justify a bimonthly publication, but, at the same time, the idea of a biannual publication seems relatively infrequent. Furthermore, the magazine would follow the quarterly format used on WikiKids. [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 03:47, 23 October 2026 (UTC) : We can do that with [[Wikibooks:Magazine]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 18:00, 27 October 2026 (UTC) ::I will create a page about what the Wikibooks Magazine on the page provided, and the editions that will follow. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 07:32, 28 October 2026 (UTC) == Discussion on whether to create an extended mover user group == Currently, patrollers (formerly reviewers) have the <code>suppressredirect</code> user right as well as a rate limit per InitialiseSettings.php. However, I am consulting with the community if we: # Remove <code>suppressredirect</code> from patrollers # Add <code>suppressredirect</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> as well as include <code>delete-redirect</code> (for deleting redirects with a single revision) and <code>move-subpages</code> (to move all subpages of a book in a single action) # Also include <code>noratelimit</code> to <code>extendedmover</code> instead of using a custom rate limit (optional), or increase the limit to 500 This is because, per the principle of least privilege, patrollers should be responsible for marking new pages as patrolled and reverting vandalism/spam, while extended movers are trustworthy users (usually non-admins) responsible for moving books, et al. <s>This is ''not'' a proposal to implement the extended mover user group, but rather a community consultation.</s> Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:48, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :@[[User:Codename Noreste|Codename Noreste]]: Relevant prior discussion can be found [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals/2020/December#Suppress redirect feature|here]]. [[User:JJPMaster|JJP]]_{[[User talk:JJPMaster|Mas]]_{[[Special:Contributions/JJPMaster|ter]]}} ([[wikt:she|she]]/[[wikt:they|they]]) 20:21, 20 October 2026 (UTC) :Oppose, don't see the point. [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 11:12, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :: Oddly enough, while patrollers have a rate limit of moving more pages in under a minute, they do not have <code>move-subpages</code> (which allows them to move a book and its subpages in a single action). Without that mechanism to move subpages, they will have to perform some additional moves by hand. Because of that, I said that <code>move-subpages</code> will be added to the extended mover user group. Since that user group is considered a somewhat privileged (non-admin) user group, it will be granted to trustworthy users who have a demonstrated need for it, provided that they have a history of moving pages without causing some sort of disruption during the process. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:43, 3 November 2026 (UTC) :::Why not just add it in the patroller group? [[User:Leaderboard|Leaderboard]] ([[User talk:Leaderboard|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Leaderboard|contribs]]) 16:47, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :::: Because I believe <code>move-subpages</code> can arguably be considered a sensitive user right which may be prone to page move vandalism or other misuse, and correct me if I'm wrong but some patrollers have experience with moving pages, while others may use <code>patrol</code> and <code>rollback</code> solely to perform anti-vandalism and patrolling duties. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:02, 5 November 2026 (UTC) :What are the current requirements to become a patroller? The same as what we used to have for reviewers? And, do we have currently have prerequisites for <code>extendedmover</code>? Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:27, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::# For now, I would suggest we utilize the same requirements as we did with reviewers, but we do NOT have autopromotion. ::# Typically, a candidate for <code>extendedmover</code> should and must have a history of moving pages without causing disruption, or have made lots of requests to admins to move whole books. A prerequesite is that the candidate must have patroller rights. :: [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:31, 5 November 2026 (UTC) ::: CC to @[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]]. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 19:17, 11 November 2026 (UTC) :::Just to clarify, are you saying we no longer have autopromotion at this time? Or, are you proposing that we could remove the autopromotion for patrollers? —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:41, 11 November 2026 (UTC) == Enabling wgUseRCPatrol == Some of our sister projects have <code><nowiki>wgUseRCPatrol</nowiki></code> enabled, but on the other hand, we do not. I think we should enable this so that we can also focus on reviewing edits in the recent changes, not just new pages. [[Wikibooks:Patrolling]] can also include information about this once we enable it here. Thoughts? [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 17:39, 27 October 2026 (UTC) : {{support}}. This would mimic the functionality of FlaggedRevs when reviewing pages and would help detect vandalism much easier. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 04:35, 2 November 2026 (UTC) : {{support}} per above.--[[User:TunnelESON|TunnelESON]] ([[User talk:TunnelESON|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TunnelESON|contribs]]) 03:20, 5 November 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] == [[Wikibooks:Manual of Style]] is technically still only a draft, though in many ways we use it as a guideline. I'm therefore opening a community discussion here with the goal of approving it as a guideline. Thanks! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 22:10, 7 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 05:55, 8 November 2026 (UTC) :{{support}} as proposer —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:54, 10 November 2026 (UTC) == Approve [[Wikibooks:Editing Guidelines]]? == Even though [[Wikibooks:EDITGUIDE|'''WB:EDITGUIDE''']] is still a draft, it will be a very useful guideline for newcomers. I still think the draft needs improvement since I have come from [[Wikimedia/Wikipedia|Wikipedia]] and I might have mixed up some rules—so it's fine if you don't support the decision. If it needs improvement, you can '''edit''' '''the draft and improve it''' or you can '''tell me what to edit and improve it'''. |15:17pm—12 November 2026 ([[wikipedia:Indian_Standard_Time|Indian Standard Time]]) | [[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] ([[Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]]) 471d0jc6kgjcjkjyuj69xwhyq4pytkv 0 174307 4681774 4084045 2026-11-12T07:15:39Z Shocksingularity 3513085 /* Gravity */ time has passed 4681774 wikitext text/x-wiki === ''Invisible'' Black holes === By definition, black holes do not emit light, so ''observing'' them becomes a bit problematic. However, the lack of emitted radiation directly from a black hole does not mean that we cannot detect its presence. ==Gravity == First off, black holes have gravity, the remnant gravity left over from the mass that formed the black hole in the first place. The mass itself has gone into hiding—in fact we do not know what exactly has happened to it—but the gravity remains. The gravity of a black hole is not ''stronger'' than the gravity of a star of the same mass, but because the black hole is so much smaller, the gravity at its 'surface,' sometimes called the "event horizon," is more concentrated and intense. It affects things near the black hole, and sometimes these effects can be detected by astronomers. For example, if a black hole is part of a binary or multiple system, with another star (or stars) orbiting along with it, it may be possible to detect the presence of the black hole by the motion of the other objects, which astronomers ''can'' see. As shown by Einstein's General Theory of Relativity over 100 years ago (1915), gravity can distort light. So if the light of some distant star (or more likely, a galaxy) passes very near the surface of a black hole as it beams through space to the Earth, it can be distorted in a predictable way. If astronomers detect these distortions, they can reasonably conclude that a black hole is somewhere along the line of sight. == Electromagnetic Energy (Light)== Even though a classical black hole cannot radiate electromagnetic energy, objects that have been caught by a black hole's gravity and are falling into it can emit radiation of characteristic types before they fall through the event horizon. Any falling or orbiting object is subject to gravitational accelerations, and any charged particle that is accelerated emits electromagnetic energy. In many cases, it is reasonable to expect that there are many subatomic charged particles (mostly electrons and protons) orbiting around or falling into black holes. When they do so, the give off electromagnetic energy with particular characteristics, which can be detected at Earth. In fact, the first candidate black hole, Cygnus X-1, was detected by just this technique, through the strong X-radiation coming from near the black hole. Black holes are much like messy eaters. Some material won't reach the event horizon but instead is caught up in powerful magnetic fields that exist around the black hole. These "jets" not only shoot some material away. They also emit prolific amounts of energy from radio waves to visible light to X-rays. The jets of material shooting from the central black hole of the Perseus cluster have blown out large holes (cavities) in the nearby gaseous medium. == Hawking Radiation == A classical black hole cannot emit radiation, but British astrophysicist Stephen Hawking predicted that through the non-classical processes of quantum mechanics, particles from a black hole could very slowly seep out into space and escape in a kind of quantum evaporation. This is called ''Hawking Radiation.'' In a very long period of time, black holes could actually dissipate through this process. So far, no Hawking Radiation has been detected, although if it is, it could be another way of discovering and studying black holes. {{BookCat}} nl4jh3hyr94qgelhxx9hl48ovh842pf 0 178748 4681732 4661884 2026-11-11T20:17:05Z Skafbgjsabfvds 3631118 4681732 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- The \,\! is to kegfep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.--> __NOTOC__ This is a compilation of problems and solutions from past numerical methods qualifying exams at the University of Maryland. Revision to solutions and alternate solutions are welcome. [[/Practice Problems and Solutions/]] ==Recommended Reading== ===AMSC 666=== * The lecture notes are a superb review of AMSC 666 material. [http://www.caam.rice.edu/~caam453/ Rice University CAAM 453] ===AMSC 667=== * Nice notes on the theory of Finite Element Methods [http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~flaherje/ RPI Finite Element Analysis Course Notes] == AMSC666 Problems == {| WIDTH="80%" |- | style="background-color: #FFFFEE; {{text default color}}; border: solid 1px #FFC92E; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | * [[/August 2009|August 2009 ]]{{stage short|75%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/January 2009|January 2009 ]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/August 2008|August 2008 ]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/January 2008|January 2008 ]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/August 2007|August 2007 ]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/January 2007|January 2007 ]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/August 2006|August 2006 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2006|January 2006 ]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2005|August 2005 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2005|January 2005 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2004|August 2004 ]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2004|January 2004 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2003|August 2003 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2003|January 2003 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2002|August 2002 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2002|January 2002 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2001|August 2001 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2001|January 2001 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2000|August 2000 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2000|January 2000 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 1999|August 1999 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 1999|January 1999 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} |} == AMSC667 Problems == {| WIDTH="80%" |- | style="background-color: #FFFFEE; {{text default color}}; border: solid 1px #FFC92E; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | * [[/Aug09_667|August 2009 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Jan09_667|January 2009 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug08_667|August 2008 (667)]]{{stage short|50%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Jan08_667|January 2008 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug07_667|August 2007 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan07_667|January 2007 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug06_667|August 2006 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan06_667|January 2006 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/Aug05_667|August 2005 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan05_667|January 2005 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug04_667|August 2004 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[Numerical_Methods_Qualification_Exam_Problems_and_Solutions_(University_of_Maryland)/Jan04_667|January 2004 (667)]]{{stage short|50%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug03_667|August 2003 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan03_667|January 2003 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug02_667|August 2002 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan02_667|January 2002 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Jan01_667|January 2001 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug00_667|August 2000 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan00_667|January 2000 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug99_667|August 1999 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan99_667|January 1999 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} |} == Questions == * Is there a more succinct or rigorous way to explain [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Numerical_Methods_Qualification_Exam_Problems_and_Solutions_(University_of_Maryland)/August_2006#Solution_2c August_2006#Solution_2c] {{Shelves|mathematics study guides}} {{Alphabetical|N}} {{status|25%}} btey8h5o2aisia9h40wm38v4a7g9p9w 4681742 4681732 2026-11-11T20:20:31Z NDG 3510220 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Skafbgjsabfvds|Skafbgjsabfvds]] ([[User talk:Skafbgjsabfvds|talk]]) to last version by ShakespeareFan00 4661884 wikitext text/x-wiki <!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.--> __NOTOC__ This is a compilation of problems and solutions from past numerical methods qualifying exams at the University of Maryland. Revision to solutions and alternate solutions are welcome. [[/Practice Problems and Solutions/]] ==Recommended Reading== ===AMSC 666=== * The lecture notes are a superb review of AMSC 666 material. [http://www.caam.rice.edu/~caam453/ Rice University CAAM 453] ===AMSC 667=== * Nice notes on the theory of Finite Element Methods [http://www.cs.rpi.edu/~flaherje/ RPI Finite Element Analysis Course Notes] == AMSC666 Problems == {| WIDTH="80%" |- | style="background-color: #FFFFEE; {{text default color}}; border: solid 1px #FFC92E; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | * [[/August 2009|August 2009 ]]{{stage short|75%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/January 2009|January 2009 ]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/August 2008|August 2008 ]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/January 2008|January 2008 ]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/August 2007|August 2007 ]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/January 2007|January 2007 ]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/August 2006|August 2006 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2006|January 2006 ]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2005|August 2005 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2005|January 2005 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2004|August 2004 ]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2004|January 2004 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2003|August 2003 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2003|January 2003 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2002|August 2002 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2002|January 2002 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2001|August 2001 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2001|January 2001 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 2000|August 2000 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 2000|January 2000 ]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/August 1999|August 1999 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/January 1999|January 1999 ]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 8, 2009}} |} == AMSC667 Problems == {| WIDTH="80%" |- | style="background-color: #FFFFEE; {{text default color}}; border: solid 1px #FFC92E; padding: 1em;" valign="top" | * [[/Aug09_667|August 2009 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Jan09_667|January 2009 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug08_667|August 2008 (667)]]{{stage short|50%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Jan08_667|January 2008 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug07_667|August 2007 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan07_667|January 2007 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug06_667|August 2006 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan06_667|January 2006 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 8, 2009}} * [[/Aug05_667|August 2005 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan05_667|January 2005 (667)]]{{stage short|75%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug04_667|August 2004 (667)]]{{stage short|100%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[Numerical_Methods_Qualification_Exam_Problems_and_Solutions_(University_of_Maryland)/Jan04_667|January 2004 (667)]]{{stage short|50%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug03_667|August 2003 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan03_667|January 2003 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug02_667|August 2002 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan02_667|January 2002 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Jan01_667|January 2001 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug00_667|August 2000 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan00_667|January 2000 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} * [[/Aug99_667|August 1999 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Jan 14, 2009}} * [[/Jan99_667|January 1999 (667)]]{{stage short|25%|Dec 18, 2008}} |} == Questions == * Is there a more succinct or rigorous way to explain [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Numerical_Methods_Qualification_Exam_Problems_and_Solutions_(University_of_Maryland)/August_2006#Solution_2c August_2006#Solution_2c] {{Shelves|mathematics study guides}} {{Alphabetical|N}} {{status|25%}} a0hz2n5xlp216jvoelixvor2y7jkjx0 0 202147 4681656 4681342 2026-11-11T16:55:17Z Jeff1138 301139 4681656 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==Host Adapter Protocol USB1 OHCI UHCI USB2 EHCI USB3.0 USB3.1 xHCI == Please let us know any mistakes or any information to be added, use Prefs/Trident to confirm Vendor and Product IDs Please chat at [https://www.arosworld.org/index.php AROS World] *1996 USB1.0 *1998 USB1.1 *2000 USB2.0 *2008 USB3.0 *2013 USB3.1 *2017 USB3.2 AROS has these USB transfers *Control - *Bulk - Midi 1.0 ( 'send my data when you can' ) *Interrupt - Midi 2.0 *Isochronous - USBAudio, Webcams, etc Isochronous is the starting point of modern types of multimedia creativity. IsoChronous isoc code is already in place in poseidon.library and '''scheduled''' transfers are queued to be later rerouted in the host driver code (needs to be written for each host protocol e.g. OCHI, UCHI, EHCI and [https://cdrdv2-public.intel.com/625472/625472_xHCI_Rev1_2b.pdf#:~:text=Page%203.%20Document%20Number:%20625472%2C%20Revision:%201.2b.%203. XHCI rev1.2], [https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/content-details/868296/extensible-host-controller-interface-for-universal-serial-bus-xhci-requirements-specification-r2-0.html rev2], etc). There seems to be 2 types of isoc transfers, one is just the normal isoc transfer and the other is realtime implementation of isoc transfer. For isoc transfer there needs to be a scheduler that makes sure no isoc transfers are dropped (in or out) and that they happen at the right time. It all gets difficult as the device making use of the isoc transfer may be at any point on the device tree. One needs to calculate the USB bandwidth for the packet based periodic transfers that are initiated by the host which have fixed but guaranteed bandwidth. Host controllers guarantee this bandwidth by planning a schedule of transfers ahead of time to ensure there is enough time reserved on the bus. [https://www.intel.co.uk/content/www/uk/en/products/docs/io/universal-serial-bus/ehci-specification.html EHCI] [https://www.thegoodpenguin.co.uk/blog/understanding-why-usb-isochronous-bandwidth-errors-occur/ bus-bandwidth] vs payload-bandwidth and the algorithm of the EHCI scheduler. The bandwidth of the endpoint in terms of payload data (stuff we put in a packet) and the protocol overhead, signalling imposed bit stuffing, host delays etc. Poseidon controls the driver and device tree and it provides an API to communicate with the USB devices. Poseidon really doesn't care much about what sort of transfer pipe is opened or used, it only provides the means to do so and forwards the iorequests to the correct driver. Poseidon code is the higher level code for USB communication and drivers are of course the lower level one. [[File:Psd.svg|220px|right]] ; Best Hardware - NEC Chipset (OHCI + EHCI), Intel Chipset (UHCI + EHCI), XHCI USB3.0, USB3.1 & gen 2 Type-A Type-B Type-C ; Next Best Set - General OHCI, SIS (OHCI + EHCI), ; Buggy Chipset - [ Early AMD OHCI], ALi OHCI, VIA UHCI, Nvidia OHCI & EHCI, === USB1.1 === OHCI USB 1.1 - USB-IF sanctioned standard but hardware physical form removed with USB2.0 and replaced with virtual emulation of USB1 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | ALi Agere M5273 A1 M5237 Lucent USS-312 | | | | <!--Boots-->{{Maybe}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | StarTech PCI425USB, CompUSA Iogear GIC220U-b, Nvidia 220 mobo, USBA2041P, ALi SU2A-PS, |- | AMD 756 Chipset (onboard motherboard) | 0x1022 | 0x740c | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | no [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=31308#forumpost31308 usb devices detected] Geode GX1, |- | CMD DU-A2 Silicon Image 0670 (pci AMD chipset) | 0x1095 | 0x0670 | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Silicon Image 0673 (pci AMD chipset) | 0x1095 | 0x0673 | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Nvidia Nforce2 USB | 0x10de | | | <!--Boots-->{{Maybe|Bios options vary but does with Plop Boot}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Tested with 20th Aug 2012 improvement |- | NEC µPD720100AGM | 0x1033 | 0x0035 | 0x | <!--Boots-->{{Unk}} | <!--Detects-->{{Unk}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | untested - Amiga Spider card with possible bottleneck issues at higher speeds |- | NEC µPD720101AGM 720101GJ | 0x1033 | 0x0035 | 0x43 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Mac mini, Belkin F5U219vea (2+1 ports), Belkin F5U220vea1 (4+1 ports), Adaptec 3100LP, BAFO BF-460, GWC UC-160, IOGear GIC250U, Keyspan U2PCI-5, O'toLink U2-C2B U2-C2A U2-P20N U2-P50, Ratoc PCIU5, USBWholesale UII-PCIP |- | NEC µPD720102 | 0x1033 | 0x00 | 0x | <!--Boots-->{{Unk|untested }} | <!--Detects-->{{Unk|untested }} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Opti 82C861 2-port | 0x1045 | 0xc861 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | no USB devices detected - Belkin F5U005, |- | SIS 7001 OCHI | 0x1039 | 0x7001 | 0x0f | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | 20th Aug 2012 - not booting stalls on GRUB word with Plop Boot |- |} UHCI USB 1.1 - Intel standard but since 2009 no hardware support as USB2 introduced virtual emulation of USB1 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | Intel | 0x8086 | 0x | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{No|not in bios use AROS floppy disc boot}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Intel 82371AB EB MB PIIX4 | 0x8086 | 0x7112 | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{No|none in bios use other booting options}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|Detects most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led not on and does not work}} | |- | Intel 82801DB/DBL/DBM (onboard i830 mbd) | 0x8086 | 0x24c4 | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes|but not from bios but floppy options}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes|}} | <!--Works-->{{Yes|}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led on and although device has software failure and recoverable error IT STILL WORKS. Fresh start sometimes needs Network Prefs Saved to work. |- | VIA MVP4 (onboard mbd) | 0x1106 | 0x30 | 0x40 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not wireless options}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 detected but blue led not on and does not work |- | VIA VT82xx (onboard mbd) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | 0x40 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not wireless usb}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led on but does not work |- | VIA VT6202 (VIA VT83C572) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | A-Best USB-200, Cables N Mor USBPCI, CompUSA, D-Link DSB500, Digital/Research DRUSBCARD, Kouwell IOFlex 580, StarMount USB VIA, |- | VIA VT6112 | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6212 (pci card) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | 0x61 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | 2011 seems to have issues with other identical via based USB controller(s) present |- | VIA VT6214L | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- |} === USB 2.0 EHCI === The USB-IF insisted on only one implementation of EHCI but it creates 4 virtual hcd to cover USB1.1 support. The virtual HCD on Intel and VIA EHCI controllers are UHCI. All other vendors use virtual OHCI controllers. Hardware EHCI USB2.0 ended in most chipsets in 2014/5 and is now virtual through most newer USB3.0 chipsets {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | ALi Agere M5273 A1 Lucent USS-344 | | | | <!--Boots--> | <!--Detects--> | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | {{N/A|untested}} belkin F5U006, |- | Nvidia Nforce2 USB | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Intel 82801DB/DBM (onboard mbd) | 0x8086 | 0x24cd | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | NEC µPD720100AGM | 0x1033 | 0x00E0 | 0x | <!--Boots--> | <!--Detects--> | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | {{N/A|untested - Amiga Spider card}} |- | NEC 72101 GJ | 0x1033 | 0x00e0 | 0x04 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Belkin F5U219 VEA1 (pci), |- | SIS ECHI | 0x1039 | 0x7002 | 0x00 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|issues about which port is used if it works at all}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6202 | 0x1106 | 0x3104 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6212 (pci card) | 0x1106 | 0x3104 | 0x62 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes|detects}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- |} === USB 3.x SuperSpeed SS (Speed 5Gbit/s 3.1 gen 1) aka xHCI eXtensible === USB Attached SCSI (UAS or UASP) is a protocol used for high-speed data transfer between computers and external storage devices like SSDs, HDDs, and some flash drives. It provides up to 70% faster read/write speeds than traditional Bulk-Only Transport (BOT) by allowing multiple commands to run in parallel, rather than waiting in a queue {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1000 FL 1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B73 | <!--Product ID-->0x1000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->link power management (LPM, USB 3.0 power saving) cannot be disabled so random connection issues |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1009-200 FL 1009 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1009 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->Orico PFU3-2P |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1100-100 FL 1100SX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1100 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->LPM cannot be disabled so issues with disconnecting WD drives etc - CalDigit, ORICO PFU3-2P, FASTA-6GU3 Pro, inatech KTU3FR-2P 2 port USB 3.0, and Inateck KT4004 (KTU3FR-4PA rev B2) for storage and hubs, etc |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1400 FL 1400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1400 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720200 uPD720200a chip | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1d6b | <!--Product ID-->0x0194 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|no USB3 but seems to works like USB2}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported for USB3 but works like USB2 - ORICO PRU3-4P 4 Port USB, early Dell Wyse zx0 thin client, |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720201 uPD720201 chip | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x114 0x0115 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720202 uPD720202 chip | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1912 | <!--Product ID-->0x0015 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.ti.com/product/tusb7340 TI] tusb7340 TUSB732 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x8241 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported Koutech IO-PEU436 but only one with open docs |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported - integrated since Ivybridge |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL800 xHCI 0.96 support in VL800, VIA VL811 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x3432 0x3438 0x3515 and 0x9201 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} 2.0 backwards support | <!--Opinion-->Anker 68UPPCIE-2S20PU 2 port, Plugable 4-Port, GA-z77x-ud5h rev. 1.1 mobo, |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL811+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL812 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->xHCI 1.0 support in VL805 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} USB 3.1 (power up to 100W and data 10Gbit/s USB 3.2 gen 2 - USB-A Full size plug - USB-B micro USB size - USB-C reversible) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1142 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->Connector: USB Type C and USB Type A x 1 - Ugreen USB C PCI Card 2 Port USB 3.1 Type C |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[ Intel] Revision 1.8 1.9 Updated | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion-->AUKEY 4 Ports USB C , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion-->Startech - PEXUSB312C - 2-port Usb 3.1 10Gbit/s |- |} USB 3.2 (power up to 100W and data 20Gbit/s gen 2x2 - USB-A Full size plug - USB-B micro USB size - USB-C reversible) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[ Intel] Revision 2.6 Update | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} === USB 4 (40Gbps thunderbolt, pcie 3.0 tunnelling, ) === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->AMD Ryzen7 6800U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->Intel Goshen Ridge JHL8440 Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | |- |} == hid.class (Human Interface Device) == === Keyboard === Some multi-finger touchpad support works but not on all touchpads {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Retro N C64 edition Keyboard, the super button accessory and optional N30 mouse | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 87 keys Kailh white}} |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo 108 Retro Mechanical Keyboard (white kailh) and two superbuttons (green) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Apple Pro Keyboard | 0x05ac | 0x0205 | 0x0122 | {{yes|works (its two hub ports) but mouse scroll wheel issues}} |- | Apple Pro Keyboard | 0x05AC | 0x020B | | {{yes|works (two onboard ports also)}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Aigo K68 60% red switches, A68 A87 wireless 2G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[http://amigakit.leamancomputing.com/catalog/product_info.php?cPath=49&products_id=973 AmigaOne Keyboard] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko TAC87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 80% TKL }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko MonsGeek FUN60 PRO&MAX HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 60% hall effect }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 hall effect, good but expensive and software poor}} |- | <!--Description-->Akko | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Arteck HW197 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 keyboard and touchpad combo, aluminum frame, aa battery }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Azio Cascade | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Chilkey ND75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->Chilkey ND104 (Wuque Studios) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 premium clicky (WS Blue) or silent (WS White) key options with Ansi and ISO formats also numpad and calculator, aluminum machined, tri mode, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2026 untested magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K65 Mech MX no numeric keypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair CH-9000045 K70 Blue MX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K95 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cherry G80 G80-3000L[x]C[yy]-[z] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cooler Master CM Storm Quickfire Rapid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K100 Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 okay low profile but expensive |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Dell SK-8135 Dell USB Keyboard for Internet and Multimedia rev H for Dimension 4500, Dimension 8250, OptiPlex GX260n, OptiPlex GX60n, Precision 350 (R42232) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x413C | <!--Product ID-->0x2010 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes| usb1.1 keyboard hub 0x413C 0x1003 works as well - multimedia keys not mapped }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Deepcool KG722 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 65% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Ducky Channel Zero DK2108 Mech Mechanical Cherry MX Red | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Ducky Shine 3 Brown or Blue (DK9087) MX keys | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Das Keyboard Model S Ultimate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Cidoo V75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker rt100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 plastic build and no screws, numpad with small 0, mostly quiet seasalt switches, gimmick usb-c 1in screen}} |- | <!--Description-->EPOMAKER TH99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} USB-C full numpad keyboard |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker P75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker p87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Leobog Hi75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Feker Galaxy80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Galaxy100 gmk/via | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 96% }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker Aula F75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 budget version good 75% choice of 4 leobog switches}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker Tide75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% and not too expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK992 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 109 key }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK820 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK35I V3 MAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 104 keys - two models: wired and tri-mode connection - }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker Aula F108 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pricy but okay 100% but only leobog graywood switches but hotswap available afterwards}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker Ajazz AK980 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 97 keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker G87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker RT82 RT85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker RT100 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 96% }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Galaxy100 lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 good 96% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ATTACK SHARK X98 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 98% maybe silent linear feel with Two-color PBT keycap}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker ATTACK SHARK X68HE and X65HE 65% Wired Gaming Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID-->0x502D | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|2025 tested on Aros running on Raspberry Pi wired usb-c with magnetic hall effect keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Filco Ninja Majestouch-2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Focus FK-760 Wireless Keyboard & Trackball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} but quality build issues raised |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->GMMK Tenkeyless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested default Gateron Brown switches for Kailh Box Jades default Gateron Brown switches for Kailh Box Jades}} |- | <!--Description-->GK61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->GMK67 GMK87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested budget good option}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Hengchangtong HCT Limeme gk103s Entry Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0xC0F4 | <!--Product ID-->0x0009 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|half Keyboard left side only}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Hexgears M2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested hotswap kaihl green switches}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hexgears | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Iqunix mq80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 good 75% low profile keys |- | <!--Description-->Iqunix Magi65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested good 65% low profile keys }} |- | <!--Description-->iqunix ez60 ez80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 untested specific hall effect switches - actuation point, rapid trigger, etc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Jomaa YiChip Wireless 50% key with touchpad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID-->0x3000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|dongle detected, keys and pad not working - 2 AAA NM}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 untested numpad only}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q1 v1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 untested okay}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Q6 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested 75% with numeric numpad, barebones so choose switches and keycaps to suit }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q1 MAX V1 MAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Lemokey P1 QMK | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested best option to customise switches and keycaps}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron LemoKey X1 X3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested keycap swap only not switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K2HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested okay}} wireless hall effect analogue on all keys |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K4HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 untested hall effect but software }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K5 K17 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 untested okay low profile but }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Q5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K10 HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kiiboom Breeze 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 good 75% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Meletrix Boog 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 magnetic hall effect, good but expensive and software poor}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Melgeek O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 low profile 75% but not repairable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->MOSART 2.4G Wireless 60% Keyboard Trackball | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062a | <!--Product ID-->0x4105 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|dongle recognised HID, keys worked, roller worked, scroll wheel works and shoulders works but buttons around left, top and right hand side (RHS) do not work and plastic and 2 AA MN1500}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Mucai SiGma Micro MKA610 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1c4f | <!--Product ID-->0x0084 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| unknown red keys - rgb backlighting - }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://hjldemo.clsc.cn/ Guangzhou Zhentian Electronics Ltd] Perixx Periboard 505 Plus with Trackball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|okay dome keyboard - poor trackball}} |- | <!--Description-->Guangzhou Zhentian Electronics Co., Ltd Perixx Periboard 706 Plus with Trackball Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|generally okay dome with good sized keys but piano black surround fingerprint magnet, occasional brief trackball freezes after no use, takes some time to get used to the trackball size}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard-716 Wireless (Chicony) | <!--Vendor ID-->04f2:1013 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|okay dome keyboard and trackpad}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard- | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard- | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Lenovo SK-8825 41A5327 SIL12-W07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->works manufactured for |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Lite-On USB NetVista Full Width Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x04b3 | <!--Product ID-->0x3025 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->works |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K320 Wireless Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|The Logitech USB Unifying, Bolt, Lightspeed, or Nano receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K340 Wireless Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.logitech.com/en-us/product/wireless-touch-keyboard-k400r Logitech Wireless Touch Keyboard k400] | <!--Vendor ID--> 0x046D | <!--Product ID--> 0xC52B | <!--Revision--> 1201 | <!--Opinion--> {{yes|All (including multimedia) keys work. Some keys requires remapping with Trident. Touchpad works and acts as normal mouse. Presents itself in Trident as USB Receiver from Logitech with 3 HID bindings}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K400 Plus K400+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech TK820 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech TK830 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G915 TKL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard TKL means no number pad}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lofree Lite84 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Lofree Flow Lite100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 silent switches and low profile keys}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->MACHENIKE K500 Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 94 keys untested Hot Swappable 94 Keys 90% Layout }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MechLands Vibe99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 100 keys untested Gasket-mounted Wired/Bluetooth/2.4GHz Wireless Mechanical Keyboard}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Comfortable Curve 2000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| recognized but not supported}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|recognized but not supported}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Wireless Media Desktop 1000 (1356) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x00f9 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|working but not mouse part}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Niz Micro84 Duo82 X87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 electro capacitive }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy gem80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy kick 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 low profile 75% }} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy Air75 V3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 75% }} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy node 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 96% layout, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Qpad MK-50 MK-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Qpad MK-90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Chroma | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0203 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://openrazer.github.io/ Razer] Lycosa | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow 2013 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Cherry MX Blue }} |- | <!--Description-->Razr Blackwidow Ultimate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Cherry MX Blue }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer Orange keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 Low Profile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 Pro 75% | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Cynosa Lite V2 | <!--Vendor ID-->1532 | <!--Product ID-->0x023f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer DeathStalker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer HuntsMan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Ornata | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Orbweaver Chroma Keypad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0207 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Tartarus Keypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| not hall effect and very expensive}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Redragon K668 RGB Gaming Keyboard Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested 108 Keys Mechanical Keyboard w/Extra 4 Hotkeys Upgraded Hot-swappable Socket，Red Switch}} |- | <!--Description-->Redragon K689 PRO Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested Gasket RGB Gaming Keyboard, 108 Keys Mechanical Keyboard w/Extra 4 Hotkeys, Upgraded Hot-swappable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Rii K22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 keyboard trackpad combo, non replaceable lithium battery, very compact}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Risophy 60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 75% mechanical, hotswap so okay for price untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Risophy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Royal Kludge RK65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested cream switches }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->SINO WEALTH Gaming KB SkyLion K68 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x258a | <!--Product ID-->0x003a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| blue stalks with rgb lighting}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->SKYLOONG GK104 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested gateron }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->SteelSeries | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet x300 2.4G Keyboard Mouse MosART | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062A | <!--Product ID-->0x4101 | <!--Revision-->0312 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|1 AAA for each and works well - mouse slightly better built than keyboard rubberised membrane}} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet X331 HDE 2.4G Keyboard wireless RCMCU | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0C45 | <!--Product ID-->0x7000 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|wireless can be glitchy but few extra keys are mapped }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet X500 2.4G Keyboard Mouse MOSArt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062A | <!--Product ID-->0x2901 | <!--Revision-->0112 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|works well especially large touchpad - usual rubber domed membraned keyboard mechanism }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tecware Specter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested good 75%}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Unicomp Model M USB 104 key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} IBM's and later Lexmark buckling spring switches |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo Minilo Bluebell (prestige silent) and Eculapytus (violet tactile) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 75% plastic build no screws not great to mod}} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo Sword 68 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo 98 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 expensive but good and Kailh silent}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Weikav Velocifire Choice65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Weikav Velocifire Lucky65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Rainy 75 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID-->0x5055 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% but not as expensive CNC Aluminum HMX/JWK/Cocoa Switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Crush 80 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID-->0x5588 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Crush80 Reboot Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 very good but expensive Aluminum Hotswap Wireless RGB}} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Rainy 75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wooting HE60 HE80 HE90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 hall effect but expensive with good software}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Womier WK61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2021 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk71 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk75 TMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 hall effect }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xenta White Wireless HK6718B+HM3302--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|works with Raspberry Pi untested on AROS native}} |- | <!--Description-->Xinmeng X87 MAGIC_REFINER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 untested keycap swap but not hotswapable switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL66 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| milk switches, cherry PBT, }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzi B75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 budget good with cocoa cream switches }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|good budget option with swappable switches, }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 switches }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzi C75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 budget good with switches }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} <pre> linear - creamy tactile - thocky clicky - clacky </pre> <pre > Cherry MX Black are linear switches (no feedback); good for gaming. Cherry MX Red are linear (less noise no click) but more squishy; Cherry MX Brown are in between Blue and Red in style and tactile; Cherry MX Clear switches have soft tactile feedback (with no click). Cherry MX Blue have tactile feedback with a click (noisy); good for typing. Gateron Yellows KS-3, KS-3x47 or better Pros have a milky top and black bottom and linear TTC Silent Frozen v2. Linear and dead silent Mouse the huano brown with yellow dot for silent mouse clicks Kailh red dust proof encoder for smooth and close to silent scrolling Boba U4 Silent Tactile switches Husky linears HMX </pre > === Mouse === if the USB mouse is non-functional put a USB pendrive in before or add the following to user-startup in '''s''' drawer/folder/directory sys:prefs/trident NOGUI > NIL: {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" | Brand ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" | Model ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | 3Dconnexion | 3D Mouse | <!--Model-->[http://www.3dconnexion.com/products/spacenavigator.html SpaceNavigator] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | 3D Mouse | <!--Model-->SpacePilot Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | Mouse | <!--Model-->SpaceExplorer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | Wireless Mouse | <!--Model-->SpaceMouse | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->3D Optical | <!--Description-->Wired | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0000:3825 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin | Combo mouse | | 0x05FE | 0x0011 | Low 0100 | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Cytec | <!--Description-->Wired Mouse Gaming | <!--Model-->R.A.T 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Dell | Mouse | MO56UC | 0x413C | 0x3200 | | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->equatech / clone logitech | <!--Description-->wireless mouse | <!--Model-->49779 / M185 | <!--Vendor ID--> 3151:2020 later 3151:3020 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{Yes|detected and works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Hama | RF Optical Mouse | AM-6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->M3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->M5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keycron | <!--Description-->Optical Wireless | <!--Model-->M6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1k polling and 16k dpi }} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical Wireless | <!--Model-->M7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested barebones 1k polling and 16k dpi, great for small hands, loud clicks}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->LogiCAD 3D | <!--Description-->3D Mouse | <!--Model-->Magellan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Cordless Desktop Navigator | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech Inc. | First/Pilot Wheel Mouse | N48/M-BB48 M-BE58 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Wireless mouse | [http://www.logitech.com/en-roeu/mice_pointers/mice/devices/5484 M305] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Wireless RF Mouse | MK710 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitach | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->G304 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 very clicky}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless Mouse | <!--Model-->MX Master Anywhere 2S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|untested}} micro USB charge port on front |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model-->M220 silent touch MR0085 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2018 needs usb dongle - quiet clicking }} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech Logi | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->MX Master 3S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|2021 untested usb-c bluetooth, inbuilt battery but muted clicks}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitach | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->G502 X Plus | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 very clicky}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model-->M240 silent touch MR0105 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2022 no dongle as bluetooth enabled but could work with Logi Bolt USB Receiver - 1 aa battery - quiet clicking}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->MX Master 4 MXM | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Bluetooth usb-c dongle, inbuilt lithium battery}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Description | Model | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion--> |- | <!--Brand-->Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8566 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8518 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->OrzerHome Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8514 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1 aa with no on/off switch }} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Wheel Mouse optical | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Sidewinder Mouse | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | IntelliMouse Explorer USB optical | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Wireless Optical Mouse 2000 | | 0x045E | 0x00F9 | | {{no|not working see keyboard Media Desktop 2000 above}} |- | <!--Brand-->Microsoft | <!--Description--> | <!--Model-->1461 1447 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|usb dongle matched to one mouse only no others}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Orochi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Mamba | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Naga | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} 17 buttons |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB Optical | <!--Model-->Naga Hex V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} MOBA Gaming Mouse, Professional Grade 16,000 DPI Sensor - RGB lighting |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->DeathAdder | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Viper | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Basilisk V3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1k polling, 35k dpi, }} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Trust | Slimline Lasermouse | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | SteelSeries | Tobii EyeX EyeMobile PCEye | Eye Tracking Control | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} gaze interaction track technology for augment augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->The Eye Tribe Tracker | <!--Description-->Eye | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description-->USB Optical Mouse | <!--Model-->MV3000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x192f | <!--Product ID-->0x0916 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |} === Trackball === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->3Dconnexion SpaceBall 5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} Labtec designed and rolled into new company 3dconnexion 2001 by owners Logitech |- | <!--Description-->ACCO Kensington Orbit optical F1233A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kensington Turbo Mouse 64210 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Clearly Superior Technologies. Model:CST 1000-RC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Trackman Marble Mouse Wired USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Cordless Trackman Wheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Optical Trackman T-RB22 - Cordless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech M570 wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Trackball Mouse Optical 1.0 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft X05-87473 Trackball USB Optical | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === KVM === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->NanoKVM | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === Gamepad === Controllers have mostly decided that the left analog joystick is keyboard equivalent of WASD and right joystick is your mouse. You also have 2 bumpers above the triggers. Shoot could be right trigger (so it doesn't involve taking your thumb off the right joystick). Face buttons for reloading or jump or other non-critical functions. Crank up the sensitivity and practice. Testing can be done with the TRIDENT Prefs, [https://devicetests.com/controller-tester html5], [https://greggman.github.io/html5-gamepad-test/ html5], or [https://gamepad-tester.com/ Tester] ==== Dinput Poseidon Default Plugin - Playstation(TM) style ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Betop Betong Bat D2E BTP-BD2E XD4D2E | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gravis Eliminator Gamepad Pro USB | <!--Vendor ID-->047d | <!--Product ID-->4005 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 2d only |- | Hama Black Force USB Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 psx clone look |- | <!--Description-->Jess Tech Game Elements Philips GGE909 PC Recoil Pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCbAmIhj6P4 Logitech Wingman Precision USB] G-UC3B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 no 3D but good for 2D retro games like Turrican II |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman Action Pad G-UB3A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 1 blue lucid translucent - thin analog stick N64 type - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman RumblePad UB05B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc20a | 1.12 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 twin blue analogue sticks N64 type - poor 2d controls with single molded blue piece - vibration feedback - single shoulder buttons with throttle control below right one |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman Cordless RumblePad G-RA4A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc211 | 1.12 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 twin blue analogue sticks N64 type - poor 2d controls with single molded black piece - vibration feedback - dual shoulder buttons L1 L2 R1 R2 with blue throttle control below right one - 4 aa mn1500 batteries; life not great - C-UD10A usb dongle - overall big and bulky |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Precision Wired G-UG15 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 psx styling blue outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Cordless Precision G-X2E14A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 ps2 styling blue outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G-X5C11A Cordless Precision Wireless Controllers | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 psx styling black outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/logitech-dual-actiontm-gamepad/ Logitech Dual Action] * G-UD8 has no mode (2D only?) button and no rumble * G-UF13A later | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0xc2 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|[http://www.morphzone.org/modules/newbb_plus/viewtopic.php?topic_id=7018&forum=12 G-UF13A tested only]}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 New body shape psx style - dual analog 3D sticks - 4 small travel shoulder triggers no 5,6,7,8 |- | <!--Description-->Logitech RumblePad 2 G-UF13 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc218 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 usb wired light blue top/black base - twin analogues 3D along with dual short travel shoulder buttons - rumble present - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech RumblePad 2 Cordless * G-RC?? OLD version that take FOUR batteries and RED Logitech logo * G-RC14 uses TWO batteries has an ORANGE logo - dongle C-UE10 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc219 | <!--Revision-->0x0200 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 wireless may have to remove 1 battery - G-RC?? 5 + 7 buttons - G-RC14 use buttons 6 + 8 to reset sticks - replace battery and push large button on receiver - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech F310 Wired Dual Action G-U0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc21 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|D mode switch}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 best option for old usb wired style dual analog 3D with pc-xbox/psx switch on back (only D works) - both rear shoulder RT LT buttons have excess travel - no rumble vibration - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech F510 Wired G-UG0002 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc21 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 dual analog with dual xbox pc/psx X/D switched compatibility modes - |- | Logitech F710 Wireless / Cordless RumblePad 2 G-R0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc219 | <!--Revision-->3.05 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe|Mouse only not joypad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 When switch on top set to D and nano receiver for each controller to pair - 2 aa mn1500 batteries required - rumble support sometimes - rear back shoulder buttons excessive travel needed - does have rubber backing that becomes sticky - |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Megaworld 'TIME' USB pad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0735 | <!--Product ID-->0x9902 | <!--Revision-->Low 0100 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No |}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 Poor quality |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft * SideWinder Precision Pro USB (1997) * SideWinder Precision 2 (1998) * Game Pad Pro (1999) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Game Pad USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> possible setup first |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Gamepad X04 Freestyle | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} 1998 might need USB adapter |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder X05 63895 92626 Flight stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|2000 [https://ae.amigalife.org/index.php?topic=929.msg11309#new tested]}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Flight Stick X08-58736 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Plug & Play Game Pad (2000) SideWinder Joystick (2000) Game Pad 2.0 (2001) SideWinder Force Feedback 2 (2002) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 long-standing static buildup problem and Force Feedback 2 was the removal of the power brick |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | Saitek [http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/saitek-ps1000/ PS1000 Cyborg V.1], [http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/saitek-ps2700-rumble-pad/ PS2700] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 no rumble function |- | Saitek [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG0v-hf6ZPA P2600] [http://compactiongames.about.com/od/hardware/tp/gamepads.htm P3600], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 no rumble function |- | Saitek P2900 wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 runs on 1 AA battery |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Sony Batoh PS3 mini USB Wired hookup [http://ps3.jim.sh/sixaxis/usb/ SIXAXIS] *PCB Ribbon Notes *Protos ALPS MSU Rev3 M3 and the later CBEH-1019 *? SA1Q135A for sixaxis *PP4 *V2 *V25 *VX SA1Q146A first dualshock 3 model *VX SA1Q147A CECHZC2U (USA) *VX35 SA1Q159A *VX3 SA1Q160A *VX? SA1Q188A *VX4 SA1Q189A shipped with a CECH-2504 datecode 0C *VX5 SA1Q194A changed design ALPS, PS button changes *VX6 SA1Q195A red case, *VX7 SA1Q222A superslims 2 ribbons *VX8 SA1Q224A superslims 2 ribbons | <!--Vendor ID-->0x054c | <!--Product ID-->0x0268 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No|}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|}} | <!--Opinion-->Sometimes detected but no support - no sixaxis features detected - mini usb lead will have varying results - |- | <!--Description-->Sony PS4 *JDM JDS 001 010 011 *JDM 030 040 055 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sony PS5 Dual Sense | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Speed Link Strike 2 FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Firestorm Dual Power 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|[http://www.morphzone.org/modules/newbb_plus/viewtopic.php?topic_id=7018&forum=12 only 1 axis joystick only]}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator GM-1500 GM-1520 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 M series Aluminum Metal Joystick Hitbox Controller Arcade Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 T series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 G series Gamefinger G12 G13 G16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> plastic - |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 S series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> thinner and lighter than G series |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mad Catz sf2 fightstick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Datel Paewang Arcade Pro Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash F300 Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash F500 Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Pico Flatbox GP2040-CE Hot Swappable Mini Hitbox Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> default it is configured for PS4 but before plugging usbc cable in, X for Dinput, B Xinput, RT HID - plastic build case - Rev4 based on RP2040 chip and firmware is based on GP2040-CE (Community Edition) - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Shenzhen Onebitdo Tech 8bitdo Fighting stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Venom 8 button | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} ==== Xinput Xbox Style Plugin ==== 2018 extension added originally called AROSx but later redacted. Latest [https://github.com/medusalix/xone linux driver] might be useful. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate C Wired 82CB (Shenzhen ONEBITDO TECH - GWOWO) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2dc8 | <!--Product ID-->0x3106 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 - 4 t6 torx screws - non hall effect so drifting issues - triggers go faulty often - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 2C Wired Controller 82CD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2dc8 | <!--Product ID-->0x310A | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - HID keyboard assigned - 4 t6 torx screws - hall effect analogs and triggers - 1000Hz polling - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 2C wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - 400mw battery - hall effect 3d nubs and triggers - micro switch shoulder buttons - d-pad poor for retro games - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo ULtimate Mini Wired Controller for Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 2 *Wired Controller *Wireless *Bluetooth | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect - playstation style layout for pc - slide button for S-A-D-X switch, android, dinput or xinput - |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 tmr hall effect analogs, hall effect triggers and some microswitches - button swap - ps2 style layout - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2026 - mw battery - hall effect 3d nubs and triggers - micro switch shoulder buttons - d-pad for retro games - |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2026 hall effect analogs, hall effect triggers and some microswitches - button swap - ps2 style layout - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Ace Aurora | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect joysticks with no deadzone mode, gyro, linear rumble, trigger stops, back paddles, button swap, macro, turbo, RGB LED effects - tri-mode connection - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Betop Beitong Spartan BTP-2270U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hall effect |- | <!--Description-->Betop Betong Asura 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hall effect - noble linear trigger potentiometer and alps shoulder LB/RB micro switch |- | <!--Description-->BEITONG ASURA 2 Pro+ Game Controller Wireless Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beitong Zeus 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BebonCool Dinofire Model Number: Q218 / TP28 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 - triggers aren't progressive but ON/OFF - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X05 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect analog and triggers - tri mode connection - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX Wireless Controller PC PS3, 9013pro ESM-9013PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 linear hall effect but device sometimes will not connect tried multiple attempts with the dongle |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 ABXY MICRO SWITCH - Bumpers Tactile switch Hall Effect analog |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect analog and triggers - membrane buttons - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX S10 Wireless Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 TMR Hall effect and compatible with Switch 2/PC/Phone/TV/Steam, NFC, Gyro, HD Rumble - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->202 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fantech World EOS Pro WGP15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect trigger and sticks,2 back paddles, motion controlling |- | <!--Description-->Fantech EOS PRO II S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 controller with TMR hall effect analogues, mechanical face buttons and D-pad, 63 input macro, back paddles, turbo - analog triggers with trigger stops - tri mode bt wifi and wired - slide switch on back for switch, macos/android and xinput - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Apex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 luxury model |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader Pro 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 the Pro(Hall Effects) and Non-Pro (No Hall) |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Direwolf 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 hall effect sticks and triggers - poor wifi connection - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Apex 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 luxury model |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader 4 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - hall effect, DInput mode (o+A hold) - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Direwolf 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect analog and triggers but membrane buttons with gold contacts - 800mhA battery - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Dunefox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 basic model hall effect analog and triggers but membrane buttons - 500mha battery - no gyros - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader 5 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 - hall effect stick with tension control, linear triggers, DInput mode (o+A hold) - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir T4K Keleid, T4C Cyclone wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 poor to ok switch |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir Nova | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no|| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - switch type layout |- | <!--Description-->Guangzhou Chicken Run Network Tech Nova Lite GameSir-T4n LITE - Zikway HID gamepad *[https://www.reddit.com/r/Gamesir/comments/1c185ve/psa_keep_gamesir_nova_lite_t4n_lite_firmware_at/ fw 4200 seems to be xbox so B then Home for Xinput (green LED), A then Home for HID BT Android (green/yellow LED), Y then Home for Switch Pro (Red LED)] or X then Home for Wifi and start and select to alternatively swap modes * and if on [https://www.reddit.com/r/Gamesir/comments/1c185ve/psa_keep_gamesir_nova_lite_t4n_lite_firmware_at/ fw 5700 ds4 so Home + B (blue LED), ] * firmware 6900 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3537 | <!--Product ID-->0x1040 0x1041 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - hall effect 3d nubs - no usb-c cable - rubber membrane analog trigger travel and bumpers shoulder buttons - wifi 2.4G and bluetooth - xbox layout so ab and xy might need to be swapped via m and a buttons for switch type [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=po-nNuC5fps fixes video] - 250Hz polling - 600mah battery - rigid carry case - poor d-pad esp diagonals - gamesir settings software only on android 6+ or ios based only - |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir Nova 2 Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G7 SE Wired Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir TEGENARIA T3 Lite Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 playstation aesthetic hall effect analog and membrane buttons - X+Home button connects as an Xbox controller |- | <!--Description-->GameSir Cyclone 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 TMR Joysticks with anti-friction rings and metal anti-friction rings around the stems, gyro, rumble, macro, turbo, 2 back paddles, hall analog triggers with micro-switch trigger - tri mode bluetooth, 2.4GHz wifi and wired, 1000hz polling rate - gamesir connect software - |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G7 Pro for Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 TMR hall effect - hall effect triggers, tri mode connection - gamesir nexus software - |- | <!--Description-->GameSir Super Nova Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2026 hall effect sticks and triggers, 1000Hz polling, tri mode connectivity, |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong 2 NS08 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->Electromagnetic Stick hall effect - hall linear triggers - Mechanical face buttons - wired and wireless - Built-in rechargeable lithium battery |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong 2 PRO NS09 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->hall efect - wired and wireless - Mechanical face buttons - Built-in rechargeable lithium battery |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong MAX 3 KK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->hall effect - wired and wireless - lithium battery - |- | <!--Description-->Gulikit KK3 Max USB-c Bluetooth Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 Hall Joysticks and Triggers, Maglev/Rotor/HD Vibration, 1000Hz Polling Rate, 4 Back Buttons, |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KK3 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 smaller version of KK3 MAX - hall effect analog and triggers, face buttons , maglev rumble, gyro, 4 back paddles - rigid case - 950mAh up to 8 hrs - |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Hyperkin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Hori EX2 Turbo UHX3-45 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Machenike G1 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 Wireless Gaming Controller with 1K Polling Rate Hall Effect Trigger Joystick For Nintendo Switch PC iOS Android |- | <!--Description-->Machenike G5 Pro Wireless Gaming Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 ABXY Switch Membrane, Bumpers Tactile switch and hall effect analog |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->microsoft sidewinder precision pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | [https://pineight.com/mw/index.php?title=USB_game_controllers Xbox 360 Wired Controller] | 0x045e | 0x028e | 0x | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|needs specific driver and has poor 2D control pad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Microsoft (R) [https://blog.tkjelectronics.dk/2012/12/xbox-360-receiver-added-to-the-usb-host-library/ Xbox 360] (TM) Wireless Receiver for Windows(R) Model 1086 and Controller | 0x045e | 0x0719, 0x or 0x0291 | 0x0100 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->{{No|separate standalone usb dongle detected and shows as 8 vendor interfaces but no class associated and so not working - may need new class from code from xpad or xboxdrv to work the controllor}} |- | <!--Description-->Xbox 360 Kinect [http://hackaday.com/2010/11/10/kinect-open-source-driver-demo-and-hacking/ Video] [http://git.marcansoft.com/?p=libfreenect.git;a=commit;h=7655fcf7239ba4907654089dba535a196685dbe5 GIT] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 proprietary 2.4GHz RF protocol, |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One Wired Controller | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One wireless controller newer model with the 3.5mm headphone jack 1537 1697 and microsoft adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02d1 or 0x02dd | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Elite Series 1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02e3 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 ok - |- | <!--Description-->Xbox later models 1708+ Xbox One and Series use 5GHz and use Bluetooth, | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02e0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One S | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02ea 0x02fd | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Elite Series 2 Core | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02ff | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 ok - no hall - 125Hz polling - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Minisform MGP01 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MOBAPAD N1HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 has liquid silicone face buttons, hall effect analog, D-Pad swap, two back paddles, USB-A dongle, HD Rumble - |- | <!--Description-->Mobapad Huben 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 |- | <!--Description-->Mobapad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON Gale 墨将 mòjiāng | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON Blitz PRO 2 TMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON now MOJHON AETHER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect joysticks, hall effect triggers, mechanical bumpers, 1000hz polling rate, mechanical D-pad, membrane face buttons, mechanical back paddles, rumble, deadzone issues - tri mode |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MSI FORCE GC20 GC30 V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 not hall effect |- | <!--Description-->MSI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mytrix Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NACON GC-100XF Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 average |- | <!--Description-->PXN P5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect joysticks & triggers, limited trigger stops, 1000hz polling rate on wired, 4 back paddles, 32 macro record, anti-deadzone mode, RAW mode, gyro, turbo, tri-mode connection - |- | <!--Description-->PXN P50L | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->PowerA | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD Stellar T5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD Junior E5 Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Razer Wolverine V3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RetroFlag | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Speedlink XEOX Pro Analog Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->enclosed lithium battery? - xbox layout - switchable on back of controller to directinput (dinput) or xinput - USB dongle switchable to pc and ps3 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SCUF Instinct Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 good |- | <!--Description-->SCUF Envision Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Steel Series Stratus Duo XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->usb adapter needed |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://inputlabs.io/Inputlabs InputLabs Alpakka Open Source and build yourself] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->DIY it with 3d printer, pcb and components - pi pico needed - 2 gyros for better accuracy - |- | <!--Description-->[https://inputlabs.io/kapybara Inputlabs kapybara] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->DIY one handed version wip |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Vilcorn Z03 BT Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - other Bluetooth modes (green, red, blue, purple, etc.) Select + M1 (or M2) - 400mAh - not great latency wired - 800mhz polling - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->zd ultimate legend | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->zd 0+ elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description-->zd 0+excellent | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} <pre> #ifndef AROSX_LIBRARY_H #define AROSX_LIBRARY_H #include <exec/types.h> #define AROSX_CONTROLLER_TYPE_UNKNOWN 0x00 #define AROSX_CONTROLLER_TYPE_GAMEPAD 0x01 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_UP 0x0001 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_DOWN 0x0002 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_LEFT 0x0004 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_RIGHT 0x0008 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_START 0x0010 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_BACK 0x0020 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_LEFT_THUMB 0x0040 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_RIGHT_THUMB 0x0080 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_LEFT_SHOULDER 0x0100 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_RIGHT_SHOULDER 0x0200 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_A 0x1000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_B 0x2000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_X 0x4000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_Y 0x8000 struct AROSX_GAMEPAD { ULONG Timestamp; UWORD Buttons; UBYTE LeftTrigger; UBYTE RightTrigger; WORD ThumbLX; WORD ThumbLY; WORD ThumbRX; WORD ThumbRY; }; #define AROSX_EHMB_CONNECT 0x00 #define AROSX_EHMB_DISCONNECT 0x01 #define AROSX_EHMF_CONNECT (1L<<AROSX_EHMB_CONNECT) #define AROSX_EHMF_DISCONNECT (1L<<AROSX_EHMB_DISCONNECT) struct AROSX_EventHook { struct Node eh_Node; struct MsgPort *eh_MsgPort; ULONG eh_MsgMask; }; struct AROSX_EventNote { struct Message en_Msg; ULONG en_Event; APTR en_Param1; APTR en_Param2; }; #endif /* AROSX_LIBRARY_H */ </pre> === Joystick === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->CH Products CombatStick 568 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Cyborg X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Extreme 3D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | [Logitech Attack 3 Joystick] | 0x0464 | 0xC214 | 0205 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->saitek X-52 x52 pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->saitek aviator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Speedlink Competition Pro USB | | | | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{maybe|works but games not working "out of the box"}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator QZ 501 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator TH 400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator GM-2500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust XK 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} ===[https://github.com/JacKeTUs/linux-steering-wheels Gaming Racing Steering Wheels]=== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="40%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/documents/pid1_01.pdf USB PID standard not supported], |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cammus C5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fanatec CSL Elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS4 and Xbox - belt driven wheel - 30cm wheel swapping |- | <!--Description-->Fanatec Club Sport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> top belt $600 £500 system |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->FFBeast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius TRIO RACER F1 Racing Wheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Cheap and cheerful but not great - may need calibrating |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hama PC Racing Wheel Thunder V18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Average |- | <!--Description-->Hori Racing Wheel 3 with pedals | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS3 PC |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Logic3 PXU450 TopDrive GT450 Steering Wheel for PS3, PS4, XBox One and PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech MOMO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Very good |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Driving Force GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Drive Force Pro DFP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> wheel 900 degree - weighs in at 15&nbsp;lbs |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Formula Force EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->200 degrees turn for the EX model is arcade-like driving - adds PS3 compatibility via the PSx/2 adaptor - weighs in at 9&nbsp;lbs |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G27 PC/PS3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> comes with gear shifter - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G29 PC PS3/PS4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> may need additional shifter - gear 900deg wheel / rumble - 3 peddle - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G920 PC XboxOne | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> may need additional shifter - gear 900deg wheel / rumble - 3 peddle - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G923 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft(R) SideWinder Precision Racing Wheel (1999) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R5 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R9 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R12 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/Ultrawipf/OpenFFBoard OpenFFBoard], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V12 Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simagic M10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> base direct drive $900 £800 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simplicity Simwheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> direct |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simxperience Accuforce V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SPEEDLINK Drift O.Z. Racing Wheel with Pedals and Gear Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SteelSeries Simraceway SRW-S1 Steering Wheel (PC) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Nascar Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Ferrari Challenge Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> Poor |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Ferrari FGT Rumble GT Experience 3-in-1 (PC/PS3) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID-->b658 | <!--Revision-->0102 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Wheel and all buttons detected}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Opinion-->Not great - gear driven 240deg wheel rotation - no psu needed - 2 peddle - flappy gear change - rumble untested - red switch for PC PS3 selection |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster F430 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T500 RS Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> belt driven wheel/rumble for GT5 |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T60 Challenge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T150 Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> gear / belt combo wheel / rumble - 2 peddle |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster TMX Pro PC/XboxOne | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> direct drive rumble - no manual gear shift included |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T80 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Base level and OK - PS4 - 270deg rumble - 2 peddle |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T300 RS GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS3 PS4 - belt driven - 900deg rotation and modular 28cm wheel out - 2 peddles but 3 available |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster TX Leather | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->TX Xbox version - 900deg rotation |- | <!--Description-->Thrustermaster TS PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PC only belt wheel |- | <!--Description--> TS XW Racer PC Xbox1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> top belt system |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T-GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS4 $700 £600 with T-DFB |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Tracer Zonda Racing Steering Wheel PC PS3 Vibration Feedback Pedals Gearbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ===Gamepad Joypad Adapters=== * Most adapters will work in most OS's without installing a driver. Special functions needing drivers will be noted. * Some adapters do not work with some [http://www.stepmania.com/wiki/Dance_Pads dance pads] because of voltage issues. Other adapters map the dancemat arrows as axes and not as buttons, causing problems. * If using an adapters should be compatible with '''original''' PlayStation PS/Xbox Xbox/GameCube GC /Dreamcast DC/Sega Saturn SS gamepads. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.maplin.co.uk/psx-usb-bridge-34887?tabid=3&worldid=&doy=21m9&faqitem=playstation%20controller%20to%20pc%20adaptor Maplin] [http://www.rockfire.com.tw/ Padix Co. Ltd. Rockfire] PX-205 PSX/USB Bridge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0583 | <!--Product ID-->0x2050 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes}} but buttons mapped different from others | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|poor}} | <!--Opinion-->Ok with dpads, but very poor support with analogue hack |- | Boom PS Joy Converter adaptor | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | discontinued (2004/5). Hold Up, Start, and Select for three seconds. Very good [http://www.stepmania.com stepmania] recommendation. |- | [http://www.hkems.com/m_main.htm EMS] [http://www.hkems.com/product/ps2/ps2-usb2.htm USB2] grey plastic box with 2 PSX ports, one on either side - UP and Select pressed for 3 seconds at the same time or the dance code (start+select+up) | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Tests/joystick shows the PS port works in digital mode on d-pad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | Set in PC switch mode. Does not work when using 2 pads at the same time, likely higher power requirements. FPSE emu DualShock untested, Mat and Guitar untested but known lag involved |- | Joytech (play.com) (EMS USB2 bad clone) Black box twin PSX | 0x0b43 | 0x0003 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|buggy hardware}} | but poor on dance ddr mat and guitar hero as the left and right keys do not like being pressed together, Dual shock untested |- | [ EMS Trio Linker ] 1 PSone connection at bottom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX discontinued 2005 |- | [http://psxemulator.proboards.com/index.cgi?board=support&action=display&thread=421 EMS Trio Linker Plus] (blue box) 1 PSx at bottom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX discontinued |- | Gamtec [http://www.gamestone.co.uk/gradius/guides_usb_smartjoy_guide.php SmartJoy Plus] Lik Sang PS->USB converter Red 2005 | 0x0925 | 0x0005 | Low 0110 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe|detected and digital dpad works with [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4138&forum=2&post_id=35952#forumpost35952 joystick and testjoystick tests] but the second analog control is not mapping correctly in digital mode}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|Analogue Hack - hardware buggy not useable}} | Dual shock untested, Mat and Guitar untested. Nothing picked up upon plugging it in. Quite common, these items have grounding issues or feed voltage back into the USB host and freeze the host controller, preventing any plugins or removals being detected. |- | Gamtec SmartJoy Plus Dual PS->USB converter Red | 0x0925 | 0x00 | Low | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|buggy hardware}} | |- | [http://uk.gear.ign.com/articles/700/700334p1.html Lik-Sang Super SmartJoy PSX] | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX |- | Soyo Kiki Kiky | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | eXcel PSX adaptor shaped a little like a stealth bomber with USB pass through | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | Venom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | Dragon Plus (Radio Shack) Pantherlord GreenAsia USB to PS2/PS3 converter single black cable | 0x0e8f | 0x03 | 1.07 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes| }} | |- | Deal Extreme 2 PSX black cables from 1 USB port | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->HDE 2014 Personal Communication Systems Inc | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0810 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0106 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Same as single cable above but with black block midway along cable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC001 Super Joy Box 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC016 Super Joy Box arrowhead triangle twin PSX] Original was lack with RED Leds. Clones Dilong pu203, Blue HDE Neewer ShineData SD-APS2USB, Red Octane and Black PC Power Box (NS3454) '''embossed circle''' on top | 0x0810 | 0x0001 | 1.06 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Tests/joystick shows one PS port does not work with analog control at all but the other port does and maps correctly in digital mode}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|Analogue hack works }} | Still available 2013, poor construction though, falls to pieces easily. Dual Shock untested, Mat and Guitar untested |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd [http://www.mayflash.com/pc/pc038/pc038-1.htm Mayflash PC038 Super Joy Box Pro triangle twin PSX] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Limited Mayflash SuperJoy Box 5 PC006 long V-shaped 4 port PS/PS2 Game Controller Adapter | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Limited Mayflash SuperJoy Box 5 PRO PC039 PS/PS2 Game Controller Adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | Boom PSX+N64 USB converter (purple or blue see through box) (2003/4) - red led for psx and green led for n64 | 0x6666 | 0x0667 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|not detected by Tests/joystick}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|Analogue hack }} | Rumble Pak untested |- | [http://www.hkems.com/product/ps2/TrioLinkerPlus2.htm EMS Trio Linker Plus II] | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4753&forum=24&post_id=43102#forumpost43102 ] | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1DC 1GC 1PSX but not for ddr mat games |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC043 clone HuiJia Black twin N64 converter for PC USB | 0x0e8f | 0x3013 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|detected by Tests/joystick though two digital pads have their settings wrong}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|Analogue hack works well with middle handle/grip little joystick}} | Rumble Pack untested |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC MagicBox SuperBox 3 | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | untested 1SS 1DC 1PSX } |- | <!--Description-->Lik Sang SmartJoy X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x0285 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SmartJoy X2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x0289 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC018 Super Joy Box 9 Xbox (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x060 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | does not work. Hub(s) 0x0288 detected but 0x0289 xbox1 joypads are not detected as hid let alone as [http://www.amiga.org/forums/archive/index.php/t-62940.html xpad] or [http://pingus.seul.org/~grumbel/xboxdrv/ linux xboxdrv driver] |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC019 Super Joy Box 10 Xbox Twin ports (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x060 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | does not work with the big Fatty Duke or smaller S Akebono controller(s) |- | TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC020 Super Joy Box 11 Xbox Quad ports (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x0604 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC035 3 in 1 Magic Joy box PS GC Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB to NES [http://wiki.nesdev.com/w/index.php/Standard_controller SPI like protocol] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Buffalo Classic USB Pad SNES like | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash PC044 USB to SNES | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB to MEGADRIVE GENESIS Joypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.retrousb.com/product_info.php?cPath=21&products_id=70 USB to 9 pin ATARI RETROPORT style JOYSTICK PORT] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Atari RetroLink 9pin to SB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SLS Sega Saturn USB pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash PC050 Dual Saturn ports | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Guitar Hero for PC/Mac | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1430 | <!--Product ID-->0x474C | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Cronus Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BrookX One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Gamecube to USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Magic NS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> WiiU |- | <!--Description-->Brook Converter WiiU P3 P4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CooV Xbox One Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} * [http://www.bemanistyle.com/forum/f6/best-metal-pad-19066/ Metal dance pads with LEDs] - My My Box Blue Shark (Nexen), Cobalt Flux (CF) (Let's Groove), Red Octane Afterburner, TX-2000, Logic3 (Dance Dance Dance), Gamerose (Stay Cool), * Hard foam mat - [http://www.mayflash.eu/3in1-deluxe-dansmat-ignition-foam-ps2xboxpc-p-5.html Mayflash] FutureMax Deluxe 3 in 1 Ignition, [http://www.gamerose.com/ Gamerose] (Stay Cool), TrinPad orange, * Soft foam mat - Logic3 (PS420N), [http://www.positivegaming.com/index.php?id=36 Positive Gaming Impact], Gamerose Miss Daisys Naki (Stay Cool), Pelican, MadCatz *PS1 PS2 PS3 PS4 flex ribbon big source of button/trigger issues with all controllers *PS2 Phat KSA1Q40A (Board), SA1Q33A (Membrane) SCHP-10010 H *PS2 SA1Q42A SCHP-10010 A *PS2 SA1Q43-A SCHP-10010 H The primary axes are either the Control Pad or the left stick. Buttons come in a rough order: face buttons, then shoulder buttons, then Select and Start, then buttons under sticks, and finally Control Pad directions if not assigned to a hat. But the order and number of buttons within a category are unpredictable, as is which button the user expects to use for each action. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" | Joypad ! width="5%" | HATS ! width="5%" | Button 01 ! width="5%" | Button 02 ! width="5%" | Button 03 ! width="5%" | Button 04 ! width="5%" | Button 05 ! width="5%" | Button 06 ! width="5%" | Button 07 ! width="5%" | Button 08 ! width="5%" | Button 09 ! width="5%" | Button 10 ! width="5%" | Button 11 ! width="5%" | Button 12 ! width="5%" | Button 13 ! width="5%" | Button 14 ! width="5%" | Axes 1 ! width="5%" | Axes 2 ! width="5%" | Axes 3 ! width="5%" | Axes 4 ! width="5%" | Axes 5 ! width="5%" | Axes 6 ! width="10%" | Comment |- | [https://pineight.com/mw/index.php?title=USB_game_controllers Xbox 360 Wired Controller] | | A (down-green) | B (right-red) | X (left-blue) | Y (up-yellow) | LB (white) | RB (black) | Back | Start | Guide | L3 | R3 | | | | Left X | Left Y | LT | Right X | Right Y | RT | Poor 2D, Good 3D |- | <!--Description-->Gravis GamePad / Original PlayStation Controller | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Red (Sqleft) | Yellow X (X down) | Green O (O right) | Blue (Tri up) | L1 | R1 | L2 | R2 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | | | | | <!--Axes 1-->Stick X | Stick Y | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> PlayStation 2 Older Adapters | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Blue X (down) | Red O (right) | Pink Sq (left) | Green Tri (up) | L1 | R1 | L2 | R2 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | Stick 1 | Stick 2 | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> PlayStation 2 Newer Adapters | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Up | Right | Down | Left | L2 | R2 | L1 | R1 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | Stick 1 (analogue Hack) | Stick 2 | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> Wish Technologies N64 Adaptoid | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> A | C Down | C Right | B | C Left | C Up | L | R | Start | <!--Button 10-->Z | Pad Up | Pad Down | Pad Left | Pad Right | <!--Axes 1-->Stick X | Stick Y | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> | | | | | | | | | <!--Button 10--> | | | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> | | | | | | | | | <!--Button 10--> | | | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- |} Just plug in your digital/analogue joystick or gamepad into USB port. The device will be handled by Poseidon USB stack. Poseidon is the USB stack with Trident adding a GUI (graphical user interface) prefs. the context sensitive page would come up right on pressing the help key inside the relevant window. The manual is in this archive, just in case it isn't in SYS:Locale/Help *How to change joystick mode to analogue? By default a connected USB joystick emulates Amiga digital joystick. To change this behaviour so that the joystick is presented as analogue you need to use Trident preferences application (System:Prefs/Trident). Open Trident and go to Devices on the left hand side (mouse click once on it). Select your controller from the list to the right and then click on Settings button below. This will open a new window. On the "General" tab find the "Lowlevel Library Joypad Emulation" section near the bottom. Find ports which are set to "Merge with USB" or "Override with USB" and change them to "Analogue Hack". Please note that analogue joystick support is an extension of original Amiga functionality, thus an Amiga application must be explicitly written to use it. AROS SDL library uses this functionality, thus all SDL applications that use joystick, can use the analogue joystick feature. The HID class has several options how to handle the input data: * Don't touch: The movement and button data for is not modified by the hid class. This is the default for the ports 0, 2, and 3. * Overwrite with USB: This will kill the original data that might had come from the internal ports and overwrites it with the joypad data for this USB interface. Note well: If you have multiple joypads connected, take care which setting you have selected for each port, because only the last interface with this option will actually send the joypad data to the game. * Merge with USB: This option merges the input data of the lowlevel.library with the USB stream. This only works, if the connected device on the original Amiga ports is NOT a mouse (because then the streams are incompatible). Merging should be the preferred method, because it leaves the original joysticks working. * Disable: Turns off the port for the application. * Analogue Hack: Tells Poseidon to force reporting of analogue data at the port. Please note that this only works with programs that understand the analogue data, because it's an extension to the original lowlevel.library standard made by Commodore. If you want to incorporate this feature in your software, just contact me and I will send you the necessary information. * Rumble Port: As addition to the analogue data, the HID class supports applications and games that want to utilize a rumble pack or force feedback motors in the gamepads. This field selects to which lowlevel port the hid device responds, when attempting to use the rumble pack. Normally, this corresponds to the port that has been set in the actions for the joypad. *How to change joystick port assignment? The low level library supports up to four ports. Port 0 is usually used by the mouse, port 1 is the standard port for joysticks/joypads. By default a connected USB joystick is present in Port 1. To change its location to Port 0 you need to use Trident preferences. Open Trident and go to Devices window. Select your controller from the list and then click on Settings button. This will open a new window. On the "General" tab find the "Lowlevel Library Joypad Emulation" section. Port 1 should be set as either "Merge with USB" or "Override with USB". Change this setting to "Don't touch". Change Port 0 setting to "Merge with USB". Go to "Actions" tab. In the "Reports and collection" select first entry named "Joystick". in the "Usage items" select "X axis". Go to "Performed actions" area. On the left there will be a list of triggers. Each of them should have (port1) in their params. Click on the first trigger and using buttons to the right of the list change port1 into port 0. Repeat this for all triggers and for all items on "Usage items" list. *How to make joystick simulate keyboard keys? With Poseidon it is possible to make the joystick simulate the keyboard pressings. This might enable using joystick for playing games which only have keyboard support. This feature is configured in Trident preferences. Open Trident and go to Devices window. Select your controller from the list and then click on Settings button. This will open a new window. Go to "Actions" tab. On the right top window select X axis. On the left bottom list select an entry "Digital Joystick, Push left(port 1)". On the panel to the right change "Digital joystick" into "Raw Key". A list of keys will be displayed. Select key you wish to send. Repeat the same procedure for "Digital Joystick, Release left (port 1)" option but this time check "Send key up even instead of key down". Open shell and move your joystick to the left - your selected letter should appear in the shell. *Analogue in Trident Prefs * Open the Trident USB Prefs -> Devices -> Select your joypad -> Settings button -> Action TAB * See some "axis" listed under "Usage items" in the top right of the window. They are your analog stick(s) * Check [x] Track Incoming Events which is half way down the window on the left And you should see some axis activity in "Usage items" when you move the analog stick *Actions HID class item -> Settings -> HID Class Window -> Action Tab -> Action handling area Reports and collections -> Usage Items -> Performed actions Qualifier keys are *special*. You don't only need to create the actual keypress but also modify the qualifiers. Go to the keyboard panel and find the windows menu key by enabling key tracking and pressing the windows menu key. Then assign the right amiga key to it. Go to the actions panel and find the right amiga key (it's called "Keyboard right GUI"). Remember the actions stored there, best write them down in exact order. Then delete them. Find the windows menu item and add the missing qualifier action. Be sure the parameters are exactly the same and the order is right. Set them to Raw, then assign an up and down button for each character, etc. when you change the settings to RAW so you can assign keyboard strokes. it will always say, KEYDOWN or what ever on the left, it never provides and option for key release. The problem still remains though that if I try to assign the Directional Pad (Hat) to Arrow Keys, that things will get screwed up and you either can not move with the directional PAD (HAT), or movements are assigned to the Left Analog, and do not work as they should, it's as if the right and down arrow keys are ALWAYS On, regardless of the fact that I did indeed assign a Key release command to each input. check that by pressing analog directions and see the current values, and the thresholds configured in poseidon to bind them to left/right/up/down. misconfigured too much stuff in the HID settings, you can always go in poseidon->config list entry and delete the config item related to your device (or the HID class setting itself), back to basics. *Rumble in Trident Prefs Open Trident Prefs and click on the Devices option in the left hand window. Click with the mouse once on your gamepad choice on the right hand side and again on the Settings button below. In the new window, select the '''General''' TAB and half way down on the right there is an "Open Now" button in the section "HID output control window". Clicking on that button opens another window (HID Control) with sliders for the two rumble engines inside the controllers and you can test if they work. '''Sometimes clicking that button does nothing, other times it will open the window and say nothing is detected.''' The leftmost two sliders do nothing, the third one has a large rumble effect, and the fourth one has a small rumble effect. ===Graphic Drawing Tablet=== There is a standard in HID for tablets possibly mouse type. If the tablet is HID conforming in that sense, it should work. Aiptek does a fairly good job at this. The other competitor, Wacom, didn't pay too much attention to this and simply adapted their legacy serial protocol into HID in a very awkward way. Older Wacom tablets have worked with the special support in the HID class, but not the more recent ones. to use graphic tablets fully, applications need to be written that make use of the AmigaOS NewTablet events (which AROS has) * Entry level - A6 (6x4) work area * Medium A5 (6x8) A4 (10x7) size (recommended but only a few ie years 2000 to 2003 models supported) * Semi Pro A3 (12x9) * Pro Cintiq * 2005/6 Some support added for Wacom tablets * 2008 Wacom's patent on battery free pens expires {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Micrograf Tabby (late 1980s and early 1990s) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->podscat pt 3030 graphics tablet | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Summagraphics | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom IV compatible (Graphire, ArtPad, A3, A4, A5 and PenPartner CT-0405-P - Wacom intuos GD-0405-R) Waycom Digitiser II UD-0608-R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Artpad II (KT-0405-R) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AceCad boards | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AipTek HyperPen 6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Calcomp | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AipTek HyperPen 8000 - Aldi/Medion MD 9310 and Aldi/Tevion LT 9310 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Tablet PC penabled | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based like x61t X60t NC4200 NC4400 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom PenPartner * PenPartner 2 * PenStation 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056a | <!--Product ID-->0x0000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Graphire - Wacom Tablet ET-0405-U UV1.1-1 (Slate Blue) ET-0405UL (lime) (orange) (red) (purple) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0X0010 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|late 90s with A6 size - [Wacom Support] of X-axis 00000-10205 Y-AXIS 0000-7421 Tip Pressure 000-511 under Trident prefs. Air pen mouse type movements }} |- | <!--Description--> * Grapphire 2 4x5 ET-0405A-U UV2.0-3 (Steel Blue) * Graphire 2 5x7 ET-0507A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0011 and 0x0012 | <!--Revision-->0110 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 and A5 versions - [Wacom Support] of X-axis 00000-10205 Y-AXIS 0000-7421 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air pen mouse type movements - mouse EC-120-0K tested}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Graphire 3 * cte-430/w 4x5 pearl sapphire * cte 630 6x8 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0013 and 0x0014 | <!--Revision-->0314 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 and A5 size - [Wacom Support] Xaxis 0-10207 yaxis 0-7423 tip pressure 0-511 and the erase end appears to respond but avoid bluetooth BT versions }} |- | Wacom Graphire 4 * cte-440/B Blue cte 440/s Silver 4x5 * cte-640 6x8 cte 640 u 0403 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0015 and 0x0016 | <!--Revision-->403 | {{Yes|A6 and A5 work area detected [Wacom Support] x-axis 0000-10207 Y axis 0000-7423 Tip Pressure 000-511 and delete rub out end of the pencil seems detected but avoid bluetooth BT versions }} |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom Intuos 4x5 GD-0405 * Intuos 6x8 GD-0608 * Intuos 9x12 GD-0912 * Intuos 12x12 GD-1212-U * Intuos 12x18 GD-1218 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0020 0x0021 0x0022 0x0023 0x0024 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected and responses delivered back - x axis up to 30479 and y axis 31679, tip pressure up to 1023 and x and y tilt up to 127 - Wacom intuos GD-0912-A for Apple Macs NOT SUPPORTED}} |- | <!--Description--> * Intuos 2 4x5 A6 - XD-0405-U * Intuos 2 6x8 A5 - xd 0608u uoc * Intuos 2 9x12 XD-0912-U * Intuos 2 12x12 XD-1212-U * Intuos 2 12x18 XD-1218-U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056a | <!--Product ID-->0x0041 0x0042 0x0043 0x0044 0x0045 | <!--Revision-->0126 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|various sizes and recognised as [Wacom Support] but not working. x-axis 00000-20319 y-axis 00000-16239 tip presure 0000-1023 x-tilt y-tilt 000-127. HID mouse xc-100-03 works but never could use it as a real tablet with pressure with TVPaint 3.6 }} |- | <!--Description--> * Intuos 3 4x5 (PTZ-430) * Intuos 3 4x6 (PTZ-431W ) * Intuos 3 6x8 (PTZ-630 PTZ630) * Intuos 3 6x11 (PTZ-631W A3 wide) * Intuos 3 9x12 (A4 PTZ-930 PTZ930) * Intuos 3 | <!--Vendor ID-->056a | <!--Product ID-->0x00b0 0x00b1 0x00b2 0x00b3 0x00b4 0x00b5 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No}} Actions in HID setup window definitively locks the Pointer (mouse) reports settings and even after a clear and save, nothing changes, the configuration returns to default values. "[Wacom]" reports don't see any events from the tablet, even with "Pointer" reports cleared and save, so is locked a in "mouse" state - but can send a special command to the tablet in order to put it into a special vendor mode. This mode enables Wacom specificities like pressure, tilt, absolute position, buttons, etc... you should send an HID report feature with ReportID=2 and data=2, the current HID class driver doesn't give a way to change that, even using the "initial startup actions" item in the extra collection. No listed features work |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Wacom Volito - Promethean FT-0405-U06 UV1.4-1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0060 | <!--Revision-->0141 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 work area with [Wacom Support] of x-axis 0000-5103 Y axis 0000-3711 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air and touch mouse movement - appears to be the budget option with some but limited features}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Volito 2 * CTF-??? 2x3 * CTF-420G CTF-420 V2.0-0 4x5 * Serif Penabled 6742 rebadge of CTF 420/020-B CTF-420/02 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0062 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 work area with [Wacom Support] of x-axis 0000-5103 Y axis 0000-3711 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air and touch mouse movement - no erase function on the end of the pen - nylon nibs value option}} |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom PL-400 LCD * PL-500 * PL-510 * PL-550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0030 0x0031 0x0032 0x0034 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> * PL-600 * PL-600 SX * PL-700 * PL-710 * PL-800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0033 0x0035 0x0036 0x0037 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Cintiq 21 UX and Cintiq Partner DTF-720 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Wacom PenTablet Bamboo (MTE), Bamboo Craft (CTH), Bamboo Fun (CTE), Bamboo Pen (CTL) and Bamboo Pen & Touch (CTH) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Wacom Bamboo Fun Medium CTE-650 | | 0x0018 | | {{Maybe|[http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 works on a1k forum]}} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Fun Small CTE-450 white | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0017 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo One CTF-430 V2.0-0 CTF 430/S | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0069 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A5 wired air pen and acts like a mouse only}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos 4 * Small PTK-440 PTK-540 * Medium - PTK-640 - PTK 540WL Wireless - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Intuos4 surface sheet was revised in October 2010 to reduce nib wear}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos 5 Touch * * Medium - PTH-650 - USB Wired and Wireless Kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0027 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested work, however wireless may glitch or drag }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pro Medium - PTH-651 - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Small Pen Tablet - MTE 450 MTE-450A (MTE-450/k) - | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0065 | <!--Revision-->0116 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A6 work area - mouse movement but no pen detection except x-axis 2 to -2 and y-axis 2 to -2 - mini usb lead - 4 blue led lit buttons not detected as well as circular touch button?? }} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Pen CTL 460 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested all Bamboo versions were criticized for the drawing surface's roughness (which got smoother over time), which caused the small pressure-sensitive 'nib' to wear down, and become slanted or scratchy in the same way as pencil lead, albeit more slowly}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo Fun CTH-461/S wired | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x00D2 | <!--Revision-->0106 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A6 size - Pen tracking not working but finger touch works }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo Connect Pen Tablet CTL-470 CTL-470K 470-DE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->CTH 470K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom CTH 480/S wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} lithium battery for pad - |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pen Small CTL-480/S CTL 480 K wired | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x030E | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|A5 detected as Intuos PS but not working although the RHS blue led responds to pen on tablet }} |- | <!--Description-->CTH 490 PK S Photo - CTH-490CK-S Comic - CTH-490AK-S Art | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested lower hovering height pen nibs wear fast and input lag/responsiveness}} |- | <!--Description-->Intuos Pen & Touch Medium - CTH-680 - USB Wired and Wireless Kit work | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pro (PTH-660 and PTH-860) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 10.6" Genius G-Pen M609 Genius G-Pen M609X iVista Media Tablet 10.6 Aiptek MediaTablet 10000u | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0501 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Slim Tablet 12.1" | <!--Vendor ID-->0x172F | <!--Product ID-->0x0034 | <!--Revision-->0x1105 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 12 by 9" Aiptek HyperPen 12000u T-12000U Tablet Series Nisis T-12000u USB Tablet Series Version 1.05 (aiptek rebadged) Trust item #1535 ADESSO Cyber Tablet 12000 Graphic design tablet iVista Media Tablet 12 PENTAGRAM O'pen Wide P 2003 Genius G-Pen M712 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0500, 0x08ca | <!--Product ID-->0x0010 | <!--Revision-->0105 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected with Nisis/Aiptek functioning as a tablet, untested with others - Puck (mouse) x axis 0000 to 6000 y axis 0000 to 6000 - stylus (pen) x axis 00000 to 12000 y axis 00000 to 12000 tip pressure 0000 to 1023 - 16 function keys - AAA battery needed for pen and another for the mouse}} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 14.1" v5.1e Genius G-Pen M714X Aiptek MediaTablet 14000u WMK-H141 Trust item #15358 Adesso CyberTablet 14000 M14 iVista Media Tablet 14.1 PENTAGRAM O'pen Wide P 2004 | <!--Vendor ID-->0X172f | <!--Product ID-->0X0500 | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected with Nisis/Aiptek functioning as a tablet - Stylus (Pen) X 16838 Y 16838 Tip Pressure 1023 }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop PID 0038 Genius G-Pen F509 Manhattan 177405 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0038 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop PID 0052 Yiynova MSP19 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0052 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Q Pad Aiptek HyperPen Mini NGS Flexi Style VisTablet PenPad iVistaTablet Q Flex Pad Bravod Q-PD65-S Trust Flex Design Tablet (#16937) | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0037 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Sirius Battery Free Tablet VisTablet Muse PENTAGRAM Designer P 2700 Princeton PTB-S1BK | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0502 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Slim Tablet 12.1" Genius G-Pen F610 Trust Slimline Widescreen Tablet (#16529) VisTablet Original 12" Adesso CyberTablet Z12 Adesso CT-Z12A PenPower Tooya Pro Aiptek Slim 12.1 Inch Aiptek SlimTablet 600u Premium II NGS Slim Proguess iVistaTablet Slim 12.1 PENTAGRAM ThinType P 2006 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0034 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Slim Tablet 5.8" Genius G-Pen F350 Trust item #16485 VisTablet Mini iVistaTablet Slim 5.8 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0032 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Venus S Tablet Trust eBrush Widescreen Tablet (#17939) | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0503 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Aiptek GmBH MediaTablet Ultimate II - 16:10 Professional Graphic Tablet Model 1400U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Hanvon Beijing HanWang HW Micro Drawing Tablet ET0504U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b57 | <!--Product ID-->0x8030 | <!--Revision-->01111 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|does not work - recognised as an HID mouse - no tablet extensions detected}} |- | <!--Description-->KYE EasyPen 340, Genius EasyPen 340 | <!--Vendor ID-->0458:5014 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | Aiptek Hyper Pen 6000u PC Tablet APT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|detected but does not work - win98 era cordless 6in by 4.5in - }} |- | <!--Description-->nisis T-8000U APT-2 Aiptek rebadge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08CA | <!--Product ID-->0x0021 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|A5 detected but no responses }} |- | <!--Description-->Acecad Flair II GT-504 Init Fkt Fkt 0x5ab450c0 AIPTEK HyperPen 10000 U Aiptek HyperPen 10000U, AIPTEK Slim Tablet U600 Premium II | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0460 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Ace Cad Enterprise Co., Ltd Tablet - 5x3.75 drawing area | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0460 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bosto's | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} UCLogic Digitizer |- | <!--Description-->Adesso CyberTablet Z7, Adesso CyberTablet 12000, Adesso CT-12000A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->UC-Logic / Lapazz WP8060, UC-Logic / Lapazz PF1209, UC-Logic / Lapazz Artistic Tablet 5540, Manhattan 8"x6", Manhattan 3"x4", Manhattan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested but suspect not working}} |- | <!--Description-->DigiPro 5.5×4” Graphics Tablet Digital Ink Pad (A4 format) DigiPro WP8060, DigiPro WP5540, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius G-pen G-Pen 4500 Genius Wizardpen Genius Mousepen Genius Easypen i405 M610 Genius PenSketch 9x12, Genius MousePen i608, Genius MousePen 8x6, Genius MousePen / WizardPen 5x4, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius G-Pen F610 Genius G-Pen M610 Genius G-Pen 340 (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP4030U) Genius G-Pen 450 (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP5540U) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius UC-LOGIC iBall Tablet PF8060 iBall Iball Pen Tablet 8060U, Iball Pen Tablet 5540U, Iball Pen Tablet 4030U, Iball Design Tablet PF1209, NGS CADBOY (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP5540U) Pentagram QWare | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Trust TB-3100 Trust TB-5300 Trust 15356 Trust TB-6300 Trust 15357 WP8060U Slimline but bulky with metal backing A5 size Trust 16486, Trust 16447, Sketch Design Tablet, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|clashes with usb and crashes AROS }} |- | <!--Description-->UC-Logic Tablet WP1062 Aiptek HyperPen 10000U Monoprice 10X6.25 Inches Graphic Drawing Tablet Pickle 10x6.25 Inch Graphic Drawing tabletguess | <!--Vendor ID-->5543:0064 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | [ VTech KidiPhoto Art Studio] | | | | {{yes|works}} |- |} Tablet has a squared lines of wires which induce a current into the pen which is then detected by the metal grid in the tablet pad. Tablets report pressure (and tilt on expensive models) and are absolute pointing devices (put the pen at the top left and the mouse pointer will go to the top left of the screen). Graphic drawing area, what keys, report rate, resolution lpi lpmm, accuracy, pressure levels (may come from the app), origin position, Wacom tablets use electromagnetic resonance technology. Since the tablet provides power to the pen through resonant inductive coupling, no power is required for the pointing device. As a result, no batteries are inside the pen (or the accompanying puck), making them lighter and slimmer. Under the tablet's surface (or LCD in the case of the Cintiq) is a printed circuit board with a grid of multiple send/receive coils and a magnetic reflector attached behind the grid. In send mode, the tablet generates a close-coupled electromagnetic field (also known as a B-field) at a frequency of 531&nbsp;kHz. This close-coupled field stimulates oscillation in the pen's coil/capacitor (LC) circuit when brought into range of the B-field. Any excess resonant electromagnetic energy is reflected back to the tablet. In receive mode, the energy of the resonant circuit’s oscillations in the pen is detected by the tablet's grid. This information is analyzed by the computer to determine the pen's position, by interpolation and Fourier analysis of the signal intensity. In addition, the pen communicates information such as pen tip pressure, side-switch status, tip vs. eraser orientation and ID number (to differentiate between different pens, mice, etc.). For example, applying more or less pressure to the tip of the pen changes the value of the pen's timing circuit capacitor. This signal change can be communicated in an analog or digital method. An analog implementation modulates the phase angle of the resonant frequency, while a digital method is communicated to a modulator that distributes the information digitally. The tablet forwards this and other relevant tool information in packets, up to 200 times per second, to the computer. If you disable (delete all of them except for one that needs to be set to "no action", so that it will not be regenerated as default) the Extra Startup actions, the tablet should remain in relative mouse mode—you will not get pressure information in that mode though. [http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/highway_usb/message/2394]}} === Handheld Barcode Scanner Readers === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Farsun 9100 barcode scanner 0-12" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola Symbol LS2203 CMOS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Tysso | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Simple}} Code 11, Code 39, Code 93, Code 128, Coda Bar, UPC-A, UPC-E, EAN-8, EAN-13, MSI/Plessey, Telepen, Interleaved 2 of 5, Industrial 2 of 5, Matrix 2 of 5 |- | <!--Description-->Unitech MS320 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wasp WCS3905 CCD 1" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Code 93, Matrix 2 of 5, Industrial 2 of 5, Code 39, UCC/EAN-128, ISBN, Code 32, EAN/JAN-8 , EAN/JAN-13 , UPC-A, UPC-E, Codabar, Code 128, Code 11, Interleaved 2 of 5, MSI-Plessey, China Post, IATA 2 of 5, ISSN, UK-Plessey |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Datalogic Touch 90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Intermec | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell Metrologic MK9540-32A38 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola LS2208 Laser | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wasp WWS800 Laser 1D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Datalogic GD4130-BK-C066 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell 1202G-1USB-5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola / Symbol DS6707-DC20007ZZR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->DataMan 8000 2D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell Voyager 9520/40 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Metrologic MS1690 USB 2D Barcode Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} QR Code GS1 Databar PDF417 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Syscan GM800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} [http://www.scandit.com/2011/11/04/types-of-barcodes-choosing-the-right-barcode-type-ean-upc-code128-itf-14-or-code39/ Types of Barcode] <pre> UPC-A Grocery most common Code 128 EAN-13 Library Books ISBN & ISSN, Code 39 Codabar blood bank, 2D barcodes such as Data Matrix PDF417e Maxicode Aztec QR Code old Nokia handsets, MicroPDF417 </pre> ===TouchScreens=== Projected capacitive (PCAP) touch screen product, amongst many options the widely used are I2C and USB *USB host–device structure which dominates consumer and industrial electronics devices where higher bandwidth needed and user-friendly (multiswipes) *I2C Inter-Integrated Circuit simple serial standard for LCD display in embedded systems because of cost and low power *SPI arduino and rpi single boards We cover the USB here {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | eGalax Touch 4a | 0eef | 0001 | 0001 | {{yes|2009 works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lilliput HDMI Monitors 669GL-70NP/C/T (7 inch) 869GL-80NP/C/T (8 inch) FA1011-NP/C/T (10 inch) FA1046-NP/C/T (10 inch) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Iilyama Prolite Monitors PROLITE T1513SR-1 (15 inch) PROLITE T1730 (17 inch) PROLITE T1713SR-1 (17 inch) PROLITE T1913SR-1 (19 inch) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Smart Display Company (SDC) Touchscreens TFT Monitors TOUCH-TFT-TS07 (7 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS08 (8 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS10 (10 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS12 (12 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS15 (15 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS17 (17 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS19W (19 inch wide) TOUCH-TFT-TS22W (22 inch wide) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->XENARC Monitors 7 inch models 700TSH 700TSU 700TSV 702TSV 705TSV 706TSA 700IDT MDT-X7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->XENARC 8 inch models: 800TSV 805TSV 10 inch models: 1020TSV 1026TSA 1040TS 12 inch models: 1200TS 1200TR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Asus VT229H 21.5" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->CUQI 7" Monitor Touchscreen 1024x600 IPS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Espresso 15" Portable Touchscreen Display Monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hannspree HT225HPB 21.5 inch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->WaveShare 13.3inch HDMI LCD (H) (with case) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ===GPS tracking, running, cycling, biking, walking, hiking, ORIENTEERING, boaters and mapping=== Support for OpenStreetMap but not for Ordnance Survey, Map Pilot or National Geographic's Topo maps data gdb, Data output supported nmea 0183 V1.5 APA, V1.5 XTE and V2.1 GSA formats, gpx, kml/kmz, tracks from tcx files, geo: URIs, NMEA0183(which is RS232, voltages range from -15 volts to 15 volts, 4800 baud), or need NMEA sentences connected to your computer other method that some units support is a special serial cable that actually emits raw RS232 NMEA. These usually take 10->30 volts input, can run the unit, and have full voltage I/O for RS232 (not like spanner mode, which effectively turns the unit into a USB->Serial adapter inside the case). Equivalent apps - merkator, mapsource, {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Garmin gpsmap 180 GPS/chart plotter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->1992 GARMIN GPS 55 AVD Portable System | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - waas pinpoint within 3 metres - nmea - 4AA battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS 12 12XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Legend C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eMap | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|possibly through usbmodem rs232 connection nmea 0183 protocol}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} rs232 these older units supported it and would provide the stream in either the standard NMEA 0183 format or a proprietary Garmin format. |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS 75 AVD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS Map 7000 model 45006 (1994) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS Tracker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Pioneer Satellite Navigator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS 300 315 320 Mentor Receiver (2003) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Not for dedicated sat nav units like the Nuvi, TomTom, etc | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->NaviLock NL-402U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested u-blox 5 SuperSense® chipset with receivers for GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou and QZSS}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->GM1-86UB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| U-BLOX UB-6010 GGA,GSA,GSV, RMC and support VTG, GLL, TXT ublox binary and NMEA Command Dynamic Condition }} |- | <!--Description-->NAVILOCK GPS NL-602U USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|works via usbmodem.device - ublox ag 6 chipset - 50 channel}} |- | <!--Description-->TOPGNSS ton Receiver & Antenna GM702 u-blox 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|UBLOX7020 chip design bloc u-blox}} |- | <!--Description-->VK-162 G-MOUSE u blox 7 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1546 | <!--Product ID-->0x01a7 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|UBX G70xx with RMC VTG GSV TXT GLL GGA GSA}} |- | <!--Description-->VK-172 u-blox 7 G7020-KT gps gnss white pen stick receiver - over 1 inch long | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1546 | <!--Product ID-->0x01a7 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A| detected as cdc controlled plug in device - 18x18x2mm patch antenna but can be slow to update - nmea 0183 and ublox binary protocol}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GlobalSat BU-353 WaterProof USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested SiRF Star III}} |- | <!--Description-->Haicom HI-206 USB GPS receiver with RS-232 interfaces, RJ11 and PS/II connector EB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|usb-serial prolific pl2303 detected but GSP3F SiRF Star IV technology not detected or bound}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->BT760Y, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 5 GPS chipset}} |- | <!--Description-->GM-65 USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 6 GPS chipset - 65 channel}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 7 GPS chipset}} |- | <!--Description-->GM-65 USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 8 GPS chipset - 167 channels}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Colorado 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} USB |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Geko 101 201 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} limited waas enabled only - waypoints - aaa battery |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Edge 200 bike mount | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin ForeRunner 10 15 watch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Montana 600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Dakota 10 20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Map76s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Oregon 450T | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} USB nmea 0183 |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex 10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - no nmea0183 sentences data stream output - configuration an option to set it to "Garmin" mode, or "Mass Storage" mode. Since the mass storage mode seems to be required for waypoint/track/etc data exchange, the 'Garmin' mode would be for this data stream. Yet putting it in that mode doesnt seem to produce anything.}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Oregon 650T | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPSMAP 64S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GPSMap 78S or GPSMap 76CSX which has a NMEA port for talking to Nav equipment | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex Vista Cx GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - 2AA battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPSmap 276c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan 2000 XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan 3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Triton 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} SiRFstarIII™, Antenna Type Multidirectional Patch with WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS support |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Triton 400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} ==massstorage.class (MSC/UMS - most cameras and mp3 players)== === USB Card Readers === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="15%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Installing ! width="15%" |Booting ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | A-Tec Model CR-362 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | [http://www.belkin.com/IWCatProductPage.process?Merchant_Id=&Section_Id=200406&pcount=&Product_Id=179164 Belkin 15 in 1 Card Reader] | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Conrad CP440 60 in 1 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works on a1k forum}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Genesys Gtech Logic 19 in 1 | 0x05E3 | 0x0710 | High 0200 | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Hama 19 in 1 Card Reader | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | Hama 35 in 1 Card Reader | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Integral Single Slot SD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kingston USB 3.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Lexar microsd adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} but wider than Sandisk version - could block other slot if below |- | Pretec CardDriver | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sandisk MicroMate | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate SD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate Micro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} has satisfying 'click' when microsd inserted |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate Duo MicroSD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} no 'click' insertion uses pressure so future wear and tear issues |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Serena metal cased microsd only | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|Maybe}} hit or miss on quality |- | <!--Description-->Serena "Sandisk MobileMate" look-alike | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|Maybe}} hit or miss on quality |- | SilverCrest 16in1 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend P5 8 in 1 TSRDP5K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend P8 15 in 1 TSRDP8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Zyxel integralmemory 8 in 1 | 0x0aec | 0x3260 | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{no|not detected}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === USB Hard Drives === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Datel MaxDrive | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Inateck 2.5 Inch USB 3.0 Hard Drive Disk Enclosure/ Case (FE2001) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Full USB 3.0 port but plastic teeth keeping drive in place can snap |- | <!--Description-->Inateck case (FE2002) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} full USB 3.0 port - updated design |- | <!--Description-->Inateck case (FE3001) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} wider USB 3.0 port and no on/off switch Jmicron JMS578 chipset |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Iomega Desktop Hard Drive 500GB, 3,5“, USB2.0 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung T3 SSD | | | | {{N/A|untested}} USB 3.1 Gen 1 space grey / black metal/ plastic |- | Samsung T5 SSD | | | | {{N/A|untested}} USB 3.1 Gen 2 256GB 512GB alluring blue 1Tb 2Tb black unibody metal |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Seagate | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Seagate | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Toshiba Canvio 1TB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|partition fat32 or sfs to 100GB max - ntfs partitions not detected out of the box - select usb drive in trident prefs and press disable to shutdown}} |- | Verbatim 160GB Smartdisk | | | | {{yes|works }} |- | Western Digital USB | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->WD Essential | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->WD Passport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === USB DVD CD ROM Drives === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->12.5mm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->12.5mm enclosure mini-sata dvd-rw | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested needs sole usb3 port to power it}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->9.5mm enclosure ECD829 mini-sata dvd-rw with Initio Corporation INIC-1618L SATA | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13fd | <!--Product ID-->0x0840 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested but probably needs sole usb3 port to power it}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |} === USB to NGFF NVMe SDD HDD DVD CD ROM Drives === The older Jmicron JMS539B seems to result in massive filesystem corruption given the amount of corrupted content. Prehaps always avoided Jmicron and opted for Asmedia even if it costed a bit more. Realtek seems to be working okay for me generally speaking and newer Jmicron chipsets are less buggy – but evidently not perfect. From [https://goughlui.com/2025/08/17/psa-validate-your-storage-jmicron-jms583-kioxia-bg4-series-ssd-issue/ thread] Here is a [https://forums.anandtech.com/threads/stable-nvme-usb-adapter.2572973/ very long thread] that discusses data corruption and stability issues with these bridges. The majority of the posts are complaining of dropouts, hangs and the like, which usually down to either a poor USB 3.x implementation (SuperSpeed connections are very picky as to cables, ports and trace routing) or problematic compatibility. Regardless, the [https://www.legitreviews.com/jmicron-jms583-controller-version-matters-for-portable-usb-drives_219422 JMS583 is known to have several versions] noting that the last revision (C) in that article is a 2021 release which should fix earlier stability and cable quality compatibility issues. JMS583-STD-Release-v00.02.01.04-Bus Power.bin is the latest JMS583 firmware as of August 2025. Early firmware RTL9210 seems to have issues as well * RTL9210B * JMS583 rev1 with firmware A2 or A3 * RTL9210A * JMS583 firmware 2.0.9 * Asmedia ASM2362 * RTL9201A The reference Hardware ID for the JMS583 chipset from JMicron is: VID_152D&PID_0583&REV_0209 where "VID_152D" identifies a JMicron product; "PID_0583" is the generation chipset; "REV_0209" is the firmware version installed. In the same way, the reference Hardware ID for the RTL9210 from Realtek is: VID_0BDA&PID_9210&REV_3100 "VID_0BDA" is for a Realtek product, "PID_9210" is referred to the chipset and "REV_3100" to the firmware. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->ASM1153E / ASM1153 with firmware 140509_A1_82_40 or 141126_A1_EE_82. Both supports UASP and TRIM on USB 3.1 Gen.1 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with sabrent ec-uasp}} |- | <!--Description-->ASM235CM Ugreen aluminum bridging the USB3.2 Gen2x1 to Serial ATA host interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->TI 9261 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->ASM225 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->JMicron JMS578 issues USB 3.1 Gen.1 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0578 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|needs fixing on pi4 storage quirks}} |- | <!--Description-->JMicron JMS576 issues USB 3 to usb-c adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0576 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|orico}} |- | <!--Description-->JMS562 JMicron Technology Corp | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0562 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->JMS561U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x152d | <!--Product ID-->0x1561 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with sabrent ec-uasp}} |- | <!--Description-->VL716Q4 Orico black meshed aluminum usb c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1053E | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->ASmedia ASM1051E | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1053 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174C | <!--Product ID-->0x1536 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM104x | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID-->0x1042 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Unknown Chinese version | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0bc2 | <!--Product ID-->0x2312 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works}} |- | <!--Description-->JMicron N5321 gr | <!--Vendor ID-->0x152d | <!--Product ID-->0xa583 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Initio Corp INIC-1618L mini slimline sata 6 + 7 pins to usb2 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13FD | <!--Product ID-->0x0840 | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works mini sata to usb2 detects 201x laptop DVD as MassStorage(CD/DVD) but may need powered USB hub}} |- | <!--Description-->Unknown mini sata to usb3 adaptor | <!--Vendor ID-->0x01F75 | <!--Product ID-->0x0621 | <!--Revision-->0036 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works mini sata to usb3 detects 201x notebook DVD drive as MassStorage(SCSI) but 5V 1.5Amp needs powered hub to burn }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |} === External Floppy === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://techtravels.org/amiga/amigablog/ Amiga Floppy Project] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://aminet.net/package/driver/media/Catweasel_AROS_V1.2 Catweasel Mk4] | <!--Vendor ID-->0xE159 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0x00 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|2005 [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=driver/storage works]}} |- | <!--Description-->Catweazle MK4plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2010 driver for Teac are best, Sony are good, but Mitsumi don't like the Catweasel}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://hxc2001.free.fr/floppy_drive_emulator/ HxC Floppy Emulator] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.softpres.org/glossary:kryoflux KyroFlux] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung SFD-321U/EP USB Floppy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.cbmstuff.com/proddetail.php?prod=SCP SuperCard Pro] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.facebook.com/groups/greaseweazle Greaseweazle STM hardware], [https://cowlark.com/fluxengine/index.html Greaseweasel support], [https://github.com/keirf/greaseweazle python software], [https://amigakit.amiga.store/greaseweazle-p-91279.html buy], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB FLOPPY DISK DRIVE (USB External Floppy Disk) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/SukkoPera/OpenFlops OpenFlops] with [https://github.com/keirf/flashfloppy FlashFloppy] Gotech clone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/hmerrett/HenryFlops HenryFlops reworked OpenFlops] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/tebl/Amiga-DrawBridge DrawBridge aka Arduino Amiga Floppy Disk Reader/Writer] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| arduino based hardware }} |- | <!--Description-->FL-2501 USB Portable Diskette Drive | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2009 usb - [https://amiga.robsmithdev.co.uk/ Drawbridge] [https://github.com/RobSmithDev/ArduinoFloppyDiskReader software] ribbon cable compat with p/n 19308801-19 and s/n U356244 - model ASM P/N 27l4226 and FRU P/N 05k9283 - |- | <!--Description-->Dell Floppy Drive Module USB External 3.5" - Teac FD-05PUB 1.44mb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2004 usb 1.1 |- |} ==ptp.class (PTP and MTP - other cameras and mp3 players)== === Cameras === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 20D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 350D (also known as the Digital Rebel XT/Kiss Digital N) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 DIGIC II processor 8-megapixel }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot A430 A560 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 400D (XTi) digital SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1000D also known as Rebel XS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10.2mp 720p }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 450D aka Rebel Xsi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 12.2mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot S90 S95 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 2010 720p video - 10Mpixel }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot SD960 IS Digtal ELPH | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 Still Image: Exif 2.2 (JPEG), Movie: MOV (Image: H.264; Audio: Linear PCM) Lithium-ion Battery Pack NB-4L }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 500D aka Rebel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 1080p 15.1MP Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 550D 600D aka Rebel T2i T3i DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010-2011 1080p 18MP Lithium LP-E8 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot S100 S110 S120 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011-2013 720p-1080p video 12.1MP and above versions - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1100D DSLR Camera aka Rebel T3 SLR, EOS Kiss X50 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p 10Mpixels Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 650D 700D aka Rebel T4i T5i T6i SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2013 1080p 18Mpixels Lithium LP-E8 articulating flip out twistable screen }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon ELPH 300 HS (IXUS 220 HS) 230 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 blogging camera }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot N | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 12.1 MP CMOS, DIGIC 5 Wifi Lithium Battery Pack NB-9L }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot G7 X, G7X-II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014-2016 1080p video 12.1MP and above versions - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1300D DSLR Camera aka Rebel T6 SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 1080p 16Mpixels Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot G7x G5X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| G7X flip up and G5X flip out - same batteries - no external microphone input - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS M3 M5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| flip out - same batteries - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 60D 70D 80D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 6D 7D 8D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 5D Mark II III IV DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji FinePix A850 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->FujiFilm Finepix F100fd | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji FinePix F810 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xf1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| pocketable exr cmos 12mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xt1 x-t1 x10 x-t10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Fujifilm x100 x100s x100t | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xPro1 xPro2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xt2 / x-t2 x-t20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4K video }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GoPro HERO 3 HERO4 HERO 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D100, D60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 Compact flash storage - non interchangeable lenses up to 12.3MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D50, D50x | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 storage - 6.1MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D70, D80, D90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 Compact flash storage - 10MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D40, D40x | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 storage - 10MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D300, D700 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 storage - 12.3MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D2Xs, D2Hs, D3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006-2008 storage - sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 720p video unlike D3000 }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 16mpixel}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 16.2mp 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon L26 L27 L28 L29 L31 Coolpix compact cameras | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p video - 2 AA - pocket sized }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p video 14.2mp}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5100 DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 16.2mp 720p}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon L810 L820 L830 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2014 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 storage - sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7100 D7200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2014 up to 24.2mp 1080p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 1080p 24MPixel}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5200 D5300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 24.1MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D800 D600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 1080p video sd card storage - dust/oil issue at start}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3300 DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24.2MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D500, a high-performance DX-format (APS-C) DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 24.2MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5500 D5600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016-2018 24.1MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D810 D610 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 1080p video sd card storage }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4K UHD video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D900 D850 D820 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4k 46MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus C-370 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 3.2mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Camedia C-725 Ultrazoom | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 3mp aa batteries, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 8mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-410 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-510 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 10MP Live MOS sensor with TruePic III processor, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-420 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10mp, compactflash and xD cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-520 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10mp, compactflash and xD cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-620 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 12.3mp, compactflash, xD and microdrive cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-450 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 10mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax * ist DS DSLR camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 6.1mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K10D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 10.2mp APS-C CCD no video and older manual Pentax K-mount lenses}} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K20D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2008 14.6MP APS-C but no video recording mode }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K30 K-5 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2012 16MP full HD (1080p) recording at 24/25/30 fps}} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 24MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 III | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 25.7MP BSI CMOS sensor }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix LZ10 LZ20 DMC-LZ30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic TZ1 TZ5 TZ9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix GH1 GH2 like the DMC-GH2HEB-K - GH3 DMC-GH3HEB-K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Four Thirds (GH2) MFT Micro Four Thirds (GH3) limited to 29mins recording }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic AF series AF100 AF101 AF102 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix DMC-G2 DMC-G3 G5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic TZ60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic DMC LX7 10 LX15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GF7 GX8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic G80 G85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| micro 4/3 }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GH4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| micro 4/3 - shooting in MOV or MP4 formats recording limited to sd card size but split files because the FAT32 file system only supports files up 4GB in size, which amounts to around 5 minutes of 4K (100mbps) footage - GH4 appears to create 4GB files as a rule, regardless of whether the memory card’s file system supports larger files or not - }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GH5 gx80 gx85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Effective: 20.3 Megapixel 5184 x 3888 - 2 sd card slots compatible with high-speed, high capacity UHS-II - sd card v rating like the v90 should record at 60MB/s to be compatible with the GH5 in the All-I format - possible file corruption with .mdt files - new firmware 2.0 update, the Panasonic GH5 becomes the first 5K - }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic FZ2000 FZ2500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung WB100 WB1100 WB150 WB2200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 16MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung NX11 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung NX200, NX20, NX1000 and NX210 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 20.3Mp APS-C sized CMOS image sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sanyo Xacti CG65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sanyo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 6.1MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cyber-shot DSC camera models W110 W220 H300 H400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A230 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 10.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony A290 DSLR Camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 14.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cybershot HX20V HX30V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 18mp 720p - steady shot unit / optical block can cause buzzing noise and/or jumping image in lcd / viewfinder - dots are dirt and this voids the warranty }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cybershot HX50V HX60V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 20.2MP 1080p - steady shot unit / optical block can cause buzzing noise and/or jumping image in lcd / viewfinder - dots are dirt and this voids the warranty }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony A77 A99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony WX100 WX150 wx220 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 2014 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony NEX-6 Sony NEX-7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 16 to 24MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony NEX-3N Sony NEX-5N | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 16MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α58 Sony α68 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 20.1 MP 2014 24mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony rx100 mk III | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 20.1MP 1.0-type back-illuminated Exmor R CMOS sensor, often after boot-up, the motor starts running for no reason for first versions' - }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α5000 a5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 20.1 Megapixel APS-C Exmor APS HD CMOS 1080p Sony E-mount [https://github.com/ma1co/Sony-PMCA-RE hack] using [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8M4hR9HiOzM this] }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α6000 a6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24MP APS-C sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 A7S a7r a7c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 mirror less - more compact }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α77 II, α99 II, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 24.3 MP, 2016 42.4mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony rx100 mk IV V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 2016 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RX0 RX zero, RX0 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 2017 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α6500 a6500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 24.2MP APS-C sensor 4K }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 Alpha 7 II E-mount interchangeable lens mirrorless camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 24.2mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 A7Sii a7r a7c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 mirror less - more compact }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony a7 III α77 ILCE7M3/B Full-Frame Mirrorless Interchangeable-Lens Camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 24.2mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ZV-1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 24mm optical zoom, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ZV-1F | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 entry-level vlogging, 1-inch 20.1MP, ultra-wide 20mm f/2 prime lens}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} <pre > Lens Mounts Canon EF EF-S Nikon F Panasonic Olympus OM Pentax DA, FA, F, A, M, and K series Fujifilm X mount </pre > <pre > Sensors APS-C S35 Full Frame 43 Four Thirds M43 MFT Micro four thirds </pre > === Digital Voice Recorder Dictaphone Dictation Machine Handheld === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2011 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested 2012 no usb }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2012 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2013 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus WS-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7700 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-8600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-711PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-712PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-731PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus WS-811 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested slide out usb-a - aaa battery - ok recordings }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-540PC Olympus VN-541PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Philips DVT1250 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX470 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX560 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX570 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} === USB eBooks Readers drm free EPUB version 2.0.1 (2007), 3.0 (2011), 3.1 (2015) or [https://www.w3.org/TR/epub-33/ 3.3 (2024)] [https://github.com/thansen0/sample-epub-minimal epub examples] formats access === EPUB file format is an open standard based on XHTML for content and XML for metadata, contained in a zip file archive PDF v2.0 in 2017, 2009 takeover by ISO Org, 1.7 in 2006 , 1.6 in 2005, 1.4 in 2001, 1.3 in 1999, 1.0 in 1993 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Access ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Barnes and Noble Nook Simple Touch NST BNRV300 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2080 | <!--Product ID-->0x0003 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->when finding the right micro usb cable that works, internal nook memory not accessible but sd card fat32 readable and writable outside | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2011 6in 600x800 e-ink 16 grayscale .jpg}} battery remove sd card and Torx T5 back top for Cameron Sino CS-BNR003SL - USA 1.2.2 md5sum 351e26527e80156183e74be2da2ce89f *nook_1_2_update.zip - 1.2.1 UK fdba3981f7f221cc5143db6329645bc2 *nook_1_2_update.zip - skip registration, Turn on the device, but do NOT start setting it up. Hold down the top right button on the front of the device and slide your finger from left to right across the top of the E Ink screen. A ‘Factory’ button should appear in the top left corner of the screen. Press it. Once in the Factory menu, hold down the top right button on the front of the device and tap the bottom right corner of the screen should now see a ‘Skip Oobe’ button. Tap that and the Nook should finally load the home screen. Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description-->Barnes and Noble Nook Simple Touch with Glowlight *2012 Nook Simple Touch with GlowLight BNRV350 *2013 Nook GlowLight BNRV500 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2080 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 0x0007 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2012 untested }} perform a hard reset: Turn off the nook completely, turn it on, as soon as you see the screen flash begin holding the bottom page turn buttons until the screen flashes with a message asking reset, press the 'n' key twice to start the reset - Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description-->Nook Glowlight 4 Plus 7.8-inch screen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> *NOOK 1st Edition (2009-2018) BNRZ100 *NOOK Color (2010-2024) BNRV200 *NOOK Tablet (8GB/16GB) (2011-2024) BNTV250A / BNTV250 *NOOK HD (2012-2024) BNTV400 *NOOK HD+ (2012-2024) BNTV600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Elonex 511EB | <!--Vendor ID-->045e:ffff | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2009 untested Preferences->advanced->debug device detection}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://jaforeck.wordpress.com/2012/08/05/ready-to-meet-viktor-navorski-gained-access-to-elonex-621ebs-terminal-52/ Elonex 621EB] eBook | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1f85 | <!--Product ID-->0x1688 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->unlocked ootb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2010 untested usb mini charging 6" diagonal eInk Screen - 800 x 600 pixels, 8 Level 166dpi Paperlike screen, Embedded 1GB Flash NAND, full SD Card Slot up to 16GB - WAV, MP3, JPG, PNG, BMP, GIF support and ePub and PDF(with reflow) (TXT, HTML) support}} |- | <!--Description-->Elonex 700eb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2011 untested adjust screen blanking by menu then settings then device standby, you can then turn it off}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->iRiver Story HD eBook | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} freescale imx.508 arm mcimx508cvkbb cpu with 2gb samsung nand, m13892aj charging chip, eb07_main_mp1_110321 mobo, mini usb, atheros ar61026 wifi - |- | <!--Description-->iRiver Story | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Rakuten Touch A/B kobo3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Touch C, Kobo Mini, Kobo Glo N613, Kobo Aura HD N514 N204 kobo4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura, Kobo Aura H2O, kobo5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2013 6in untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura H2O Edition 2 v1, Kobo Glo HD, Kobo Touch 2.0, Kobo Aura ONE N709, Kobo Aura ONE Limited Edition, Kobo Aura Edition 2 v1 N236, kobo6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura H2O Edition 2 v2, Kobo Aura Edition 2 v2, Kobo Nia, Kobo Clara HD, Kobo Forma, Kobo Libra H2O kobo7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Elipsa, Kobo Sage kobo8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> *Kobo Libra 2 kobo9, Kobo Clara 2E kobo10, Kobo Elipsa 2E kobo11 *Kobo Libra Colour kobo13, Kobo Clara BW, Kobo Clara Colour kobo12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pandigital Personal eReader aka? Papyre 6.2 very similar to BQ Avant Firmware | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS 350 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2009 epub bbeb cbz untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS-650 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle K1 D00111 - Main Menu=: Settings: Menu=: Device Info shows S/N | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0002 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->256mb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2007 untested Marvell Xscale PXA255}} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle K2, D00511 170-1012-00, D00701 D00801 S11S01B * k2 means K2 US * k2i means K2 GW * dx means KDX US * dxi means KDX GW * dxg means KDX Graphite | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0003 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb unless jb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2010 untested Freescale i.MX31 }} the Kindle is a small computer running Linux 2.6 on an ARM processor |- | <!--Description-->AMAZON Kindle D00901 3rd Gen with keyboard - Menu, Settings for S/N and then Menu again to choose Update * S/N starts B006 means k3g aka K3 3G US * S/N starts B008 means k3w aka K3 WiFi * S/N starts B00A means k3gb aka K3 3G UK EU - debug mode with ;debugON and ~help | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->{{yes|4Gb internal no access until jailbroken JB}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 with mobi and azw3 formats only - micro usb 5v 0.85a - freescale i.mx35 ARM soc with 12bit parallel interface with epson e-ink cpu, 256MB synchronous dynamic RAM, 4GB eMMC internal memory only but no sd slot, MC13892 PMIC - atheros wifi 54mbit pci-e a e keyed wifi - ?? later models wm96103 audio codec - display has 2Mbit serial memory ic on ribbon cable with 4bpp inverse grayscale display not touchscreen - 3g module - screen replacement really annoying - 4 test points near T07 = TX RX GND ? - as of 2025, JB v0.13.N, MKK2014, MKK2025, KUAL, KoReader Legacy2025, and maybe later SS v0.47.N, Python 0.14.N, Fonts v5.16.N, USBNet v0.57.N - USB-downloader mode when Vol+ is pressed during startup - Shift + Alt + M for Minesweeper - |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle 4th Generation k4 D01100 two buttons, square movement and two buttons at bottom *B00E plastic back clipped in [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV1dyNkjjro many places] and strongly taped down to battery cover | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0005 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb unless jb with USB MS, USBMS aka also known as USB MSC or UMS | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 once back off use Torx T5 to remove battery cover screws - battery glued down S2011-001-A 515-1058-01 DR-A015 MC-265360 - Freescale i.MX508 SOC, 2Gb eMMC storage, 256MiB of LPDDR1, MC13892 PMIC - vendor modified u-boot imximage based on u-boot v2009.08 - USB-downloader mode press the fiveway down button during startup resetmykindle - as of 2025 upgrade firmware from 4.1.x and to 4.1.4, sign into account and copy jb.1.8 bits, mkk-2014, mkk-2025, kual and then uninstall kual, koreader2025 - }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Touch WiFi (Kindle 5th Gen) D01200 K5, KT *Once signed into an Amazon Account get S/N under Settings -> Device Options *B00F Kindle Touch 3G + WiFi (Kindle 5) (U.S. and Canada) [Mostly] *B011 Kindle Touch WiFi (Kindle 5) *B010 Kindle Touch 3G + WiFi (Kindle 5) (Europe) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0006 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->4gb unless jb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 touchscreen i.MX508 SOC, 256MiB of LPDDR1 and USB-downloader mode by the SOC microcode when a specific key is pressed during startup: the home button on model D01200 - update firmware 5.3.2 to 5.3.7.3, access account, }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] PW <pre> B024 Kindle PaperWhite WiFi B01B Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] B020 Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Brazil) B01C Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Canada) B01D Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Europe) B01F Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Japan) </pre> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0007 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 Freescale i.MX508 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0008 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 2 (2013) PW2 *B0D4, 90D4 WiFi (U.S., Intl.) *B05A, 905A WiFi (Japan) *B0D5, 90D5 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] *B0D6, 90D6 3G + WiFi (Canada] *B0D7, 90D7 3G + WiFi (Europe) *B0D8, 90D8 3G + WiFi (Russia) *B0F2, 90F2 3G + WiFi (Japan) *B017, 9017 WiFi (4GB) (U.S., Intl.) *B060, 9060 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Europe) *B062, 9062 3G + WiFi (4GB) (U.S.) [Mostly] *B05F, 905F 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Canada) *B061, 9061 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Brazil) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0009 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb or 4gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| PW2 uses Freescale/NXP i.MX6 SoloLite }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 3 PW3 i.e. Kindle 7th gen *G090G1 (2015) WiFi *G090G2 (2015) 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] *G090G4 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Mexico) *G090G5 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Europe, Australia) *G090G6 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Canada) *G090G7 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Japan) *G090KB (2015) WiFi *G090KC (2015) 3G + WiFi (Japan) *G090KE (2016) 3G + WiFi (International) White *G090KF (2016) 3G + WiFi (International) White *G090LK (2016) WiFi, 32GB (Japan) *G090LL (2016) WiFi, 32GB (Japan) White | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x000A | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->4gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ease up glued down front bezel rim panel gently, remove 11 screws underneath and lift screen up from bottom end - battery underneath - }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 4 (2018) PW4 *G000PP, G8S0PP WiFi, 8GB *G000T6, G8S0T6 WiFi, 32GB *G000T1 WiFi+4G, 32GB *G000T2 WiFi+4G, 32GB (Europe) *G00102 WiFi, 8GB (India) *G000T3 WiFi+4G, 32GB (Japan) *G0016T, G8S16T WiFi, 8GB Twilight Blue *G0016Q, G8S16Q WiFi, 32GB Twilight Blue *G0016U WiFi, 8GB Plum *G0016V, G8S16V WiFi, 8GB Sage *G00103 WiFi, 32GB (India) *G0016R WiFi, 32GB Plum *G0016S WiFi, 32GB Sage | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x000B | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->8gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Freescale/NXP i.MX6 SoloLite }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Oasis 2 and 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| NXP i.MX7D }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 16gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| MediaTek MT8110 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle 11 Scribe | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 16gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| MediaTek MT8113 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->16gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite Gen 11 and 12 - Signature | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->16Gb or 32Gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 account not blocked, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/Modos-Labs Modos Labs] open source e-ink 60Hz 75Hz caster controller and glider monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xteink X3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.xteink.com Xteink X4] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 4.3in 220ppi no touchscreen so [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7RuokaVauo buttons navigation] - 650mAh battery - micro-sd slot up to 512Gb covering epub, txt, and jpg in directories with [https://github.com/crosspoint-reader crosspoint reader] esp32 cpu custom rom firmware using [https://xteink.dve.al/ Flash website] on usb-c but no ecosystem store |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="15%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Access ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Amazon D01400 Kindle Fire (1st Generation) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2010 too old }} android 2.3 and touchscreen digitizer fails often, battery SWE P/N 1002000004742 Model KC1 (EU) QP01 (US) 16.28whr, ti 257epl9l omap 4430 with elpida 88164b3pf-10-f88164b3pf or hynix, mobo ??,, DAOKC1MB8F0 Rev F, ti aic3110 audio codec, |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Fire 7in X43260 X43Z60 2nd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 untested FireOS Android 4 omap 4460 and PowerVR SGX540}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle Fire HD (3rd Gen) P48WVB4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon *Amazon Fire HD10 (2015) *Amazon Fire HD8 (2015) *Amazon Fire HD7 (2015) (5th Generation) 7 inch 8GB SV98LN *Amazon Fire HD7 (2014) *Amazon Fire HD6 (2014) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested android 5.1 max}} |- | <!--Description--> *Amazon Fire 10 (2017) *Amazon Fire 8 (2017) 7th Gen 8 inch SX034OT *Amazon Fire 7 (2017) (7th Generation) 7 inch 16GB (SR043KL) *Amazon Kindle Fire 7 (7th Generation) 7 inch 8GB WIFI Tablet (SR043KL) *Amazon Fire HD8 (2016) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Android 5.1 max 7in screen resolution of 1024 x 600, }} |- | <!--Description--> *Amazon Fire 10/10+ (2021) *Amazon Fire 8/8+ (2020) *Amazon Fire 10 (2019) *Amazon Fire 7 (2019) *Amazon Kindle Fire 7 9th Gen 16GB M8S26G *Amazon Fire 8 (2018) 8th Gen 8 inch 32GB L5S83A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| android 9 max}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon *Amazon Fire HD 10 (2023) *Amazon Fire Max 11 (2023) *Amazon Fire 8 (2022) *Amazon Fire 7 (2022) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| android 11 max}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle Scribe | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Minimal Phone, Mudita Kompakt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| eink }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B751C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 android untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B7 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android based color eink small - 300dpi b/w 150ppi color -}} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| e-ink }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme Hibreak Pro, Hisense A9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| e-ink}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->iFlyTech AINote | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->iFlyTech AINote 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Meebook | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Page Palma | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 android untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Leaf3C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go Color 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 untested 7in e-ink e-reader android tablet }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx BooxTab Ultra X C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Note Max Air4 C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Leaf5C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Poke6S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go 10.3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox MC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| color e-ink 13.3in }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go 10.3 (Gen 2) Lumi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 b/w eink with front light, no EMR annd capacitance pen, }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Moaan Pantone 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2021 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable Paper Pro Move | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 untested but subscriptions needed for some features}} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote A5 X2 Manta | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote A6 X2 Nomad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tolino Vision 2 3 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tolino Epos2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viwoods AI Paper and AI Paper Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==printer.class== As the only printer driver that AROS supports natively is Postscript, our focus is on applications that generally output postscript formatted data for printing purposes. There has been an attempt at recent AirPrint support *Inkjet *Laser Start simple and then test every higher level... * can if you ping your printer (the IP addy is good)? * set up LPR/IPP to talk to that known good IP address. * see if you can copy a few words of plain ASCII text to the IPP/LPR device (do you have a connection)? * see if you can find a simple postscript file and then copy it to the IPP/LPR device. * see if you can set up to print directly to the IPP/LPR device (set "Output file" to PRT: or LPR:). * see if you can set up a PS printer config to the IPP/LPR device. * go back and try the tests with the other driver (LPR or IPP). See [http://www.irseesoft.de/tp_drive7.htm here] for compatibility with TP7 (TurboPrint 7) Last update 2004. Not tested under emulation. Janus-UAE, Emumiga, Amiberry etc usbparallel.device untested with USB->Centronics - The printer.class is rather 'clever'. It remembers to which unit the printers were connected (until you reboot). So if you first plug in Printer1, it gets unit 0, and Printer2 gets unit 1. If you now remove both printers and replug Printer2, it still will get unit 1 and not 0. This is used not to confuse the programs using the different units (moreover, if some program uses the usbparallel.device unit of an USB printer, and the printer is unplugged, the device unit cannot be freed immediately as the application still keeps it open). {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Beige cream D shape centronics end (Prolific chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U002v1 centronics end (chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U002VEA v2 centronics end (Prolific PL2305L chipset) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | DYNAMODE USB-C-PP-1284 USB to 36pin (Prolific 2305 chipset) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 0x02 | {{N/A|untested but similar to BAFO below}} |- | IOGear GUC1284B | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | My-Link (raised ellipse on centronics plastic end) (unknown chipset) | | | | {{N/A|untested but more expensive }} |- | NEWLink (Prolific chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Targus PA096E centronics end (chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | TRENDnet ware TU-P1284 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | True PnP (Prolific chipset 2305) cheap 36pin Centronics (series of ridges along both short sides) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 2.00 | {{N/A|untested on BAFO BF-1284 but reports of poor quality and lack of support on other OSs }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | Transparent See Through Blue | | | | {{N/A|untested but possible poor quality build }} |- | Dynamode USB-PARALLEL 25pin female (prolific) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 0x02 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | FDL USB to 25pin | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | PlusKom USB to 25pin female connector for printer (IEEE 1284) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | QinHeng Electronics (CH340S chipset) | 0x1a86 | 0x7584 | | {{N/A|untested curvy sides - flat top }} |- | StarTech | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Syba SD-USB-DB25 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- |} Postscript interpreters (eg ghostscript) have been developed as a cheaper option which sit in between postscript data streams and non postscript printers. Ghostscript has internal printer drivers gs -h and with something like gs -sDEVICE=stcolor -r300 -sOutputFile=RAM:tempfile gs813:examples/tiger.ps copytopar ram:tempfile It checks if in RAM: exists a outputfile (Cinnamon can export to PS postscript) then it sends this via copytopar to the printer. There was only support for parport (parallel) but Terminillis added support for USB and ethernet. A big issue with using ghostscript for drivers is that data has to originate as postscript (.PS) file. gs -dSAFER -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -sDEVICE=ljet4 -sOutputFile=RAM:tempfile RAM:file.pdf the ljet4 output device generates PCL also the pxlmono driver, which generates more generic PXL (PCL 6) gs -q -sstdout=%stderr -sDEVICE=pswrite -sOutputFile=- -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -dPARANOIDSAFER testpage-a4.ps > test.pdf gs -q -sstdout=%stderr -sDEVICE=pxlmono -sOutputFile=- -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -dPARANOIDSAFER test.pdf > test.pxl Printers supported by ghostscript...Explanation [http://freebooks.by.ru/view/RedHatLinux6Unleashed/rhl6u151.htm here] or [http://www.gnu.org/software/ghostscript/devices.html here] and [http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/doc/printer.htm here] <pre> bit cljet5 ljet4d pjxl300 pxlcolor bitcmyk cljet5c ljetplus pkm pxlmono bitrgb deskjet nullpage pkmraw stp bj10e djet500 pbm pksm tiff12nc bj200 epswrite pbmraw pksmraw tiff24nc bjc600 faxg3 pcx16 png16 tiffcrle bjc800 faxg32d pcx24b png16m tiffg3 bmp16 faxg4 pcx256 png256 tiffg32d bmp16m ijs pcxcmyk pnggray tiffg4 bmp256 jpeg pcxgray pngmono tifflzw bmp32b jpeggray pcxmono pnm tiffpack bmpgray laserjet pdfwrite pnmraw uniprint bmpmono lj5gray pgm ppm x11 bmpsep1 lj5mono pgmraw ppmraw x11alpha bmpsep8 ljet2p pgnm psgray x11cmyk cdeskjet ljet3 pgnmraw psmono x11gray2 cdj550 ljet3d pj psrgb x11gray4 cdjcolor ljet4 pjxl pswrite x11mono cdjmono </pre> ==rawwrap.class - some old flatbed scanners supported== Scandal is the MUI frontend to [http://www.ppa.pl/bugtracker/ Betascan Bugtracker] and [http://aminet.net/search?query=betascan Search for Betascan scanner drivers] derived from [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html sane backends] [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html#S-EPSON2 Epson2] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Expression 1600 1640XL 1680 10000XL | 0x04b8 | 0x0107 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Prefection 1200U, 1200 Photo, | 0x04b8 | 0x0104 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 1240U | 0x04b8 | 0x010b | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{[https://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=45760&forum=25 works]|Needs 24V 0.8A psu but in Trident, click on "Classes", then on "rawwrap.class", then on "Configure". There, under "Global", activate the Option "Bind to Vendor/Unknown Interfaces". Now go to the second tab "Default Interface" and select/enter these values: Default usbraw.device Unit: 0 Exclusive access: Yes Out NAK Timeout: 20000ms In NAK Timeout: 20000ms In Buffer Mode: No buffering Buffer Size: 36 KB Short Reads Terminate: Yes Now click on "Use as Default" and select "Devices" on the left. There, click on your scanner and click on "Class Scan". Now close Trident by clicking on "Save". }} |- | Perfection 1640SU Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x010a | 0x0104 | {{yes|works, even the transparency unit}} |- | Perfection 1650 Photo, 1660 Photo, 3200 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x011c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 2400 Photo, 2450 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x011b | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 4870 Photo, 4990 Photo, | 0x04b8 | 0x0128 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection V700 V750 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x012c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Stylus CX2800 2900 3200 3500 3600 3650 3700 3800 3900 Stylus CX4100 4200 3500 4600 4700 4800 4900 500 5100 5200 5300 5400 5900 | 0x04b8 | 0x0802 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Stylus Office BX300F USB | 0x04b8 | 0x0848 | | {{yes| works with good scan quality}} |- |} [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ gt68xx] scanners based on the Grandtech GT-6801 and GT-6816 "System-On-Chip" scanner chipsets {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Artec Ultima 2000 and e+, Trust Flat Scan USB 19200 (ePlus2k.usb / Gt680xfw.usb) | 0x05d8 | 0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Genius Colorpage Vivid3x 4x 1200x | 0x0458 | 0x2011 to 0x201f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (ccd548.fw)}} |- | <!--Description-->Lexmark X70 also X73 [http://subfusion.net/drivers/oslo3071b2.usb OSLO3071b2.usb] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x043d | <!--Product ID-->0x002d | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Medion/Lifetec/Tevion/Cytron MD/LT 9375 and Artec Ultima 2000, MD LT 9385 Gt680xfw.usb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05d8 | <!--Product ID-->0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | BearPaw 2448 CS and TA Plus [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/A2Nfw.usb A2Nfw.usb] | 0x055f | 0x021a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | Mustek BearPaw 1200 CS | 0x055f | 0x021e | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/A1fw.usb A1fw.usb])}} |- | <!--Description-->Mustek 1200 CU Plus Scanner [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend PS1Dfw.usb / SBSfw.usb] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2000 }} |- | Mustek ScanExpress 1200 UB plus, Trust Compact Scan USB 19200, ScanMagic 1200 UB Plus | 0x05d8 | 0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/sbfw.usb sbfw.usb])}} |- | Mustek ScanExpress 1248 UB aka PC-World PC Line PCL-3000 | 0x055f | 0x021f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/SBSfw.usb SBSfw.usb])}} |- | Mustek BearPaw 2400CS TA aka Goodmans GSC 12/24 | 0x055f | 0x0218 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Transparency adapter untested) }} |- | BearPaw 2400 CS aka TA Plus | 0x055f | 0x0219 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Transparency adapter) }} |- | Packard Bell Diamond 1200 Plus | 0x055f | 0x021c or 0x021b | 0x0 | {{yes|works - [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ firmware required] but slow usb 1.1 speed with poor quality output (scanner fault not scandal)}} |- | Packard Bell Diamond 2400 Plus aka BearPaw 2400 CU Plus [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ PS2Dfw2.usb firmware rename to PS2Dfw.usb] | 0x055f | 0x021d | 1.00 | {{yes|works slow usb 1.1 speed with ok quality output (scanner fault not scandal)}} |- | Plustek OpticPro 1248U | 0x07B3 | 0x0400 0x0401 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (ccd548.fw)}} |- | Plustek OpticSlim 2400 | 0x07b3 | 0x0422 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (cis3R5B1.fw)}} |- | Visioneer OneTouch 7300 | 0x04a7 | 0x0444 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Cis3r5b1.fw)}} |- | <!--Description-->Mustek ScanEpress 1200 UB (Plus) clone [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/ use mustek_usb backend] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x055f | <!--Product ID-->0x0006 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Lexmark - needs testing {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Lexmark X1110 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1140 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1150 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1170 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1180 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1185 | 0x043d | 0x007c | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Lexmark X12xx | | | | {{N/A|untested in USB1.1, not fully tested in USB2.0}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Dell A920 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} HP - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | HP ScanJet 4100C | 0x03f0 | 0x0101 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 5200C | 0x03f0 | 0x0401 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 62X0C | 0x03f0 | 0x0201 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 63X0C | 0x03f0 | 0x0601 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x0102, 0x0105, 0x0205, 0x0305, 0x0405 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x0705, 0x0805, 0x0901, 0x0a01 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x1205, 0x1305, 0x2005, 0x2205 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Plustek [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html#S-PLUSTEK LM983x] - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Plustek OticPro U12 UT12 UT16 U24 UT24 | 0x07B3 | 0x0010 to 0x0017 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | KYE/Genius Colorpage HR6-V2 HR6A HR7 HR7LE HR6X | 0x0458 | 0x2008 to 0x2016 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Hewlett-Packard ScanJet 2100C and 2200C | 0x03F0 | 0x0505 and 0x0605 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Mustek BearPaw 1200 and 2400 | 0x0400 | 0x1000 and 0x1001 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | UMAX 3400/3450 and 5400 | 0x1606 | 0x0050, 0x0060 and 0x0160 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 1250 and 1260 | 0x04B8 | 0x010f and 0x011d | | {{no|no driver}} |- | CANON CanoScan N650/656U N1220U D660U N670/676U N1240U LIDE20 LIDE25 LIDE30 | 0x04A9 | 0x2206 to 0x2220 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} [http://snapscan.sourceforge.net/ SnapScan] - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Acer Benq 310U, 320U, 340U | 0x4a5 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Acer Benq 620U, 620UT, 640U, 640UT | 0x4a5 | 0x20 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Acer Benq 1240 3300 4300 | 0x4a5 | 0x020 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Agfa SnapScan e10 e20 e25 e26 e40 e42 e50 e52 | 0x06bd | 0x20 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 660 | 0x04b8 | 0x0114 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 1270 1670 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 2480 2580 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 3490 3590 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Mitsubishi | 0x0 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ==hub.class (self-powered and external ac powered hubs)== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Dynamode USB-H41 4 ports | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Belkin 4 Port | | | | {{yes|works}} |- | Conrad | | | | {{yes|[http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 works on a1k forum] }} |- | DLink DUB-H4 AC Adapter | 0x05e3 | 0x0608 | High 0200 | {{maybe|WARNING Genesys Logic Hub Broken - Will cause failures with USB}} |- | [http://service.targa.co.uk/faq.php?lang_id=2&baseid=178&artdesc=SilverCrest+USB+Hub+2040&artid=760&artpic=silvercrestHUB2040.jpg SilverCrest 4-port slim USB 2.0 HUB - HUB2040 (40775) - Targa GmbH] | 0x05e3 | 0x0608 | 0901 | {{yes|works Genesys Logic, Inc., [http://service.targa.co.uk/dokumente/USB_HUB_2040_0109_manual_EN.pdf Manual]}} |- | Skymaster | 0x05e3 | 0x0605 | 060B | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | No Name active 4-port | 0x1a40 | 0x0101 | 0111 | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thinkpad USB 3.0 Dock DU9019D1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17e9 | <!--Product ID-->0x4302 | <!--Revision-->0014 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|works a bit}} classed as dfu.class with two further USB 2.0 hubs - USB 3.0 ports detected and work (2.0 backwards compatibility) - DisplayLink DL-3900 with VIA VL811 chipset - usb ethernet not working - two dvi not working - 20V psu 2a (40w) with a 5.5 - 2.5mm tip (no bus power) - data through a-b printer/scanner usb lead - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} ==Internet== ===rndis.class USB Tethering === The rndis class provides support for Ethernet access over Remote NDIS. Most USB based devices should be supported including smartfones. Before opening Network Prefs, activate USB Tethering on the Smartfon, on Network prefs, type in usbrndis.device and tick "Start Network during system boot" and saved the configuration, the Connection is immediate no reboot is needed. When restart AROS my Smartphone deactivates the connection and to access the network again, have to reactivate it before starting the browser. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alcatel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | Huawei U8800 | 0x12d1 | 0x1039 | | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Huawei | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | HTC (Android phone) | 0x0bb4 | 0x0ffe | | {{Yes|any android phone with usb tethering option}} |- | <!--Description-->Nokia | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Oppo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung Galaxy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- |- | <!--Description-->iPhone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft winPhone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ===USB &rarr; ethernet lan adaptor=== *2002 playstation 2 usb1.1 era - a little support but very old and slow *2006 wii asix era - a little support but very much miss than hit *2026 usb0: or eth0: of CDC Ethernet protocol (cdcether) with Ethernet Control Model (ECM) and [https://www.usb.org/document-library/class-definitions-communication-devices-12 others like Wireless Mobile Communication Devices WMC] and later CDC EEM (Ethernet Emulation Model) and NCM (Network Control Model) are USB Communication Device Class (CDC) protocols packing more Ethernet traffic over every USB bundle. For CDC Ethernet - NCM is better than EEM is better than ECM * USB1.1 Up to 010 meg broadband (1.25MBytes/s) - ADM8511, DM9601 poor speeds * USB2.0 Up to 400 meg broadband (60MBytes/s) - MCS7830, AX88772 a little especially the 2010 apple version but buy many as very very poor odds of working one * USB3.0 Over 400 meg broadband (60+MBytes/s) - not supported at the moment SANA (Standard Amiga Network Architecture) to usb ADMtek Infineon ADM8511 Pegasus II (USB 1.1 and 10Mbit/s - Sony PlayStation 2 network adapter) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | 3Com 3c460b | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | Abocom UFE1000 / Abocom DSB650TX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Accton USB320-EC / Accton SpeedStream Ethernet | 0x083a | 0x0320 | <!--Revision--> | {{unk|2002 }} |- | AEI USB Fast Ethernet / Allied Telesyn AT-USB100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2002 }} |- | ATEN UC-110T | 0x0557 | 0x4000 | | {{unk|2001 }} |- | BAFO USB To Ethernet Adapter BF-310 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | Belkin F5D5050 v1 1101 | 0x050D | | <!--Revision--> | {{maybe|2002 sometimes works from old amiga.org post which is now removed}} |- | Belkin F5D5050 v2 2101 | 0x050D | 0x0121 | <!--Revision--> | {{no|2006 does not works}} |- | Belkin F5U122-PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Billionton USB-100 / Billionton USBLP-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Billionton USBEL-100 / Billionton USBE-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Compex LinkPort/UE202A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DSB-H3ETX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DSB-650 / D-Link DSB-650TX / D-Link DSB-650TX-PNA | 0x2001 | 0x4000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DU-E10 / D-Link DU-E100 | 0x2001 | | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Edimax USB Ethernet Adapter EU-4201 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Elsa AG MicroLink USB2 Lan Ethernet adapter | 0x05cc | 0x3000 | <!--Revision-->1.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | GetNet | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | GIGABYTE GN-BR402W Wireless Router | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Goodway Fellowes USB UE-120 REV:V1 UE120 ADMTek 1011594 HO2419741 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07a6 | <!--Product ID-->0x0986 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2001 USB Specification 1.1 compliant}} |- | GWC Tech USB Ethernet Adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Hawking UF100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | HP HN210E / I/O DATA USB ETTX / Kingston KNU101TX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Jinco USB Ethernet Adapter 10/100 Base-T UE-110 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Kouwell USB to Ethernet 588A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Linksys USB10T / TA / TX | 0x066b | 0x2202 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested - possible peg1/peg2}} |- | Linksys (Cisco) USB100TX / H1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitec LAN-TX/U1 H2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | [http://www.mayflash.com/psps2/ps2024/ps2024.htm Mayflash PS2024] Playstation2 compatible clone of Proxim/Farallon NetLine? | 0x07a6 | 0x8511 | <!--Revision-->1.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with DHCP router option on old 32bit distros but not on newer 64bit, best to go asixeth apple 2010 but buy many of them as poor success rate i.e. a lottery}} |- | Netgear FA101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Philips CPWUE01/00 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Planet UE-9500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | PlayStation 2 SCPH-10000 50000 models | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Proxim (formerly Farallon) NetLine USB PN796-650 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Siemens SpeedStream USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | SOHOware NUB100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | SMC EZNET-USB 2202USB/ETH / SMC 2206USB/ETH | 0x0707 | 0x0100 0x0200 0x0201 | <!--Revision--> | {{unk|untested but should work very well }} |- | Surecom EP-1427X 100/10M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Target USB to 10/100M Fast Ethernet Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Trendnet TU-ET100C | 0x07a6 | 0x8511 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | {{yes| sometimes works well, very stable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Digitus USB NIC DN-3016-A | 0x07a6 | 0x8513 | 1.01 | {{unk|untested new chipset }} |- | Digitus lanusb ADM8515 | 0x07a6 | 0x8515 | 1.01 | {{unk|untested because new chipset }} |- | VE285 usblan ADMtek 8515 | 0x07a6 | 0x8515 | 1.01 | {{no|not working as new chipset }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Davicom DM9601 eth (USB 1.1 and up to 10Mbit/s) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Davicom USB-100 see clone below | 0x0a46 | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | [http://wiki.maemo.org/USB_to_ethernet_networking chinese translucent transparent crystal blue] but variants are also found in clear, white and black. Just over 6&nbsp;cm long. | 0x0a46 | 0x9601 | 0x0 | {{yes|2002 success can be sporadic so technically okay, but lacking in reliability. Out of 4 tested by me, only 2 worked. One case cracked open. }} |- | Corega FEther USB-TXC | 0x07aa | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Dynamode USB-NIC-1427-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Hirose USB-100 | 0x0a47 | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | KY-RS9600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585358&postcount=12 works] }} |- | ShanTou ST268 USB NIC | 0x0a46 | 0x0268 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | ZT6688 USB NIC | 0x0a46 | 0x6688 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ICS Advent DM9601 USB 2.0 10/100M Ethenet Adaptor JP1081B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FE6 | <!--Product ID-->0x9700 | <!--Revision-->0101 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|not working 32bit and 64bit - USB 1.1 10M ethernet}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} MosChip MCS7830 (USB 2) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Digitus DN-10050 | 0x9710 | 0x7830 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 }} |- | Edimax [http://www.edimax.co.uk/images/Image/datasheet/USB/EU-4206/EU-4206.pdf EU-4206] | | | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 }} |- | Speed Dragon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | STLabs | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | StarTech Compact USB2105S [http://www.kustompcs.co.uk/acatalog/info_6790.html USB2106S] | 0x9710 | 0x7830 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | Sunrich Technologies [http://www.st-lab.com/admin/upfile/UploadFile/manual/manual(u-250).zip U-250] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 }} |- | Syba | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->MCS 7832 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2008 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} * USB2 [https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet Asix Ethernet] AX88178A, AX88772C, AX88772B, AX88772A (wii), AX88172A * USB3 AX88179A, AX88179 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | AirLink101 AGIGAUSB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 AX88172}} |- | ATEN UC210T | 0x0557 | 0x2009 | 0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88172}} |- | <!--Description-->Billionton Systems USB2AR | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08dd | <!--Product ID-->0x90ff | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->Buffalo LUA-U2-KTX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0411 | <!--Product ID-->0x003d | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->corega FEther USB2-TX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07aa | <!--Product ID-->0x0017 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| }} |- | D-Link DUB-E100 up to rev A4 | 0x2001 | 0x1a00 | | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->D-Link DUB-E100 rev B1 onwards | 0x07d1 or 0x2001 | 0x3c05 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|AX88172 works on Deneb with [http://amigax.com/2010/02/21/usb-ethernet-speed-test-amigaos-4-0-classic/ Amiga OS4 Classic] and [http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 on a1k] }} |- | <!--Description-->goodway corp USB gwusb2e | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1631 | <!--Product ID-->0x6200 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hawking UF200 | 0x07b8 | 0x420a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[Linksys USB200M] | 0x077b | 0x2226 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585601&postcount=20 works] }} |- | <!--Description-->Netgear FA120 | 0x0846 | 0x1040 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2002 10/100 Rev.B1" is silkscreened on the board of the device populating this entry (S/N: FA12254CB100409, date code 0508). This device may be manuf. by [http://www.cameo.com.tw/ Cameo] "AX88172 L", "F05040157", and "ED3" Chip1 ASIX AX88172 Chip2 Realtek RTL8201BL}} |- | <!--Description-->Intellinet | 0x0b95 | 0x1720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->JVC MP-PRX1 Port Replicator | <!--Vendor ID-->0x04f1 | <!--Product ID-->0x3008 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ST Lab USB Ethernet | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sitecom LN-029 "USB 2.0 10/100 Ethernet adapter" | <!--Vendor ID-->0x6189 | <!--Product ID-->0x182d | <!--Revision-->0 | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->Surecom EP-1427X-2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1189 | <!--Product ID-->0x0893 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v2 | 0x07b8 | 0x420a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|version 2}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->A-LINK NA1GU | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 88772}} |- | <!--Description-->AirLink101 ASOHOUSB Wii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AirLive EtherWe-1000U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->APPLE AX88772 Model No. A1277 MC704LL/A P/N 825-7098-A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1402 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2008 usb2, }} |- | <!--Description-->APPLE Model No. A1277 (MB442Z/A 0885909217434) MC704ZM/A PN 825-7579-A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1402 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|2010 model, usb2 and controller AX88772 where prehaps 1in3 units working with owb - really poor odds i.e. a lottery, could be situation where various ethernet phy chipsets are used - press Use in network prefs after Save initial setup typing in usbasixeth.device, }} |- | <!--Description-->ASIX AX88772 bulbous casing | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2008 works on 32bit and 64bit though setup can take a few attempts but may have issues with phy ethernet chip changing, }} |- | <!--Description-->Datel Wii Lan Adapter DUS0204 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->EdiMax EU-4207 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->Goodway HE2230 Maplin ASIX 88772 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->Intec LAN G5626 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->LevelOne USB-0202 | 0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->LevelOne USB-0301 | 0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | <!--Description-->Linksys USB200M Rev 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13b1 | <!--Product ID-->0x0018 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2008 sparsely randomly working AX88772 or with "Sana-II Meter Tool 37.11" network monitoring program, showing continuous "Bad Packet" errors which could means "CRC" errors}} |- | <!--Description-->Linksys USB300M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2009 AX88772 }} |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash W001 or clones Lupo/PEGA S-Wii-0680 light gray rectangular with third of one top 45 degree angled slope | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| may have randomly changed phy ethernet chips, }} |- | <!--Description-->Max Value MVF00446 ASIN B006EG568A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Trident prefs recognises as AX88772 sometimes works on 32bit and 64bit}} |- | <!--Description-->NEWLink N14050 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->NEWLink Wii-ETH USB2.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nintendo Wii LAN Adaptor 2110566 and clones | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Poseidon recognises as AX88772 with usbasixeth.device sometimes works seems different ethernet phy chips can be matched affecting compatibility}} |- | <!--Description-->Nyko Wii Net Connect 87024 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585624&postcount=22 works] }} |- | <!--Description-->0Q0 cable ethernet | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1557 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB2-E100 (2009/2010) Bulbous housing | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Trident prefs recognises it as ax88772A and typing in usbasixeth.device sometimes works}} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent KINAMAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SpeedLink SL-3401-SGY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->UGreen 20254 USB2 to 10/100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88772}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Afunta Apple-style White USB2.0 I/O Crest SY-ADA24005 ASIX Electronics Corp. AX88772A Fast Ethernet Adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{no|usbasixeth.device accepted by network prefs but does not work}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Basics USB 2.0 AX88772A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Digitus DN-10050-1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Edimax EU-4230 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent KINAMAX NT-USB20 AX88772A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88772B USB 2.0 to 10/100M | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EdiMax EU-4208 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772b | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Detected but not working}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB2100 ASIX AX88772C | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet/High-Speed_USB_Ethernet/AX88772D AX88772D] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet/High-Speed_USB_Ethernet/AX88772E AX88772E] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->AX88178 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2004 }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB2-E1000 i.e. USB 2.0 to Gigabit Ethernet 10/100/1000 LAN | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 ASIX AX88178 Controller and Realtek RTL8211CL PHY}} |- | <!--Description-->AX88178A USB 2.0 to 10/100/1000M Gigabit Ethernet controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2005 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AmazonBasics USB3.0 adapter [https://github.com/nothingstopsme/AX88179_178A_Linux_Driver AX88179] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cable Matters SuperSpeed USB 3.0 RJ45 adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hori Nintendo Switch 1 USB3 ethernet AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 AX88179 not binding to asixeth.class }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB3-E1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2020 ASIX AX88179 not binding to class, USB 3.2 Gen1 to Gigabit Ethernet controller with integrated 10/100/1000Mbps Gigabit Ethernet PHY}} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable AX88179 = [https://plugable.com/products/usb3-e1000-deal USB3-E1000] before mid-2023 or USB3-E1000; AX88179A = USBC-E1000 after mid-2023 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 controller is AX88179 phy is ??, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000SPTW ax88179 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| AX88179 not binding to asixeth.class, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000NDS AX88179 USB-A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech US1GC301AU AX88179 USB-c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech US1GC30B2 AX88179A USB-c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB32000SPT AX88179A USB-c Rev 1 (AX88179) Rev 2 (AX88179A) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->USB32000SPT the Lot code sticker will have a bar code accompanied by a 10 digit number. The 5th and 6th digits of this lot code number would signify the revision. (Ex. xxxx02xxxx which would indicate rev. 2) |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SYBA SY-ADA24029 Gigabit AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} may depend on the PHY chip connected to the controller chipset |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TP-Link UE306 AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet® Orico UL677G 10/100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet® UL688G USB 3.0 10/100/1000 Base-T Ethernet port | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->AX88179 178A |- | <!--Description-->Tecknet UL699G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v6 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07b8 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|no support }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->uGreen 50922 USB3-A to 100/1000 dark grey rounded barrels | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| ax88179 not binding to asixeth.class, }} |- | <!--Description-->UGreen USB3-C to 100/1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->uGreen CR111 20256 usb3 a black plastic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88179}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88179A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB3-E1000 USBC-E1000 after mid-2023 i.e. AX88179A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000SPTB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88179A USB-A, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88179B | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==USB &rarr; SerialPort Converter== *2002 some support for early revisions of PL2303 *2005 Prolific PL2303H PL-2303X and Pl-2303HX (same usb ids as pl2303) no support *2025 FTDI 232R [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1135&highlight=232r&rowstart=20 work in progress] *2026 CDC-ACM i.e. Serial port over USB standard serialpl2303.class make sure you specify serialpl2303.device or Echo "Test" >SER1: {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | ATEN UC-232A | 0x0557 | 0x2008 | Full 0x0300 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | IOGear GUC232A | 0x0557 | 0x2008 | Full 0x0110 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Alcatel | 0x11f7 | 0x02df | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | BAFO BF-810 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U103 | 0x | 0x | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Davibe SP611 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Dcu10 | 0x0731 | 0x0528 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Elcom | 0x056e | 0x5003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | IOData | 0x04bb | 0x0a03 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Itegno | 0x0eba | 0x1080 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Nokia CA42 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Radioshack | 0x1453 | 0x4026 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Ratoc | 0x0584 | 0xb000 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung | 0x04e8 | 0x8001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Siemens DCA-510 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sitecom CN104 | 0x6189 | 0x2068 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sitecom CN116 | 0x6189 | 0x2068 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Some Cut Ma620 | 0x0df7 | 0x0620 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Speed Dragon Multimedia MS3303H | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Syntech | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Tripp | 0x2478 | 0x2008 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Airlink101 AC-USBS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Belkin F5U103v | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{no|no driver }} |- | Dynamode U232-P9 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 300 | {{no| no driver [http://koti.mbnet.fi/lonnberg/pl2303x.html linux patch] and using lsusb -v -d 067b:2303 gave bMaxPacketSize as 64 - pl2303x }} |- | Konig CABLE-146/2 USB to RS232 | 0x067b | 0x2303 | 400 | {{no|no driver }} |- | MANHATTAN 205146 USB to Serial Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | Sabrent SBT-USC1M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Trendnet TU-59 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Unbranded black case and lead USB 232 Converter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x067B | <!--Product ID-->0x2303 | <!--Revision-->0300 | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- |} [http://www.ftdichip.com/index.html Future Technology Devices International Ltd FTDI]-FT232R.class [https://ftdichip.com/software-examples/code-examples/c-builder/ FTProg src], [http://rtr.ca/ft232r/ ft232r src], [https://ftdichip.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/DS_FT232R.pdf FT232R datasheet], [], {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID-->0x6001 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1GE-gKgHxZI beware of cheap clones fake with s/n A50285BI SN] |- | <!--Description-->Lynx Astro FTDI | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232R |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent CB-FTDI | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{no|no driver TTL-232R cables use FTDI's [http://n1mm.hamdocs.com/tiki-index.php?page=USB+Interface+Devices FT232RQ ic device] }} |- | <!--Description-->Startech.com 1 Port FTDI USB to Serial RS232 DB9M Adapter Cable with COM Retention ICUSB2321F | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232RL Chipset |- | <!--Description-->StarTech.com 2 Port FTDI USB to Serial RS232 Adapter Cable ICUSB2322F | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FTDI FT2232D Chipset |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232RL is the SSOP-28 and the FT232RQ is the QFN-32 package option |} [https://www.onetransistor.eu/2017/08/ch341a-mini-programmer-schematic.html ch341a.class] *I2C EEPROMS (3.3V and 5V) compatible and also SPI FLASH memories (3.3V devices) making sure 1.8V is covered *each having their own [https://winraid.level1techs.com/t/guide-how-to-use-a-ch341a-spi-programmer-flasher-with-pictures/33041 4x2 connection blocks] using [https://github.com/flashrom/flashrom flashrom] sudo flashrom --programmer ch341a_spi -r backup.bin sudo flashrom --programmer ch341a_spi -w <new bios name> {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Jiangsu QinHeng Ltd CH341A emulate UART communication, standard parallel port, memory parallel port and synchronous serial (I2C, SPI) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x5512 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->QinHeng USB2.0-Serial HL-340 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x7523 | <!--Revision-->0252 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |} ==simplemidi.class and CAMD== Currently support includes * simplemidi.class SimpleMidi maps some keyboard keys to corresponding computer keys as used by music trackers to emulate a musical keyboard * camdusbmidi.class follows the rules of the m68k implementation of Commodore's CAMD midi specification and usb class compliant for * usb host like a computer, pi, etc * usb device controllers - keyboards, drum machines, djay turntables, grooveboxes, etc * interfaces - cables or boxes which convert usb to 5pin DIN plug midi What is needed is a fully class-compliant '''brand name''' USB MIDI keyboard, especially manufactured in the last 15 years are best *Arturia *Novation *M-Audio *Akai Plugging this in one of your USB ports, the camd.library will make the keyboard's MIDI IN/OUT ports available in the system. Then select the keyboard's MIDI IN port (known as a "cluster" in CAMD) for input, and the software instrument's cluster as output ShowCluster (shows midi ports available in and out) MidiWatch (usually port usbmidi.in.0 less often usbmidi.out.0) (Ctrl-C to end output stream) usbmidi.in.0 Message on channel 01, NoteOn 90 39 08 00 usbmidi.in.0 Message on channel 01, NoteOff 80 39 00 00 MidiThru (forwards messages from one port to another) run >nil: c:midithru usbmidi.out.0 usbmidi.out.2 MidiSendC (sends a middle C to a specific port) Midi Controller + Sound Module (together aka as a synth) -> Audio Output The difference between midi and midi over USB is that in old school Midi the transmitter transmits whenever it wants and the receiver always has to be prepared to receive data. Easy to do at the rate of a 1990's modem speed these days. USB over midi.. turns midi into a polled protocol.. So the USB host (typically the computer) has to ask "do you have anything for me" before the remote will send. If the USB host gets busy doing other things or there is a lot of things on the USB bus to get polled, you can get delays. For its age midi is still a great protocol for music * [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/midi10.pdf USBIF's "USB Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices" document, version 1.0 from Nov 1, 1999] * [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/USB%20MIDI%20v2_0.pdf MIDI v2.0 from 2020 which AROS still needs, adds support for MIDI 2.0, MIDI-CI, and Universal MIDI Packet] Nearly all synthesizers now use the 16 MIDI channels available on a MIDI bus in one instrument alone, requiring multiple MIDI busses in a typical setup with more than one MIDI instrument. In addition, by handling multiple "virtual" cables, USB offers a solution to go beyond MIDI's 16-channel limit. MIDI data is transferred over USB using 32-bit USB-MIDI Event Packets. These packets provide an efficient method to transfer multiple MIDI streams with fixed length messages. The 32-bit USB-MIDI Event Packet allows multiple "virtual MIDI cables" routed over the same USB endpoint. This approach minimizes the number of required endpoints. It also makes parsing MIDI events easier by packetizing the separate bytes of a MIDI event into one parsed USB-MIDI event. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Computer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|which acts as USB midi host to get all usb devices talking together}} |- | <!--Description-->Hobbytronics usb host standalone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->bomebox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://neuma.studio/rpi-as-midi-host/ raspberry pi] with several midi interface(s) and linux scripting | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kenton MIDI USB Host mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acorn Instruments Masterkey 49 device | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 untested usb powered 5V regulated - similar keybed to keystation 49es but unplug then re-plug the USB cable while it is powered the device might reconnect |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Akai SynthStation 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 - sticky rubber keys - usb |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini Laptop Production Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x09e8 | <!--Product ID-->0x007c | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected and camd usb to use, not tested with apps}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 25 mini key self powered by mini USB lead - sustain port - no top left corner joystick - tested icaros 2.3 - |- | <!--Description-->Akai LPK25 LPK37 LPK49 Laptop Production Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested velocity sensitive mini keys with synth action - weak mini USB port - latency issues - |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional APC Key 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested 49 key 49-key full-sized, semi-weighted keyboard with aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->AKAI Max25 MAX49 control keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional MPK249 MPK261 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB2 USB-b - full keys semi-weighted aftertouch - midi in out - sustain and peddle port |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional Advance 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini MKII MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested USB2 USB-b midi connection only - 4 way thumb joystick top left - 25 tiny keys - velocity drum pads - plastic build quality - |- | <!--Description-->AKAI Professional APC Key 25 MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini Play | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 untested USB2 USB-b midi connection only - synth basic samples - class compliant? - small led display top centre - 25 mini keys - press and hold the "Prog Select" button then use the "Program" knob to assign a MIDI channel - |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini 3 MKIII MK3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x09E8 | <!--Product ID-->0x1049 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - - midi in out untested - }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 USB2 USB-b midi controller connection no 5pin legacy - small led display top centre - 25 mini keys goofy uneven feel of the akai keyboards - press and hold the "Prog Select" button and press pad 1 to 8 to assign a MIDI channel - tested on AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->Akai Force / MPC One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Akai Pro MPK Mini Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested 37 mini keys - class compliant device - usb-b bus powered only with 5pin midi in and out - Shift and Global for Midi Ch - |- | <!--Description-->Akai Pro Ableton Push Mk 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional MPC Key 37 49 61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested USB2 usb-b |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Photon PH-25 X25 Midi & USB keyboard/synth | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Q25 Q49 Q61 Q88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 untested |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Coda Pro Portable 88-Key Digital Piano USB MIDI Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V25 V49 V61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Alesis VI49 VI61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Alesis VX49 VX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 1 5-pin MIDI input, 1 5-pin MIDI output, 1 USB port, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Q25 Q49 Q61 Mk2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Recital 88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V25 V49 V61 MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Qmini portable 32-key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->audiothingies MicroMonsta | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested synth - |- | <!--Description-->audiothingies MicroMonsta 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 synth - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Analog Experience “The Player” USB MIDI Master Keyboard Model APE25 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb-b bus powered - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab MkII Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Keystep 32 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested 32 mini keys usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed - reset Press and hold Oct + and Oct – buttons then insert the USB cable - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab mkII | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID-->0x2209 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - - midi in out untested - }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 USB2 usb-b bus power - metal base heavier than most - Shift and press a key to select the MIDI Channel - To reset to original factory, unplug the USB cable, hold down the Oct- and Oct + buttons, plug the USB cable back in and continue to hold the buttons until the pads turn white - need software to change parameters like velocity sensitive assistance - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab MK2 MKII 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MicroFreak | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 hybrid digital/analog synthesis, |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PeYIAfn3UMs Arturia Minilab 3] [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/chj1WgMupGw ] [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/FMVdfhzg1Dw ] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 untested usb-c bus powered - 25 mini keys semi - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Keystep Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab 3 Mk3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFreak | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2022 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab Essential 49 61 88 mk3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested usb-c and 1 midi out - lack of aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia AstroLab | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab MK3 MKIII 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Control UMX490 UMX610 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Control | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Swing 32-Key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MOTOR 49 - 49-Key USB/MIDI Master Controller Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Creative EMU Xboard 25 E-MU X-Board 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CME M-Key Mkey 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 stops sending MIDI on a regular basis. The simplest "fix" is to flip it off and on via the power switch at the back |- | <!--Description-->CME Ukey U-Key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2009 |- | <!--Description-->CME Xkey | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 low-profile aluminium full size pressure sensitive with polyphonic aftertouch but keys make too much noise and that they can be too sensitive to velocity - low power draw 25ma |- | <!--Description-->CME M-Key 49 V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 simplified version of the U-key Mobiltone |- | <!--Description-->CME XKEY AIR 37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->cme xkey 37 le | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Donner Spaceline DMK-25 Donnerdeal Rantion | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Donner DMK25 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> 25 mini velocity keys with limited aftertouch - usb-c powered - 8 drum pads - 3.5mm "midi out" socket - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Digitakt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 expensive later midi usb class compliant with since 1.5 Update |- | <!--Description-->Elecktron Digitone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Digitone Keys 37-key Digital FM Synthesizer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2018 expensive |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Analog Four MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Octatrak MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 49+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 25xt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2702 | <!--Product ID-->0x2702 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected and usb driver working}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 bus powered or 12v 0.5a dc in - metal base so heavy - midi out 5pin - sustain pedal port - modulation slider - rubber coated knobs becomes sticky - |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 49xt 61xt 88xt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2702 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 12v 0.5a center pin +ve external psu required - USB i/o and 1 legacy 5pin out - full sized keys - heavy aluminium case keyboard metal base - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Evolution MK-125 MK-149 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 9v |- | <!--Description-->Evolution MK-225C MK-249C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 9v |- | <!--Description-->Evolution USB/Midi Controller MK-425C MK-449C MK-461C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|25, 49, 61 keys - }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 9V or 12V - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 37 full keys |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys Pro Mobile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 25 or 37 mini keys |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 mini velocity keys no aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys 2 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 full velocity keys no aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Kawai VPC 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> weighted keys - heavy build - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Keith McMillen Instruments K-Board | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> omni class compliant to all channels? each keypad makes them velocity, pressure, and location sensitive but not really suited for piano playing |- | <!--Description-->Keith McMillen BopPad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> omni class compliant to all channels? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg NanoKontrol 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->mini usb |- | <!--Description-->Korg Prophecy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->KORG microKONTROL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Korg microKEY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 velocity-sensitive Natural Touch keys but joystick is an alternative to the common pitch/modulation wheel design - power draw - |- | <!--Description-->Korg nanoKey nanoPad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 |- | <!--Description-->Korg Taktile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg microKEY2 25 37 49 61 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|2015 untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB powered - semi weighted - |- | <!--Description-->Korg MiniList | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg MinKey nanoPad nanoPad 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Nautilus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC3 7 series - Artis 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->fatar TP-8 semi-weighted action |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC3 A8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Mobile keys 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 POD Studio KB37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Tone Port KB37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Midiman (later M-Audio) Oxygen8 Ozone Ozonic 25 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|not class compliant - untested 5pin legacy }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 2004 - 25 full keys - slider/fader to left of lcd display - |- | <!--Description-->m-audio oxygen keystation (61 key) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio eKeys 37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom 25, 49, 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 bus powered and 12v psu - if sliders/faders are on right - legacy midi 5pin - chunky unit - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 8v2, 49, 61 (silver) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 full size velocity sensitive 12v psu - sending random pitchbend info - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 37e 49e, 61e MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 - ok key action - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 37es 49se 61es, 88es MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25/49/61/88 (blue) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 [https://m-audio.com/products/view/oxygen-25-legacy advised Class-compliant and GM/GM2/XG SysEx messages] with full size velocity sensitive 12v psu - sending random pitchbend info - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom 25, 49, 61 (2nd Gen) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 semi-weighted mini keys - bus powered and 9v psu for 25/49 and 12v for 61 - if sliders/faders are on left - legacy midi 5pin - chunky unit - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom Pro 25, 49, 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 poor construction |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Axiom AIR 25 M-Audio Axiom Air Mini 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25 III (3rd Gen) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested - usb only - rubber keys sticky - |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Keyrig 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation Mini 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 - mini usb - plays a few notes and then stops responding randomly - try plugging it into port 1 or 2 on your pc - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 49 MK2 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 USB port and class compliant |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 61 MK3 MKIII MIDI keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 usb compliant untested |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25 IV | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 choice |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio CTRL-49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio ProKeys 88, 88sx | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation Mini 32 MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 mini usb - some power or incompatibility issue with the native USB ports of the laptop, plugged in a passive USB 2.0 HUB (not USB 3.0, not powered) |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3328SvuJsLw M-Audio Oxygen25 MKV] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0763 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0023 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - midi in out untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 25 full size semi keys - USB2 usb-b but no 5pin classic plugs - channel select SHIFT button and CHANNEL on keybed - plastic build - holding down both the Octave + and - for factory reset - more limited in what you can do with it than IV 4th one - tested on AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen Pro 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 untested semi full keys |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen Pro Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested - 32 smaller keys - not endless encoders - usb only - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Hammer 88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Moog | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Moog Minitaur | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-VAVE SMK-25mini 25key MIDI Control Keyboard Y6I0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments NI Primus A25 JamMate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not compliant uses snd-usb-caiaq module, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol S88 S61 S49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 - weighted keys - |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine Micro Mikro MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe? |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Kontrol S49 S61 S88 MkII MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 all MK2 MK3 power up the keyboard using USB, it will set the keyboards MIDI port to computer MIDI only without any option to set it to use the MIDI DIN, meaning you cannot connect the keyboard to hardware and power from USB, you MUST power with the power adapter and physically unplug from any USB connection - |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol A25 A49 A61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/sikorak666/maschine-mikro-mk3-driver Native Instruments Maschine Micro Mikro Plus MK3 MKIII] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol M32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 untested 32 smaller keys - no drum pads - USB only - |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Kontrol S49 S61 S88 MkIII MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description-->NI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Neusonik iBoard 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Impact LX25+ LX49+ LX61+ LX88+ SE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 budget full-size velocity-sensitive synth-action keyboard - |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Impact GX49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> USB port - |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama P4 P6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> USB & USB Micro B, 5-pin MIDI out, 2 x TRS inputs with 49 semi-weighted, velocity sensitive with aftertouch |- | <!--Description-->Nektar SE25 SE49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> mini keys - micro usb bus powered - velocity and sustain button |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama P6 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama T6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nord Stage 3 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> sysex |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMote 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 lhs XY touchpad and the joystick - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 49 61 88 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not USB class compliant |- | <!--Description-->Novation 49 61 SL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 semi-weighted Fatar TP-8 or TP-9 keybed |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMote 25SL 49SL 61SL soft label | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 - two long top liquid-crystal display LCD strips - XY touchpad and the joystick - |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMOTE 25LE | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected, usb driver in devs/midi for camd to use}} | <!--Opinion-->2007 USB-b powered, 9v center pin positive or 6 MN1500 AA batteries - X/Y touchpad and the combined pitch and modulation joystick - no aftertouch but can use both the legacy MIDI OUT and USB port simultaneously |- | <!--Description-->Novation Nocturn 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 untested sending random pitchbend info |- | <!--Description-->Novation 49 61 SL MkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 semi-weighted Fatar TP-8 or TP-9 keybed |- | <!--Description-->Novation MiniNova | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2013 |- | <!--Description-->Novation Impulse 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 velocity aftertouch‑sensitive semi-weighted keyboards and eight backlit pads - USB, 5-pin MIDI out - |- | <!--Description-->Novation Circuit Tracks / Rhythm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 untested |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 49 61 88 MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB class compliant - full keys - |- | <!--Description-->Novation Launchpad Mini MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested 8x8 buttons with 16 backlit |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey Mini MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 untested - 25 soft mini keys - 2 rotary wheels lhs - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 37 49 61 88 MK3 MKIII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 USB class compliant choice - full keys - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey Mini MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested - 25 soft mini keys - 2 sliders lhs - |- | <!--Description-->Novation 61SL Mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Nymphes Dreadbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> 6 voice analog synth |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Oberheim MC 2000 EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 88 keys fully weighted - very heavy - |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus ATOM SQ Hybrid MIDI Keyboard/Pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://polyend.com/tracker/ Polyend Tracker] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland ED PC-300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 USB MIDI keyboard controller 49-key |- | <!--Description-->Roland EDIROL PCR-M30 PCR-M50 PCR-M80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol PCR-30 PCR-50 PCR-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 untested 32 key - |- | <!--Description-->Roland PC-50 PC-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- | <!--Description-->Roland PCR-500 PCR-800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 61 velocity-sensitive keys with aftertouch |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-88 a-49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 USB port - weighted keys velocity no aftertouch - class compliant with press FUNCTION so it is lit. Press the key labelled "ADV.", Press the "+" button so it is lit - |- | <!--Description-->Roland PC-200 mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 some had fatar keys |- | <!--Description-->Roland MC-707 Groovebox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 |- | <!--Description-->Roland MC-101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 untested |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-500 A500Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-300 A300Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Roland JUNO DS, FA, Fantom, JUPITER X / Xm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 (be sure that USB driver is set to "Generic" - requires device rebooting) |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-88 a-49 MKii MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 expensive with USB-c port - hammer-action keyboard weighted keys - Class-compliant if USB-C enables bus power - MIDI 2.0 later - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ROLI Seaboard RISE 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Samson Graphite 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Samson Carbon 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sequential TAKE 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic VMK-161 and VMK-161 Plus Organ version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->TP-8O action is the unweighted, organ-style waterfall keybed - usb midi in out - 9v psu - |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL990XP midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic VMK176 Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->USB and midi connectivity |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL880 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL73 SL88 Studio midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> hammer-action Fatar TP semi-weighted keys |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic Numa Organ 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> 73 key TP-8O action is the unweighted, organ-style waterfall keybed used in nearly all clonewheels |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic Numacompact 2/2x, Numa X Piano | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero CommandKey49 CommandKey25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero SZ-MiniCommand Mini-Command USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero SPC61 MIDI Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> bus powered - 5 octave |- | <!--Description-->SubZero ControlKey49S 49 Key Slim MIDI Controller Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Synido TempoKey K25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 25 mini keys - usb-c powered |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Winterbloom Sol | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Worlde Panda | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha KX8 KX49 KX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha CMC-PD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not class compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha P45B P-45 Digital Piano | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha P-115 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested weighted keys - USB midi port |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha MX49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 should compliant untested |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Montage, CP73/88, YC, MODX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha PSR-E353, PSR-E443 PSR-S670, PSR-S770, PSR-S970, PSR-A3000, TYROS-5 NP-12, NP-32 DGX-650, DGX-660 P-105, P-115, P-255 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha MX49 II V2 Black Blue | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->DJM V10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> dj |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Kontrol DJ Pro midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> detected but untested |- | <!--Description-->Numark Mixtrack Pro II USB DJ Controller Djay | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->older generation pioneer DDJ-SX2 dj | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum AL-22 AL22c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum AL-88 Schneidersladen AL88c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum U3-88c Midi Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> no CopperLan support Midi network using a UTP Ethernet patch cable) |- | <!--Description-->Behringer BCF2000 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.behringer.com/EN/home.aspx Behringer] BCR2000 1in 2out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer B-CONTROL DEEJAY BCD3000 DJ Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMD404 UMD202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Creative EMU 0404/USB midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->DigiDesign / Focusrite Command 8 Control Surface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 supports MIDI continuous controller (CC) and note data. SysEx dumping and loading is also supported |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Digi 002 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 firewire only |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Digi 003 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire only |- | <!--Description-->emagic m4 2x4 AMT8 Unitor 8 Mk2 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x00d0 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0x010 0x0103 | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 offers MTS (Midi Time Stamping) - 12v 2a psu centre pos - usb mini with rs232 and rs422 serial ports - 16 channels (8-in / 8-out), this rack-mountable unit - |- | <!--Description-->Evolution U-Control UC-16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| detected}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Saffire 6 USB 1.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Guillemot Maxi Studio ISIS Vintage Sound Card MIDI Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->1998 |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.ucapps.de/mbhp_usb.html MidiBox] Hardware Platform USB Module | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Control Universal Pro XT with One Two Extenders | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Audiophile USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport UNO old version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio MidiMan 1x1 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 [http://sourceforge.net/projects/linux-hotplug/ firmware update] |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 2x2 yellowy green blue, green or silver chassis plastic box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|MIDISPORT 2x2 or 4x4 interfaces from previous production series (blue, green or silver chassis) are not class-compliant}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Audiosport Quattro USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant as [http://usb-midi-fw.sourceforge.net/ firmware required and that is buggy], |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio UC-33 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 1x1 2x2 4x4 Anniversary Edition, black box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Mooer Steep II Multi-Platform USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?t=52920 Mark of the Unicorn Motu Fastlane] 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=560852&postcount=8 not working on OS4]}} | <!--Opinion--> not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Motu Micro Lite 1x1 and MOTU microlite 5x5 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion--> good unit but poor just plug in support and not class compliant - USB2 usb-b - |- | <!--Description-->Motu MIDI Express 128 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->poor support serial port only - offers MTS (Midi Time Stamping) A serial port based MIDI interface or a USB interface without MTS will have a MIDI slop of up to 2ms on record and playback. MTS provides accuracy for record and playback to around .3ms - five times more accurate than serial or non-MTS." |- | <!--Description-->MOTU.com MIDI Express XT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 for many USB should have octocoupled connection to reduce groundloop humm, usually the timing is off |- | <!--Description-->MOTU MIDI Timepiece AV | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion--> not class compliant is one of the best multi-port MIDI interfaces ever made as USB model connects to the computer as an 8x16 interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments GmbH Audio 8 DJ, 4 DJ, 2 DJ | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|needs dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not class compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Qcon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|did not match to camdusbmidi.class USB audio midi with onboard DSP}} | <!--Opinion-->1998 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Corp Edirol UM-2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0005 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{no|is not bound via camdusbmidi.class }} | <!--Opinion-->1999 not bound to any midi class - 2x2 - tested Aros One USb 2.4 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-100G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->1999 USB audio midi with onboard DSP |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-880 8x8 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 under poseidon but could work with run >nil: c:midithru out.0 "EDIROL UM-880.out.2" |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1 blue plastic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Unk| bound??? via camdusbmidi.class - untested midi in out}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 UM-1 - 1-in/1-out (16 channels) |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 1-in/1-out (16 channels) |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-2E | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1X midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|do not have the Advanced Driver Switch on them}} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1SX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0052 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{No|do not have the Advanced Driver Switch on them}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-2C - 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-1G 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-2G 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/spotify/linux/blob/master/sound/usb/usbquirks.h Roland Edirol UA20 UA-20] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->Roland UM-1EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-2EX 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 adds a second MIDI OUT |- | <!--Description-->Roland Cakewalk UM-3G - 3x3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Cakewalk ua-25excw 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not class compliant mode |- | <!--Description-->[https://alsa.opensrc.org/Edirol_UA-25EX Roland Edirol UA55 UA-55 Cakewalk UA25 EX] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Sonuus B2M Bass MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Sonuus G2M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg CMC Series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Subzero SZ-MB44 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Swisssonic MIDI1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 AmigaOS there is no output at midichannel one and two but if play a midi file there is only output on some channels and if pressed stop the prog freezes or the whole system crashes |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-428 US-422 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2000 not compatible |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.tascam.com/Products/US-224.html US-224] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1604 | <!--Product ID-->0x8004 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2002 does not bind to any class |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-1x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-122 MKII midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID-->0x8021 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not detected / binding to camdusbmidi.class on AROS 2.4 usb }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 detected but not working 2-in/2-out USB two XLR microphone preamps with phantom power for condenser microphones |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-200 US-400 US-600 US-800 US-1200 US-1800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 may not be totally usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha UX-16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE and Pro version midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 dc 6v power - 3 USB hubs, midi in out , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alesis I/O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 powered USB hub required, not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Alesis IO2 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Alesis IO4 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XTouch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> psu needed |- | <!--Description-->Behringer X-Touch Compact | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Behringer X-Touch Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant?, usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Phoria UMD404HD UMD202HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe class compliant - volume low, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CME U2 MIDI Pro 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> current model |- | Creative EMU XMIDI 1X1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 early versions with sysex checksum errors |- | <!--Description-->Creative E-MU Xmidi 1x1 Tab (V3) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 tab version class compliant but report that when transferring 'System Exclusive' messages (SysEx) the unit could not handle the highest data rate leading to data corruption |- | Creative EMU XMIDI 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 sysex errors |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Mbox 2 Mini now Avid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 USB powered but not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Mbox II Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 USB powered but not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Engl Z7 MIDI Interface (E660/E610/E360/E930) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> guitar? |- | <!--Description-->Elektron TurboMidi TM-1 1in 1out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M4U 4x4 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered - |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M8U 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M4U XL 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> ploytec chipset |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M8U XL 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hardware routing e.g. x on input 5 to synth y on output 7 - ploytec chipset |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate II 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI ROM I/O | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 romio version |- | <!--Description-->ESI M4U XT | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2573 | <!--Product ID-->0x0002 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|is bound via camdusbmidi.class AROS One 2.4 - untested midi in out}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 - |- | <!--Description-->ESI M8U XT 8in 8out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 discontinued 2018 |- | <!--Description-->ESI M8UEX USB3.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 current model |- | <!--Description-->ESI M4U eX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 current model |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate eX midi interface 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 current model, well liked and might class compliant?? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->icon midiport 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->iCON CubeMi 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant? |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity mio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 class compliant but reported issues with sending System Exclusive (SysEx) MIDI messages and MIDI signals getting cut off |- | <!--Description--> iConnectMidi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->iCM2 iCM4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity iConnectMIDI4+ L | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 class compliant?? |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity MioXL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig MIDI 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant |- | <!--Description-->iRig Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton Electronics pro solo mk2 midi to cv converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton Midi Thru-25 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Keytech MT18E 8 Way Midi Thru box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> 9 to 12v psu required |- | <!--Description-->MidiPlus Midi 2x2 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->MidiPlus Midi 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered |- | <!--Description-->MidiTech MIT-00151 Midiface 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->MidiTech Midiface 4x4 8x8 16x16 thru merge | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Miditech Midilink mini 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport UNO only if box is labeled Class Compliant and latest MIDISPORT 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track Ultra (6 in 6 out) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not usb compliant, - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midiman Midisport 2x2 Anniversary Edition [https://gearspace.com/board/electronic-music-instruments-and-electronic-music-production/1133862-why-there-hardly-any-midi-interfaces.html not stable enough] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 USB2 usb-b - does not need firmware and supposedly plug and play - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 4x4 Anniversary Edition | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> rumored does not need firmware - supposedly plug and play - issues with its firmware for some and lacks configurable routing |- | <!--Description-->Maudio Fast Track Ultra 8R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Audio 6 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant but bus powered, |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Midiflex 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 class compliant and usb-b powered - used as a 1 in / 3 out, 2 in / 2 out or 4 out 5pin sockets - |- | <!--Description-->Neusonik IM-One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Peavey Xport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> guitars only |- | <!--Description-->Roland UM-ONE UM-1 mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 USB class compliant if switch to TAB for class compliant mode rather than the COMPUTER mode |- | <!--Description-->Squarp Hermid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg Midex 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant? supporting MIDI Time Stamping protocol |- | <!--Description-->Swissonic MidiConnect 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Tapco LiNK.midi USB 4x4 (Loud technologies) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-2x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2014 5v dc power, midi out in, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-4x4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-16x08 US-20x20 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom U-24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi to 5pin interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi to 5pin interface |- | <!--Description-->Unbranded cable | 0x552d | 0x4348 | F110 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|detected but no usb driver in devs/midi for camd to use}} | <!--Opinion-->detected but not working the USB-MIDI conversion functionality of the cheapo USB MIDI "cable" interface is simply lacking, possibly being incapable of handling MIDI strings longer than 3 bytes long SysEx strings (e.g. SysEx dumps) - tested in Icaros 2.3 - |- | <!--Description-->USB2.0-MIDI Unbranded cable with clear braided underneath leads | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x752D | <!--Revision-->0254 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|detected binding to camdusbmidi.class but untested midi in / out}} | <!--Opinion-->untested but better to get a branded version - tested AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->LogiLink USB to Midi In-Out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->untested cheap cable version but issues with latency on other systems |- | <!--Description--> gm5 USB midi chip DIY option only | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Doremidi LEKATO MIDI USB C Interface 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Thomann Midi USB 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> Prodipe made |- | <!--Description-->Prodipe MIDI 1i/1o | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |} Classic 5pin DIN controllers for above interfaces {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai s5000 s6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi digital samplers |- | <!--Description-->Akai AX80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Casio CZ-5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Casio CZ-3000 CZ-1000 CZ-101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Cheetah MS6 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 multi-timbral, six-voice (twelve-oscillator), analogue synthesiser module is loaded with CEM 3396s |- | <!--Description-->Ensoniq ESQ1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Integra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Wavestation Ex A/D SR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1986 ex has piano and drum sounds |- | <!--Description-->Korg DW-8000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg DW-6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Poly 800 MK1 Poly-800ii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> all plastic and can run on batteries - 49 keys non-velocity dco synt analogue filter |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland D-50 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|1987 untested greater concern would be moisture and wear}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland A50 (76) A80 (88) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|1989 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->ROLAND JUNO-D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland Juno 106 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->80s kx73 or kx88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland ED PC-160A PC-180A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} legacy DIN5 MIDI port only - 6 AA batteries or 9v psu - One regular source of failure for me were emty batteries (even with red control light still active). Another source was a bad MIDI cable - unplug then re-plug the USB cable while it is powered the device might reconnect |- | <!--Description-->Roland M1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland S-550 S-760 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> digital samplers kontakt replaced these? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha DX7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1983 12bit |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha DX7S DX72IID DX7IIFD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1987 16bit versions |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} The MIDI standard was published in August 1983. The inventors, Kakehashi and Smith finally received a Technical Grammy Award in 2013 for their work. The MIDI files that contained just the note data, velocity and timing meant you could transfer an entire studio session from one place to another on one floppy disk and it could control all the synths and drum samplers. Pass-thru meant that one computer could run an entire bands worth of instruments. It's bulletproof too. MIDI never goes wrong, it's always a bug in software that causes any issue - you can absolutely rely on it to go gigging with, take your synths, controllers and computers and not crash an entire gig at your 100,000 person venue. The MIDI hardware specification is very simple (voltage, polarity, screening, protection and a fast enough opto-isolator), it assumes that the data it sends and receives between MIDI devices is to the MIDI data standard and just passes it on. The microprocessor in the hardware does all the work. The minimum for a computer/MIDI interface is that it meets the MIDI hardware specification. It is attached to the computer bus and handles the electrical conversions required. To meet the MIDI hardware specification, to be class compliant as a USB device all it has to do is report itself properly when plugged in. The other half of the equation is the MIDI data standard, and for a computer MIDI interface the main issue is the speed of data transmission. The bus speed of the computer is faster than the speed of the MIDI standard so it can generate and send MIDI data faster than a MIDI device can receive it. The MIDI standards have nothing to say on that bottleneck at all. MIDI was designed to be very simple and very open, it just defines a standard for the messages and leaves it up to manufacturers to implement them in the way they want. That's what makes it so powerful a tool, and also what makes it so confusing and frustrating at times. For midi, the hardware/software combination at various connection points handles the translation to/from midi (or other protocols). Drivers would be needed for midi, including clock and SysEx signal (actually claiming to handle ALL midi quirks transparently All the important MIDI data types can be sent (CC, NRPN, RPN, MMC, Note On/Off, program change) There is no official way to solve the data bottleneck. Early software sequencers and librarians tried to solve it by having an option to buffer SYSEX data in software and transmit it at the MIDI data rate. The downside is that hogs the bus and can hit computer performance. Interface manufacturers would add a hardware buffer which would take all the MIDI data from the PC bus and feed it into the MIDI at the slower data rate, but that added cost and created timing issues. Things have moved on since then, but the principles remain the same. You can buffer in the hardware or in software, whether that is in the application or the interface driver. SYSEX will work perfectly well with that budget cable if your software handles the buffering. And while the cables with hardware buffers make SYSEX easier, they still have potential problems because of the limitations of the MIDI data rate. Your MIDI clock doesn't like being interrupted with a big program dump The serial / parallel ports were a direct connection, so faster. Now, everything in the computer is virtual and the only thing connected to the hardware is the kernel, hence everything is by default bottlenecked and jittery, regardless of which connection. So by the time the interface gets the information it's already too late. Ethernet network cable to transport MIDI over large distances, connect 2 MIDI In and 2 MIDI Out ports to patch, remap, filter and merge MIDI flows on a fine channel basis for tight MIDI throughput, latency and jitter Possibilities for DAWs of the future including a kind of sync reference for timing reference which an interface could sync to, hence all the timings then would be locked between the grid on the DAW screen and the MIDI info. Preemptible, low latency and accuracy are essential for good communication. One of the first things you need to do, is make sure your MIDI software sets the interface to the same MIDI channel as your keyboard (usually 1) Do you want to send just your master keyboard to other synths or to be able to use any keyboard with any synth? 1st option is relatively simple. Just need to send midi from your master keyboard into a midi splitter that redistributes the signal onto your synths. Each synth will be set up to receive midi on a specific channel so the only challenge is to find a way to select to which channel you are sending midi. Some master keyboards can do that although not many that have a dedicated knob or switch on the panel and most require a bit of menu diving. Could use a midi box that offers channel selection but usually this is not very workflow friendly. The software route would require using the mouse. 2nd option is a bit more complex but superior workflow by sending midi messages into a merge box, from there into a hardware sequencer that allows to select midi channel, then on to a midi interface that distributes the signal to the synths. Master keyboard MIDI-in to computer. External hardware sampler MIDI-out from computer. Audio-out from sampler to audio-in on computer/device. Blue Ribbon Soundworks Bars & Pipes Professional (1993/4) GM (1984), GS (1987), XG level 1-3 (1994-1997), GM level 2 (1999) GM GM1 imposes several requirements beyond the MIDI 1.0 specification. While MIDI 1.0 by itself provides a communication protocol which ensures that different instruments can interoperate at a fundamental level e.g sound modules. GM goes further in two ways. First, GM requires that all compliant MIDI instruments meet a certain minimal set of features, such as being able to play at least 24 notes simultaneously (polyphony). Second, GM attaches specific interpretations to many parameters and control messages which were left unspecified in the MIDI 1.0 specification. A minimum of 128 MIDI Program Numbers (conforming to the GM 1 Instrument Patch Map) and 47 percussion sounds (conforming to the GM 1 Percussion Key Map). Support for controller number 1, 7, 10, 11, 64, 100, 101, 121 and 123; support for channel pressure and pitch bend controllers. General MIDI Level 2 or GM2 is a specification for synthesizers which defines several requirements beyond the MIDI standard and is based on General MIDI (GM) and Roland GS extensions. It was adopted in 1999 by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA). * Number of Notes: 32 simultaneous notes * MIDI Channels: 16 * Simultaneous Melodic Instruments – up to 16 (all Channels) * Simultaneous Percussion Kits – up to 2 (Channel 10/11) Program and bank change events General MIDI 2 compatible synthesizers access all of the 256 instruments by setting cc#0 (Bank Select MSB) to 121 and using cc#32 (Bank Select LSB) to select the variation bank before a Program Change. Variation bank 0 contains the full GM (General MIDI 1) sound set. Variations using other bank numbers are new to General MIDI 2, and correspond to variation sounds introduced in Roland GS. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CluuHrr7HG4 Major WWHWWWH, Minor WHWWHWW scale], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jjm7Ti-iwz0 Chords], ==usb audio== USB audio has recently made available for Aros, there are many standards introduced over the years. Much is still untested. *Introduced 2000 and from 2014 USB Audio 1 UAC1 16bit 44.1kHz *Introduced 2006 and from 2014 USB Audio 2 [https://www.usb.org/document-library/usb-device-class-definition-audio-devices-release-20-errata-and-ecn-through-april UAC2] 24bit 192kHz *Introduced 2016 and from 2024 USB Audio 3 [https://www.usb.org/documents UAC3] 32bit 384kHz USB group decided to rewrite the audio standard, so [https://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/record/usbaudio2.lha UAC2] and [https://archive.fosdem.org/2019/schedule/event/linux_and_usb_audio_class_3/attachments/slides/3345/export/events/attachments/linux_and_usb_audio_class_3/slides/3345/Linux_and_USB_Audio_Class_3___FOSDEM_2019.pdf UAC3]. They added clock selection and control, timing domains and others. Part of the changes included changing many of the descriptors that an audio device uses to describe itself to the machine. PsdErrorlog/PsdDevlister? The AHI driver generated only supports mono/stereo at any bit rates between 8 and 32 bit per sample, but not multichannel modes and only rates up to 65KHz (because AHI uses a 16-bit word for frequencies). If the soundcard does not offer such a PCM 8-32 bit mode at frequencies lower than 65 KHz, there's nothing much that can be done about it on the computer side other than revising and expanding the AHI standard. Most cheap USB soundcards do though. AHI does not support six channel playback. It only supports mono, stereo and multichannel (8 channels). Due to the multichannel mode not being used by any application so far, the usbaudio.class does not support multichannel playback, especially not "upchannelling" stereo to six or more channels. If this USB device does not support a two channel mode, you can't use it under AHI. Untested but most likely to work, at least 2 mic inputs (low impedance) & instruments (high impedance) and made in the last 10 years *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMuA-2FbJxE Entry level <100Euro] BOMGE U202, Behringer UMC, Presonus Studio, *[ Next tier <200Euro] Audient iD, Solid SSL2 and SSL2+, Lewitt, Focusrite Scarlett, Arturia MiniFuse, *[ Prosumer <300Euro] Focusrite Clarett+, *[ Professional <500Euro] RME Babyface, *[ Studio >500Euros] Bands should need 4 or more mic inputs [http://forum.xda-developers.com/showthread.php?p=38364030 XDA Forum thread], <pre> <- Computer <- Mobile Phone / Tablet (OTG) <- Digital Cameras <- Video <- Webcams Base Computer <-> OBS like <- Audio Mixer <- Microphone(s) -> Internet -> Youtube & Chat </pre> USB AUDIO CARDS - UAC Compliant {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" |Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Playback ! width="10%" |Records ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Antelope Galaxy 64 Synergy Core | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> not compliant so does not wotk with Aros and a high-end 64-channel AD/DA converter HDX, Dante connectivity and a Thunderbolt Audio interface |- | <!--Description-->Antelope Galaxy 32 Synergy Core | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> not be compliant so does not wotk with Aros as Antelope Audio does not provide official drivers, control software, or an Antelope Launcher |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Mini Fuse 1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, okay pre amp 1 combi input, cirrus logic cs4272 ad converter, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFuse 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant usb-c with usb2.0, okay pre amps with good dynamic range 110dB, cirrus logic cs4272 ad converter, two combi inputs for mic, line or guitar, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFuse 4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, okay 110dB dynamic range, -129dB EIN, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia AudioFuse 16Rig | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD44 mk1 mki | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Audient evo4 EVO8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD4 mk2 mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Audient id14 mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant and usb-c bus powered, good, , 0-in/14-out audio interface with ADAT expandability, balanced inserts |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD44 Mk2 Mkii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC22 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC202HD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps ein -129 dBu, 24bit ADC, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC404HD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps, 24bit adc, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC204HD 192 Empower Tribe | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID-->0x0508 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMC1820 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2016, bus complaint?, okay midas pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UM2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, poor zenyx pre-amps with high noise floor, plastic build no rf shielding, latency issues, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer x Air XR12 XR16 XR18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 usb and network |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Saffire 6 USB 1.1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, , , midi, strictly NEC USB 2.0, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 8i6 Gen 1 MOSC0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, but |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 1 MOSC0003 *TP1 - 3.3V, tested ok *TP2 - U4 control signal, 3.3V present at all time. *TP4 - Ground *TP6 - 48V, tested ok *TP7 - Ground *TP8 - Ground | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 usually avoid early Gen 1, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2021/08/75-focusrite-scarlett-2i4-1st-gen.html Focusrite Scarlet 2i4 Gen 1 (slide toggles) MOSC0004] *TP1 - 3.3V, tested 3.22v *TP2 - U4 control signal, 3.3V present *TP4 - Ground *TP6 - measure 47.72v * AKM 4384ET (VDD 5v) * Cirrus Logic CS4272-CZZ (VA 4.94v/ VD 3.2v/ VL 3.2v) * all four HC4066 (VCC 4.96v) * XMOS XS1-L01A-TQ128-C5 (all VDD 1.08v/ all VVDIO 3.23v/ PPLAVDD 0.99v/ PCU-VDDIO 3.23v) 2i4S *TP1 seems to be 0V *TP2 should be 5V *TP3 should be *TP6 should be 48V *TP8 should be 3.3V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, pre amps JRC NJM2122 and NJM4565, [https://statics.cirrus.com/pubs/proDatasheet/CS4272_F1.pdf CS4272 adc], [https://pdf.datasheet.live/e5e5fd1c/akm.com/AK4384.pdf AK4384 output pair], Xmos XS1-L8A-64-TQ128 processor and firmware in Winbond 25X40CL 4Mbit, an SMSC Microchip USB3343 interface and a Microchip PL611 clock generator - two Intersil / Renesas ISL97519A for the phantom power rail, two OnSemi NCP1521B for the 3.3V (digital) and 1V (Xmos core) rails - |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite iTrack Solo USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 1st Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, , Cirrus CS4272, |- | <!--Description-->[http://wiki.linuxaudio.org/wiki/current_audio_gear Focusrite ] Scarlett 4i4 Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, , Cirrus CS4272, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 6i6 Gen1 MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, , , 12v psu, the headphone outs mirror the outs on the back panel, so that's six independent outs. 4 independent analog output paths, plus two over spdif, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2019/03/38-focusrite-scarlett-18i8-gen1-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 1st Gen MOSC0008] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, JRC NJM4565 provide most of the opamps, pair of JRC NJM2122's for inputs 1 and 2, [http://www.mouser.com/ds/2/76/cs4272_f1-43250.pdf Cirrus CS4272], 12v 1a +central psu to a pair of National Semiconductor LM2672 for 3.3V rail and the +6.9V rail, Xmos XS1–L16A–128 dual-row QFN package, firmware a Winbond 25X40C 4Mbit SPI Flash and an SMSC USB3343 interface chip, the two headphone outs are completely independent so 6 independent analog output paths, plus two over spdif, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Clarett+ 8Pre | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 great, expensive, maybe usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 2 (slide toggles) MOSC0006 *TP6 should be 48V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8202 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, USB-b bus powered, good preamps ein equivalent input noise -128 dBu, 24-bit 192kHz CS4272 as well as an additional AKM AK4384ET for the second stereo output pair, 4 screws under bottom rubber, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2021/07/focusrite-scarlett-2i4-2nd-gen-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 2i4 Gen 2 (slide toggles) MOSC0014] *TP6 should be 48V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, USB-b bus powered, good preamps NJM2122's, NJM4565's and CMOS switches (HEF4053 and HEF4066), CS4272 and a AKM AK4384ET, Xmos XU208-256-TQ64-C10 with firmware stored in a Macronix MX25L8006E 8Mbit flash memory, clocking by a Cirrus Logic CS2100, an MP1542 boost converter creates +6V and -6V rails, powering the opamps and the rest of the analog circuitry, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 6i6 Gen2 MOSC0016 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 2nd Gen MOSC0019 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2024/03/focusrite-scarlett-18i8-gen2-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 2nd Gen MOSC00] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Red 16Line | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 may not be compliant as Focusrite provides no drivers - 64-in/64-out Pro Tools - dual Thunderbolt 3 audio interface with ultra-low latency A-D/D-A conversion - Red Evolution mic preamps |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 3rd Gen MOSC0024 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant usb-c but usb2, preamps, ad/dc 24bit 192kHz, most Focusrite gen3 interfaces have encrypted processors, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i6 Gen3 MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, USB2 class compliant device, but with custom mixer interface |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 3 (push in switches) MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8210 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, USB-c bus powered, good preamps ein equivalent input noise -128 dBu, 24-bit 192kHz Cirrus Logic xfr002c and cs4272 chips, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 3rd gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 3rd Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8214 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, , , no screws under the rubber pads on the bottom, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo Studio Mk3 USB Audio Interface MOSC0030 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 4i4 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Studio 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 4th Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 4th Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FractalAudio FM9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Fractal Audio AM4 platform | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 not working |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Lewitt Connect 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Lewitt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mooer Steep II Multi-Platform USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Motu UltraLite AVB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb not compliant? |- | <!--Description-->MOTU M2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant?, usb-c, good pre amps, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->MOTU M4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description-->MOTU U2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, good but latest had hardware revision |- | <!--Description-->MOTU UltraLite-mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description-->MOTU UltraLite-mk5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nuemann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb audio compliant, great pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Neumann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->neuralDSP Quad Cortex QC platform | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 cc compliant but plugins not working |- | <!--Description-->NeuralDSP QC Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 cc complaint |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Neve Genesys Black G16 G32 G64 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> not compliant - very good very expensive |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Presonus AudioBox USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe not usb compliant, usb1.1 usb-b bus powered, okay pre-amps, 24bit ADC 48Khz max, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus Audiobox 1818VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus AudioBox 44VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 may not be usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus AudioBox 22VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 2|4 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, usb-b, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 2|6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 6|8 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe compliant, needs ext psu, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus Studio 24c 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, good, adc, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus Studio 26c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus® Studio 68c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus AudioBox USB 96 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, high preamp noise, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus Quantum ES2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prism | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prism Lyra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Platane UP1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant usb- UAC2 asynchronous protocol, 64dB Low-noise Mic amplifier, 32Bit High End ADC and DAC, 16dBu High-power ti headphone amplifier |- | <!--Description-->Platane UP2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Platane | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RME Babyface/UC/UFX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->RME Fireface UCX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 might be able to put into class compliant cc although a firewire device, pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->RME Babyface Pro FS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe not usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->RME Fireface UCX II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 might be class compliant usb-b, pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL2 SSL2+ Mk1 1st Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, good, adc, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL12 SSL18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, bus powered, good pre-amps, up to 32-bit 192kHz AD/DA converters, 12-in 8-out, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL2 SSL2+ MkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, good pre amps ein -130 dBu, ad/dc, okay latency, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Topping E1x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->Topping Pro E2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->UAD UA Apollo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->UA apollo 2nd Gen twin X (Duo/Quad), X4, X6, X8, X8P, and X16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 bus compliant?, usb- |- | <!--Description-->UA apollo twin x quad 3rd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 bus compliant?, usb- |- | <!--Description-->Universal Audio Volt 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->|Universal Audio Volt 276 2|76 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Universal Audio Volt 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE Pro AI01 Electromusic Interface Expander - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, 4-in/4-out USB 2.0 audio interface with a built-in USB hub and MIDI I/O, up to 24-bit/96kHz |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE Pro AI02 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->|Alesis io2 io|2, io14 io|14, io26 io|26 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 bus powered but not usb compliant, okay pre-amps, 2, 4 or 8 mics respectively, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis iO2 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Core 1 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe cc, mini usb, poor latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire only, not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel two‑in, two‑out, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Ensemble | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire, not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 1st Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant micro-usb for basic features, , , single‑channel up to 48kHz |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 2nd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant usb- and maybe aa batteries, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c with most features, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 3rd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Ensemble Thunderbolt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Boom | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c with most features, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ART PRO Audio Usb Mix | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant bus powered, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 1 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID-->01000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 mbox original was usb1 and not a usb class compliant device, and had the much hated "focusrite designed" mic preamps, light blue front plate and the sticky out feet |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 midi not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Pro USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Mini USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Micro USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->AVID MBox 3rd gen Mini or Standard but Pro is Firewire | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->behringer u-control uca202 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x8bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2902 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, draws a lot of power - dac ti burr-brown - no microphone pre-amp - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-CONTROL UCA 222 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 maybe usb compliant, - no microphone pre-amp - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Black Lion Audio 2x2 evolution | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant but , okay with 109dB range - poor noise floor, 24-bit 192kHz Cirrus Logic CS4272, average latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Bomge 11s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 |- | <!--Description-->Bomge 22s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 |- | <!--Description-->Bomge BMG22 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb-c, 24bit 192kHz but only use much lower, may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge U202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-c, 32bit 192kHz but only use much lower, may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge U204 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-c, 32bit 192kHz but only use much lower , may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->TI Burr-Brown PCM2702E PCM2704 PCM2704C Muse Audio Mini USB DAC board | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2704 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, no mic input - goodish quality |- | <!--Description-->TI Burr-Brown PCM2900 PCM2902 PCM2906 USB DAC board | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2900 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, no mic input - goodish quality |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng MD22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-b powered, 24bit 192kHz though is 96kHz, |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 usb-b powered, 24bit 192kHz though is 96kHz, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 2|6 em2|6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 not uac |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 6|2m | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 not uac |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 6|2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 not uac |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Ego Systems, Inc. in Korea (ESI) joining with RIDI GmbH | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2006 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->esi Mixvibes U46 Mk II USB audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 not usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->ESI ESU22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->esi U24XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 24 bits, 2 analogue inputs and outputs with 6.3 mm jack connection, Output L can be used as a headphone output, S / PDIF digital input - |- | <!--Description-->esi U46XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->ESI Originals, Inc ESIO MAYA22USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI MAYA44USB+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI Originals, Inc ESIO MARA22XTU | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI U22XT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb class compliant |- | <!--Description-->ESI Gigaport Ex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 usb compliant?, usb-c usb3.1, , , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity iConnectAUDIO2+ icaudio-02 USB audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->LexiconPro - Omega 8x4x2 (USB-1.1) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not usb complaint |- | <!--Description-->Lexicon Alpha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Lexicon Lambda | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 may not be compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Toneport UX1 and Tone Port UX2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 TonePort UX8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 maybe not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 POD Studio UX1 UX2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Lokchonk UX22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljSiNmudMm0 Lokchonk UX44HD] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 usb-b , , , 2in 2out only, average latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Artist 1·2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 maybe not usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Producer 2X2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b midi |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Blackjack | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 USB powered but maybe not usb compliant, Two Onyx Preamps, 2-in, 2-out which are combo Neutrik-type connectors to handle XLR, instrument or line level |- | <!--Description-->Mackie | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, , , |- | <!--Description-->Media Assistance USB-One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not uac cc comliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 maybe not usb compliant, - guitar |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track Ultra (6 in 6 out) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb cc providing 24-bit/96kHz audio capabilities but requires manual configuration of the mixer settings |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 usb compliant?, okay - guitar and vocal mainly |- | <!--Description-->[https://htyp.org/M-Audio/Fast_Track_Ultra/Linux M-Audio FastTrack Ultra] and Ultra 8R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe usb compliant, low round-trip latency, okay octane pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track 2x2M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb compliant? usb-c - okay pre-amps, , |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track (MkII) 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb compliant? usb-c - okay pre amps, , |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track Solo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb compliant? - okay but issues, MJN4580C opamps (lower gain 55 dB at volume 9-10), ti PCM2900C ADC 16bit means there is a hard noise floor at -96 dB, plastic build no rf shielding, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track DUO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb compliant? - okay but issues, MJN4580C opamps (lower gain 55 dB at volume 9-10), ti PCM2900C ADC 16bit means there is a hard noise floor at -96 dB, plastic build no rf sheild, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, okay |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NI AK1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.pogo.org.uk/~mark/linuxdj/ Native Instruments Traktor Audio 8 DJ], [ Traktor Audio 4 DJ], [ Traktor Audio 2 DJ], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17cc | <!--Product ID-->0x1978, 0x0839, 0x041C | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not usb compliant uses snd-usb-caiaq module, [https://mixxx.discourse.group/t/problems-with-native-instruments-audio-8-dj-on-linux/14719/2 Audio 8 device has 4 subunits which are not recognized correctly], Cirrus Logic DACs spec'd at 24-bit/96KHz over a USB2, |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Audio 6 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, pre amps, 24bit 96kHz adc, ocassional dropouts, plastic build top with metal around 3/4, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments NI Komplete Audio 1 and 2 USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, good pre amp ein -129.5 dBu, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->[https://support.native-instruments.com/hc/en-us/articles/360014683497-Apple-Silicon-Compatibility-News Native Instruments Komplete Audio 6 Mk2] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, pre amps, 24bit 192kHz adc, black aluminum glass build, |- | <!--Description-->[ Native Instruments Traktor Pro] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17cc | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Novation AudioHub 2x4 NOVHUB01 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, no xlr, focusrite sounds inside, |- | <!--Description-->Novation AudioHub | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prodipe Studio 22 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Schiit HEL 1 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Schiit HEL 2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 gaming headsets mostly |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-3 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1998 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-30 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->1999 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA1A UA-1D Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-5 Audio Capture (Roland) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-1000 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-1EX, Cakewalk UA-1G | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not usb compliant driver also supports ASIO (Steinberg Audio Stream I/O Interface), noisy |- | <!--Description-->Roland Duo Capture UA-11 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland QUAD-CAPTURE Analog 2x2 Digital 2x2 USB 2.0 4in/4out | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not usb compliant, usb-b powered |- | <!--Description-->[https://wiki.debian.org/DebianEdu/Documentation/Manuals/Rosegarden/Setup Roland Edirol UA-101 and UA-1000 (Clemens Ladisch driver)] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/mmueller-kaffeeschluerfercom/UA-25-Firmware-Modification Roland Edirol ua-25] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 maybe usb compliant 16bit 44.1kHz sampling without MIDI but not USB class complient when in Advanced mode for 24bit or midi |- | <!--Description-->Edirol by Roland USB AudioCapture UA-25EX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x00e6, 0x00e7 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant if ADVANCED DRIVER switched to OFF might play and record at 44.1kHz and 16-bit samples |- | <!--Description-->Roland Audio Interface V-Studio 20 VS-20 Cakewalk | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA55 UA-55 Quad Cakewalk | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x012f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not USB class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland DUO-CAPTURE EX UA-22 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0159 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant but not be used with a USB 3.0 port that is not compatible with USB 2.0 specification, vs pre amps, adc, three AA batteries in base, or an AC adapter psb-1u 9V 2A - |- | <!--Description-->Roland Rubix series Roland Rubix22 USB 2.0 Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Rubix series Roland Rubix24 USB 2.0 Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg MI2, Steinberg MI4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg (2004 Yamaha buys) MIDI interface hardware including the CC like CC121 CC-121 and CI1 CI2 series. | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR12 UR22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR44 usb audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR242 audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 maybe usb compliant, usb powered or 5v psu, okay pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR22mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, okay pre-amps ein -123 dBu, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR-RT 2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, usb2.0 usb-b, pre-amps, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR44C (USB3) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg URX22C UR22C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, preamps okay but little noisy, ad/dc. |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR22 MkIII UR series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant usb-c, okay pre-amps, adc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Tapco LiNK.USB 2x2 (Loud technologies WA, USA) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 maybe not compliant, usb-b, poor pre-amps hum, latency issues, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://git.alsa-project.org/?p=alsa-tools.git;a=blob;f=usx2yloader/README;hb=3843634ef0310a952b256bcb6a4ddd0ad4ebe396 Teac Tascam US-422 US-428 US2XYloader] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US-122 US-224 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not usb compliant, needing firmware usx2yloader/us122fw.ihx for audio sound card - Tascam US-122 and US-122L are not the same - |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US-122L | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID-->0x800e | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, obsolete needs tascam_loader.ihx and us122fw.ihx firmware loaded each time unless automated |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US122 US-122 Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant although USB2 downgrade so using USB1.1 UHCI, tascam units suffer from high round-trip latency as do most typical USB units |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US144 US-144 Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 maybe usb compliant although USB2 downgrade so using USB1.1 UHCI, tascam units suffer from high round-trip latency as do most typical USB units |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-200 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac US-366 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-600 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-800 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 may not be totally usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam iU2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-2x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 usb compliant?, 5v dc power, midi out in, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-4x4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb compliant?, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-16x08 US-20x20 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->teyun q12 Q-12, q22 Q-22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant - unknown pre amp, unknown ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Teyun q26 Q-26, q24 Q-24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant - unknown pre amp, unknown ad/dc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha UW500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Audiogram 3 USB Digital Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe usb compliant, okay pre amp, 16bit 44kHz adc no advanced features without dedicated asio driver, 1 xlr, 1 instrument, |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Audiogram 6 USB Digital Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, okay, 2 xlr, 2 instrument, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom UAC-232 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description-->Zoom UAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.arcam.co.uk/products,rseries,usb-dacs,rPAC.htm Arcam rPac] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audioquest Dragonfly | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audioengine D1 Premium 24-bit DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beresford TC-7520 (Burr Brown PCM 1716) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beresford TC-7520 + Burson Buffer + MK3 JKSPDIF | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://epiphany-acoustics.co.uk/products-page/dacs/e-dac-24bit-miniature-usb-dac/ Epiphany E-DAC 24bit] ES9023 DAC chip | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Firestone Audio FUBAR II Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Firestone Audio iLoveTW 24Bit USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO D5 ta2020 chip amp | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO E07K Andes | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO E17 Alpen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Magnum | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Martini-U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Vulcan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Halide Design DAC HD (Wolfson WM8716) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->HRT Steamer II USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->John Kenny JKDAC uses a 24-bit/192&nbsp;kHz Sabre ES9022 DAC or better JKDAC32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> iBasso D12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Leckerton UHA-6S MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MyST 1866 PortaDAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Objective DAC ODAC+O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Rega DAC (Wolfson WM8742) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.henryaudio.com/open-source.php Henry Audio USB DAC 128 also known as QNKTC AB-1.2 open source DAC] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Henry Audio mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->AKM4430 DAC chip comes from Asahi Kasai |- | <!--Description-->DevilSound USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom U series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->KingRex UD-01 SE (Burr-Brown PCM 2702E) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SuperPro 24/192 USB DAC (24bit 192&nbsp;kHz, CS-4398 D/A chip) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | CMedia CM108 7.1ch emulation I2S in and out | 0x1926 | 0x0003 | 0x0100 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | [http://www.lindy.co.uk/usb-2-audio-adapter/42961.html Lindy USB 2.0] (Chipset CM108) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Speed-Link SL-8850-SBK Vigo ([http://mightyohm.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1036#p1030 CMedia CM108]) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Dynamode USB SOUNDCARD 2.0 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0003 | <!--Product ID-->0x1130 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Dynamode Virtual 7.1 USB-SOUND7 (C-Media ) | 0x0d8c | 0x000c 0x000e | 1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Generic White box with very little red led and white USB lead (CMedia ) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID--> 0c000e | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | CM109 CiT SC-U119 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | CMedia CM1197.1ch I2C MCU port Penguin | 0x0D8C | 0x0000 | 0x010 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Sweex 7.1 Startech External USB, WMA Blue metal box SYBA SD-AUD20040, Sabrent USB-SND8, Sewell Vantec NBA-200U (C-Media CM6206 CM106 like) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x0102 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->50/50 if the item is detected but does not work |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative Labs SoundBlaster X-fi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative X-Fi Go | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative X-Fi 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative Sound Blaster Play! USB sound adapter (SB1140) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> working with [http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=646431&postcount=15 Deneb on OS3] |- | <!--Description-->Asus Xonar U1 (ASUS UA100 USB Audio Chip) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Asus Xonar U3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Griffin iMic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Transit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Icemat Siberia (steel series) (Cmedia chipset) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->JMTek HY554, ZyXEL NSA-220, Logilink (Tenx Technology TP6911 and SSS-1623 headphone set) | 0x0C76 0x1130 | 0x1605 0x1607 0xf211 | 0x | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> reports on other OS not good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Plantronics "DSP Adapter-01" (or "USB Adapter-02") | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Rocksmith Real Tone Cable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RSA Intruder Predator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->StarTech ICUSBAUDIO7 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x000c | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Stoner Acoustics UD100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Teac UDH01-B | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Aureon 5.1 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Aureon 5.1 USB MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->TerraTec Electronic GmbH Aureon Dual USB | 0x0ccd | 0x0077 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Phase26 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trust 510 EX 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Logitech A-5572A USB 2.0 to 3.5mm jacks Virtual 7.1 Surround Sound Adapter or accessory of Logitech Clearchat pro USB or Logitech USB Headset H530 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0003 | <!--Product ID-->0x046D | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trumix TM-10 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe cc |- | <!--Description-->Trumix TM-12 USB-C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe cc usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Turtle Beach Audio Advantage Amigo Micro II USB Sound Card & Headset Adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x10F5 | <!--Product ID-->0x0211 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Vantec NBA-100U 7.1 Channel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |} Companies including Access, Alesis, Allen&Heath, American Audio, CME, ESI, Infrasonic, Lexicon, Numark, Presonus, Reloop, SIMS, Sound Devices, Steinberg, Swissonic, Tascam, Terrasoniq, Terratec, Yamaha and Yellowtec decided to license and bundle this driver. So fully functional custom drivers are available for Access Virus TI, Access Virus TI snow, Alesis Multimix 8 USB2.0, Alesis Multimix 16 USB2.0, Allen&Heath XONE:2D, Allen&Heath XONE:3D, Allen&Heath XONE:4D, Allen&Heath XONE:DX, Allen&Heath XONE:DB4, American Audio Versa Port, CME XCORPIO, ESI ESU1808, ESI Gigaport AG / DG, ESI Maya 44 USB, Infrasonic Amon, Lexicon I-ONIX U22, Lexicon I-ONIX U42S, Lexicon I-ONIX U82S, Mindprint DI-MOD USB, Numark DJ IO, Numark NS6, Numark NS7, Numark Omni Control, Numark V7, Presonus Audiobox USB, Reloop Digital Jockey, SIMS Primus, Sound Devices USB pre, Steinberg MI2, Steinberg MI4, Swissonic Easy USB, Tascam M-164UF, Tascam US-122L, Tascam US-144, Tascam US-Tascam US-144mkII 122mkII, Tascam US-200, Tascam US-600, Tascam US-1641, Tascam US-1800, Tascam US-2000, Terratec Area 61, Terrasoniq Phase X64, Terratec Phase 26 USB, Yamaha UW10, Yamaha UW500, Yellowtec PUC2 and many others. Well, those companies are using the same driver framework because all of those interfaces use the same microprocessor/firmware architecture to communicate with the USB bus. Just like almost all FireWire audio interfaces use the same TC Dice or BridgeCo chipsets. Usually it does not make sense for companies to develop their own USB1.1/USB2/FW framework for a product they are going to sell for <$500. However, that isn't the end of the story. The companies who develop audio interfaces implement different features into their devices and must update the driver and firmware to accommodate those features. That is where things can go wrong. Sometimes there is miss-communication about how things are coded, sometimes the developer who started a project leaves without transferring his knowledge to his successor, etc. You have to keep in mind that there are no "big" computer audio companies. Even the companies that seem big in the scale of the market, probably have fewer employees than you'd think. A very well made interface that is designed from scratch from the ground up would be a very expensive device, regardless of whether it's USB, FW, PCIe or whatever. Round-trip latency is the sum of the following: <pre> ASIO input buffer ASIO output buffer A/D D/A converter latency The driver's hidden safety buffer </pre> At a 64-sample ASIO buffer size/44.1k, Tascam units yield ~18ms total round-trip latency. Typical USB audio interfaces use a large hidden safety buffer. This helps ensure glitch-free playback... even under less than ideal circumstances. But... this comes at the expense of much higher round-trip latency. Short of doubling the sample-rate, there's no means of mitigating the higher round-trip latency. If you have no plans of ever monitoring in realtime thru software based EFX/processing (ie: playing/monitoring DI bass thru an AmpSim plugin as you're playing), then this may not matter to you. If you want the ability this play/monitor in realtime thru software based EFX/processing, make sure to get an audio interface that yields low round-trip latency. As a point of reference the best PCI/e audio interfaces yield about 5ms total round-trip latency at a 64-sample ASIO buffer size/44.1k The best Firewire and USB units yield 5.5-5.6ms total round-trip latency at those same settings. Typical USB and Firewire units (that use a large hidden safety buffer) yield 12-18ms total round-trip latency at those same settings. Anything above ~6ms starts to feel sluggish. Anything above ~10ms feels like playing thru molasses. USB Microphones {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->C-Media Electronics, Inc. CM108 Audio Controller Mic | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x013c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato WaveMic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Wave:1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Wave:3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 no driver lightweight }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->hyperx solocast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->hyperx quadcast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sennheiser CC510 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alesis USB-Mic microphone podcasting kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio-Technica AT2020 (AT202) AT4040 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio-Technica AT2035 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer B1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Snowball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Snowball iCE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| cardioid only }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Yeti | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|can pick up a lot of background noise but not sure if right mode used }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Yeti Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| can pick up a lot of background noise but not sure if right mode used }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MXL 2001A/600 Studio Microphone Pack / MXL 2003A Studio Condenser | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeChat LX-3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Namtai SingStar(TM) PS2 SCEH-0001 USBMIC | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1415 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| mono microphones }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Neumann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Seiren X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Seiren Mini USB Condenser Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rockband USB Mic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rode NT1A VideoMic Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rode Podcaster 2 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| RODECaster Pro usb audio compatible}} |- | <!--Description-->Rode NT1A NT2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| NT2 better }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Roland R-07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Go Mic - Portable USB Microphone for Recording | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| mini usb r.h.s. and clip on the bottom left hand side}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Go Mic Clip On USB Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| switch to choose between Cardiod, Omni and -10&nbsp;dB modes, a 3.5mm headphone socket and a USB socket}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson C01U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| cardoid only}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson C03U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shure MV7 USB Podcast Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shure MV7+ XLR & USB-C dynamic microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->SONY PCM-D50 handy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb 5V, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PCM-M10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out 5V, }} |- | <!--Description-->SONY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->SONY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->TASCAM DR-1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008, one mini usb out, lithium battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009, one mini usb out, aa battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR05 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011, one mini usb port for file transfer and charging the AA batteries }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 mini usb aa battery }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 , one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-05X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb 3 aa battery }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-05XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-100mkIII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| , usb , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| , usb , }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID-->0x0095 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 no driver, mini usb 5V audio i/f USB Card and USB Audio; press the Record button when USB Audio is displayed. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4n | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID-->0x0120 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 no driver, mini usb 5V and display will alternate between USB Card and USB Audio; press the Record button when USB Audio is displayed. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H2n | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 no driver, mini usb 5V audio i/f press the Record. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4n PRO | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H6 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 untested, 2xlr, 5v mini usb, }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H5 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 no driver, 5v mini usb, 2 xlr, }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H1n-vp handy | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H6studio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 untested usb a cord, no hdmi, 480p}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q3HD Handy Video Recorder | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 untested, built in usb-a cord, mini hdmi, 1 hour on 2 AA batteries, H.264 movies 480p }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q2HD Handy | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 untested, up 720p but no stablisation, mini usb cord, 1 hour on 2 AA batteries}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 untested, li-ion battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q4N | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 untested, li-ion battery}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio Technica ATR4697-USB Boundary Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->CAD Audio CAD USB Condenser Boundary Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MXL AC-44 Boundary Conferencing Mic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Audio SAUB1 Boundary Microphone (USB) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} USB Speakers {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Focal XS 2.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} USB Headset Wired/Wireless {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Logitech Vantage Wired (came free with PS2 Socom3) | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech G330 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech Premium USB Stereo Headset 350 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Plantronics DSP-300 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Plantronics GameCom 777 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech G-930 Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | [http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/set-usb-wireless-earphones/ Plantronics Audio 995 Wireless RF] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Sennheiser Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Be1e0QPIPK0 Mixers] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->ALESIS MULTIMIX 4 CHANNEL USB MIXER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Alesis - MultiMix 8 USB FX (USB 1.0) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb compliant?, up to 16-bit/48kHz, 18v 500mA - |- | <!--Description-->Alesis - MultiMix 8 USB 2.0 FX (USB 2.0) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2012 usb compliant?, up to 16-bit/48kHz, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Allen&Heath MixWiz16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Allen and Heath ZED Power 1000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 8 xlr, usb-b out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Allen & Heath ZEDi-10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XENYX 302USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 5-Input Mixer/Audio Interface - 1 xlr - }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx Q502USB Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|no driver}} Behringer 2*18.5V 250ma psu - 1 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx Q802USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} Behringer 2*18.5V 250ma psu - 2 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->BEHRINGER XENYX 1204USB 8-Channel 2-Bus Mixer USB/Audio Interface Studio/Live | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} iec kettle psu lead - can develop constant background hiss over time |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XENYX X1222USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver - 12-Channel Analog Mixer with USB Interface and Effects}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng HT-7 HT7USB 7 Channel Audio Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2023 cheap no driver, USB MP3 player to work, format your USB stick Fat32 as a Logical drive - not primary}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng XT7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2025 cheap no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng DT8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2025 cheap no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Spirit soundcraft Folio FX8 with Lexicon Effects Processor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} unusual power connector - [https://github.com/lack/soundcraft-utils usb routing] - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic Professional F7 7-Channel 2-Bus Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2022 no driver, cheap mixer with 3pin ac input (introduces noise) and 1 usb-a port}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic Professional F7-Pro 7-Channel 2-Bus Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2022 no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic A80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2024 no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} Mixer no hardware usb {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->ALTO Lynx MIX82FX Audio Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Alto L16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MXUL5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MX602A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB502 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 17.5V 3pin psu needed}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB802 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 2 xlr,}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1002 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 2 xlr,}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 4 xlr, }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1602 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer RX1602 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer 802 XENYX 8-Input 2-Bus Mixer Small Format Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} Behringer 18.5V ???ma psu - 2 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx 502 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->IMG stage Line MMX-122 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, 4 xlr, iec cable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie 802VLZ4 Mackie 802-VLZ4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb , psu}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie 1202-VLZ Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, mains iec}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Mix5 Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} 18v 300mA psu - 5 Channel - |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Mix8 Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} 9v x2 600mA psu - |- | <!--Description-->Mackie MIX12FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, 4 xlr, 9v 500mA x2 psu, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.soundcraft.com/en/product_documents/en/owners_manual Soundcraft] Spirit Folio F1 Fader 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} 16 Channel Mixer - |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Harman Soundcraft EPM 12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} iec kettle power lead - |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM 16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad 8FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad UI12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> connect via wifi |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad UI16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> connect via wifi |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad 124FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection, 14.8V x2 3 pin psu}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->t.mix xmix 1402fx mp usb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection, mains iec, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- |} ==Webcameras== A USB camera has two dedicated chips: a controller or bridge and an image sensor. There was no Commodore support for video interfaces. The only commercial, now discontinued application that defined some sort of standard was VHI Studio by iospirit. ===OLD standards=== See [http://www.e3b.de/usb/main_supported_e.html support pages] and [http://www.e3b.de/usb/main_faq_e.html here] and some [http://webcam-osx.sourceforge.net/cameras/index.php?orderBy=status further compatibility] Pencam STV680 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | AIPTEK stv680 | 0x0553 | 0x0202 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Konica e-mini | 0x04c8 | 0x0722 | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | DigitalDream l'espion XS | 0x1183 | 0x0001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | [http://reviews.cnet.com/webcams/creative-webcam-go/1707-6502_7-1446174.html Creative WebCam Go mini] | 0x041e | 0x4007 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- |} SonixcamTool (Sonix webcams and derivates) '''Note [http://amigadev.free.fr/sonix/ some] Sonix Webcams with a Sonix SN9C1xx controller ''and'' a pas106b or tas5110c1b sensor support bulk mode which works even with pciusb.device!''' {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Macally IceCam II | 0x0c45 | 0x05d8 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sweex MiniCam 100K | 0x0c45 | 0x6005 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor tas5110c1b}} |- | Macally IceCam Portable | 0x0c45 | 0x6007 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor tas5110d}} |- | Sweex 100K | 0x0c45 | 0x6009 | 0x0101 | {{yes|bulk works - sensor pas106b}} |- | [http://www.epinions.com/pr-Chicony_TwinkleCam_Webcam/display_~full_specs Chicony Twinkle DC-2110A] | 0x0c45 | 0x600d | | {{no|no}} |- | Unknown | 0x0c45 | 0x601e | | {{no|no}} |- | USB PC Camera (SN9C102) | 0x0c45 | 0x6028 | | {{no|no - sn9c10x + pas202b}} |- | Trust SpaceC@m 120 and 150 | 0x0c45 | 0x6029 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor pas106a}} |- | HiRes Webcam Live | 0x0c45 | 0x602c | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | [http://www.sweex.com/en/assortiment/sound-vision/webcams/JA000020 Sweex USB Webcam 300K] | 0x0c45 | 0x608f | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | Speedlink Sphere Webcam SL-6820, 350K | 0x0c45 | 0x613c | 0x0101 | {{N/A|untested - sensor HV7131R}} |- | WB-3250P | 0x0c45 | 0x613e | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | Unknown | 0x0c45 | 0x6207 | | {{no|no}} |} <pre> micromaxx USB Camera STM 1363 514 works --- USB Tower Lego 1684 1 works need NCQ Trust Spycam 100plus STM 1363 514 works </pre> ov51x.class - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | D-Link VGA Webcam (640x480) | 0x05a9 | 0x8519 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sony PS2 EyeToy Logitech/Logicool Black (ov519) SCEH-0004 | 0x054c | 0x0154 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sony PS2 EyeToy Namtai Silver (ov519) SLEH-00031 SLEH-00030 | 0x054c | 0x0155 | | {{no|no driver}} |- |} ===UVC.class - [https://www.usb.org/document-library/video-class-v15-document-set USB Device Class Definition for Video Devices or USB Video Class]=== AROS does not supported as still needs an uvc.class which might create a virtual UVC.VHI or an expanded streaming device driver for use by AROS apps *2003 UVC 1.0 baseline streaming of uncompressed YUV422, MJPEG, and compressed MPEG-2 TS, DV *2005 [http://www.cajunbot.com/wiki/images/8/85/USB_Video_Class_1.1.pdf UVC 1.1] baseline HD 720p streams formats, usb2 support, *2012 [https://www.usb.org/document-library/video-class-v15-document-set UVC 1.5] added usb3 devices and compressed h.264 and VP8 formats *2019 the market is filled with UVC Compliant USB HDMI Capture *Aros needs to read the camera’s class-specific Video Control (VC) unit and terminal descriptors. *Identifies the devices as UVC-compatible and links it to the native UVC class driver, so no separate driver installation is required. *Aros and camera determine the appropriate streaming settings, including format, resolution, and frame rate. *Once set, video data moves from the image sensor to the onboard ISP, then through the USB controller and into the host system for viewing, analysis, or recording *More advanced functions, such as HDR, ROI, and hardware trigger support, can be managed {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K60 HD VS009 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|4k 60hz ok for chat streams}} |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K60 HDMI HDR Game Live Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| for chat streams }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AJA U-tap HDMI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->ASUS TUF CU4K30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ATEN CAMLIVE HDMI to USB-C UVC Video Capture adapter UC3020 HDMI (F) TO USB-C M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 possibly UVC and UAC standard support allows up to 1080P @ 60}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia Live Streamer Cap 4K - BU113 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 uvc usb3}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia GC515 video capturing device | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.2 Gen 1 (3.1 Gen 1)}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra GC553 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 usb3 powered by Type C USB cable and 4K HDMI cable}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra S GC553PROW 302AGC553DL2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1553 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 powered by good quality type C USB3 cable and 4K HDMI 2.0 cable}} |- | <!--Description-->AVermedia Live Gamer Mini GC311 302AGC311DG9 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1311 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 uvc compliant up to 1080p 60fps capture and supports internal hardware H.264 encoding - if flashing blue light try another '''quality''' micro usb cable - }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Ez Recorder 330 (ER330) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 designed to work independently and is generally not compatible as a plug-and-play UVC capture card }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer extreme3 GC551G2 (LGX3) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x3551 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc compliant for intensive gaming streams, some vrr but no hdr with maximum recording resolution of 4K30/1080p60 from fully wired usb3 compatible cable - passing through 4K60/1080p120 Game Capture video capturing device HDMI}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra Pro GC553Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 usb3 }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra 2.1 GC553G2 61GC553G20BV video capturing device | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 USB 3.2 Gen 1 (3.1 Gen 1)}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia GC575 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 usb3 powered by Type C USB cable and 4K HDMI cable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AVMatrix | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ClonerAlliance Flint 4KP Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->DIGITNOW U600 video capture card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc uac }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Epiphan AV.io HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Epiphan AV.io 4K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Cam Link 4K | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/elgatosf/capture-device-support Elgato HD60 S+] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID-->0x006C, 0x006E | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 4K 30FPS capture, 1080p 60FPS uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato HD60 X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Cam Link 4K HDMI video capture card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 uvc compliant but can have usb disconnects}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.0 device with 1080/60 capture and 4K/60 passthrough}} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 lite USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 USB 3.0 device }} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 Pro USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.0 device with 1080/60 capture and 4K/60 passthrough}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EZcap Game Link Raw - ezcap321 usb3.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 2160p30, 1080p120 and 1440p60 HDMI input and pass-through. - 1080p120, 2160p30 and 1440p60 recording. - Latency less than 50ms uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->EZCap GameDock Ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 record at 4K30, 1440p60, and 1080p120}} |- | <!--Description-->EZcap 360 Game Capture Extreme | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 USB 3.0, 4K 60FPS passthru and 1080p 240FPS}} |- | <!--Description-->EZCAP 364 GameDock Extreme 2.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Genki ShadowCast 1 & 2, the Pro version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HAUPPAUGE HD PVR Pro 60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 4K in/Out 1080P 60fps Capture and Streaming PC Connected and Stand Alone }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->INOGENI 4K2USB3 2830 3826 HDMI 4K to USB 3.0 UHD 1080p Video Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2997 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 uvc compliant made in Canada - usb3-b socket and 1 hdmi 1080p from 23.98 up to 60p, 4K@30 fps maybe - }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kondor Blue | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nanjing Magewell Electronics Co ltd USB 3.0 XI100DUSB-HDMI Pro Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB3.0 Silver HDMI Full HD Video Capture Device 1080p 32011 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 usb audio extract HDMI embedded audio output via headphones}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB capture HDMI PLUS 2K 32040 320400000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 captures video up to 1920×1200, 1920×1080 or 2048×1080 at 60 fps over an HDMI capture from devices such as game consoles in up to DCI 4Kp60 4:2:0 input resolution, and it automatically upscales/downscales the signal to 2K for recording or streaming}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB capture HDMI Gen2 32060 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 1080p gets hot, 165M HDMI receiver, max input 2048x1080 60fps 4:4:4, RGB/YUV 4:4:4 8/10/12-bit, YUY 4:2:2 12-bit, up to 8-channel 24-bit HDMI-embedded audio at 192kHz, HDMI 1.4a, output from 480p to 1080p, YUY2/UYVY/RGB24/RGB32 support video cropping, up/down scaling, de-interlacing, aspect ratio conversion, color format conversion, frame rate conversion, flip and mirror, up to 2-channel IEC60958 audio streams, 5V 0.5A 2.5W, }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Capture 4K Plus 32090 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 limited by the bandwidth of USB 3.0, the maximum frame rate can only reach 30 fps when capturing}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Capture 4K PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell Pro Convert IP to USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Captures one network eth NDI® High Bandwidth, NDI® HX2, NDI® HX3 sources or H.264/H.265 video source into software at resolutions up to 1080p60}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Fusion | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|versatile USB video capture device that allows users to switch between two HDMI inputs and one USB webcam input for live presentations}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ROLAND UVC-01 USB Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sunplus Innovation Technology Inc. MiraBox HSV321 ARX321 Video Capture device | <!--Vendor ID-->ox1bcf | <!--Product ID-->0x2c99 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc uac }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->UGREEN CM716 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| uvc uac but disable HDCP on your source device (PS4/PS5, Xbox) }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->VisionTek UVC HD60 Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acer Aspire Crystal Eye AOA110 AOA150 0.3M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2008 webcam }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Streamer CAM 313 (PW313) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2019 uvc 1080p/30 webcam}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Streamer DUO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2021 uvc 1080p/60 webcam}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://reviews.cnet.co.uk/webcams/creative-live-cam-optia-af-review-49294183/ Creative Live Cam Optia AF] 2.0M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{no|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->DSLR macro extensions + a cheap 50mm E-Series lens + some PVC tubing and a negative holder | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes| if uvc camera chosen}} |- | <!--Description-->DSLR scanning using a macro lens, for the adapter, for a 3d printed negative holder) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes| if uvc camera used }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C270 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x0825 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|720p }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C910 C920 HD Pro 5Megapixels 720p | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Output mjpg 1080p}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C920s c922 HD Pro 5Megapixels 1080p | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Output mjpg 1080p}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Brio 100 300 500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} 1080p |- | <!--Description-->Logitech MX Brio 4k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|4k}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft's LifeCam HD-3000 HD-5000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID--> 0x0779 | <!--Revision-->1.06 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeCam Cinema | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeCam Studio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} sony imx179 1080p |- | <!--Description-->Pi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} 1/2.8” Sony IMX291 image sensor, it's a 2MP, UVC-compliant, ultra-wide-angle, low light, high-speed USB 2.0 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} OV5648 |- | <!--Description-->razer kiyo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} 4 megapixel sensor 1080p 30fps 720p 60fps - 12 led ring light adjustable |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet C068 1.3mpixel HTD USB2.0 Camera Vimicro Z-Star Corp | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0AC8 | <!--Product ID--> 0x3420 | <!--Revision-->0x01FA | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/wltechblog/thingino-installers/tree/main/wyze-cam-4 Wyze Cam V4] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0QLiC9QoQU firmware] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| verified with os04d10 sensor (i2c 0x3c) but not GC4653 (i2c 0x29)}} |- | <!--Description-->YEALINK(XIAMEN) NETWORK UVC50 is compatible with the UVC 1.1 protocol CP960-UVC50 and CP960-UVC80 kits PTZ, CP960-UVC30 Kit is UVC 1.5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Amcrest ProHD 1080P WiFi Wireless IP Security Camera - 1080P (1920TVL), [https://www.ispyconnect.com/man.aspx%3Fn%3DAmcrest IP2M-841] nvr | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} h264/rtsp, motion detection, features Sony image sensor and Ambarella processor - rtsp://[username]:[password]@[IPaddress]:[port]/cam/realmonitor?channel=[channel]&subtype=[stream] - [username] - username to login to the DVR or NVR, [password] - password, [IPaddress] - IP address of the device. If you are not on the same local network, this should be the external IP address of the device's network, [port] - port number, [channel] - channel number of the stream, [stream] - view the Main or Sub stream. (main stream is 0, sub stream is 1) , eg. rtsp://admin:admin@192.108.1.108:80/cam/realmonitor?channel=1&subtype=1 - utilizing RTSP ( rtsp://user:pass@ipcam1 ) |- | <!--Description-->Axis all modern ones | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} RTSP/RTP + H264/mjpeg or MJPEG over HTTP |- | <!--Description-->PTZ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->DLink DCS-5222 5222L network camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} camera streams H.264 over RTP controlled by RTSP |- | <!--Description-->Dlink DCS900 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Wansview 1080p [http://marc.merlins.org/perso/linuxha/post_2013-11-10_Reviewing-IP-Webcams-for-Linux-and-Zoneminder_Dlink-DCS900_-Ubnt-Aircam_-Foscam-FI8904W-FI8910W_-FFI9820W_-FI9821W_-Wansview-NCB541W_-and-Zavio-F3210.html#NCM625GA NCM625GA] IP Camera WiFi Wireless IP Security Camera , Full HD Plug n Play Home Surveillance / Baby Monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} RTSP/RTP + H264/mjpeg - play its HD stream without problem with vlc rtsp://ip/live/ch0 and getting jpegs http://ipaddr/mjpeg/snap.cgi?chn=0 - methods involve transcoding h.264 video from the camera into jpeg's, which is cpu intensive - able to pull images manually, using http://username:password@ip/mjpeg/snap.cgi - |- | <!--Description-->Wansview NCB541W | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia Game Capture HD C281 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2011 standalone h.264 recording of up to component cable not hdmi but not uvc}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia GL310 Live Gamer Portable (LGP Lite) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 not working usb2 and USB Lite no uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia AVerMedia Live Gamer Portable ([https://github.com/Trouffman/octv_gears_lgp Model C875]) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 usb2 no uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia LGX Live Gamer extreme GC550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2015 but [https://github.com/ChrisAJS/lgx2userspace driver]}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia LGX2 Live Gamer extreme2 gc550 plus gc551 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 but [https://github.com/ChrisAJS/lgx2userspace driver]}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia ExtremeCap UVC - BU110 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 maybe not uvc and uac}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Portable 2 Plus GC513 Micro-USB Capture Box LGP2 Plus | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1513 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 powered by a standard Micro-USB cable, video capture output up to 1080p60 capture to hdmi in, standalone sd card recording on exFAT or FAT32 of .MOV, 2160p pass-through hdmi out to tv - no vrr - [https://www.avermedia.com/uk/support/download#ans_part firmware latest 2.1.7.13, 2.1.7.14], SN74AVC8T245 8bit, DRV604 stereo, iTE IT6663FN hdmi 2.0 splitter, TLV320DAC3101 DAC, CS42L73 audio codec, CDCE913 PLL clock, W29N01HVSINA nand bios, I-Catch V35MA SOC CPU 32bit MIPS24K, ADV7480 hdmi mhl, }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer 4K LG4K GC573 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2018 not uvc but [https://github.com/derrod/lg4k-linux drivers here], }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Blackmagic intensity Extreme Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2011 not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->BlackMagic Intensity Pro 4k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2015 }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Video Capture (1VC108601000) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc, mini usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture HD60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc, }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture HD GCHD 2GC309901000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc https://github.com/tolga9009/elgato-gchd needs firmware mb86h57_h58_idle.bin and mb86h57_h58_enc_h.bin - mini usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato HD60S Elgato Game Capture 4K60 S+ Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|non uvc, }} |- | <!--Description-->August EZCap.tv model 116 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} poor audio recording |- | <!--Description-->E-SDS Diamond Maplin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1212 HD PVR | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} analog and component only - PlayStation (.m2ts), AVCHD (ts), or XBox(.mp4) recording formats - switched the component output from the default YPbPr to RGB. |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1431 1445 HD PVR Gaming Edition HDMI Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 not working, can get warm}} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge HD Rocket | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge HD-PVR2 (model 145210 Rev E4) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xE502 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1480 1482 HD PVR 2 GE Gaming Edition HDMI Capture green LED - 1498 1503 1504 Plus version with Mac support | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe514 0xe524 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| can get warm - [https://ez.analog.com/video/w/documents/581/adv7482-design-support-files ADV7482] [https://patchwork.kernel.org/patch/9201075/ video chip] with Magnum DXT H.264 encoder blob, IDR keyframe generation poor - best for model 157210 and not 157221 and Game Edition Plus (model 157320) 2040:E505 E505-00-00AF1234 [http://www.hauppauge.com/site/support/linux.html#tabs-3 ]}} * HDMI: 1920x1080p50/60, 1920x1080i50/60, 1280x720p50/60, 720x480i, 720x576i, 640x480p60. * Component: 1920x1080p50/60, 1920x1080i50/60*, 1280x720p50/60, 720x480p60, 720x480i, 720x576i. * Composite: 720x480i and 720x576i * Audio Inputs : HDMI PCM and RCA support with Adjustable Bitrate Quality 2 Channel AAC/AC3 audio codec |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1512 HD PVR 2 PC blue LED with optical in input on the back | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe525 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} can get quite warm - IR Blaster added - |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge Colossus2 E585-00-00AF4321 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe585 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Ion SLIDES2PC 35mm Portable Slide & Film Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Ion Pics 2 PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->ION PowerScan USB film and slide scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2011 not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Koolertron Sunny | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->FilmScan35 35mm Film Negative Scanner 1304 marks spencer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->U3 HD Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/openrazer/openrazer Razer Ripsaw HD] Game Capture (RZ20-01780100) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2017 not uvc put in usb2 slot and use video BGR3 (Emulated) and OpenRazer drivers }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Ripsaw HD USB HDMI Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0x0d01 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2018 not uvc compliant}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Silvercrest 35mm Photo Slide Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc but not great quality}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Z-Star Microelectronics Corp. Traveler TV 6500 SF Dia-scanner | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0ac8 | <!--Product ID-->0x3370 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2010 not uvc and poor scans}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- |} === WebAR + WebVR = WebXR Headset === AROS needs an usb based uvc.class to vhi like type driver for virtual display The primary engineering challenge of VR is motion sickness caused by a mismatch of visual and inner ear information, which is extremely well established as causing people to throw up in a wide range of contexts outside of VR. The experiences that make some people sick are low framerate. Foveated rendering doesn't solve vergence accommodation. Your eye will still be focused at infinity regardless of where you are looking, you'll just have the illusion that the foreground or background are out of focus. Eye tracking plus dynamic lenses (perhaps liquid lenses) or real light fields are necessary. First start with apps that have simple static features at first, then advance to dioramasa and teleportation options for 10, 20 minutes and then gradually upgrade over a timespan of four weeks to train your brain. Avoid smooth motion stuff like rollercoaster or mountain heights until much later. Even with this preparation, VR makes 40% of people seasick nausea. If so, you may be able to use VR glasses just to watch videos and some slow moving apps [https://www.emuvr.net/ emuVR] instead. *2014-2019 1st Gen, low resolution, *2020-2025 2nd Gen, higher resolution, *2026- Most hardware typically has a 1-3 year retail lifespan with 1-3 years of updates after. Really need "right" tethered PCVR rather than wireless. The advantage to being tethered to a PC is processing power. Any standalone headset is going to be running purely off of batteries. VR and AR are known as XR Technology will get immersed enough so not making people sick. Higher resolution, faster frame rates, and [https://github.com/opentrack/opentrack better tracking]. Eventually, hyper reality brings VR, AR and MR digital layers together as a less chaotic, optic tracking with no delay, agents understanding, experiences with objects 3Dgs 4Dgs gassian splats bullet time slice photo snaps .ply for WebXR [https://lvra.gitlab.io/docs/hardware/ ], {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Big Screen Beyond 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 pcvr 2560 x 2560, fixed IPD, }} |- | <!--Description-->bigscreen Beyond 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pcvr oled 5120 x 2560 @75Hz 2688x2688 @90Hz over pancake lenses, 116 FOV, virtual screens, custom facial plate from iphone app, streamvr 2.0 basestations and controllers not included, no passthrough, 107g-196g, }} |- | <!--Description-->bigscreen Beyond 2e | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 pcvr oled 5120 x 2560 total up to 90Hz pancake lens 116 FOV adjustable IPD app needed for adjustment, eye tracking, custom face mask cushion, streamvr 2.0 basestations and controllers not included, seperate head strap and speaker modules extra costs, 110g-300g }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Dpvr P1 Pro 4k Ultra Vr Headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 wireless snapdragon, }} |- | <!--Description-->DPVR P2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Play for Dream MR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android modular 3840x3552 uoled per eye 90Hz or qled mura issues, Arm snapdragon XR2+ Gen 2, eye tracking and 11 cameras 7 sensors 22 ir leds 14ms latency and foveated rendering, 1.5hrs battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Play for Dream GravityXR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 ultralight head gear gx100 3w }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://lvra.gitlab.io/docs/community/ Valve Index HMD] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 tethered PC VR headset 1440 x 1600 120Hz, 108° and 104° FOV, fresnel lenses, SteamVR2 compatible tracking ir basestations, controllers aka Knuckles, dp 1.2 and usb3 cable proprietary cable end, no battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Valve Steam Frame (Valve Deckard / Valve’s Index 2) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 - 2160 x 2160 up to 144Hz pancake lens, 108° and 96° FOV, wifi 6 fovelated streaming, Qualcomm Snapdragon 8 Gen 3 with [https://github.com/FEX-Emu/FEX fex] arm-to-x86 x64 translation layer, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PSVR2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 PCVR with adapter, two, one for each eye, 2000 x 2040 resolution OLED panels from 90Hz 120Hz refresh rates, fresnel lenses, 116° and 102° FOV, sony proprietary headset cable end, needs additional comfort options, }} |- | <!--Description-->VisionPro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Goertek glasses | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive ? | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| 2016 2x 1080x1200 needs external power supply, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Original | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 108° and 96° FOV}} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 , uvc, at least 2 powered steamvr basestations so 3 to 5 wall warts in total, proprietary cable end, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 dual 1440x1600 oled displays, 116° and 100° FOV - steamvr 2.0 basestation 2 for 5m2 area 4 for 10m2 - steamvr 2.0 joypads - low latency wireless later - type USB-c headphone adapter required, [https://github.com/CertainLach/VivePro2-Linux-Driver Rust on Linux] with [https://github.com/santeri3700/vive-pro-2-on-linux Shell], proprietary cable end, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lynx R1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 android Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->Lynx R2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2026 company liquidated, 2 x 2312x2160 110 FOV pancake lenses, LynxOS android Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen, openxr 1.1, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Oculus Rift prototype development kit [https://www.virtual-boy.com/forums/t/the-oculus-rift-dk1-thread/ DK1] with [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_T4DJyy2Bo wired razer hydra controllers] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2013 pcvr LCD 1280 × 800 resolution 640 × 800 per eye up to 110° FOV, and 3DoF rotational tracking via a 1000Hz 9-axis IMU (Accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer), no positional optical tracking either inside-out or outside-in, 380g, nausea issues, , }} |- | <!--Description-->Oculus Rift prototype development kit [https://github.com/facebookarchive/RiftDK2/tree/master DK2], [https://www.ifixit.com/Teardown/Oculus+Rift+Development+Kit+2+Teardown/27613 ifixit teardown] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 pcvr, 5.7" Super AMOLED display with a resolution of 960 x 1080 per eye 100° field of view, 1 usb Positional Tracker DK2 camera, lots of wires}} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook [https://github.com/thaytan/OpenHMD/tree/rift-kalman-filter Oculus Rift CV1] [https://noraisin.net/diary/?m=202201 some Linux support] [] [https://github.com/OpenHMD/OpenHMD/issues/330 AMD usb issues] [https://github.com/OpenHMD/OpenHMD/wiki/Xorg ] [https://github.com/Doc-Ok/OculusRiftCV1Camera Live Video] [https://www.youtube.com/@thaytan Youtube] [https://github.com/Fredrum/riftOnLinux Pi] [https://github.com/OhioIon/riftDriverPi ], but not quite there with the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSsCN6HFkWc consumer CV1], [https://forum.dcs.world/topic/142259-cv1-not-working-in-dcs/#comment-2878168 orange led could be HDMI Signal is not within HDMI Spec and might be Overclocked or usb3 not getting enough power frustrating], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x3031, 0x2031, 0x0031 and 0x0211 for 3p-a basestations lighthouses, 0x045e 0x02e6 for xbox wireless adapter | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2016 powered run from your PC maybe uvc via wired dual PenTile OLED 2160x1200 (1080x1200 per eye) @ exactly 90Hz but screen door effect (space between pixels), 87 FOV, IPD from 58mm to 72mm, good 3D audio and okay mic, constellation headset 6DOF (3-axis rotational tracking + 3-axis positional tracking) with up to 3 usb infrared basestation (1 in front and 2 behind pointing upwards) on usb3 and usb2 to your PC but the tracking can be fragile so set it up on a weekly basis, wired only HDMI 1.3, USB 3.0 bus powered with proprietary plug in headset, 470g 1lb front heavy, 2 robust 1st Gen touch controllers with external sensors i.e. outside-in - 1 aa alkaline over rechargable battery each , press occulus and B buttons for 2 secs to connect, headset traps air so gets very warm inside and random disconnects due to twisting action on the top of the headset and/or cables, t4 torx screws }} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Occulus Go 32Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2018 discontinued 2020 android based, Qualcomm Snapdragon 821 chipset (quad kyro with Adreno 530 gpu 3Gb RAM), single 5.5-inch LCD 2560x1440 or 1280×1440 pixels per eye and a refresh rate of 72 or 60Hz, 100 deg viewing angle, no inside-out and limited self tracking, micro usb, limited 2600mAh battery lasts under 2 hours at best, one wireless controller, not for gaming but very casual use, }} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Oculus Rift S [https://noraisin.net/diary/?m=202201 some Linux support] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x0051 headset (cdc, audio, tracking data), 0x2052 usb hub, | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 PCVR wired dual LCD 1080 by 1200, 88 horizontal FOV, display port (fibre optic strands) and annoying USB3 copper cables (power, audio and other data) but proprietary port in the headset, no battery, cameras on the headset ("inside-out") tracking so no base stations, non removeable head band and cushions and ipd hard to set, requires specific fragile Rift S/Quest1 2nd Gen Touch controllers which has a ring of translucent plastic with leds inside - t5 torx to disassemble for sticks drifting}} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Reality Labs Occulus Quest 1 v50 50.0.0.198.257.455911078 / 49845030443200410 *064Gb *128Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x0183 (single adb boot), 0x0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 android standalone wireless, low clocked Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 (MSM8998) (4x Kryo 280 Gold A73) + (4x Kryo 280 Silver A53) adreno 540 GPU, 4Gb RAM, 1440 x 1600 72Hz oled, front heavy 3640mAh battery 2̟ hrs play time, 575g total, 2nd Gen touch controllers, usb-c on side near end of arm, 4 cameras on head, }} *V 16476800119700000 (29.0.0.66.370.290246252) |- | <!--Description-->Meta Oculus Quest 2 KW49CM aka Codename Del Mar Hollywood [https://www.meta.com/en-gb/help/quest/967070027432609/ fragile 3rd Gen Touch controllers] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cgejky8ZeoM internal 3640mAh battery] and selling over 20 million, more than all other quest headsets combined *064Gb *128Gb (110Gb free) *256Gb Setup continuous wifi, create Meta Oculus account, [https://developers.meta.com/horizon/ verify dev account, click on My apps], [ create Organization -> My Organization Groupings], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPInS5xxF-0 finally, meta quest mobile app to switch on adb], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x5010 (), 0x0083 (massstorage), 0x0086 (), 0x0186 (adb and xrsp [https://github.com/shinyquagsire23/xrsp_tests tests]), 0x0090 (composite adb), 0x0081 (), | <!--Revision-->0419 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 android stand alone, low clocked Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 1 (Kryo 585 octo 8core specific xr vr mr ar cpu, adreno 650 gpu and 3rd gen hexagon npu), 6Gb RAM, lcd 1832x1920 per-eye 90Hz refresh rate, 97 FOV, fresnel lenses, 6DOF (degrees of freedom), 58-63-68 IPD settings, b/w but no color passthrough, 6 t2 torx and 5 ph00 screws in headset (long bit), discontinued end 2024, feature updates until December 2026, security updates until December 2027, 470g, Oculus + B button on right controller (move) and Menu + Y button on left controller (click) for about 3 seconds, 10W 5v 2a, RTL8153 chipset usb support, *V 16476800118700000 (29.0.0.65.370.289987413) *V59 50670960048600150 *V60 efuse OTP to prevent firmware bios reversal *V76 android 14 *V77 pcvr issues early *V79 update ui and app launcher *V83 navi 2.0 *V85 *V204 boot loop issues *V213 final 03-2027 |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Occulus Quest Pro aka Codename Seacliff | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 android standalone wireless dual 1800 x 1920 90Hz, 106° and 96° FOV mini lcd local dimming, pancake lenses, limited eye tracking, play area 2m x 2m or bigger, higher clocked snapdragon xr2 gen 1 arm cpu Arm apps, 1 to 2 hrs play time, new pro controllers non removeable inbuilt lithium battery with 3 cameras each (more trouble than they are worth), 5300mAh battery at rear, wireless charging, color passthrough, 9V 3A or 5V 3A, *v 51503870024400340 *v77 capped wifi *V84 *V213 final 03-2027 |- | <!--Description-->Meta Oculus Quest 3 aka Codename Eureka [ Air Light ALVR] or [ WiVRn] with fragile touch plus q3 controllers *128Gb *512Gb streaming from PC with [https://github.com/alvr-org/Monado-ALVR ALVR], runtime of [https://monado.freedesktop.org/ Monado steamvr alternative openxr openVR], with Envision GUI, | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 standalone, pancake lenses on lcd 2064 x 2208 res panel per eye 1200ppi - 104° and 96° FOV - up to 120Hz, Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 2, 8Gb RAM, foveated rendering, Meta Link cable USB-C 3.2, headstrap clamshell or halo style, speaker arms fragile, color passthrough, 5000mAh battery, 510g, 18W 9v 2A or 15W 5V 3A, *v74 ok *v76 pcvr issues *V79 issues |- | <!--Description-->Meta Quest 3S aka Codename Ventura Panther *128Gb *256Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 2 cpu (6core ), lcd 1832 x 1920 fresnel lenses, 97 FOV, headphone arms fragile, better air flow, no promixity sensor inside, Meta Link cable USB-C 3.2, passthrough, 4300mAh battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Meta Boba 3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 ultra-wide 180° x 120° FOV, snapdragon XR2 G2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Meta Tiramisu | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 µOLED displays with 90 pixels per degree, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 5K Super Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 8K-X 8KX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Crystal Light | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tethered to PC with 2160 x 2160 4k 120Hz, 115° and 96° FOV, inside-out tracking, no battery, display port cable, variable qc and customer service, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Crystal Super | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tethered to PC with 3640 x 3640 4k 90hz, 116°+ and 100° FOV, eye tracking, inside-out tracking, no battery, display port cable, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Dream Air with Lighthouse(s) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 tethered 3840 by 3552 @90Hz micro oled with pancake lens, 100 HFOV 96 VFOV but FOV IPD changes in app, link box for headset 2 split y cables, removable face gasket, 290g, steamVR2 bases and controllers, eye tracking, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Dream Air SLAM | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) tracking inside-out so no base stations, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://somniumspace.com/ Somnium VR One VR1] [https://portal.vrgineers.com/user-guide/software/ open source] VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pcvr 2880 x 2880 per eye @90 @120Hz, 125° horizontal 100° vertical FOV, 2 x SteamVR 2.0 bases, passthrough, 900g }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero VR-1 Headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 psu needed, 2 x Mini LED binocular of 150 nits, 2880x2720 per, 90Hz, FOV 102° horizontal, 73° vertical, 720g with headstrap, 2 x SteamVR 2.0 basestations, no speakers/mic, hdmi and usb3.0}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero XR-3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero XR-4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Camelo La Melaza Music Shield | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2026 no usb only bluetooth , }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->InAir 2 elite suite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar nits 46FOV , , 4h battery life, 80g, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Oakley Vanguard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 3s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 100in 46FOV 650nits, usb-c 79g }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 3S Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 135in virtual display 46FOV 1200nits, usb-c 80g }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 4 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 AR oled vision 4000 processing, HDR10, 47 FOV }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid Max 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 147in 50 FOV 650nits, usb-c back left, 76g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid AI Spatial with Station 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 600nits 147in 50FOV 75g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ar ai smart glass}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 135in 46 FOV 1000nits, magnetic connector, 77g, }} |- | <!--Description-->VITURE XR Luma | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 147in 1200p 50 FOV, }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Luma Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 152in 52 FOV 1000nits 1200p, 3dof, , 79g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Luma Ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 in FOV, 2 cameras, 3dof 6dof, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/wheaney/XRLinuxDriver Viture Luma Pro] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Beast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 1250nits 58FOV 174in, magnetic, 88g, }} |- | <!--Description-->VITURE Beast X Glasses models (Immersive 3D Moonlight) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 based 2D to 3D conversion with support DP Alt Mode (DisplayPort over USB-C), 1200p, 3df tracking, practic lenses 58deg POV, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xreal One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 600nits, 50FOV, 3dof, usb-c 84g, }} |- | <!--Description-->XReal One Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 700nits 57FOV 171in, usb-c, x1 3dof, }} |- | <!--Description-->Nreal now Xreal Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , micro-oled 1080p, audio, virtual uvc ar displays, }} |- | <!--Description-->Nreal now Xreal Real3D 1S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 AI based 2D to 3D conversion 57 FOV, , virtual uvc ar displays not vr, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xiami XR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xtal 8k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Apple Vision Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 tethered AR mixed reality glasses, 3300ppi, 800g, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Google XR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 standalone }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 android with 2 1440 x 1600 75Hz amoled, inside-out, durable motion controllers, Vive port, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vibe Cosmos | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2018 poor tracking and lifespan on controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro EYE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 dual-OLED displays 2880 x 1600 combined resolution), SteamVR 2.0 tracking, foveated rendering, Tobii, it enables gaze-based menu navigation with avatar eye contact, proprietary cables, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vibe Cosmos Elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2020 1440x1700 per eye resolution, 90 Hz refresh rate, 6 DoF tracking, 2880 x 1700 combined pixel resolution, 97° FoV, two controllers and two base stations. Lighthouse tracking, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro 2 is a tethered PC-powered VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2021 2448x2448 per eye resolution 116° FoV, 120 Hz refresh rate }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 per-eye resolution of 2448×2448 at 90 Hz, a 120-degree field of view, Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive XR Elite VR Headset Deluxe Pack MR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 snapdragon xr2 gen 1, expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive XR Elite 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pico Goblin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 android based, 2.5K 1280x1440 per eye @70Hz, 92° FoV, and 3DoF (three degrees of freedom) tracking (Orientation tracking only—yaw, pitch, roll), single controller, snapdragon 820, ipd adjustment 54-71 mm, 600g, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico G2 4K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 android standalone VR headset, 3840 x 2160 (4K) LCD screen, Snapdragon 835 processor, 3DoF so rotational movement (looking around, pointing) rather than positional movement (walking, leaning), does not support hand or eye tracking, 800g }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico NEO 2 EYE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 6DoF 360g snapdragon 845 display 4k 75Hz tracking inside-out - magnetic field for controllers - pico software on android 8 - eye tracking }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 Snapdragon XR2 Gen, 4K 3664 x 1920 90Hz lcd, battery at rear, displayport, Pico apparently emulates Oculus controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 Link | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 2160x2160 panel per eye 75Hz 90Hz 105 FOV, Arm snapdragon xr gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 4 ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 2160 x 2160 @90 105 FOV, snapdragon XR2 G2, streaming from PC with alvr, wireless streaming from PC with WiVRn, Pico apparently emulates Oculus controllers, not plug and play, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 5 aka Project Swan aka Vision Pro Competitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 micro-oled BOE 3840 x 3840 4000ppi per eye, MLA pancake lenses, custom pico arm cpu, pico os 6 android, eye and hand tracking, 300g, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung Galaxy XR VR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 3552 x 3840 @60-90 109 FOV , Arm snapdragon XR2+ Gen 2, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall MeganeX 8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 android }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://en.shiftall.net/products/meganex8k MeganeX Superlight 8K] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android (3552 x 3840 pixels) into pixel count yields 27.27MP 10-bit HDR-compatible 4K resolution micro OLED panels @90Hz, pancake lenses 94 FOV, SteamVR™ tracking, 180g, 5V 2A, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://en.shiftall.net/products/meganex8kmk2 MeganeX 8K Mk2 MkII] [https://github.com/sboys3/CustomHeadsetOpenVR community] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 pcvr linux, 4K per eye (1.35inch micro OLED 3552x3840 10 bit HDR) 27MP @90Hz 75Hz 72Hz pancake, upto 108 hor 100 vert FOV, usb-c and dp cables to breakout box, 5V 2.1A, 200g}} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 }} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acer Windows(TM) MR AH101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 Dual 2.89” LCD panels 2880 x 1440 combined (1440 x 1440 per eye) Up to 90Hz (HDMI 2.0), or 60Hz (HDMI 1.4), Field of View FOV 95, Tracking Inside-out, lots of light leak, }} |- | <!--Description-->Acer H7001 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 wmr 1440 x 1440 per-eye resolution @90Hz refresh rate, and 100-degree field of view FOV, inside-out tracking with front-mounted cameras so no external sensors, flip-up visor design but has a "screen door effect," subpar foam padding, win10 to win11 24H2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Dell Visor Mixed Reality VRP100 VR118 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 2x 1440x1440 a bit of nose light leak }} |- | <!--Description-->Fujitsu | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 cheap and lots of light leak }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/HadesVR HadesVR] with [https://github.com/ManoloMancelli/Persephone-Classic-Controller Persephone Controller] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFaVjB1uNOM Persephone 3 Pro DiY 6Dof SteamVR Headset], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HP Reverb G1 VR1000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 WMR 2160 x 2160 @90Hz, 115 FOV, , hp proprietary headset cable end, 2 camera tracking but poor and controllers can be unresponsive, 500g front heavy, flight sims rather than gaming, }} |- | <!--Description-->HP 1440p Spatial Computing | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 dim display }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://forums.x-plane.org/forums/topic/294764-vr-in-linux-without-steam/ HP Reverb G2] WMR VR3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 2 2160 x 2160 90Hz, needs Windows10 or Win 11 24H2, 4 camera tracking, controllers can be unresponsive, hp proprietary headset cable end, , }} |- | <!--Description-->HP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Mirage Solo is a Standalone VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 Qualcomm Snapdragon 835, 1280x1440 per eye resolution, 75 Hz refresh rate, }} |- | <!--Description-->Lenovo Explorer VR2511N (G0A2) VR windows mixed reality (WMR) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 LCD 2.89" 1440 x 1440 per eye @90Hz, 6 DOF position tracking, 400g, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/relativty/relativty open source relativty] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung MHD Odyssey XE800ZAA WMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 9V 500mA oled screens 2x 1440x1600 with usb3 and hdmi cables but bluetooth dongle required }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung MHD Odyssey+ Plus WMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 dual 3.5-inch AMOLED displays 2880 x 1600 total @90Hz, 6DOF inside-out tracking with usb3 and hdmi cables but bluetooth dongle required, use only win10 or win11 24H2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PSVR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2016 2x 1080x960 up to 120Hz, lots of cables and computation brick, sony camera needed for tracking, ps4 or move controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->Virtuality | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|1992 , , Amiga 3000 with TI chips, }} |- | <!--Description-->Virtuix Omni | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 VR treadmill changed course to commercial VR and pivotted back again 2020, }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} === HDMI CEC transmitter and receiver === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} === TV Remote Control MCE IR transmitter and receiver === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Compro K100 K300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Elitegroup Computer Systems | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1019 | <!--Product ID-->0x0f38 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GMYLE MCE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|acts as usb-hid with limited keyboard like controls }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge WinTV-PVR kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Harmony 300 i300 600 650 800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft MCE Commander | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2005 need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1039 rev 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2005 home top of square shape direction keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1039 rev 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2006 home under circle spaced direction keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1069 SMK Manufacturing, Inc | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0609 | <!--Product ID-->0x0334 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2007 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Philips RC1974506/00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0471 | <!--Product ID-->0x0815 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE10E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGN-AR21M VGX-XL100 VGN-AR21B/AR21S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE20E PC REMOTE CONTROL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE30E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGN-AW21XY VGX-TP3E VGX-TP3G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE50E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGC-LA2R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->TSDX-IR14 USB MCE Media Center External Infrared IR Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->chipsets support CIR (consumer IR) Winbond W83977F/AF, SMC IrCC 2.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|technical reasons it's not possible to use USB IrDA dongles}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Zotac RC2604323/01G Zbox Media Remote Control with IR USB Receiver OVU710 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Anycubic Cobra 2 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs A1 Mini 3D printer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 EMS proprietary slicer app and cloud use, eSUN}} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs X1 Carbon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs X2D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality K1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality K2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elegoo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lulzbot | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Prusa | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Qidi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Snapmaker U1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tool changer }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sovol SV08 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| open source voron model, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->desktop pick and place machines AFARCO PNP running OpenPnP for Desktop SMT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==ethwrap.class - Host Data Link "Cable Bridge" for data transfer== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Advance USBNET (eTEK design) | 0x0525 | 0x9901 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ALi Uli M5632 (chip) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Aten (Ali Corporation) UN201 | 0x0402 | 0x5632 | | {{maybe|force binding from rawwarp to ethwrap}} |- | Belkin (eTek design see below) | 0x050d | 0x0004 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Digitus DN-3004 - USB Host Link | | | | {{yes|works}} |- | EPSON USB client | 0x0525 | 0x2888 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | eTEK | 0x056c | 0x8100 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | KC-190 | 0x050f | 0x0190 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | GeneSys GL620USB | | | | {{no|no driver the half-duplex GL620USB is NOT supported, products using it include the Inland Pro USB Quick Link}} |- | GeneSys GL620USB-A | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Laplink Gold (uses NetChip 1080) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Prolific 2301/2302 (Jaton USB ConNET) (BAFO DirectLinq) | 0x067b | 0x0000 and 0x0001 | 0x0004 | {{maybe|detected but untested}} |- | Xircom PGUNET (uses AnchorChips 2720) | 0x0547 | 0x2727 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} ==cdcacm.class - USB modem== The CDC ACM driver exposes the USB modem as a virtual serial modem or a virtual COM port to the operating system. The driver enables sending both data and AT commands, either through ACM (separating data and AT commands over different channels) or through Serial Emulation (passing the AT commands as is and as part of the data stream). {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Alcatel OT-I650 | 0x1bbb | 0x0003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Acatel Dymamode/Dynamite | 0x06b9 | 0xa5a5 | | {{N/A|untested Zyxel Prestige 630-13 - untested PROLiNK Hurricane 8000 external link }} |- | AnyData ADU-100A ADU-E100A ADU-E100D ADU-E100H D10 | 0x16d5 | 0x6501 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-310 | 0x16d5 | 0x650 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-500A ADU-510A ADU-510L ADU-520A | 0x16d5 | 0x6502 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-610 ADU-620 | 0x16d5 | 0x650 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | BT On-Air USB MODEM | 0x079b | 0x000f | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant USB MODEM CX93010 | 0x0572 | 0x1321 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant USB MODEM RD02-D400 | 0x0572 | 0x1324 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant Chipset | 0x06ea | 0x0002 | | {{N/A|untested AUS N367 Roadster II 56 USB (Model AM5050R3) - untested }} |- | [http://accessrunner.sourceforge.net/ Conexant AccessRunner] | 0x0586 | 0x330a | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | Creative Modem Blaster USB DE5670 | 0x1690 | 0x0101 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | FIREFLY, MediaTek Inc | 0x0e8d | 0x0003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Huawei E122 | 0x12d1 | 0x1446 | | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=49126#forumpost49126] |- | Huawei E160, E160E, E160G | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | |{{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=51888#forumpost51888] (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6246) |- | Huawei E169 also known as Vodafone K3715 and Huawei K3715 | 0x12d1 | 0x1001 | |{{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4941&forum=4&post_id=44683#forumpost44683] (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200) |- | Huawei E220 "Vodafone EasyBox II" "T-Mobile wnw Box Micro" also known as Huawei K3565 | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | | {{yes|works, see E169 above (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6280)}} |- | Huawei E1750 | 0x12d1 | 0x1001 | | {{N/A|untested (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6290)}} |- | Huawei E170, E172, E176 | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | | {{N/A|untested (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200)}} |- | Huawei E180 | 0x12d1 | 0x1406 | | {{yes|Works (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200)}} |- | KYOCERA AH-K3001V | 0x0482 | 0x0203 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | LG CU515 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | MediaTek Inc GPS | 0x0e8d | 0x3329 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Metricom GS Modem | 0x0870 | 0x0001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Motorola MOTOMAGX phones | 0x22b8 | 0x6425 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Motorola Q Phone | 0x22b8 | 0x7000 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Hummingbird huc56s (Conexant) | 0x0572 | 0x1329 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Netcomm Roadster II 128 ISDN | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Nokia n70 N95 HSDPA | | | | {{yes|works - see [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=4415&viewmode=flat&order=ASC here]}} |- | OGO | 0x045E | 0x0079 | 0090 | {{no|no driver}} |- | Olitec ADSL Modem V2 | 0x08e3 | 0x0100 / 0x0102 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Onda PT502HS | <!--Vendor ID-->0x19D2 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | Radicom V92HU-E2 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung i8510 Innov8 Symbian smartphone | 0x04e8 | 0x6651 | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=5552&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&type=&mode=0] |- | Samsung Tocco Lite (aka GT-S5230) | 0x04e8 | 0x6795 | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=5552&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&type=&mode=0] |- | Shiro / Aztech USB MODEM UM-3100 | 0x0572 | 0x1328 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM | 0x0ace | 0x1602 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM | 0x0ace | 0x1608 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM - new version | 0x0ace | 0x1611 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Zoom Telephonics Model 3095F USB MODEM | 0x0803 | 0x3095 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Ugobe Pleo | 0x6962 | 0x0100 | 0x0100 | {{Yes|Works}} |} ==Misc== palmpda.class - no [http://aminet.net/package/util/libs/PdaLinkPoseidon pdalink.library and tools] in AROS Palm PDA (discontinued) synchronisation requires a port of pdalink.library and its tools through virtual usbpalm.device. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Palm IIIx (OS3.1) serial rs-232 only | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm IIIc (OS3.5) | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm V | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m100 | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m125 first USB - last with aaa batteries | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m500 (OS4) | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Tungsten T (OS5) first arm cpu | 0x | 0x | 0x | {{no|no }} |- | Zire 31 (OS 5.28) color arm-based | | | | {{no|no }} |- | [[:w:Handspring (company)|Handspring Visor]] – USB support out of box | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Handspring Treo 600 – last one for [[:w:Handspring (company)|Handspring]] | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Treo 700w | | | | {{no|no }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} bluetooth.class - needs Bluetooth (Viking King Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson (Old Norse: Haraldr Blátǫnn Gormsson; Danish: Harald Blåtand Gormsen) stack to work (not written due to licensing fees to use the symbol merging the Younger Futhark runes for H (ᚼ) and B (ᛒ), representing Harald's initials) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} ccid.class - Chip/Smart Card Interface Devices (not implemented) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->cyberJack RFID basis | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0C4B | <!--Product ID-->0x9102 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} dfu.class - DFU firmware upgrade {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->iPhone 3, 4, 5, 5c | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1290 0x1292 0x1294 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 32bit use with caution could cause damage}} |- | <!--Description-->iPhone 5s, 6, 7, 8, X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 64bit use with caution could cause damage}} |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio/Midiman USB audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->iPad 1, iPad 2 A1395 A1430, iPad 3, ipad mini A1432, iPad A1458 4th Gen (MD512LL/A), | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2008-2013 32bit A4, A5 up to Apple A6X, iOS 1 to 10, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->iPad Air (1st generation) A1474, A1475, A1476, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2014-2015 [https://github.com/AsahiLinux 64bit], A7, iOS 11 up to |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2015 64bit A8, A8X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2016 64bit A9, A9X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2017 64bit A10, A10X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2018 64bit A11 |- | <!--Description-->iPad Air 3rd Gen A2153, A2123, A2154, iPad Mini 5th Gen, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2019 64bit A12 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} RocketTool (USB Rocket Launchers - Toy missile launchers) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="3px" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Original Launcher and StrikerII (includes laser) | 0x1130 | 0x0202 | | {{yes|works }} |- | Dream Cheeky USB Missile Launcher or USB Cirus Cannon | 0x1941 | 0x8021 | | {{no|no driver }} |- | Dream Cheeky USB Webcam Missile Launcher | 0x1941 | | | {{no|no driver }} |- | Rocket Baby | 0x0a81 | 0x0701 | | {{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |} DRadioTool (FM Radios - USB radio devices D-Link/Gemtek) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | D-Link DSB-R100 USB | 0x04b4 | 0x1002 | 0x0410 | {{yes|works }} |- | [http://www.neoseeker.com/forums/383/t257009-link-usb-dru-r100-radio/ GemTek USB FM Radio 21] | 0x04b4 | 0x1002 | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |} UproarTool (Valencia MPX mp3 player and others) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="3px" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Korean D Square Valencia MPX-Player | 0x04e8 | various | | {{N/A|untested }} |- |} {{BookCat}} fcaefen3eh9wf3k7jrsb5rjmz2dezml 4681717 4681656 2026-11-11T18:39:53Z Jeff1138 301139 4681717 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==Host Adapter Protocol USB1 OHCI UHCI USB2 EHCI USB3.0 USB3.1 xHCI == Please let us know any mistakes or any information to be added, use Prefs/Trident to confirm Vendor and Product IDs Please chat at [https://www.arosworld.org/index.php AROS World] *1996 USB1.0 *1998 USB1.1 *2000 USB2.0 *2008 USB3.0 *2013 USB3.1 *2017 USB3.2 AROS has these USB transfers *Control - *Bulk - Midi 1.0 ( 'send my data when you can' ) *Interrupt - Midi 2.0 *Isochronous - USBAudio, Webcams, etc Isochronous is the starting point of modern types of multimedia creativity. IsoChronous isoc code is already in place in poseidon.library and '''scheduled''' transfers are queued to be later rerouted in the host driver code (needs to be written for each host protocol e.g. OCHI, UCHI, EHCI and [https://cdrdv2-public.intel.com/625472/625472_xHCI_Rev1_2b.pdf#:~:text=Page%203.%20Document%20Number:%20625472%2C%20Revision:%201.2b.%203. XHCI rev1.2], [https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/content-details/868296/extensible-host-controller-interface-for-universal-serial-bus-xhci-requirements-specification-r2-0.html rev2], etc). There seems to be 2 types of isoc transfers, one is just the normal isoc transfer and the other is realtime implementation of isoc transfer. For isoc transfer there needs to be a scheduler that makes sure no isoc transfers are dropped (in or out) and that they happen at the right time. It all gets difficult as the device making use of the isoc transfer may be at any point on the device tree. One needs to calculate the USB bandwidth for the packet based periodic transfers that are initiated by the host which have fixed but guaranteed bandwidth. Host controllers guarantee this bandwidth by planning a schedule of transfers ahead of time to ensure there is enough time reserved on the bus. [https://www.intel.co.uk/content/www/uk/en/products/docs/io/universal-serial-bus/ehci-specification.html EHCI] [https://www.thegoodpenguin.co.uk/blog/understanding-why-usb-isochronous-bandwidth-errors-occur/ bus-bandwidth] vs payload-bandwidth and the algorithm of the EHCI scheduler. The bandwidth of the endpoint in terms of payload data (stuff we put in a packet) and the protocol overhead, signalling imposed bit stuffing, host delays etc. Poseidon controls the driver and device tree and it provides an API to communicate with the USB devices. Poseidon really doesn't care much about what sort of transfer pipe is opened or used, it only provides the means to do so and forwards the iorequests to the correct driver. Poseidon code is the higher level code for USB communication and drivers are of course the lower level one. [[File:Psd.svg|220px|right]] ; Best Hardware - NEC Chipset (OHCI + EHCI), Intel Chipset (UHCI + EHCI), XHCI USB3.0, USB3.1 & gen 2 Type-A Type-B Type-C ; Next Best Set - General OHCI, SIS (OHCI + EHCI), ; Buggy Chipset - [ Early AMD OHCI], ALi OHCI, VIA UHCI, Nvidia OHCI & EHCI, === USB1.1 === OHCI USB 1.1 - USB-IF sanctioned standard but hardware physical form removed with USB2.0 and replaced with virtual emulation of USB1 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | ALi Agere M5273 A1 M5237 Lucent USS-312 | | | | <!--Boots-->{{Maybe}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | StarTech PCI425USB, CompUSA Iogear GIC220U-b, Nvidia 220 mobo, USBA2041P, ALi SU2A-PS, |- | AMD 756 Chipset (onboard motherboard) | 0x1022 | 0x740c | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | no [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=31308#forumpost31308 usb devices detected] Geode GX1, |- | CMD DU-A2 Silicon Image 0670 (pci AMD chipset) | 0x1095 | 0x0670 | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Silicon Image 0673 (pci AMD chipset) | 0x1095 | 0x0673 | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Nvidia Nforce2 USB | 0x10de | | | <!--Boots-->{{Maybe|Bios options vary but does with Plop Boot}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Tested with 20th Aug 2012 improvement |- | NEC µPD720100AGM | 0x1033 | 0x0035 | 0x | <!--Boots-->{{Unk}} | <!--Detects-->{{Unk}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | untested - Amiga Spider card with possible bottleneck issues at higher speeds |- | NEC µPD720101AGM 720101GJ | 0x1033 | 0x0035 | 0x43 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Mac mini, Belkin F5U219vea (2+1 ports), Belkin F5U220vea1 (4+1 ports), Adaptec 3100LP, BAFO BF-460, GWC UC-160, IOGear GIC250U, Keyspan U2PCI-5, O'toLink U2-C2B U2-C2A U2-P20N U2-P50, Ratoc PCIU5, USBWholesale UII-PCIP |- | NEC µPD720102 | 0x1033 | 0x00 | 0x | <!--Boots-->{{Unk|untested }} | <!--Detects-->{{Unk|untested }} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Opti 82C861 2-port | 0x1045 | 0xc861 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | no USB devices detected - Belkin F5U005, |- | SIS 7001 OCHI | 0x1039 | 0x7001 | 0x0f | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | 20th Aug 2012 - not booting stalls on GRUB word with Plop Boot |- |} UHCI USB 1.1 - Intel standard but since 2009 no hardware support as USB2 introduced virtual emulation of USB1 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | Intel | 0x8086 | 0x | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{No|not in bios use AROS floppy disc boot}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Intel 82371AB EB MB PIIX4 | 0x8086 | 0x7112 | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{No|none in bios use other booting options}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|Detects most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led not on and does not work}} | |- | Intel 82801DB/DBL/DBM (onboard i830 mbd) | 0x8086 | 0x24c4 | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes|but not from bios but floppy options}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes|}} | <!--Works-->{{Yes|}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led on and although device has software failure and recoverable error IT STILL WORKS. Fresh start sometimes needs Network Prefs Saved to work. |- | VIA MVP4 (onboard mbd) | 0x1106 | 0x30 | 0x40 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not wireless options}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 detected but blue led not on and does not work |- | VIA VT82xx (onboard mbd) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | 0x40 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not wireless usb}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led on but does not work |- | VIA VT6202 (VIA VT83C572) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | A-Best USB-200, Cables N Mor USBPCI, CompUSA, D-Link DSB500, Digital/Research DRUSBCARD, Kouwell IOFlex 580, StarMount USB VIA, |- | VIA VT6112 | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6212 (pci card) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | 0x61 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | 2011 seems to have issues with other identical via based USB controller(s) present |- | VIA VT6214L | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- |} === USB 2.0 EHCI === The USB-IF insisted on only one implementation of EHCI but it creates 4 virtual hcd to cover USB1.1 support. The virtual HCD on Intel and VIA EHCI controllers are UHCI. All other vendors use virtual OHCI controllers. Hardware EHCI USB2.0 ended in most chipsets in 2014/5 and is now virtual through most newer USB3.0 chipsets {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | ALi Agere M5273 A1 Lucent USS-344 | | | | <!--Boots--> | <!--Detects--> | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | {{N/A|untested}} belkin F5U006, |- | Nvidia Nforce2 USB | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Intel 82801DB/DBM (onboard mbd) | 0x8086 | 0x24cd | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | NEC µPD720100AGM | 0x1033 | 0x00E0 | 0x | <!--Boots--> | <!--Detects--> | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | {{N/A|untested - Amiga Spider card}} |- | NEC 72101 GJ | 0x1033 | 0x00e0 | 0x04 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Belkin F5U219 VEA1 (pci), |- | SIS ECHI | 0x1039 | 0x7002 | 0x00 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|issues about which port is used if it works at all}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6202 | 0x1106 | 0x3104 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6212 (pci card) | 0x1106 | 0x3104 | 0x62 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes|detects}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- |} === USB 3.x SuperSpeed SS (Speed 5Gbit/s 3.1 gen 1) aka xHCI eXtensible === USB Attached SCSI (UAS or UASP) is a protocol used for high-speed data transfer between computers and external storage devices like SSDs, HDDs, and some flash drives. It provides up to 70% faster read/write speeds than traditional Bulk-Only Transport (BOT) by allowing multiple commands to run in parallel, rather than waiting in a queue {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1000 FL 1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B73 | <!--Product ID-->0x1000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->link power management (LPM, USB 3.0 power saving) cannot be disabled so random connection issues |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1009-200 FL 1009 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1009 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->Orico PFU3-2P |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1100-100 FL 1100SX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1100 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->LPM cannot be disabled so issues with disconnecting WD drives etc - CalDigit, ORICO PFU3-2P, FASTA-6GU3 Pro, inatech KTU3FR-2P 2 port USB 3.0, and Inateck KT4004 (KTU3FR-4PA rev B2) for storage and hubs, etc |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1400 FL 1400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1400 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720200 uPD720200a chip | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1d6b | <!--Product ID-->0x0194 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|no USB3 but seems to works like USB2}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported for USB3 but works like USB2 - ORICO PRU3-4P 4 Port USB, early Dell Wyse zx0 thin client, |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720201 uPD720201 chip | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x114 0x0115 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720202 uPD720202 chip | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1912 | <!--Product ID-->0x0015 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.ti.com/product/tusb7340 TI] tusb7340 TUSB732 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x8241 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported Koutech IO-PEU436 but only one with open docs |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported - integrated since Ivybridge |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL800 xHCI 0.96 support in VL800, VIA VL811 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x3432 0x3438 0x3515 and 0x9201 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} 2.0 backwards support | <!--Opinion-->Anker 68UPPCIE-2S20PU 2 port, Plugable 4-Port, GA-z77x-ud5h rev. 1.1 mobo, |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL811+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL812 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->xHCI 1.0 support in VL805 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} USB 3.1 (power up to 100W and data 10Gbit/s USB 3.2 gen 2 - USB-A Full size plug - USB-B micro USB size - USB-C reversible) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1142 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->Connector: USB Type C and USB Type A x 1 - Ugreen USB C PCI Card 2 Port USB 3.1 Type C |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[ Intel] Revision 1.8 1.9 Updated | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion-->AUKEY 4 Ports USB C , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion-->Startech - PEXUSB312C - 2-port Usb 3.1 10Gbit/s |- |} USB 3.2 (power up to 100W and data 20Gbit/s gen 2x2 - USB-A Full size plug - USB-B micro USB size - USB-C reversible) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[ Intel] Revision 2.6 Update | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} === USB 4 (40Gbps thunderbolt, pcie 3.0 tunnelling, ) === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->AMD Ryzen7 6800U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->Intel Goshen Ridge JHL8440 Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | |- |} == hid.class (Human Interface Device) == === Keyboard === Some multi-finger touchpad support works but not on all touchpads {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Retro N C64 edition Keyboard, the super button accessory and optional N30 mouse | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 87 keys Kailh white}} |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo 108 Retro Mechanical Keyboard (white kailh) and two superbuttons (green) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Apple Pro Keyboard | 0x05ac | 0x0205 | 0x0122 | {{yes|works (its two hub ports) but mouse scroll wheel issues}} |- | Apple Pro Keyboard | 0x05AC | 0x020B | | {{yes|works (two onboard ports also)}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Aigo K68 60% red switches, A68 A87 wireless 2G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[http://amigakit.leamancomputing.com/catalog/product_info.php?cPath=49&products_id=973 AmigaOne Keyboard] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko TAC87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 80% TKL }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko MonsGeek FUN60 PRO&MAX HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 60% hall effect }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 hall effect, good but expensive and software poor}} |- | <!--Description-->Akko | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Arteck HW197 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 keyboard and touchpad combo, aluminum frame, aa battery }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Azio Cascade | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Chilkey ND75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->Chilkey ND104 (Wuque Studios) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 premium clicky (WS Blue) or silent (WS White) key options with Ansi and ISO formats also numpad and calculator, aluminum machined, tri mode, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2026 untested magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K65 Mech MX no numeric keypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair CH-9000045 K70 Blue MX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K95 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cherry G80 G80-3000L[x]C[yy]-[z] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cooler Master CM Storm Quickfire Rapid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K100 Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 okay low profile but expensive |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Dell SK-8135 Dell USB Keyboard for Internet and Multimedia rev H for Dimension 4500, Dimension 8250, OptiPlex GX260n, OptiPlex GX60n, Precision 350 (R42232) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x413C | <!--Product ID-->0x2010 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes| usb1.1 keyboard hub 0x413C 0x1003 works as well - multimedia keys not mapped }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Deepcool KG722 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 65% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Ducky Channel Zero DK2108 Mech Mechanical Cherry MX Red | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Ducky Shine 3 Brown or Blue (DK9087) MX keys | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Das Keyboard Model S Ultimate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Cidoo V75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker rt100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 plastic build and no screws, numpad with small 0, mostly quiet seasalt switches, gimmick usb-c 1in screen}} |- | <!--Description-->EPOMAKER TH99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} USB-C full numpad keyboard |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker P75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker p87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Leobog Hi75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Feker Galaxy80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Galaxy100 gmk/via | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 96% }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker Aula F75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 budget version good 75% choice of 4 leobog switches}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker Tide75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% and not too expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK992 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 109 key }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK820 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK35I V3 MAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 104 keys - two models: wired and tri-mode connection - }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker Aula F108 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pricy but okay 100% but only leobog graywood switches but hotswap available afterwards}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker Ajazz AK980 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 97 keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker G87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker RT82 RT85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker RT100 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 96% }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Galaxy100 lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 good 96% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ATTACK SHARK X98 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 98% maybe silent linear feel with Two-color PBT keycap}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker ATTACK SHARK X68HE and X65HE 65% Wired Gaming Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID-->0x502D | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|2025 tested on Aros running on Raspberry Pi wired usb-c with magnetic hall effect keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Filco Ninja Majestouch-2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Focus FK-760 Wireless Keyboard & Trackball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} but quality build issues raised |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->GMMK Tenkeyless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested default Gateron Brown switches for Kailh Box Jades default Gateron Brown switches for Kailh Box Jades}} |- | <!--Description-->GK61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->GMK67 GMK87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested budget good option}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Hengchangtong HCT Limeme gk103s Entry Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0xC0F4 | <!--Product ID-->0x0009 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|half Keyboard left side only}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Hexgears M2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested hotswap kaihl green switches}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hexgears | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Iqunix mq80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 good 75% low profile keys |- | <!--Description-->Iqunix Magi65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested good 65% low profile keys }} |- | <!--Description-->iqunix ez60 ez80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 untested specific hall effect switches - actuation point, rapid trigger, etc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Jomaa YiChip Wireless 50% key with touchpad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID-->0x3000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|dongle detected, keys and pad not working - 2 AAA NM}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 untested numpad only}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q1 v1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 untested okay}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Q6 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested 75% with numeric numpad, barebones so choose switches and keycaps to suit }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q1 MAX V1 MAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Lemokey P1 QMK | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested best option to customise switches and keycaps}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron LemoKey X1 X3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested keycap swap only not switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K2HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested okay}} wireless hall effect analogue on all keys |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K4HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 untested hall effect but software }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K5 K17 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 untested okay low profile but }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Q5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K10 HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kiiboom Breeze 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 good 75% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Meletrix Boog 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 magnetic hall effect, good but expensive and software poor}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Melgeek O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 low profile 75% but not repairable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->MOSART 2.4G Wireless 60% Keyboard Trackball | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062a | <!--Product ID-->0x4105 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|dongle recognised HID, keys worked, roller worked, scroll wheel works and shoulders works but buttons around left, top and right hand side (RHS) do not work and plastic and 2 AA MN1500}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Mucai SiGma Micro MKA610 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1c4f | <!--Product ID-->0x0084 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| unknown red keys - rgb backlighting - }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://hjldemo.clsc.cn/ Guangzhou Zhentian Electronics Ltd] Perixx Periboard 505 Plus with Trackball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|okay dome keyboard - poor trackball}} |- | <!--Description-->Guangzhou Zhentian Electronics Co., Ltd Perixx Periboard 706 Plus with Trackball Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|generally okay dome with good sized keys but piano black surround fingerprint magnet, occasional brief trackball freezes after no use, takes some time to get used to the trackball size}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard-716 Wireless (Chicony) | <!--Vendor ID-->04f2:1013 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|okay dome keyboard and trackpad}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard- | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard- | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Lenovo SK-8825 41A5327 SIL12-W07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->works manufactured for |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Lite-On USB NetVista Full Width Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x04b3 | <!--Product ID-->0x3025 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->works |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K320 Wireless Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|The Logitech USB Unifying, Bolt, Lightspeed, or Nano receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K340 Wireless Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.logitech.com/en-us/product/wireless-touch-keyboard-k400r Logitech Wireless Touch Keyboard k400] | <!--Vendor ID--> 0x046D | <!--Product ID--> 0xC52B | <!--Revision--> 1201 | <!--Opinion--> {{yes|All (including multimedia) keys work. Some keys requires remapping with Trident. Touchpad works and acts as normal mouse. Presents itself in Trident as USB Receiver from Logitech with 3 HID bindings}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K400 Plus K400+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech TK820 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech TK830 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G915 TKL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard TKL means no number pad}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lofree Lite84 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Lofree Flow Lite100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 silent switches and low profile keys}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->MACHENIKE K500 Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 94 keys untested Hot Swappable 94 Keys 90% Layout }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MechLands Vibe99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 100 keys untested Gasket-mounted Wired/Bluetooth/2.4GHz Wireless Mechanical Keyboard}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Comfortable Curve 2000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| recognized but not supported}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|recognized but not supported}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Wireless Media Desktop 1000 (1356) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x00f9 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|working but not mouse part}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Niz Micro84 Duo82 X87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 electro capacitive }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy gem80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy kick 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 low profile 75% }} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy Air75 V3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 75% }} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy node 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 96% layout, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Qpad MK-50 MK-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Qpad MK-90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Chroma | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0203 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://openrazer.github.io/ Razer] Lycosa | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow 2013 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Cherry MX Blue }} |- | <!--Description-->Razr Blackwidow Ultimate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Cherry MX Blue }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer Orange keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 Low Profile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 Pro 75% | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Cynosa Lite V2 | <!--Vendor ID-->1532 | <!--Product ID-->0x023f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer DeathStalker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer HuntsMan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Ornata | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Orbweaver Chroma Keypad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0207 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Tartarus Keypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| not hall effect and very expensive}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Redragon K668 RGB Gaming Keyboard Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested 108 Keys Mechanical Keyboard w/Extra 4 Hotkeys Upgraded Hot-swappable Socket，Red Switch}} |- | <!--Description-->Redragon K689 PRO Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested Gasket RGB Gaming Keyboard, 108 Keys Mechanical Keyboard w/Extra 4 Hotkeys, Upgraded Hot-swappable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Rii K22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 keyboard trackpad combo, non replaceable lithium battery, very compact}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Risophy 60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 75% mechanical, hotswap so okay for price untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Risophy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Royal Kludge RK65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested cream switches }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->SINO WEALTH Gaming KB SkyLion K68 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x258a | <!--Product ID-->0x003a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| blue stalks with rgb lighting}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->SKYLOONG GK104 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested gateron }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->SteelSeries | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet x300 2.4G Keyboard Mouse MosART | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062A | <!--Product ID-->0x4101 | <!--Revision-->0312 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|1 AAA for each and works well - mouse slightly better built than keyboard rubberised membrane}} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet X331 HDE 2.4G Keyboard wireless RCMCU | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0C45 | <!--Product ID-->0x7000 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|wireless can be glitchy but few extra keys are mapped }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet X500 2.4G Keyboard Mouse MOSArt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062A | <!--Product ID-->0x2901 | <!--Revision-->0112 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|works well especially large touchpad - usual rubber domed membraned keyboard mechanism }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tecware Specter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested good 75%}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Unicomp Model M USB 104 key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} IBM's and later Lexmark buckling spring switches |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo Minilo Bluebell (prestige silent) and Eculapytus (violet tactile) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 75% plastic build no screws not great to mod}} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo Sword 68 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo 98 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 expensive but good and Kailh silent}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Weikav Velocifire Choice65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Weikav Velocifire Lucky65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Rainy 75 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID-->0x5055 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% but not as expensive CNC Aluminum HMX/JWK/Cocoa Switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Crush 80 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID-->0x5588 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Crush80 Reboot Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 very good but expensive Aluminum Hotswap Wireless RGB}} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Rainy 75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wooting HE60 HE80 HE90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 hall effect but expensive with good software}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Womier WK61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2021 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk71 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk75 TMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 hall effect }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xenta White Wireless HK6718B+HM3302--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|works with Raspberry Pi untested on AROS native}} |- | <!--Description-->Xinmeng X87 MAGIC_REFINER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 untested keycap swap but not hotswapable switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL66 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| milk switches, cherry PBT, }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzi B75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 budget good with cocoa cream switches }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|good budget option with swappable switches, }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 switches }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzi C75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 budget good with switches }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} <pre> linear - creamy tactile - thocky clicky - clacky </pre> <pre > Cherry MX Black are linear switches (no feedback); good for gaming. Cherry MX Red are linear (less noise no click) but more squishy; Cherry MX Brown are in between Blue and Red in style and tactile; Cherry MX Clear switches have soft tactile feedback (with no click). Cherry MX Blue have tactile feedback with a click (noisy); good for typing. Gateron Yellows KS-3, KS-3x47 or better Pros have a milky top and black bottom and linear TTC Silent Frozen v2. Linear and dead silent Mouse the huano brown with yellow dot for silent mouse clicks Kailh red dust proof encoder for smooth and close to silent scrolling Boba U4 Silent Tactile switches Husky linears HMX </pre > === Mouse === if the USB mouse is non-functional put a USB pendrive in before or add the following to user-startup in '''s''' drawer/folder/directory sys:prefs/trident NOGUI > NIL: {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" | Brand ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" | Model ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | 3Dconnexion | 3D Mouse | <!--Model-->[http://www.3dconnexion.com/products/spacenavigator.html SpaceNavigator] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | 3D Mouse | <!--Model-->SpacePilot Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | Mouse | <!--Model-->SpaceExplorer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | Wireless Mouse | <!--Model-->SpaceMouse | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->3D Optical | <!--Description-->Wired | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0000:3825 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin | Combo mouse | | 0x05FE | 0x0011 | Low 0100 | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Cytec | <!--Description-->Wired Mouse Gaming | <!--Model-->R.A.T 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Dell | Mouse | MO56UC | 0x413C | 0x3200 | | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->equatech / clone logitech | <!--Description-->wireless mouse | <!--Model-->49779 / M185 | <!--Vendor ID--> 3151:2020 later 3151:3020 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{Yes|detected and works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Hama | RF Optical Mouse | AM-6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->M3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->M5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keycron | <!--Description-->Optical Wireless | <!--Model-->M6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1k polling and 16k dpi }} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical Wireless | <!--Model-->M7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested barebones 1k polling and 16k dpi, great for small hands, loud clicks}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->LogiCAD 3D | <!--Description-->3D Mouse | <!--Model-->Magellan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Cordless Desktop Navigator | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech Inc. | First/Pilot Wheel Mouse | N48/M-BB48 M-BE58 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Wireless mouse | [http://www.logitech.com/en-roeu/mice_pointers/mice/devices/5484 M305] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Wireless RF Mouse | MK710 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitach | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->G304 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 very clicky}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless Mouse | <!--Model-->MX Master Anywhere 2S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|untested}} micro USB charge port on front |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model-->M220 silent touch MR0085 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2018 needs usb dongle - quiet clicking }} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech Logi | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->MX Master 3S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|2021 untested usb-c bluetooth, inbuilt battery but muted clicks}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitach | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->G502 X Plus | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 very clicky}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model-->M240 silent touch MR0105 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2022 no dongle as bluetooth enabled but could work with Logi Bolt USB Receiver - 1 aa battery - quiet clicking}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->MX Master 4 MXM | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Bluetooth usb-c dongle, inbuilt lithium battery}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Description | Model | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion--> |- | <!--Brand-->Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8566 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8518 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->OrzerHome Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8514 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1 aa with no on/off switch }} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Wheel Mouse optical | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Sidewinder Mouse | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | IntelliMouse Explorer USB optical | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Wireless Optical Mouse 2000 | | 0x045E | 0x00F9 | | {{no|not working see keyboard Media Desktop 2000 above}} |- | <!--Brand-->Microsoft | <!--Description--> | <!--Model-->1461 1447 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|usb dongle matched to one mouse only no others}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Orochi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Mamba | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Naga | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} 17 buttons |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB Optical | <!--Model-->Naga Hex V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} MOBA Gaming Mouse, Professional Grade 16,000 DPI Sensor - RGB lighting |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->DeathAdder | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Viper | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Basilisk V3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1k polling, 35k dpi, }} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Trust | Slimline Lasermouse | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | SteelSeries | Tobii EyeX EyeMobile PCEye | Eye Tracking Control | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} gaze interaction track technology for augment augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->The Eye Tribe Tracker | <!--Description-->Eye | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description-->USB Optical Mouse | <!--Model-->MV3000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x192f | <!--Product ID-->0x0916 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |} === Trackball === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->3Dconnexion SpaceBall 5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} Labtec designed and rolled into new company 3dconnexion 2001 by owners Logitech |- | <!--Description-->ACCO Kensington Orbit optical F1233A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kensington Turbo Mouse 64210 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Clearly Superior Technologies. Model:CST 1000-RC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Trackman Marble Mouse Wired USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Cordless Trackman Wheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Optical Trackman T-RB22 - Cordless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech M570 wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Trackball Mouse Optical 1.0 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft X05-87473 Trackball USB Optical | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === KVM === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->NanoKVM | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === Gamepad === Controllers have mostly decided that the left analog joystick is keyboard equivalent of WASD and right joystick is your mouse. You also have 2 bumpers above the triggers. Shoot could be right trigger (so it doesn't involve taking your thumb off the right joystick). Face buttons for reloading or jump or other non-critical functions. Crank up the sensitivity and practice. Testing can be done with the TRIDENT Prefs, [https://devicetests.com/controller-tester html5], [https://greggman.github.io/html5-gamepad-test/ html5], or [https://gamepad-tester.com/ Tester] ==== Dinput Poseidon Default Plugin - Playstation(TM) style ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Betop Betong Bat D2E BTP-BD2E XD4D2E | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gravis Eliminator Gamepad Pro USB | <!--Vendor ID-->047d | <!--Product ID-->4005 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 2d only |- | Hama Black Force USB Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 psx clone look |- | <!--Description-->Jess Tech Game Elements Philips GGE909 PC Recoil Pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCbAmIhj6P4 Logitech Wingman Precision USB] G-UC3B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 no 3D but good for 2D retro games like Turrican II |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman Action Pad G-UB3A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 1 blue lucid translucent - thin analog stick N64 type - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman RumblePad UB05B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc20a | 1.12 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 twin blue analogue sticks N64 type - poor 2d controls with single molded blue piece - vibration feedback - single shoulder buttons with throttle control below right one |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman Cordless RumblePad G-RA4A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc211 | 1.12 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 twin blue analogue sticks N64 type - poor 2d controls with single molded black piece - vibration feedback - dual shoulder buttons L1 L2 R1 R2 with blue throttle control below right one - 4 aa mn1500 batteries; life not great - C-UD10A usb dongle - overall big and bulky |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Precision Wired G-UG15 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 psx styling blue outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Cordless Precision G-X2E14A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 ps2 styling blue outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G-X5C11A Cordless Precision Wireless Controllers | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 psx styling black outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/logitech-dual-actiontm-gamepad/ Logitech Dual Action] * G-UD8 has no mode (2D only?) button and no rumble * G-UF13A later | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0xc2 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|[http://www.morphzone.org/modules/newbb_plus/viewtopic.php?topic_id=7018&forum=12 G-UF13A tested only]}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 New body shape psx style - dual analog 3D sticks - 4 small travel shoulder triggers no 5,6,7,8 |- | <!--Description-->Logitech RumblePad 2 G-UF13 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc218 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 usb wired light blue top/black base - twin analogues 3D along with dual short travel shoulder buttons - rumble present - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech RumblePad 2 Cordless * G-RC?? OLD version that take FOUR batteries and RED Logitech logo * G-RC14 uses TWO batteries has an ORANGE logo - dongle C-UE10 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc219 | <!--Revision-->0x0200 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 wireless may have to remove 1 battery - G-RC?? 5 + 7 buttons - G-RC14 use buttons 6 + 8 to reset sticks - replace battery and push large button on receiver - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech F310 Wired Dual Action G-U0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc21 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|D mode switch}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 best option for old usb wired style dual analog 3D with pc-xbox/psx switch on back (only D works) - both rear shoulder RT LT buttons have excess travel - no rumble vibration - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech F510 Wired G-UG0002 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc21 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 dual analog with dual xbox pc/psx X/D switched compatibility modes - |- | Logitech F710 Wireless / Cordless RumblePad 2 G-R0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc219 | <!--Revision-->3.05 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe|Mouse only not joypad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 When switch on top set to D and nano receiver for each controller to pair - 2 aa mn1500 batteries required - rumble support sometimes - rear back shoulder buttons excessive travel needed - does have rubber backing that becomes sticky - |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Megaworld 'TIME' USB pad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0735 | <!--Product ID-->0x9902 | <!--Revision-->Low 0100 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No |}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 Poor quality |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft * SideWinder Precision Pro USB (1997) * SideWinder Precision 2 (1998) * Game Pad Pro (1999) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Game Pad USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> possible setup first |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Gamepad X04 Freestyle | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} 1998 might need USB adapter |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder X05 63895 92626 Flight stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|2000 [https://ae.amigalife.org/index.php?topic=929.msg11309#new tested]}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Flight Stick X08-58736 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Plug & Play Game Pad (2000) SideWinder Joystick (2000) Game Pad 2.0 (2001) SideWinder Force Feedback 2 (2002) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 long-standing static buildup problem and Force Feedback 2 was the removal of the power brick |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | Saitek [http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/saitek-ps1000/ PS1000 Cyborg V.1], [http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/saitek-ps2700-rumble-pad/ PS2700] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 no rumble function |- | Saitek [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG0v-hf6ZPA P2600] [http://compactiongames.about.com/od/hardware/tp/gamepads.htm P3600], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 no rumble function |- | Saitek P2900 wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 runs on 1 AA battery |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Sony Batoh PS3 mini USB Wired hookup [http://ps3.jim.sh/sixaxis/usb/ SIXAXIS] *PCB Ribbon Notes *Protos ALPS MSU Rev3 M3 and the later CBEH-1019 *? SA1Q135A for sixaxis *PP4 *V2 *V25 *VX SA1Q146A first dualshock 3 model *VX SA1Q147A CECHZC2U (USA) *VX35 SA1Q159A *VX3 SA1Q160A *VX? SA1Q188A *VX4 SA1Q189A shipped with a CECH-2504 datecode 0C *VX5 SA1Q194A changed design ALPS, PS button changes *VX6 SA1Q195A red case, *VX7 SA1Q222A superslims 2 ribbons *VX8 SA1Q224A superslims 2 ribbons | <!--Vendor ID-->0x054c | <!--Product ID-->0x0268 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No|}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|}} | <!--Opinion-->Sometimes detected but no support - no sixaxis features detected - mini usb lead will have varying results - |- | <!--Description-->Sony PS4 *JDM JDS 001 010 011 *JDM 030 040 055 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sony PS5 Dual Sense | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Speed Link Strike 2 FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Firestorm Dual Power 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|[http://www.morphzone.org/modules/newbb_plus/viewtopic.php?topic_id=7018&forum=12 only 1 axis joystick only]}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator GM-1500 GM-1520 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 M series Aluminum Metal Joystick Hitbox Controller Arcade Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 T series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 G series Gamefinger G12 G13 G16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> plastic - |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 S series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> thinner and lighter than G series |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mad Catz sf2 fightstick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Datel Paewang Arcade Pro Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash F300 Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash F500 Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Pico Flatbox GP2040-CE Hot Swappable Mini Hitbox Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> default it is configured for PS4 but before plugging usbc cable in, X for Dinput, B Xinput, RT HID - plastic build case - Rev4 based on RP2040 chip and firmware is based on GP2040-CE (Community Edition) - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Shenzhen Onebitdo Tech 8bitdo Fighting stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Venom 8 button | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} ==== Xinput Xbox Style Plugin ==== 2018 extension added originally called AROSx but later redacted. Latest [https://github.com/medusalix/xone linux driver] might be useful. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate C Wired 82CB (Shenzhen ONEBITDO TECH - GWOWO) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2dc8 | <!--Product ID-->0x3106 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 - 4 t6 torx screws - non hall effect so drifting issues - triggers go faulty often - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 2C Wired Controller 82CD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2dc8 | <!--Product ID-->0x310A | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - HID keyboard assigned - 4 t6 torx screws - hall effect analogs and triggers - 1000Hz polling - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 2C wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - 400mw battery - hall effect 3d nubs and triggers - micro switch shoulder buttons - d-pad poor for retro games - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo ULtimate Mini Wired Controller for Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 2 *Wired Controller *Wireless *Bluetooth | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect - playstation style layout for pc - slide button for S-A-D-X switch, android, dinput or xinput - |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 tmr hall effect analogs, hall effect triggers and some microswitches - button swap - ps2 style layout - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2026 - mw battery - hall effect 3d nubs and triggers - micro switch shoulder buttons - d-pad for retro games - |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2026 hall effect analogs, hall effect triggers and some microswitches - button swap - ps2 style layout - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Ace Aurora | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect joysticks with no deadzone mode, gyro, linear rumble, trigger stops, back paddles, button swap, macro, turbo, RGB LED effects - tri-mode connection - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Betop Beitong Spartan BTP-2270U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hall effect |- | <!--Description-->Betop Betong Asura 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hall effect - noble linear trigger potentiometer and alps shoulder LB/RB micro switch |- | <!--Description-->BEITONG ASURA 2 Pro+ Game Controller Wireless Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beitong Zeus 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BebonCool Dinofire Model Number: Q218 / TP28 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 - triggers aren't progressive but ON/OFF - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X05 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect analog and triggers - tri mode connection - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX Wireless Controller PC PS3, 9013pro ESM-9013PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 linear hall effect but device sometimes will not connect tried multiple attempts with the dongle |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 ABXY MICRO SWITCH - Bumpers Tactile switch Hall Effect analog |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect analog and triggers - membrane buttons - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX S10 Wireless Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 TMR Hall effect and compatible with Switch 2/PC/Phone/TV/Steam, NFC, Gyro, HD Rumble - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->202 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fantech World EOS Pro WGP15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect trigger and sticks,2 back paddles, motion controlling |- | <!--Description-->Fantech EOS PRO II S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 controller with TMR hall effect analogues, mechanical face buttons and D-pad, 63 input macro, back paddles, turbo - analog triggers with trigger stops - tri mode bt wifi and wired - slide switch on back for switch, macos/android and xinput - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Apex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 luxury model |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader Pro 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 the Pro(Hall Effects) and Non-Pro (No Hall) |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Direwolf 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 hall effect sticks and triggers - poor wifi connection - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Apex 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 luxury model |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader 4 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - hall effect, DInput mode (o+A hold) - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Direwolf 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect analog and triggers but membrane buttons with gold contacts - 800mhA battery - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Dunefox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 basic model hall effect analog and triggers but membrane buttons - 500mha battery - no gyros - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader 5 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 - hall effect stick with tension control, linear triggers, DInput mode (o+A hold) - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir T4K Keleid, T4C Cyclone wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 poor to ok switch |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir Nova | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no|| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - switch type layout |- | <!--Description-->Guangzhou Chicken Run Network Tech Nova Lite GameSir-T4n LITE - Zikway HID gamepad *[https://www.reddit.com/r/Gamesir/comments/1c185ve/psa_keep_gamesir_nova_lite_t4n_lite_firmware_at/ fw 4200 seems to be xbox so B then Home for Xinput (green LED), A then Home for HID BT Android (green/yellow LED), Y then Home for Switch Pro (Red LED)] or X then Home for Wifi and start and select to alternatively swap modes * and if on [https://www.reddit.com/r/Gamesir/comments/1c185ve/psa_keep_gamesir_nova_lite_t4n_lite_firmware_at/ fw 5700 ds4 so Home + B (blue LED), ] * firmware 6900 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3537 | <!--Product ID-->0x1040 0x1041 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - hall effect 3d nubs - no usb-c cable - rubber membrane analog trigger travel and bumpers shoulder buttons - wifi 2.4G and bluetooth - xbox layout so ab and xy might need to be swapped via m and a buttons for switch type [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=po-nNuC5fps fixes video] - 250Hz polling - 600mah battery - rigid carry case - poor d-pad esp diagonals - gamesir settings software only on android 6+ or ios based only - |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir Nova 2 Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G7 SE Wired Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir TEGENARIA T3 Lite Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 playstation aesthetic hall effect analog and membrane buttons - X+Home button connects as an Xbox controller |- | <!--Description-->GameSir Cyclone 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 TMR Joysticks with anti-friction rings and metal anti-friction rings around the stems, gyro, rumble, macro, turbo, 2 back paddles, hall analog triggers with micro-switch trigger - tri mode bluetooth, 2.4GHz wifi and wired, 1000hz polling rate - gamesir connect software - |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G7 Pro for Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 TMR hall effect - hall effect triggers, tri mode connection - gamesir nexus software - |- | <!--Description-->GameSir Super Nova Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2026 hall effect sticks and triggers, 1000Hz polling, tri mode connectivity, |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong 2 NS08 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->Electromagnetic Stick hall effect - hall linear triggers - Mechanical face buttons - wired and wireless - Built-in rechargeable lithium battery |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong 2 PRO NS09 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->hall efect - wired and wireless - Mechanical face buttons - Built-in rechargeable lithium battery |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong MAX 3 KK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->hall effect - wired and wireless - lithium battery - |- | <!--Description-->Gulikit KK3 Max USB-c Bluetooth Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 Hall Joysticks and Triggers, Maglev/Rotor/HD Vibration, 1000Hz Polling Rate, 4 Back Buttons, |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KK3 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 smaller version of KK3 MAX - hall effect analog and triggers, face buttons , maglev rumble, gyro, 4 back paddles - rigid case - 950mAh up to 8 hrs - |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Hyperkin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Hori EX2 Turbo UHX3-45 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Machenike G1 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 Wireless Gaming Controller with 1K Polling Rate Hall Effect Trigger Joystick For Nintendo Switch PC iOS Android |- | <!--Description-->Machenike G5 Pro Wireless Gaming Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 ABXY Switch Membrane, Bumpers Tactile switch and hall effect analog |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->microsoft sidewinder precision pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | [https://pineight.com/mw/index.php?title=USB_game_controllers Xbox 360 Wired Controller] | 0x045e | 0x028e | 0x | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|needs specific driver and has poor 2D control pad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Microsoft (R) [https://blog.tkjelectronics.dk/2012/12/xbox-360-receiver-added-to-the-usb-host-library/ Xbox 360] (TM) Wireless Receiver for Windows(R) Model 1086 and Controller | 0x045e | 0x0719, 0x or 0x0291 | 0x0100 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->{{No|separate standalone usb dongle detected and shows as 8 vendor interfaces but no class associated and so not working - may need new class from code from xpad or xboxdrv to work the controllor}} |- | <!--Description-->Xbox 360 Kinect [http://hackaday.com/2010/11/10/kinect-open-source-driver-demo-and-hacking/ Video] [http://git.marcansoft.com/?p=libfreenect.git;a=commit;h=7655fcf7239ba4907654089dba535a196685dbe5 GIT] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 proprietary 2.4GHz RF protocol, |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One Wired Controller | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One wireless controller newer model with the 3.5mm headphone jack 1537 1697 and microsoft adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02d1 or 0x02dd | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Elite Series 1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02e3 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 ok - |- | <!--Description-->Xbox later models 1708+ Xbox One and Series use 5GHz and use Bluetooth, | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02e0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One S | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02ea 0x02fd | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Elite Series 2 Core | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02ff | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 ok - no hall - 125Hz polling - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Minisform MGP01 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MOBAPAD N1HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 has liquid silicone face buttons, hall effect analog, D-Pad swap, two back paddles, USB-A dongle, HD Rumble - |- | <!--Description-->Mobapad Huben 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 |- | <!--Description-->Mobapad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON Gale 墨将 mòjiāng | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON Blitz PRO 2 TMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON now MOJHON AETHER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect joysticks, hall effect triggers, mechanical bumpers, 1000hz polling rate, mechanical D-pad, membrane face buttons, mechanical back paddles, rumble, deadzone issues - tri mode |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MSI FORCE GC20 GC30 V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 not hall effect |- | <!--Description-->MSI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mytrix Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NACON GC-100XF Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 average |- | <!--Description-->PXN P5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect joysticks & triggers, limited trigger stops, 1000hz polling rate on wired, 4 back paddles, 32 macro record, anti-deadzone mode, RAW mode, gyro, turbo, tri-mode connection - |- | <!--Description-->PXN P50L | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->PowerA | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD Stellar T5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD Junior E5 Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Razer Wolverine V3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RetroFlag | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Speedlink XEOX Pro Analog Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->enclosed lithium battery? - xbox layout - switchable on back of controller to directinput (dinput) or xinput - USB dongle switchable to pc and ps3 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SCUF Instinct Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 good |- | <!--Description-->SCUF Envision Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Steel Series Stratus Duo XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->usb adapter needed |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://inputlabs.io/Inputlabs InputLabs Alpakka Open Source and build yourself] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->DIY it with 3d printer, pcb and components - pi pico needed - 2 gyros for better accuracy - |- | <!--Description-->[https://inputlabs.io/kapybara Inputlabs kapybara] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->DIY one handed version wip |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Vilcorn Z03 BT Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - other Bluetooth modes (green, red, blue, purple, etc.) Select + M1 (or M2) - 400mAh - not great latency wired - 800mhz polling - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->zd ultimate legend | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->zd 0+ elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description-->zd 0+excellent | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} <pre> #ifndef AROSX_LIBRARY_H #define AROSX_LIBRARY_H #include <exec/types.h> #define AROSX_CONTROLLER_TYPE_UNKNOWN 0x00 #define AROSX_CONTROLLER_TYPE_GAMEPAD 0x01 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_UP 0x0001 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_DOWN 0x0002 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_LEFT 0x0004 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_RIGHT 0x0008 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_START 0x0010 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_BACK 0x0020 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_LEFT_THUMB 0x0040 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_RIGHT_THUMB 0x0080 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_LEFT_SHOULDER 0x0100 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_RIGHT_SHOULDER 0x0200 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_A 0x1000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_B 0x2000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_X 0x4000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_Y 0x8000 struct AROSX_GAMEPAD { ULONG Timestamp; UWORD Buttons; UBYTE LeftTrigger; UBYTE RightTrigger; WORD ThumbLX; WORD ThumbLY; WORD ThumbRX; WORD ThumbRY; }; #define AROSX_EHMB_CONNECT 0x00 #define AROSX_EHMB_DISCONNECT 0x01 #define AROSX_EHMF_CONNECT (1L<<AROSX_EHMB_CONNECT) #define AROSX_EHMF_DISCONNECT (1L<<AROSX_EHMB_DISCONNECT) struct AROSX_EventHook { struct Node eh_Node; struct MsgPort *eh_MsgPort; ULONG eh_MsgMask; }; struct AROSX_EventNote { struct Message en_Msg; ULONG en_Event; APTR en_Param1; APTR en_Param2; }; #endif /* AROSX_LIBRARY_H */ </pre> === Joystick === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->CH Products CombatStick 568 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Cyborg X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Extreme 3D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | [Logitech Attack 3 Joystick] | 0x0464 | 0xC214 | 0205 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->saitek X-52 x52 pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->saitek aviator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Speedlink Competition Pro USB | | | | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{maybe|works but games not working "out of the box"}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator QZ 501 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator TH 400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator GM-2500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust XK 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} ===[https://github.com/JacKeTUs/linux-steering-wheels Gaming Racing Steering Wheels]=== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="40%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/documents/pid1_01.pdf USB PID standard not supported], |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cammus C5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fanatec CSL Elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS4 and Xbox - belt driven wheel - 30cm wheel swapping |- | <!--Description-->Fanatec Club Sport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> top belt $600 £500 system |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->FFBeast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius TRIO RACER F1 Racing Wheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Cheap and cheerful but not great - may need calibrating |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hama PC Racing Wheel Thunder V18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Average |- | <!--Description-->Hori Racing Wheel 3 with pedals | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS3 PC |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Logic3 PXU450 TopDrive GT450 Steering Wheel for PS3, PS4, XBox One and PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech MOMO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Very good |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Driving Force GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Drive Force Pro DFP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> wheel 900 degree - weighs in at 15&nbsp;lbs |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Formula Force EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->200 degrees turn for the EX model is arcade-like driving - adds PS3 compatibility via the PSx/2 adaptor - weighs in at 9&nbsp;lbs |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G27 PC/PS3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> comes with gear shifter - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G29 PC PS3/PS4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> may need additional shifter - gear 900deg wheel / rumble - 3 peddle - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G920 PC XboxOne | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> may need additional shifter - gear 900deg wheel / rumble - 3 peddle - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G923 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft(R) SideWinder Precision Racing Wheel (1999) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R5 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R9 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R12 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/Ultrawipf/OpenFFBoard OpenFFBoard], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V12 Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simagic M10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> base direct drive $900 £800 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simplicity Simwheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> direct |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simxperience Accuforce V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SPEEDLINK Drift O.Z. Racing Wheel with Pedals and Gear Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SteelSeries Simraceway SRW-S1 Steering Wheel (PC) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Nascar Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Ferrari Challenge Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> Poor |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Ferrari FGT Rumble GT Experience 3-in-1 (PC/PS3) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID-->b658 | <!--Revision-->0102 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Wheel and all buttons detected}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Opinion-->Not great - gear driven 240deg wheel rotation - no psu needed - 2 peddle - flappy gear change - rumble untested - red switch for PC PS3 selection |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster F430 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T500 RS Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> belt driven wheel/rumble for GT5 |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T60 Challenge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T150 Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> gear / belt combo wheel / rumble - 2 peddle |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster TMX Pro PC/XboxOne | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> direct drive rumble - no manual gear shift included |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T80 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Base level and OK - PS4 - 270deg rumble - 2 peddle |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T300 RS GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS3 PS4 - belt driven - 900deg rotation and modular 28cm wheel out - 2 peddles but 3 available |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster TX Leather | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->TX Xbox version - 900deg rotation |- | <!--Description-->Thrustermaster TS PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PC only belt wheel |- | <!--Description--> TS XW Racer PC Xbox1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> top belt system |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T-GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS4 $700 £600 with T-DFB |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Tracer Zonda Racing Steering Wheel PC PS3 Vibration Feedback Pedals Gearbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ===Gamepad Joypad Adapters=== * Most adapters will work in most OS's without installing a driver. Special functions needing drivers will be noted. * Some adapters do not work with some [http://www.stepmania.com/wiki/Dance_Pads dance pads] because of voltage issues. Other adapters map the dancemat arrows as axes and not as buttons, causing problems. * If using an adapters should be compatible with '''original''' PlayStation PS/Xbox Xbox/GameCube GC /Dreamcast DC/Sega Saturn SS gamepads. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.maplin.co.uk/psx-usb-bridge-34887?tabid=3&worldid=&doy=21m9&faqitem=playstation%20controller%20to%20pc%20adaptor Maplin] [http://www.rockfire.com.tw/ Padix Co. Ltd. Rockfire] PX-205 PSX/USB Bridge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0583 | <!--Product ID-->0x2050 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes}} but buttons mapped different from others | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|poor}} | <!--Opinion-->Ok with dpads, but very poor support with analogue hack |- | Boom PS Joy Converter adaptor | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | discontinued (2004/5). Hold Up, Start, and Select for three seconds. Very good [http://www.stepmania.com stepmania] recommendation. |- | [http://www.hkems.com/m_main.htm EMS] [http://www.hkems.com/product/ps2/ps2-usb2.htm USB2] grey plastic box with 2 PSX ports, one on either side - UP and Select pressed for 3 seconds at the same time or the dance code (start+select+up) | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Tests/joystick shows the PS port works in digital mode on d-pad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | Set in PC switch mode. Does not work when using 2 pads at the same time, likely higher power requirements. FPSE emu DualShock untested, Mat and Guitar untested but known lag involved |- | Joytech (play.com) (EMS USB2 bad clone) Black box twin PSX | 0x0b43 | 0x0003 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|buggy hardware}} | but poor on dance ddr mat and guitar hero as the left and right keys do not like being pressed together, Dual shock untested |- | [ EMS Trio Linker ] 1 PSone connection at bottom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX discontinued 2005 |- | [http://psxemulator.proboards.com/index.cgi?board=support&action=display&thread=421 EMS Trio Linker Plus] (blue box) 1 PSx at bottom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX discontinued |- | Gamtec [http://www.gamestone.co.uk/gradius/guides_usb_smartjoy_guide.php SmartJoy Plus] Lik Sang PS->USB converter Red 2005 | 0x0925 | 0x0005 | Low 0110 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe|detected and digital dpad works with [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4138&forum=2&post_id=35952#forumpost35952 joystick and testjoystick tests] but the second analog control is not mapping correctly in digital mode}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|Analogue Hack - hardware buggy not useable}} | Dual shock untested, Mat and Guitar untested. Nothing picked up upon plugging it in. Quite common, these items have grounding issues or feed voltage back into the USB host and freeze the host controller, preventing any plugins or removals being detected. |- | Gamtec SmartJoy Plus Dual PS->USB converter Red | 0x0925 | 0x00 | Low | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|buggy hardware}} | |- | [http://uk.gear.ign.com/articles/700/700334p1.html Lik-Sang Super SmartJoy PSX] | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX |- | Soyo Kiki Kiky | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | eXcel PSX adaptor shaped a little like a stealth bomber with USB pass through | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | Venom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | Dragon Plus (Radio Shack) Pantherlord GreenAsia USB to PS2/PS3 converter single black cable | 0x0e8f | 0x03 | 1.07 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes| }} | |- | Deal Extreme 2 PSX black cables from 1 USB port | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->HDE 2014 Personal Communication Systems Inc | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0810 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0106 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Same as single cable above but with black block midway along cable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC001 Super Joy Box 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC016 Super Joy Box arrowhead triangle twin PSX] Original was lack with RED Leds. Clones Dilong pu203, Blue HDE Neewer ShineData SD-APS2USB, Red Octane and Black PC Power Box (NS3454) '''embossed circle''' on top | 0x0810 | 0x0001 | 1.06 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Tests/joystick shows one PS port does not work with analog control at all but the other port does and maps correctly in digital mode}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|Analogue hack works }} | Still available 2013, poor construction though, falls to pieces easily. Dual Shock untested, Mat and Guitar untested |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd [http://www.mayflash.com/pc/pc038/pc038-1.htm Mayflash PC038 Super Joy Box Pro triangle twin PSX] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Limited Mayflash SuperJoy Box 5 PC006 long V-shaped 4 port PS/PS2 Game Controller Adapter | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Limited Mayflash SuperJoy Box 5 PRO PC039 PS/PS2 Game Controller Adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | Boom PSX+N64 USB converter (purple or blue see through box) (2003/4) - red led for psx and green led for n64 | 0x6666 | 0x0667 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|not detected by Tests/joystick}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|Analogue hack }} | Rumble Pak untested |- | [http://www.hkems.com/product/ps2/TrioLinkerPlus2.htm EMS Trio Linker Plus II] | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4753&forum=24&post_id=43102#forumpost43102 ] | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1DC 1GC 1PSX but not for ddr mat games |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC043 clone HuiJia Black twin N64 converter for PC USB | 0x0e8f | 0x3013 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|detected by Tests/joystick though two digital pads have their settings wrong}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|Analogue hack works well with middle handle/grip little joystick}} | Rumble Pack untested |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC MagicBox SuperBox 3 | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | untested 1SS 1DC 1PSX } |- | <!--Description-->Lik Sang SmartJoy X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x0285 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SmartJoy X2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x0289 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC018 Super Joy Box 9 Xbox (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x060 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | does not work. Hub(s) 0x0288 detected but 0x0289 xbox1 joypads are not detected as hid let alone as [http://www.amiga.org/forums/archive/index.php/t-62940.html xpad] or [http://pingus.seul.org/~grumbel/xboxdrv/ linux xboxdrv driver] |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC019 Super Joy Box 10 Xbox Twin ports (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x060 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | does not work with the big Fatty Duke or smaller S Akebono controller(s) |- | TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC020 Super Joy Box 11 Xbox Quad ports (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x0604 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC035 3 in 1 Magic Joy box PS GC Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB to NES [http://wiki.nesdev.com/w/index.php/Standard_controller SPI like protocol] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Buffalo Classic USB Pad SNES like | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash PC044 USB to SNES | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB to MEGADRIVE GENESIS Joypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.retrousb.com/product_info.php?cPath=21&products_id=70 USB to 9 pin ATARI RETROPORT style JOYSTICK PORT] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Atari RetroLink 9pin to SB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SLS Sega Saturn USB pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash PC050 Dual Saturn ports | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Guitar Hero for PC/Mac | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1430 | <!--Product ID-->0x474C | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Cronus Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BrookX One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Gamecube to USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Magic NS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> WiiU |- | <!--Description-->Brook Converter WiiU P3 P4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CooV Xbox One Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} * [http://www.bemanistyle.com/forum/f6/best-metal-pad-19066/ Metal dance pads with LEDs] - My My Box Blue Shark (Nexen), Cobalt Flux (CF) (Let's Groove), Red Octane Afterburner, TX-2000, Logic3 (Dance Dance Dance), Gamerose (Stay Cool), * Hard foam mat - [http://www.mayflash.eu/3in1-deluxe-dansmat-ignition-foam-ps2xboxpc-p-5.html Mayflash] FutureMax Deluxe 3 in 1 Ignition, [http://www.gamerose.com/ Gamerose] (Stay Cool), TrinPad orange, * Soft foam mat - Logic3 (PS420N), [http://www.positivegaming.com/index.php?id=36 Positive Gaming Impact], Gamerose Miss Daisys Naki (Stay Cool), Pelican, MadCatz *PS1 PS2 PS3 PS4 flex ribbon big source of button/trigger issues with all controllers *PS2 Phat KSA1Q40A (Board), SA1Q33A (Membrane) SCHP-10010 H *PS2 SA1Q42A SCHP-10010 A *PS2 SA1Q43-A SCHP-10010 H The primary axes are either the Control Pad or the left stick. Buttons come in a rough order: face buttons, then shoulder buttons, then Select and Start, then buttons under sticks, and finally Control Pad directions if not assigned to a hat. But the order and number of buttons within a category are unpredictable, as is which button the user expects to use for each action. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" | Joypad ! width="5%" | HATS ! width="5%" | Button 01 ! width="5%" | Button 02 ! width="5%" | Button 03 ! width="5%" | Button 04 ! width="5%" | Button 05 ! width="5%" | Button 06 ! width="5%" | Button 07 ! width="5%" | Button 08 ! width="5%" | Button 09 ! width="5%" | Button 10 ! width="5%" | Button 11 ! width="5%" | Button 12 ! width="5%" | Button 13 ! width="5%" | Button 14 ! width="5%" | Axes 1 ! width="5%" | Axes 2 ! width="5%" | Axes 3 ! width="5%" | Axes 4 ! width="5%" | Axes 5 ! width="5%" | Axes 6 ! width="10%" | Comment |- | [https://pineight.com/mw/index.php?title=USB_game_controllers Xbox 360 Wired Controller] | | A (down-green) | B (right-red) | X (left-blue) | Y (up-yellow) | LB (white) | RB (black) | Back | Start | Guide | L3 | R3 | | | | Left X | Left Y | LT | Right X | Right Y | RT | Poor 2D, Good 3D |- | <!--Description-->Gravis GamePad / Original PlayStation Controller | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Red (Sqleft) | Yellow X (X down) | Green O (O right) | Blue (Tri up) | L1 | R1 | L2 | R2 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | | | | | <!--Axes 1-->Stick X | Stick Y | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> PlayStation 2 Older Adapters | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Blue X (down) | Red O (right) | Pink Sq (left) | Green Tri (up) | L1 | R1 | L2 | R2 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | Stick 1 | Stick 2 | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> PlayStation 2 Newer Adapters | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Up | Right | Down | Left | L2 | R2 | L1 | R1 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | Stick 1 (analogue Hack) | Stick 2 | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> Wish Technologies N64 Adaptoid | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> A | C Down | C Right | B | C Left | C Up | L | R | Start | <!--Button 10-->Z | Pad Up | Pad Down | Pad Left | Pad Right | <!--Axes 1-->Stick X | Stick Y | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> | | | | | | | | | <!--Button 10--> | | | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> | | | | | | | | | <!--Button 10--> | | | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- |} Just plug in your digital/analogue joystick or gamepad into USB port. The device will be handled by Poseidon USB stack. Poseidon is the USB stack with Trident adding a GUI (graphical user interface) prefs. the context sensitive page would come up right on pressing the help key inside the relevant window. The manual is in this archive, just in case it isn't in SYS:Locale/Help *How to change joystick mode to analogue? By default a connected USB joystick emulates Amiga digital joystick. To change this behaviour so that the joystick is presented as analogue you need to use Trident preferences application (System:Prefs/Trident). Open Trident and go to Devices on the left hand side (mouse click once on it). Select your controller from the list to the right and then click on Settings button below. This will open a new window. On the "General" tab find the "Lowlevel Library Joypad Emulation" section near the bottom. Find ports which are set to "Merge with USB" or "Override with USB" and change them to "Analogue Hack". Please note that analogue joystick support is an extension of original Amiga functionality, thus an Amiga application must be explicitly written to use it. AROS SDL library uses this functionality, thus all SDL applications that use joystick, can use the analogue joystick feature. The HID class has several options how to handle the input data: * Don't touch: The movement and button data for is not modified by the hid class. This is the default for the ports 0, 2, and 3. * Overwrite with USB: This will kill the original data that might had come from the internal ports and overwrites it with the joypad data for this USB interface. Note well: If you have multiple joypads connected, take care which setting you have selected for each port, because only the last interface with this option will actually send the joypad data to the game. * Merge with USB: This option merges the input data of the lowlevel.library with the USB stream. This only works, if the connected device on the original Amiga ports is NOT a mouse (because then the streams are incompatible). Merging should be the preferred method, because it leaves the original joysticks working. * Disable: Turns off the port for the application. * Analogue Hack: Tells Poseidon to force reporting of analogue data at the port. Please note that this only works with programs that understand the analogue data, because it's an extension to the original lowlevel.library standard made by Commodore. If you want to incorporate this feature in your software, just contact me and I will send you the necessary information. * Rumble Port: As addition to the analogue data, the HID class supports applications and games that want to utilize a rumble pack or force feedback motors in the gamepads. This field selects to which lowlevel port the hid device responds, when attempting to use the rumble pack. Normally, this corresponds to the port that has been set in the actions for the joypad. *How to change joystick port assignment? The low level library supports up to four ports. Port 0 is usually used by the mouse, port 1 is the standard port for joysticks/joypads. By default a connected USB joystick is present in Port 1. To change its location to Port 0 you need to use Trident preferences. Open Trident and go to Devices window. Select your controller from the list and then click on Settings button. This will open a new window. On the "General" tab find the "Lowlevel Library Joypad Emulation" section. Port 1 should be set as either "Merge with USB" or "Override with USB". Change this setting to "Don't touch". Change Port 0 setting to "Merge with USB". Go to "Actions" tab. In the "Reports and collection" select first entry named "Joystick". in the "Usage items" select "X axis". Go to "Performed actions" area. On the left there will be a list of triggers. Each of them should have (port1) in their params. Click on the first trigger and using buttons to the right of the list change port1 into port 0. Repeat this for all triggers and for all items on "Usage items" list. *How to make joystick simulate keyboard keys? With Poseidon it is possible to make the joystick simulate the keyboard pressings. This might enable using joystick for playing games which only have keyboard support. This feature is configured in Trident preferences. Open Trident and go to Devices window. Select your controller from the list and then click on Settings button. This will open a new window. Go to "Actions" tab. On the right top window select X axis. On the left bottom list select an entry "Digital Joystick, Push left(port 1)". On the panel to the right change "Digital joystick" into "Raw Key". A list of keys will be displayed. Select key you wish to send. Repeat the same procedure for "Digital Joystick, Release left (port 1)" option but this time check "Send key up even instead of key down". Open shell and move your joystick to the left - your selected letter should appear in the shell. *Analogue in Trident Prefs * Open the Trident USB Prefs -> Devices -> Select your joypad -> Settings button -> Action TAB * See some "axis" listed under "Usage items" in the top right of the window. They are your analog stick(s) * Check [x] Track Incoming Events which is half way down the window on the left And you should see some axis activity in "Usage items" when you move the analog stick *Actions HID class item -> Settings -> HID Class Window -> Action Tab -> Action handling area Reports and collections -> Usage Items -> Performed actions Qualifier keys are *special*. You don't only need to create the actual keypress but also modify the qualifiers. Go to the keyboard panel and find the windows menu key by enabling key tracking and pressing the windows menu key. Then assign the right amiga key to it. Go to the actions panel and find the right amiga key (it's called "Keyboard right GUI"). Remember the actions stored there, best write them down in exact order. Then delete them. Find the windows menu item and add the missing qualifier action. Be sure the parameters are exactly the same and the order is right. Set them to Raw, then assign an up and down button for each character, etc. when you change the settings to RAW so you can assign keyboard strokes. it will always say, KEYDOWN or what ever on the left, it never provides and option for key release. The problem still remains though that if I try to assign the Directional Pad (Hat) to Arrow Keys, that things will get screwed up and you either can not move with the directional PAD (HAT), or movements are assigned to the Left Analog, and do not work as they should, it's as if the right and down arrow keys are ALWAYS On, regardless of the fact that I did indeed assign a Key release command to each input. check that by pressing analog directions and see the current values, and the thresholds configured in poseidon to bind them to left/right/up/down. misconfigured too much stuff in the HID settings, you can always go in poseidon->config list entry and delete the config item related to your device (or the HID class setting itself), back to basics. *Rumble in Trident Prefs Open Trident Prefs and click on the Devices option in the left hand window. Click with the mouse once on your gamepad choice on the right hand side and again on the Settings button below. In the new window, select the '''General''' TAB and half way down on the right there is an "Open Now" button in the section "HID output control window". Clicking on that button opens another window (HID Control) with sliders for the two rumble engines inside the controllers and you can test if they work. '''Sometimes clicking that button does nothing, other times it will open the window and say nothing is detected.''' The leftmost two sliders do nothing, the third one has a large rumble effect, and the fourth one has a small rumble effect. ===Graphic Drawing Tablet=== There is a standard in HID for tablets possibly mouse type. If the tablet is HID conforming in that sense, it should work. Aiptek does a fairly good job at this. The other competitor, Wacom, didn't pay too much attention to this and simply adapted their legacy serial protocol into HID in a very awkward way. Older Wacom tablets have worked with the special support in the HID class, but not the more recent ones. to use graphic tablets fully, applications need to be written that make use of the AmigaOS NewTablet events (which AROS has) * Entry level - A6 (6x4) work area * Medium A5 (6x8) A4 (10x7) size (recommended but only a few ie years 2000 to 2003 models supported) * Semi Pro A3 (12x9) * Pro Cintiq * 2005/6 Some support added for Wacom tablets * 2008 Wacom's patent on battery free pens expires {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Micrograf Tabby (late 1980s and early 1990s) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->podscat pt 3030 graphics tablet | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Summagraphics | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom IV compatible (Graphire, ArtPad, A3, A4, A5 and PenPartner CT-0405-P - Wacom intuos GD-0405-R) Waycom Digitiser II UD-0608-R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Artpad II (KT-0405-R) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AceCad boards | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AipTek HyperPen 6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Calcomp | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AipTek HyperPen 8000 - Aldi/Medion MD 9310 and Aldi/Tevion LT 9310 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Tablet PC penabled | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based like x61t X60t NC4200 NC4400 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom PenPartner * PenPartner 2 * PenStation 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056a | <!--Product ID-->0x0000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Graphire - Wacom Tablet ET-0405-U UV1.1-1 (Slate Blue) ET-0405UL (lime) (orange) (red) (purple) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0X0010 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|late 90s with A6 size - [Wacom Support] of X-axis 00000-10205 Y-AXIS 0000-7421 Tip Pressure 000-511 under Trident prefs. Air pen mouse type movements }} |- | <!--Description--> * Grapphire 2 4x5 ET-0405A-U UV2.0-3 (Steel Blue) * Graphire 2 5x7 ET-0507A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0011 and 0x0012 | <!--Revision-->0110 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 and A5 versions - [Wacom Support] of X-axis 00000-10205 Y-AXIS 0000-7421 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air pen mouse type movements - mouse EC-120-0K tested}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Graphire 3 * cte-430/w 4x5 pearl sapphire * cte 630 6x8 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0013 and 0x0014 | <!--Revision-->0314 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 and A5 size - [Wacom Support] Xaxis 0-10207 yaxis 0-7423 tip pressure 0-511 and the erase end appears to respond but avoid bluetooth BT versions }} |- | Wacom Graphire 4 * cte-440/B Blue cte 440/s Silver 4x5 * cte-640 6x8 cte 640 u 0403 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0015 and 0x0016 | <!--Revision-->403 | {{Yes|A6 and A5 work area detected [Wacom Support] x-axis 0000-10207 Y axis 0000-7423 Tip Pressure 000-511 and delete rub out end of the pencil seems detected but avoid bluetooth BT versions }} |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom Intuos 4x5 GD-0405 * Intuos 6x8 GD-0608 * Intuos 9x12 GD-0912 * Intuos 12x12 GD-1212-U * Intuos 12x18 GD-1218 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0020 0x0021 0x0022 0x0023 0x0024 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected and responses delivered back - x axis up to 30479 and y axis 31679, tip pressure up to 1023 and x and y tilt up to 127 - Wacom intuos GD-0912-A for Apple Macs NOT SUPPORTED}} |- | <!--Description--> * Intuos 2 4x5 A6 - XD-0405-U * Intuos 2 6x8 A5 - xd 0608u uoc * Intuos 2 9x12 XD-0912-U * Intuos 2 12x12 XD-1212-U * Intuos 2 12x18 XD-1218-U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056a | <!--Product ID-->0x0041 0x0042 0x0043 0x0044 0x0045 | <!--Revision-->0126 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|various sizes and recognised as [Wacom Support] but not working. x-axis 00000-20319 y-axis 00000-16239 tip presure 0000-1023 x-tilt y-tilt 000-127. HID mouse xc-100-03 works but never could use it as a real tablet with pressure with TVPaint 3.6 }} |- | <!--Description--> * Intuos 3 4x5 (PTZ-430) * Intuos 3 4x6 (PTZ-431W ) * Intuos 3 6x8 (PTZ-630 PTZ630) * Intuos 3 6x11 (PTZ-631W A3 wide) * Intuos 3 9x12 (A4 PTZ-930 PTZ930) * Intuos 3 | <!--Vendor ID-->056a | <!--Product ID-->0x00b0 0x00b1 0x00b2 0x00b3 0x00b4 0x00b5 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No}} Actions in HID setup window definitively locks the Pointer (mouse) reports settings and even after a clear and save, nothing changes, the configuration returns to default values. "[Wacom]" reports don't see any events from the tablet, even with "Pointer" reports cleared and save, so is locked a in "mouse" state - but can send a special command to the tablet in order to put it into a special vendor mode. This mode enables Wacom specificities like pressure, tilt, absolute position, buttons, etc... you should send an HID report feature with ReportID=2 and data=2, the current HID class driver doesn't give a way to change that, even using the "initial startup actions" item in the extra collection. No listed features work |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Wacom Volito - Promethean FT-0405-U06 UV1.4-1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0060 | <!--Revision-->0141 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 work area with [Wacom Support] of x-axis 0000-5103 Y axis 0000-3711 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air and touch mouse movement - appears to be the budget option with some but limited features}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Volito 2 * CTF-??? 2x3 * CTF-420G CTF-420 V2.0-0 4x5 * Serif Penabled 6742 rebadge of CTF 420/020-B CTF-420/02 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0062 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 work area with [Wacom Support] of x-axis 0000-5103 Y axis 0000-3711 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air and touch mouse movement - no erase function on the end of the pen - nylon nibs value option}} |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom PL-400 LCD * PL-500 * PL-510 * PL-550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0030 0x0031 0x0032 0x0034 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> * PL-600 * PL-600 SX * PL-700 * PL-710 * PL-800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0033 0x0035 0x0036 0x0037 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Cintiq 21 UX and Cintiq Partner DTF-720 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Wacom PenTablet Bamboo (MTE), Bamboo Craft (CTH), Bamboo Fun (CTE), Bamboo Pen (CTL) and Bamboo Pen & Touch (CTH) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Wacom Bamboo Fun Medium CTE-650 | | 0x0018 | | {{Maybe|[http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 works on a1k forum]}} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Fun Small CTE-450 white | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0017 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo One CTF-430 V2.0-0 CTF 430/S | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0069 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A5 wired air pen and acts like a mouse only}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos 4 * Small PTK-440 PTK-540 * Medium - PTK-640 - PTK 540WL Wireless - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Intuos4 surface sheet was revised in October 2010 to reduce nib wear}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos 5 Touch * * Medium - PTH-650 - USB Wired and Wireless Kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0027 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested work, however wireless may glitch or drag }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pro Medium - PTH-651 - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Small Pen Tablet - MTE 450 MTE-450A (MTE-450/k) - | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0065 | <!--Revision-->0116 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A6 work area - mouse movement but no pen detection except x-axis 2 to -2 and y-axis 2 to -2 - mini usb lead - 4 blue led lit buttons not detected as well as circular touch button?? }} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Pen CTL 460 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested all Bamboo versions were criticized for the drawing surface's roughness (which got smoother over time), which caused the small pressure-sensitive 'nib' to wear down, and become slanted or scratchy in the same way as pencil lead, albeit more slowly}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo Fun CTH-461/S wired | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x00D2 | <!--Revision-->0106 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A6 size - Pen tracking not working but finger touch works }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo Connect Pen Tablet CTL-470 CTL-470K 470-DE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->CTH 470K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom CTH 480/S wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} lithium battery for pad - |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pen Small CTL-480/S CTL 480 K wired | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x030E | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|A5 detected as Intuos PS but not working although the RHS blue led responds to pen on tablet }} |- | <!--Description-->CTH 490 PK S Photo - CTH-490CK-S Comic - CTH-490AK-S Art | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested lower hovering height pen nibs wear fast and input lag/responsiveness}} |- | <!--Description-->Intuos Pen & Touch Medium - CTH-680 - USB Wired and Wireless Kit work | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pro (PTH-660 and PTH-860) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 10.6" Genius G-Pen M609 Genius G-Pen M609X iVista Media Tablet 10.6 Aiptek MediaTablet 10000u | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0501 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Slim Tablet 12.1" | <!--Vendor ID-->0x172F | <!--Product ID-->0x0034 | <!--Revision-->0x1105 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 12 by 9" Aiptek HyperPen 12000u T-12000U Tablet Series Nisis T-12000u USB Tablet Series Version 1.05 (aiptek rebadged) Trust item #1535 ADESSO Cyber Tablet 12000 Graphic design tablet iVista Media Tablet 12 PENTAGRAM O'pen Wide P 2003 Genius G-Pen M712 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0500, 0x08ca | <!--Product ID-->0x0010 | <!--Revision-->0105 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected with Nisis/Aiptek functioning as a tablet, untested with others - Puck (mouse) x axis 0000 to 6000 y axis 0000 to 6000 - stylus (pen) x axis 00000 to 12000 y axis 00000 to 12000 tip pressure 0000 to 1023 - 16 function keys - AAA battery needed for pen and another for the mouse}} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 14.1" v5.1e Genius G-Pen M714X Aiptek MediaTablet 14000u WMK-H141 Trust item #15358 Adesso CyberTablet 14000 M14 iVista Media Tablet 14.1 PENTAGRAM O'pen Wide P 2004 | <!--Vendor ID-->0X172f | <!--Product ID-->0X0500 | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected with Nisis/Aiptek functioning as a tablet - Stylus (Pen) X 16838 Y 16838 Tip Pressure 1023 }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop PID 0038 Genius G-Pen F509 Manhattan 177405 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0038 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop PID 0052 Yiynova MSP19 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0052 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Q Pad Aiptek HyperPen Mini NGS Flexi Style VisTablet PenPad iVistaTablet Q Flex Pad Bravod Q-PD65-S Trust Flex Design Tablet (#16937) | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0037 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Sirius Battery Free Tablet VisTablet Muse PENTAGRAM Designer P 2700 Princeton PTB-S1BK | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0502 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Slim Tablet 12.1" Genius G-Pen F610 Trust Slimline Widescreen Tablet (#16529) VisTablet Original 12" Adesso CyberTablet Z12 Adesso CT-Z12A PenPower Tooya Pro Aiptek Slim 12.1 Inch Aiptek SlimTablet 600u Premium II NGS Slim Proguess iVistaTablet Slim 12.1 PENTAGRAM ThinType P 2006 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0034 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Slim Tablet 5.8" Genius G-Pen F350 Trust item #16485 VisTablet Mini iVistaTablet Slim 5.8 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0032 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Venus S Tablet Trust eBrush Widescreen Tablet (#17939) | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0503 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Aiptek GmBH MediaTablet Ultimate II - 16:10 Professional Graphic Tablet Model 1400U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Hanvon Beijing HanWang HW Micro Drawing Tablet ET0504U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b57 | <!--Product ID-->0x8030 | <!--Revision-->01111 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|does not work - recognised as an HID mouse - no tablet extensions detected}} |- | <!--Description-->KYE EasyPen 340, Genius EasyPen 340 | <!--Vendor ID-->0458:5014 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | Aiptek Hyper Pen 6000u PC Tablet APT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|detected but does not work - win98 era cordless 6in by 4.5in - }} |- | <!--Description-->nisis T-8000U APT-2 Aiptek rebadge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08CA | <!--Product ID-->0x0021 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|A5 detected but no responses }} |- | <!--Description-->Acecad Flair II GT-504 Init Fkt Fkt 0x5ab450c0 AIPTEK HyperPen 10000 U Aiptek HyperPen 10000U, AIPTEK Slim Tablet U600 Premium II | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0460 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Ace Cad Enterprise Co., Ltd Tablet - 5x3.75 drawing area | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0460 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bosto's | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} UCLogic Digitizer |- | <!--Description-->Adesso CyberTablet Z7, Adesso CyberTablet 12000, Adesso CT-12000A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->UC-Logic / Lapazz WP8060, UC-Logic / Lapazz PF1209, UC-Logic / Lapazz Artistic Tablet 5540, Manhattan 8"x6", Manhattan 3"x4", Manhattan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested but suspect not working}} |- | <!--Description-->DigiPro 5.5×4” Graphics Tablet Digital Ink Pad (A4 format) DigiPro WP8060, DigiPro WP5540, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius G-pen G-Pen 4500 Genius Wizardpen Genius Mousepen Genius Easypen i405 M610 Genius PenSketch 9x12, Genius MousePen i608, Genius MousePen 8x6, Genius MousePen / WizardPen 5x4, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius G-Pen F610 Genius G-Pen M610 Genius G-Pen 340 (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP4030U) Genius G-Pen 450 (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP5540U) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius UC-LOGIC iBall Tablet PF8060 iBall Iball Pen Tablet 8060U, Iball Pen Tablet 5540U, Iball Pen Tablet 4030U, Iball Design Tablet PF1209, NGS CADBOY (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP5540U) Pentagram QWare | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Trust TB-3100 Trust TB-5300 Trust 15356 Trust TB-6300 Trust 15357 WP8060U Slimline but bulky with metal backing A5 size Trust 16486, Trust 16447, Sketch Design Tablet, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|clashes with usb and crashes AROS }} |- | <!--Description-->UC-Logic Tablet WP1062 Aiptek HyperPen 10000U Monoprice 10X6.25 Inches Graphic Drawing Tablet Pickle 10x6.25 Inch Graphic Drawing tabletguess | <!--Vendor ID-->5543:0064 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | [ VTech KidiPhoto Art Studio] | | | | {{yes|works}} |- |} Tablet has a squared lines of wires which induce a current into the pen which is then detected by the metal grid in the tablet pad. Tablets report pressure (and tilt on expensive models) and are absolute pointing devices (put the pen at the top left and the mouse pointer will go to the top left of the screen). Graphic drawing area, what keys, report rate, resolution lpi lpmm, accuracy, pressure levels (may come from the app), origin position, Wacom tablets use electromagnetic resonance technology. Since the tablet provides power to the pen through resonant inductive coupling, no power is required for the pointing device. As a result, no batteries are inside the pen (or the accompanying puck), making them lighter and slimmer. Under the tablet's surface (or LCD in the case of the Cintiq) is a printed circuit board with a grid of multiple send/receive coils and a magnetic reflector attached behind the grid. In send mode, the tablet generates a close-coupled electromagnetic field (also known as a B-field) at a frequency of 531&nbsp;kHz. This close-coupled field stimulates oscillation in the pen's coil/capacitor (LC) circuit when brought into range of the B-field. Any excess resonant electromagnetic energy is reflected back to the tablet. In receive mode, the energy of the resonant circuit’s oscillations in the pen is detected by the tablet's grid. This information is analyzed by the computer to determine the pen's position, by interpolation and Fourier analysis of the signal intensity. In addition, the pen communicates information such as pen tip pressure, side-switch status, tip vs. eraser orientation and ID number (to differentiate between different pens, mice, etc.). For example, applying more or less pressure to the tip of the pen changes the value of the pen's timing circuit capacitor. This signal change can be communicated in an analog or digital method. An analog implementation modulates the phase angle of the resonant frequency, while a digital method is communicated to a modulator that distributes the information digitally. The tablet forwards this and other relevant tool information in packets, up to 200 times per second, to the computer. If you disable (delete all of them except for one that needs to be set to "no action", so that it will not be regenerated as default) the Extra Startup actions, the tablet should remain in relative mouse mode—you will not get pressure information in that mode though. [http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/highway_usb/message/2394]}} === Handheld Barcode Scanner Readers === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Farsun 9100 barcode scanner 0-12" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola Symbol LS2203 CMOS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Tysso | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Simple}} Code 11, Code 39, Code 93, Code 128, Coda Bar, UPC-A, UPC-E, EAN-8, EAN-13, MSI/Plessey, Telepen, Interleaved 2 of 5, Industrial 2 of 5, Matrix 2 of 5 |- | <!--Description-->Unitech MS320 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wasp WCS3905 CCD 1" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Code 93, Matrix 2 of 5, Industrial 2 of 5, Code 39, UCC/EAN-128, ISBN, Code 32, EAN/JAN-8 , EAN/JAN-13 , UPC-A, UPC-E, Codabar, Code 128, Code 11, Interleaved 2 of 5, MSI-Plessey, China Post, IATA 2 of 5, ISSN, UK-Plessey |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Datalogic Touch 90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Intermec | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell Metrologic MK9540-32A38 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola LS2208 Laser | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wasp WWS800 Laser 1D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Datalogic GD4130-BK-C066 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell 1202G-1USB-5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola / Symbol DS6707-DC20007ZZR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->DataMan 8000 2D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell Voyager 9520/40 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Metrologic MS1690 USB 2D Barcode Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} QR Code GS1 Databar PDF417 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Syscan GM800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} [http://www.scandit.com/2011/11/04/types-of-barcodes-choosing-the-right-barcode-type-ean-upc-code128-itf-14-or-code39/ Types of Barcode] <pre> UPC-A Grocery most common Code 128 EAN-13 Library Books ISBN & ISSN, Code 39 Codabar blood bank, 2D barcodes such as Data Matrix PDF417e Maxicode Aztec QR Code old Nokia handsets, MicroPDF417 </pre> ===TouchScreens=== Projected capacitive (PCAP) touch screen product, amongst many options the widely used are I2C and USB *USB host–device structure which dominates consumer and industrial electronics devices where higher bandwidth needed and user-friendly (multiswipes) *I2C Inter-Integrated Circuit simple serial standard for LCD display in embedded systems because of cost and low power *SPI arduino and rpi single boards We cover the USB here {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | eGalax Touch 4a | 0eef | 0001 | 0001 | {{yes|2009 works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lilliput HDMI Monitors 669GL-70NP/C/T (7 inch) 869GL-80NP/C/T (8 inch) FA1011-NP/C/T (10 inch) FA1046-NP/C/T (10 inch) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Iilyama Prolite Monitors PROLITE T1513SR-1 (15 inch) PROLITE T1730 (17 inch) PROLITE T1713SR-1 (17 inch) PROLITE T1913SR-1 (19 inch) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Smart Display Company (SDC) Touchscreens TFT Monitors TOUCH-TFT-TS07 (7 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS08 (8 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS10 (10 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS12 (12 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS15 (15 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS17 (17 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS19W (19 inch wide) TOUCH-TFT-TS22W (22 inch wide) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->XENARC Monitors 7 inch models 700TSH 700TSU 700TSV 702TSV 705TSV 706TSA 700IDT MDT-X7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->XENARC 8 inch models: 800TSV 805TSV 10 inch models: 1020TSV 1026TSA 1040TS 12 inch models: 1200TS 1200TR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Asus VT229H 21.5" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->CUQI 7" Monitor Touchscreen 1024x600 IPS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Espresso 15" Portable Touchscreen Display Monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hannspree HT225HPB 21.5 inch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->WaveShare 13.3inch HDMI LCD (H) (with case) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ===GPS tracking, running, cycling, biking, walking, hiking, ORIENTEERING, boaters and mapping=== Support for OpenStreetMap but not for Ordnance Survey, Map Pilot or National Geographic's Topo maps data gdb, Data output supported nmea 0183 V1.5 APA, V1.5 XTE and V2.1 GSA formats, gpx, kml/kmz, tracks from tcx files, geo: URIs, NMEA0183(which is RS232, voltages range from -15 volts to 15 volts, 4800 baud), or need NMEA sentences connected to your computer other method that some units support is a special serial cable that actually emits raw RS232 NMEA. These usually take 10->30 volts input, can run the unit, and have full voltage I/O for RS232 (not like spanner mode, which effectively turns the unit into a USB->Serial adapter inside the case). Equivalent apps - merkator, mapsource, {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Garmin gpsmap 180 GPS/chart plotter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->1992 GARMIN GPS 55 AVD Portable System | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - waas pinpoint within 3 metres - nmea - 4AA battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS 12 12XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Legend C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eMap | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|possibly through usbmodem rs232 connection nmea 0183 protocol}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} rs232 these older units supported it and would provide the stream in either the standard NMEA 0183 format or a proprietary Garmin format. |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS 75 AVD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS Map 7000 model 45006 (1994) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS Tracker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Pioneer Satellite Navigator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS 300 315 320 Mentor Receiver (2003) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Not for dedicated sat nav units like the Nuvi, TomTom, etc | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->NaviLock NL-402U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested u-blox 5 SuperSense® chipset with receivers for GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou and QZSS}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->GM1-86UB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| U-BLOX UB-6010 GGA,GSA,GSV, RMC and support VTG, GLL, TXT ublox binary and NMEA Command Dynamic Condition }} |- | <!--Description-->NAVILOCK GPS NL-602U USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|works via usbmodem.device - ublox ag 6 chipset - 50 channel}} |- | <!--Description-->TOPGNSS ton Receiver & Antenna GM702 u-blox 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|UBLOX7020 chip design bloc u-blox}} |- | <!--Description-->VK-162 G-MOUSE u blox 7 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1546 | <!--Product ID-->0x01a7 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|UBX G70xx with RMC VTG GSV TXT GLL GGA GSA}} |- | <!--Description-->VK-172 u-blox 7 G7020-KT gps gnss white pen stick receiver - over 1 inch long | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1546 | <!--Product ID-->0x01a7 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A| detected as cdc controlled plug in device - 18x18x2mm patch antenna but can be slow to update - nmea 0183 and ublox binary protocol}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GlobalSat BU-353 WaterProof USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested SiRF Star III}} |- | <!--Description-->Haicom HI-206 USB GPS receiver with RS-232 interfaces, RJ11 and PS/II connector EB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|usb-serial prolific pl2303 detected but GSP3F SiRF Star IV technology not detected or bound}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->BT760Y, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 5 GPS chipset}} |- | <!--Description-->GM-65 USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 6 GPS chipset - 65 channel}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 7 GPS chipset}} |- | <!--Description-->GM-65 USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 8 GPS chipset - 167 channels}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Colorado 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} USB |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Geko 101 201 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} limited waas enabled only - waypoints - aaa battery |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Edge 200 bike mount | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin ForeRunner 10 15 watch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Montana 600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Dakota 10 20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Map76s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Oregon 450T | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} USB nmea 0183 |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex 10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - no nmea0183 sentences data stream output - configuration an option to set it to "Garmin" mode, or "Mass Storage" mode. Since the mass storage mode seems to be required for waypoint/track/etc data exchange, the 'Garmin' mode would be for this data stream. Yet putting it in that mode doesnt seem to produce anything.}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Oregon 650T | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPSMAP 64S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GPSMap 78S or GPSMap 76CSX which has a NMEA port for talking to Nav equipment | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex Vista Cx GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - 2AA battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPSmap 276c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan 2000 XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan 3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Triton 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} SiRFstarIII™, Antenna Type Multidirectional Patch with WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS support |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Triton 400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} ==massstorage.class (MSC/UMS - most cameras and mp3 players)== === USB Card Readers === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="15%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Installing ! width="15%" |Booting ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | A-Tec Model CR-362 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | [http://www.belkin.com/IWCatProductPage.process?Merchant_Id=&Section_Id=200406&pcount=&Product_Id=179164 Belkin 15 in 1 Card Reader] | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Conrad CP440 60 in 1 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works on a1k forum}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Genesys Gtech Logic 19 in 1 | 0x05E3 | 0x0710 | High 0200 | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Hama 19 in 1 Card Reader | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | Hama 35 in 1 Card Reader | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Integral Single Slot SD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kingston USB 3.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Lexar microsd adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} but wider than Sandisk version - could block other slot if below |- | Pretec CardDriver | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sandisk MicroMate | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate SD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate Micro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} has satisfying 'click' when microsd inserted |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate Duo MicroSD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} no 'click' insertion uses pressure so future wear and tear issues |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Serena metal cased microsd only | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|Maybe}} hit or miss on quality |- | <!--Description-->Serena "Sandisk MobileMate" look-alike | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|Maybe}} hit or miss on quality |- | SilverCrest 16in1 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend P5 8 in 1 TSRDP5K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend P8 15 in 1 TSRDP8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Zyxel integralmemory 8 in 1 | 0x0aec | 0x3260 | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{no|not detected}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === USB Hard Drives === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Datel MaxDrive | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Inateck 2.5 Inch USB 3.0 Hard Drive Disk Enclosure/ Case (FE2001) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Full USB 3.0 port but plastic teeth keeping drive in place can snap |- | <!--Description-->Inateck case (FE2002) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} full USB 3.0 port - updated design |- | <!--Description-->Inateck case (FE3001) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} wider USB 3.0 port and no on/off switch Jmicron JMS578 chipset |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Iomega Desktop Hard Drive 500GB, 3,5“, USB2.0 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung T3 SSD | | | | {{N/A|untested}} USB 3.1 Gen 1 space grey / black metal/ plastic |- | Samsung T5 SSD | | | | {{N/A|untested}} USB 3.1 Gen 2 256GB 512GB alluring blue 1Tb 2Tb black unibody metal |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Seagate | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Seagate | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Toshiba Canvio 1TB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|partition fat32 or sfs to 100GB max - ntfs partitions not detected out of the box - select usb drive in trident prefs and press disable to shutdown}} |- | Verbatim 160GB Smartdisk | | | | {{yes|works }} |- | Western Digital USB | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->WD Essential | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->WD Passport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === USB DVD CD ROM Drives === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->12.5mm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->12.5mm enclosure mini-sata dvd-rw | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested needs sole usb3 port to power it}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->9.5mm enclosure ECD829 mini-sata dvd-rw with Initio Corporation INIC-1618L SATA | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13fd | <!--Product ID-->0x0840 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested but probably needs sole usb3 port to power it}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |} === USB to NGFF NVMe SDD HDD DVD CD ROM Drives === The older Jmicron JMS539B seems to result in massive filesystem corruption given the amount of corrupted content. Prehaps always avoided Jmicron and opted for Asmedia even if it costed a bit more. Realtek seems to be working okay for me generally speaking and newer Jmicron chipsets are less buggy – but evidently not perfect. From [https://goughlui.com/2025/08/17/psa-validate-your-storage-jmicron-jms583-kioxia-bg4-series-ssd-issue/ thread] Here is a [https://forums.anandtech.com/threads/stable-nvme-usb-adapter.2572973/ very long thread] that discusses data corruption and stability issues with these bridges. The majority of the posts are complaining of dropouts, hangs and the like, which usually down to either a poor USB 3.x implementation (SuperSpeed connections are very picky as to cables, ports and trace routing) or problematic compatibility. Regardless, the [https://www.legitreviews.com/jmicron-jms583-controller-version-matters-for-portable-usb-drives_219422 JMS583 is known to have several versions] noting that the last revision (C) in that article is a 2021 release which should fix earlier stability and cable quality compatibility issues. JMS583-STD-Release-v00.02.01.04-Bus Power.bin is the latest JMS583 firmware as of August 2025. Early firmware RTL9210 seems to have issues as well * RTL9210B * JMS583 rev1 with firmware A2 or A3 * RTL9210A * JMS583 firmware 2.0.9 * Asmedia ASM2362 * RTL9201A The reference Hardware ID for the JMS583 chipset from JMicron is: VID_152D&PID_0583&REV_0209 where "VID_152D" identifies a JMicron product; "PID_0583" is the generation chipset; "REV_0209" is the firmware version installed. In the same way, the reference Hardware ID for the RTL9210 from Realtek is: VID_0BDA&PID_9210&REV_3100 "VID_0BDA" is for a Realtek product, "PID_9210" is referred to the chipset and "REV_3100" to the firmware. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->ASM1153E / ASM1153 with firmware 140509_A1_82_40 or 141126_A1_EE_82. Both supports UASP and TRIM on USB 3.1 Gen.1 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with sabrent ec-uasp}} |- | <!--Description-->ASM235CM Ugreen aluminum bridging the USB3.2 Gen2x1 to Serial ATA host interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->TI 9261 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->ASM225 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->JMicron JMS578 issues USB 3.1 Gen.1 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0578 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|needs fixing on pi4 storage quirks}} |- | <!--Description-->JMicron JMS576 issues USB 3 to usb-c adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0576 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|orico}} |- | <!--Description-->JMS562 JMicron Technology Corp | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0562 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->JMS561U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x152d | <!--Product ID-->0x1561 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with sabrent ec-uasp}} |- | <!--Description-->VL716Q4 Orico black meshed aluminum usb c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1053E | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->ASmedia ASM1051E | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1053 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174C | <!--Product ID-->0x1536 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM104x | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID-->0x1042 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Unknown Chinese version | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0bc2 | <!--Product ID-->0x2312 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works}} |- | <!--Description-->JMicron N5321 gr | <!--Vendor ID-->0x152d | <!--Product ID-->0xa583 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Initio Corp INIC-1618L mini slimline sata 6 + 7 pins to usb2 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13FD | <!--Product ID-->0x0840 | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works mini sata to usb2 detects 201x laptop DVD as MassStorage(CD/DVD) but may need powered USB hub}} |- | <!--Description-->Unknown mini sata to usb3 adaptor | <!--Vendor ID-->0x01F75 | <!--Product ID-->0x0621 | <!--Revision-->0036 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works mini sata to usb3 detects 201x notebook DVD drive as MassStorage(SCSI) but 5V 1.5Amp needs powered hub to burn }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |} === External Floppy === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://techtravels.org/amiga/amigablog/ Amiga Floppy Project] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://aminet.net/package/driver/media/Catweasel_AROS_V1.2 Catweasel Mk4] | <!--Vendor ID-->0xE159 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0x00 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|2005 [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=driver/storage works]}} |- | <!--Description-->Catweazle MK4plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2010 driver for Teac are best, Sony are good, but Mitsumi don't like the Catweasel}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://hxc2001.free.fr/floppy_drive_emulator/ HxC Floppy Emulator] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.softpres.org/glossary:kryoflux KyroFlux] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung SFD-321U/EP USB Floppy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.cbmstuff.com/proddetail.php?prod=SCP SuperCard Pro] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.facebook.com/groups/greaseweazle Greaseweazle STM hardware], [https://cowlark.com/fluxengine/index.html Greaseweasel support], [https://github.com/keirf/greaseweazle python software], [https://amigakit.amiga.store/greaseweazle-p-91279.html buy], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB FLOPPY DISK DRIVE (USB External Floppy Disk) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/SukkoPera/OpenFlops OpenFlops] with [https://github.com/keirf/flashfloppy FlashFloppy] Gotech clone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/hmerrett/HenryFlops HenryFlops reworked OpenFlops] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/tebl/Amiga-DrawBridge DrawBridge aka Arduino Amiga Floppy Disk Reader/Writer] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| arduino based hardware }} |- | <!--Description-->FL-2501 USB Portable Diskette Drive | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2009 usb - [https://amiga.robsmithdev.co.uk/ Drawbridge] [https://github.com/RobSmithDev/ArduinoFloppyDiskReader software] ribbon cable compat with p/n 19308801-19 and s/n U356244 - model ASM P/N 27l4226 and FRU P/N 05k9283 - |- | <!--Description-->Dell Floppy Drive Module USB External 3.5" - Teac FD-05PUB 1.44mb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2004 usb 1.1 |- |} ==ptp.class (PTP and MTP - other cameras and mp3 players)== === Cameras === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 20D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 350D (also known as the Digital Rebel XT/Kiss Digital N) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 DIGIC II processor 8-megapixel }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot A430 A560 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 400D (XTi) digital SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1000D also known as Rebel XS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10.2mp 720p }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 450D aka Rebel Xsi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 12.2mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot S90 S95 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 2010 720p video - 10Mpixel }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot SD960 IS Digtal ELPH | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 Still Image: Exif 2.2 (JPEG), Movie: MOV (Image: H.264; Audio: Linear PCM) Lithium-ion Battery Pack NB-4L }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 500D aka Rebel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 1080p 15.1MP Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 550D 600D aka Rebel T2i T3i DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010-2011 1080p 18MP Lithium LP-E8 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot S100 S110 S120 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011-2013 720p-1080p video 12.1MP and above versions - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1100D DSLR Camera aka Rebel T3 SLR, EOS Kiss X50 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p 10Mpixels Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 650D 700D aka Rebel T4i T5i T6i SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2013 1080p 18Mpixels Lithium LP-E8 articulating flip out twistable screen }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon ELPH 300 HS (IXUS 220 HS) 230 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 blogging camera }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot N | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 12.1 MP CMOS, DIGIC 5 Wifi Lithium Battery Pack NB-9L }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot G7 X, G7X-II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014-2016 1080p video 12.1MP and above versions - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1300D DSLR Camera aka Rebel T6 SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 1080p 16Mpixels Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot G7x G5X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| G7X flip up and G5X flip out - same batteries - no external microphone input - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS M3 M5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| flip out - same batteries - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 60D 70D 80D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 6D 7D 8D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 5D Mark II III IV DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji FinePix A850 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->FujiFilm Finepix F100fd | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji FinePix F810 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xf1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| pocketable exr cmos 12mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xt1 x-t1 x10 x-t10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Fujifilm x100 x100s x100t | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xPro1 xPro2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xt2 / x-t2 x-t20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4K video }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GoPro HERO 3 HERO4 HERO 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D100, D60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 Compact flash storage - non interchangeable lenses up to 12.3MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D50, D50x | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 storage - 6.1MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D70, D80, D90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 Compact flash storage - 10MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D40, D40x | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 storage - 10MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D300, D700 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 storage - 12.3MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D2Xs, D2Hs, D3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006-2008 storage - sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 720p video unlike D3000 }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 16mpixel}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 16.2mp 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon L26 L27 L28 L29 L31 Coolpix compact cameras | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p video - 2 AA - pocket sized }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p video 14.2mp}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5100 DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 16.2mp 720p}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon L810 L820 L830 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2014 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 storage - sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7100 D7200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2014 up to 24.2mp 1080p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 1080p 24MPixel}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5200 D5300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 24.1MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D800 D600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 1080p video sd card storage - dust/oil issue at start}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3300 DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24.2MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D500, a high-performance DX-format (APS-C) DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 24.2MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5500 D5600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016-2018 24.1MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D810 D610 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 1080p video sd card storage }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4K UHD video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D900 D850 D820 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4k 46MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus C-370 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 3.2mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Camedia C-725 Ultrazoom | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 3mp aa batteries, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 8mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-410 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-510 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 10MP Live MOS sensor with TruePic III processor, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-420 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10mp, compactflash and xD cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-520 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10mp, compactflash and xD cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-620 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 12.3mp, compactflash, xD and microdrive cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-450 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 10mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax * ist DS DSLR camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 6.1mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K10D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 10.2mp APS-C CCD no video and older manual Pentax K-mount lenses}} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K20D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2008 14.6MP APS-C but no video recording mode }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K30 K-5 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2012 16MP full HD (1080p) recording at 24/25/30 fps}} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 24MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 III | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 25.7MP BSI CMOS sensor }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix LZ10 LZ20 DMC-LZ30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic TZ1 TZ5 TZ9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix GH1 GH2 like the DMC-GH2HEB-K - GH3 DMC-GH3HEB-K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Four Thirds (GH2) MFT Micro Four Thirds (GH3) limited to 29mins recording }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic AF series AF100 AF101 AF102 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix DMC-G2 DMC-G3 G5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic TZ60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic DMC LX7 10 LX15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GF7 GX8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic G80 G85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| micro 4/3 }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GH4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| micro 4/3 - shooting in MOV or MP4 formats recording limited to sd card size but split files because the FAT32 file system only supports files up 4GB in size, which amounts to around 5 minutes of 4K (100mbps) footage - GH4 appears to create 4GB files as a rule, regardless of whether the memory card’s file system supports larger files or not - }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GH5 gx80 gx85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Effective: 20.3 Megapixel 5184 x 3888 - 2 sd card slots compatible with high-speed, high capacity UHS-II - sd card v rating like the v90 should record at 60MB/s to be compatible with the GH5 in the All-I format - possible file corruption with .mdt files - new firmware 2.0 update, the Panasonic GH5 becomes the first 5K - }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic FZ2000 FZ2500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung WB100 WB1100 WB150 WB2200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 16MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung NX11 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung NX200, NX20, NX1000 and NX210 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 20.3Mp APS-C sized CMOS image sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sanyo Xacti CG65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sanyo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 6.1MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cyber-shot DSC camera models W110 W220 H300 H400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A230 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 10.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony A290 DSLR Camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 14.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cybershot HX20V HX30V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 18mp 720p - steady shot unit / optical block can cause buzzing noise and/or jumping image in lcd / viewfinder - dots are dirt and this voids the warranty }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cybershot HX50V HX60V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 20.2MP 1080p - steady shot unit / optical block can cause buzzing noise and/or jumping image in lcd / viewfinder - dots are dirt and this voids the warranty }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony A77 A99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony WX100 WX150 wx220 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 2014 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony NEX-6 Sony NEX-7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 16 to 24MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony NEX-3N Sony NEX-5N | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 16MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α58 Sony α68 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 20.1 MP 2014 24mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony rx100 mk III | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 20.1MP 1.0-type back-illuminated Exmor R CMOS sensor, often after boot-up, the motor starts running for no reason for first versions' - }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α5000 a5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 20.1 Megapixel APS-C Exmor APS HD CMOS 1080p Sony E-mount [https://github.com/ma1co/Sony-PMCA-RE hack] using [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8M4hR9HiOzM this] }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α6000 a6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24MP APS-C sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 A7S a7r a7c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 mirror less - more compact }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α77 II, α99 II, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 24.3 MP, 2016 42.4mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony rx100 mk IV V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 2016 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RX0 RX zero, RX0 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 2017 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α6500 a6500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 24.2MP APS-C sensor 4K }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 Alpha 7 II E-mount interchangeable lens mirrorless camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 24.2mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 A7Sii a7r a7c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 mirror less - more compact }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony a7 III α77 ILCE7M3/B Full-Frame Mirrorless Interchangeable-Lens Camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 24.2mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ZV-1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 24mm optical zoom, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ZV-1F | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 entry-level vlogging, 1-inch 20.1MP, ultra-wide 20mm f/2 prime lens}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} <pre > Lens Mounts Canon EF EF-S Nikon F Panasonic Olympus OM Pentax DA, FA, F, A, M, and K series Fujifilm X mount </pre > <pre > Sensors APS-C S35 Full Frame 43 Four Thirds M43 MFT Micro four thirds </pre > === Digital Voice Recorder Dictaphone Dictation Machine Handheld === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2011 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested 2012 no usb }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2012 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2013 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus WS-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7700 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-8600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-711PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-712PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-731PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus WS-811 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested slide out usb-a - aaa battery - ok recordings }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-540PC Olympus VN-541PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Philips DVT1250 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX470 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX560 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX570 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} === USB eBooks Readers drm free EPUB version 2.0.1 (2007), 3.0 (2011), 3.1 (2015) or [https://www.w3.org/TR/epub-33/ 3.3 (2024)] [https://github.com/thansen0/sample-epub-minimal epub examples] formats access === EPUB file format is an open standard based on XHTML for content and XML for metadata, contained in a zip file archive PDF v2.0 in 2017, 2009 takeover by ISO Org, 1.7 in 2006 , 1.6 in 2005, 1.4 in 2001, 1.3 in 1999, 1.0 in 1993 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Access ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Barnes and Noble Nook Simple Touch NST BNRV300 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2080 | <!--Product ID-->0x0003 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->when finding the right micro usb cable that works, internal nook memory not accessible but sd card fat32 readable and writable outside | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2011 6in 600x800 e-ink 16 grayscale .jpg}} battery remove sd card and Torx T5 back top for Cameron Sino CS-BNR003SL - USA 1.2.2 md5sum 351e26527e80156183e74be2da2ce89f *nook_1_2_update.zip - 1.2.1 UK fdba3981f7f221cc5143db6329645bc2 *nook_1_2_update.zip - skip registration, Turn on the device, but do NOT start setting it up. Hold down the top right button on the front of the device and slide your finger from left to right across the top of the E Ink screen. A ‘Factory’ button should appear in the top left corner of the screen. Press it. Once in the Factory menu, hold down the top right button on the front of the device and tap the bottom right corner of the screen should now see a ‘Skip Oobe’ button. Tap that and the Nook should finally load the home screen. Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description-->Barnes and Noble Nook Simple Touch with Glowlight *2012 Nook Simple Touch with GlowLight BNRV350 *2013 Nook GlowLight BNRV500 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2080 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 0x0007 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2012 untested }} perform a hard reset: Turn off the nook completely, turn it on, as soon as you see the screen flash begin holding the bottom page turn buttons until the screen flashes with a message asking reset, press the 'n' key twice to start the reset - Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description-->Nook Glowlight 4 Plus 7.8-inch screen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> *NOOK 1st Edition (2009-2018) BNRZ100 *NOOK Color (2010-2024) BNRV200 *NOOK Tablet (8GB/16GB) (2011-2024) BNTV250A / BNTV250 *NOOK HD (2012-2024) BNTV400 *NOOK HD+ (2012-2024) BNTV600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Elonex 511EB | <!--Vendor ID-->045e:ffff | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2009 untested Preferences->advanced->debug device detection}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://jaforeck.wordpress.com/2012/08/05/ready-to-meet-viktor-navorski-gained-access-to-elonex-621ebs-terminal-52/ Elonex 621EB] eBook | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1f85 | <!--Product ID-->0x1688 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->unlocked ootb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2010 untested usb mini charging 6" diagonal eInk Screen - 800 x 600 pixels, 8 Level 166dpi Paperlike screen, Embedded 1GB Flash NAND, full SD Card Slot up to 16GB - WAV, MP3, JPG, PNG, BMP, GIF support and ePub and PDF(with reflow) (TXT, HTML) support}} |- | <!--Description-->Elonex 700eb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2011 untested adjust screen blanking by menu then settings then device standby, you can then turn it off}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->iRiver Story HD eBook | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} freescale imx.508 arm mcimx508cvkbb cpu with 2gb samsung nand, m13892aj charging chip, eb07_main_mp1_110321 mobo, mini usb, atheros ar61026 wifi - |- | <!--Description-->iRiver Story | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Rakuten Touch A/B kobo3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Touch C, Kobo Mini, Kobo Glo N613, Kobo Aura HD N514 N204 kobo4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura, Kobo Aura H2O, kobo5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2013 6in untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura H2O Edition 2 v1, Kobo Glo HD, Kobo Touch 2.0, Kobo Aura ONE N709, Kobo Aura ONE Limited Edition, Kobo Aura Edition 2 v1 N236, kobo6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura H2O Edition 2 v2, Kobo Aura Edition 2 v2, Kobo Nia, Kobo Clara HD, Kobo Forma, Kobo Libra H2O kobo7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Elipsa, Kobo Sage kobo8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> *Kobo Libra 2 kobo9, Kobo Clara 2E kobo10, Kobo Elipsa 2E kobo11 *Kobo Libra Colour kobo13, Kobo Clara BW, Kobo Clara Colour kobo12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pandigital Personal eReader aka? Papyre 6.2 very similar to BQ Avant Firmware | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS 350 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2009 epub bbeb cbz untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS-650 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle K1 D00111 - Main Menu=: Settings: Menu=: Device Info shows S/N | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0002 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->256mb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2007 untested Marvell Xscale PXA255}} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle K2, D00511 170-1012-00, D00701 D00801 S11S01B * k2 means K2 US * k2i means K2 GW * dx means KDX US * dxi means KDX GW * dxg means KDX Graphite | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0003 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb unless jb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2010 untested Freescale i.MX31 }} the Kindle is a small computer running Linux 2.6 on an ARM processor |- | <!--Description-->AMAZON Kindle D00901 3rd Gen with keyboard - Menu, Settings for S/N and then Menu again to choose Update * S/N starts B006 means k3g aka K3 3G US * S/N starts B008 means k3w aka K3 WiFi * S/N starts B00A means k3gb aka K3 3G UK EU - debug mode with ;debugON and ~help | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->{{yes|4Gb internal no access until jailbroken JB}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 with mobi and azw3 formats only - micro usb 5v 0.85a - freescale i.mx35 ARM soc with 12bit parallel interface with epson e-ink cpu, 256MB synchronous dynamic RAM, 4GB eMMC internal memory only but no sd slot, MC13892 PMIC - atheros wifi 54mbit pci-e a e keyed wifi - ?? later models wm96103 audio codec - display has 2Mbit serial memory ic on ribbon cable with 4bpp inverse grayscale display not touchscreen - 3g module - screen replacement really annoying - 4 test points near T07 = TX RX GND ? - as of 2025, JB v0.13.N, MKK2014, MKK2025, KUAL, KoReader Legacy2025, and maybe later SS v0.47.N, Python 0.14.N, Fonts v5.16.N, USBNet v0.57.N - USB-downloader mode when Vol+ is pressed during startup - Shift + Alt + M for Minesweeper - |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle 4th Generation k4 D01100 two buttons, square movement and two buttons at bottom *B00E plastic back clipped in [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV1dyNkjjro many places] and strongly taped down to battery cover | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0005 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb unless jb with USB MS, USBMS aka also known as USB MSC or UMS | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 once back off use Torx T5 to remove battery cover screws - battery glued down S2011-001-A 515-1058-01 DR-A015 MC-265360 - Freescale i.MX508 SOC, 2Gb eMMC storage, 256MiB of LPDDR1, MC13892 PMIC - vendor modified u-boot imximage based on u-boot v2009.08 - USB-downloader mode press the fiveway down button during startup resetmykindle - as of 2025 upgrade firmware from 4.1.x and to 4.1.4, sign into account and copy jb.1.8 bits, mkk-2014, mkk-2025, kual and then uninstall kual, koreader2025 - }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Touch WiFi (Kindle 5th Gen) D01200 K5, KT *Once signed into an Amazon Account get S/N under Settings -> Device Options *B00F Kindle Touch 3G + WiFi (Kindle 5) (U.S. and Canada) [Mostly] *B011 Kindle Touch WiFi (Kindle 5) *B010 Kindle Touch 3G + WiFi (Kindle 5) (Europe) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0006 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->4gb unless jb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 touchscreen i.MX508 SOC, 256MiB of LPDDR1 and USB-downloader mode by the SOC microcode when a specific key is pressed during startup: the home button on model D01200 - update firmware 5.3.2 to 5.3.7.3, access account, }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] PW <pre> B024 Kindle PaperWhite WiFi B01B Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] B020 Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Brazil) B01C Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Canada) B01D Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Europe) B01F Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Japan) </pre> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0007 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 Freescale i.MX508 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0008 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 2 (2013) PW2 *B0D4, 90D4 WiFi (U.S., Intl.) *B05A, 905A WiFi (Japan) *B0D5, 90D5 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] *B0D6, 90D6 3G + WiFi (Canada] *B0D7, 90D7 3G + WiFi (Europe) *B0D8, 90D8 3G + WiFi (Russia) *B0F2, 90F2 3G + WiFi (Japan) *B017, 9017 WiFi (4GB) (U.S., Intl.) *B060, 9060 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Europe) *B062, 9062 3G + WiFi (4GB) (U.S.) [Mostly] *B05F, 905F 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Canada) *B061, 9061 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Brazil) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0009 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb or 4gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| PW2 uses Freescale/NXP i.MX6 SoloLite }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 3 PW3 i.e. Kindle 7th gen *G090G1 (2015) WiFi *G090G2 (2015) 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] *G090G4 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Mexico) *G090G5 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Europe, Australia) *G090G6 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Canada) *G090G7 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Japan) *G090KB (2015) WiFi *G090KC (2015) 3G + WiFi (Japan) *G090KE (2016) 3G + WiFi (International) White *G090KF (2016) 3G + WiFi (International) White *G090LK (2016) WiFi, 32GB (Japan) *G090LL (2016) WiFi, 32GB (Japan) White | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x000A | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->4gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ease up glued down front bezel rim panel gently, remove 11 screws underneath and lift screen up from bottom end - battery underneath - }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 4 (2018) PW4 *G000PP, G8S0PP WiFi, 8GB *G000T6, G8S0T6 WiFi, 32GB *G000T1 WiFi+4G, 32GB *G000T2 WiFi+4G, 32GB (Europe) *G00102 WiFi, 8GB (India) *G000T3 WiFi+4G, 32GB (Japan) *G0016T, G8S16T WiFi, 8GB Twilight Blue *G0016Q, G8S16Q WiFi, 32GB Twilight Blue *G0016U WiFi, 8GB Plum *G0016V, G8S16V WiFi, 8GB Sage *G00103 WiFi, 32GB (India) *G0016R WiFi, 32GB Plum *G0016S WiFi, 32GB Sage | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x000B | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->8gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Freescale/NXP i.MX6 SoloLite }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Oasis 2 and 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| NXP i.MX7D }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 16gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| MediaTek MT8110 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle 11 Scribe | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 16gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| MediaTek MT8113 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->16gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite Gen 11 and 12 - Signature | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->16Gb or 32Gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 account not blocked, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/Modos-Labs Modos Labs] open source e-ink 60Hz 75Hz caster controller and glider monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xteink X3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.xteink.com Xteink X4] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 4.3in 220ppi no touchscreen so [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7RuokaVauo buttons navigation] - 650mAh battery - micro-sd slot up to 512Gb covering epub, txt, and jpg in directories with [https://github.com/crosspoint-reader crosspoint reader] esp32 cpu custom rom firmware using [https://xteink.dve.al/ Flash website] on usb-c but no ecosystem store |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="15%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Access ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Amazon D01400 Kindle Fire (1st Generation) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2010 too old }} android 2.3 and touchscreen digitizer fails often, battery SWE P/N 1002000004742 Model KC1 (EU) QP01 (US) 16.28whr, ti 257epl9l omap 4430 with elpida 88164b3pf-10-f88164b3pf or hynix, mobo ??,, DAOKC1MB8F0 Rev F, ti aic3110 audio codec, |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Fire 7in X43260 X43Z60 2nd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 untested FireOS Android 4 omap 4460 and PowerVR SGX540}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle Fire HD (3rd Gen) P48WVB4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon *Amazon Fire HD10 (2015) *Amazon Fire HD8 (2015) *Amazon Fire HD7 (2015) (5th Generation) 7 inch 8GB SV98LN *Amazon Fire HD7 (2014) *Amazon Fire HD6 (2014) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested android 5.1 max}} |- | <!--Description--> *Amazon Fire 10 (2017) *Amazon Fire 8 (2017) 7th Gen 8 inch SX034OT *Amazon Fire 7 (2017) (7th Generation) 7 inch 16GB (SR043KL) *Amazon Kindle Fire 7 (7th Generation) 7 inch 8GB WIFI Tablet (SR043KL) *Amazon Fire HD8 (2016) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Android 5.1 max 7in screen resolution of 1024 x 600, }} |- | <!--Description--> *Amazon Fire 10/10+ (2021) *Amazon Fire 8/8+ (2020) *Amazon Fire 10 (2019) *Amazon Fire 7 (2019) *Amazon Kindle Fire 7 9th Gen 16GB M8S26G *Amazon Fire 8 (2018) 8th Gen 8 inch 32GB L5S83A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| android 9 max}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon *Amazon Fire HD 10 (2023) *Amazon Fire Max 11 (2023) *Amazon Fire 8 (2022) *Amazon Fire 7 (2022) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| android 11 max}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle Scribe | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Minimal Phone, Mudita Kompakt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| eink }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B751C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 android untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B7 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android based color eink small - 300dpi b/w 150ppi color -}} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| e-ink }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme Hibreak Pro, Hisense A9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| e-ink}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->iFlyTech AINote | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->iFlyTech AINote 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Meebook | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Page Palma | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 android untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Leaf3C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go Color 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 untested 7in e-ink e-reader android tablet }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx BooxTab Ultra X C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Note Max Air4 C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Leaf5C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Poke6S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go 10.3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox MC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| color e-ink 13.3in }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go 10.3 (Gen 2) Lumi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 b/w eink with front light, no EMR annd capacitance pen, }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Moaan Pantone 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2021 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable Paper Pro Move | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 untested but subscriptions needed for some features}} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote A5 X2 Manta | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote A6 X2 Nomad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tolino Vision 2 3 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tolino Epos2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viwoods AI Paper and AI Paper Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==printer.class== As the only printer driver that AROS supports natively is Postscript, our focus is on applications that generally output postscript formatted data for printing purposes. There has been an attempt at recent AirPrint support *Inkjet *Laser Start simple and then test every higher level... * can if you ping your printer (the IP addy is good)? * set up LPR/IPP to talk to that known good IP address. * see if you can copy a few words of plain ASCII text to the IPP/LPR device (do you have a connection)? * see if you can find a simple postscript file and then copy it to the IPP/LPR device. * see if you can set up to print directly to the IPP/LPR device (set "Output file" to PRT: or LPR:). * see if you can set up a PS printer config to the IPP/LPR device. * go back and try the tests with the other driver (LPR or IPP). See [http://www.irseesoft.de/tp_drive7.htm here] for compatibility with TP7 (TurboPrint 7) Last update 2004. Not tested under emulation. Janus-UAE, Emumiga, Amiberry etc usbparallel.device untested with USB->Centronics - The printer.class is rather 'clever'. It remembers to which unit the printers were connected (until you reboot). So if you first plug in Printer1, it gets unit 0, and Printer2 gets unit 1. If you now remove both printers and replug Printer2, it still will get unit 1 and not 0. This is used not to confuse the programs using the different units (moreover, if some program uses the usbparallel.device unit of an USB printer, and the printer is unplugged, the device unit cannot be freed immediately as the application still keeps it open). {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Beige cream D shape centronics end (Prolific chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U002v1 centronics end (chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U002VEA v2 centronics end (Prolific PL2305L chipset) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | DYNAMODE USB-C-PP-1284 USB to 36pin (Prolific 2305 chipset) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 0x02 | {{N/A|untested but similar to BAFO below}} |- | IOGear GUC1284B | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | My-Link (raised ellipse on centronics plastic end) (unknown chipset) | | | | {{N/A|untested but more expensive }} |- | NEWLink (Prolific chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Targus PA096E centronics end (chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | TRENDnet ware TU-P1284 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | True PnP (Prolific chipset 2305) cheap 36pin Centronics (series of ridges along both short sides) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 2.00 | {{N/A|untested on BAFO BF-1284 but reports of poor quality and lack of support on other OSs }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | Transparent See Through Blue | | | | {{N/A|untested but possible poor quality build }} |- | Dynamode USB-PARALLEL 25pin female (prolific) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 0x02 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | FDL USB to 25pin | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | PlusKom USB to 25pin female connector for printer (IEEE 1284) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | QinHeng Electronics (CH340S chipset) | 0x1a86 | 0x7584 | | {{N/A|untested curvy sides - flat top }} |- | StarTech | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Syba SD-USB-DB25 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- |} Postscript interpreters (eg ghostscript) have been developed as a cheaper option which sit in between postscript data streams and non postscript printers. Ghostscript has internal printer drivers gs -h and with something like gs -sDEVICE=stcolor -r300 -sOutputFile=RAM:tempfile gs813:examples/tiger.ps copytopar ram:tempfile It checks if in RAM: exists a outputfile (Cinnamon can export to PS postscript) then it sends this via copytopar to the printer. There was only support for parport (parallel) but Terminillis added support for USB and ethernet. A big issue with using ghostscript for drivers is that data has to originate as postscript (.PS) file. gs -dSAFER -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -sDEVICE=ljet4 -sOutputFile=RAM:tempfile RAM:file.pdf the ljet4 output device generates PCL also the pxlmono driver, which generates more generic PXL (PCL 6) gs -q -sstdout=%stderr -sDEVICE=pswrite -sOutputFile=- -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -dPARANOIDSAFER testpage-a4.ps > test.pdf gs -q -sstdout=%stderr -sDEVICE=pxlmono -sOutputFile=- -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -dPARANOIDSAFER test.pdf > test.pxl Printers supported by ghostscript...Explanation [http://freebooks.by.ru/view/RedHatLinux6Unleashed/rhl6u151.htm here] or [http://www.gnu.org/software/ghostscript/devices.html here] and [http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/doc/printer.htm here] <pre> bit cljet5 ljet4d pjxl300 pxlcolor bitcmyk cljet5c ljetplus pkm pxlmono bitrgb deskjet nullpage pkmraw stp bj10e djet500 pbm pksm tiff12nc bj200 epswrite pbmraw pksmraw tiff24nc bjc600 faxg3 pcx16 png16 tiffcrle bjc800 faxg32d pcx24b png16m tiffg3 bmp16 faxg4 pcx256 png256 tiffg32d bmp16m ijs pcxcmyk pnggray tiffg4 bmp256 jpeg pcxgray pngmono tifflzw bmp32b jpeggray pcxmono pnm tiffpack bmpgray laserjet pdfwrite pnmraw uniprint bmpmono lj5gray pgm ppm x11 bmpsep1 lj5mono pgmraw ppmraw x11alpha bmpsep8 ljet2p pgnm psgray x11cmyk cdeskjet ljet3 pgnmraw psmono x11gray2 cdj550 ljet3d pj psrgb x11gray4 cdjcolor ljet4 pjxl pswrite x11mono cdjmono </pre> ==rawwrap.class - some old flatbed scanners supported== Scandal is the MUI frontend to [http://www.ppa.pl/bugtracker/ Betascan Bugtracker] and [http://aminet.net/search?query=betascan Search for Betascan scanner drivers] derived from [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html sane backends] [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html#S-EPSON2 Epson2] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Expression 1600 1640XL 1680 10000XL | 0x04b8 | 0x0107 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Prefection 1200U, 1200 Photo, | 0x04b8 | 0x0104 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 1240U | 0x04b8 | 0x010b | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{[https://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=45760&forum=25 works]|Needs 24V 0.8A psu but in Trident, click on "Classes", then on "rawwrap.class", then on "Configure". There, under "Global", activate the Option "Bind to Vendor/Unknown Interfaces". Now go to the second tab "Default Interface" and select/enter these values: Default usbraw.device Unit: 0 Exclusive access: Yes Out NAK Timeout: 20000ms In NAK Timeout: 20000ms In Buffer Mode: No buffering Buffer Size: 36 KB Short Reads Terminate: Yes Now click on "Use as Default" and select "Devices" on the left. There, click on your scanner and click on "Class Scan". Now close Trident by clicking on "Save". }} |- | Perfection 1640SU Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x010a | 0x0104 | {{yes|works, even the transparency unit}} |- | Perfection 1650 Photo, 1660 Photo, 3200 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x011c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 2400 Photo, 2450 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x011b | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 4870 Photo, 4990 Photo, | 0x04b8 | 0x0128 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection V700 V750 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x012c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Stylus CX2800 2900 3200 3500 3600 3650 3700 3800 3900 Stylus CX4100 4200 3500 4600 4700 4800 4900 500 5100 5200 5300 5400 5900 | 0x04b8 | 0x0802 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Stylus Office BX300F USB | 0x04b8 | 0x0848 | | {{yes| works with good scan quality}} |- |} [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ gt68xx] scanners based on the Grandtech GT-6801 and GT-6816 "System-On-Chip" scanner chipsets {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Artec Ultima 2000 and e+, Trust Flat Scan USB 19200 (ePlus2k.usb / Gt680xfw.usb) | 0x05d8 | 0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Genius Colorpage Vivid3x 4x 1200x | 0x0458 | 0x2011 to 0x201f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (ccd548.fw)}} |- | <!--Description-->Lexmark X70 also X73 [http://subfusion.net/drivers/oslo3071b2.usb OSLO3071b2.usb] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x043d | <!--Product ID-->0x002d | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Medion/Lifetec/Tevion/Cytron MD/LT 9375 and Artec Ultima 2000, MD LT 9385 Gt680xfw.usb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05d8 | <!--Product ID-->0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | BearPaw 2448 CS and TA Plus [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/A2Nfw.usb A2Nfw.usb] | 0x055f | 0x021a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | Mustek BearPaw 1200 CS | 0x055f | 0x021e | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/A1fw.usb A1fw.usb])}} |- | <!--Description-->Mustek 1200 CU Plus Scanner [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend PS1Dfw.usb / SBSfw.usb] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2000 }} |- | Mustek ScanExpress 1200 UB plus, Trust Compact Scan USB 19200, ScanMagic 1200 UB Plus | 0x05d8 | 0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/sbfw.usb sbfw.usb])}} |- | Mustek ScanExpress 1248 UB aka PC-World PC Line PCL-3000 | 0x055f | 0x021f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/SBSfw.usb SBSfw.usb])}} |- | Mustek BearPaw 2400CS TA aka Goodmans GSC 12/24 | 0x055f | 0x0218 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Transparency adapter untested) }} |- | BearPaw 2400 CS aka TA Plus | 0x055f | 0x0219 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Transparency adapter) }} |- | Packard Bell Diamond 1200 Plus | 0x055f | 0x021c or 0x021b | 0x0 | {{yes|works - [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ firmware required] but slow usb 1.1 speed with poor quality output (scanner fault not scandal)}} |- | Packard Bell Diamond 2400 Plus aka BearPaw 2400 CU Plus [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ PS2Dfw2.usb firmware rename to PS2Dfw.usb] | 0x055f | 0x021d | 1.00 | {{yes|works slow usb 1.1 speed with ok quality output (scanner fault not scandal)}} |- | Plustek OpticPro 1248U | 0x07B3 | 0x0400 0x0401 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (ccd548.fw)}} |- | Plustek OpticSlim 2400 | 0x07b3 | 0x0422 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (cis3R5B1.fw)}} |- | Visioneer OneTouch 7300 | 0x04a7 | 0x0444 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Cis3r5b1.fw)}} |- | <!--Description-->Mustek ScanEpress 1200 UB (Plus) clone [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/ use mustek_usb backend] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x055f | <!--Product ID-->0x0006 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Lexmark - needs testing {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Lexmark X1110 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1140 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1150 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1170 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1180 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1185 | 0x043d | 0x007c | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Lexmark X12xx | | | | {{N/A|untested in USB1.1, not fully tested in USB2.0}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Dell A920 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} HP - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | HP ScanJet 4100C | 0x03f0 | 0x0101 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 5200C | 0x03f0 | 0x0401 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 62X0C | 0x03f0 | 0x0201 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 63X0C | 0x03f0 | 0x0601 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x0102, 0x0105, 0x0205, 0x0305, 0x0405 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x0705, 0x0805, 0x0901, 0x0a01 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x1205, 0x1305, 0x2005, 0x2205 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Plustek [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html#S-PLUSTEK LM983x] - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Plustek OticPro U12 UT12 UT16 U24 UT24 | 0x07B3 | 0x0010 to 0x0017 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | KYE/Genius Colorpage HR6-V2 HR6A HR7 HR7LE HR6X | 0x0458 | 0x2008 to 0x2016 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Hewlett-Packard ScanJet 2100C and 2200C | 0x03F0 | 0x0505 and 0x0605 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Mustek BearPaw 1200 and 2400 | 0x0400 | 0x1000 and 0x1001 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | UMAX 3400/3450 and 5400 | 0x1606 | 0x0050, 0x0060 and 0x0160 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 1250 and 1260 | 0x04B8 | 0x010f and 0x011d | | {{no|no driver}} |- | CANON CanoScan N650/656U N1220U D660U N670/676U N1240U LIDE20 LIDE25 LIDE30 | 0x04A9 | 0x2206 to 0x2220 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} [http://snapscan.sourceforge.net/ SnapScan] - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Acer Benq 310U, 320U, 340U | 0x4a5 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Acer Benq 620U, 620UT, 640U, 640UT | 0x4a5 | 0x20 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Acer Benq 1240 3300 4300 | 0x4a5 | 0x020 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Agfa SnapScan e10 e20 e25 e26 e40 e42 e50 e52 | 0x06bd | 0x20 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 660 | 0x04b8 | 0x0114 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 1270 1670 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 2480 2580 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 3490 3590 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Mitsubishi | 0x0 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ==hub.class (self-powered and external ac powered hubs)== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Dynamode USB-H41 4 ports | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Belkin 4 Port | | | | {{yes|works}} |- | Conrad | | | | {{yes|[http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 works on a1k forum] }} |- | DLink DUB-H4 AC Adapter | 0x05e3 | 0x0608 | High 0200 | {{maybe|WARNING Genesys Logic Hub Broken - Will cause failures with USB}} |- | [http://service.targa.co.uk/faq.php?lang_id=2&baseid=178&artdesc=SilverCrest+USB+Hub+2040&artid=760&artpic=silvercrestHUB2040.jpg SilverCrest 4-port slim USB 2.0 HUB - HUB2040 (40775) - Targa GmbH] | 0x05e3 | 0x0608 | 0901 | {{yes|works Genesys Logic, Inc., [http://service.targa.co.uk/dokumente/USB_HUB_2040_0109_manual_EN.pdf Manual]}} |- | Skymaster | 0x05e3 | 0x0605 | 060B | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | No Name active 4-port | 0x1a40 | 0x0101 | 0111 | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thinkpad USB 3.0 Dock DU9019D1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17e9 | <!--Product ID-->0x4302 | <!--Revision-->0014 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|works a bit}} classed as dfu.class with two further USB 2.0 hubs - USB 3.0 ports detected and work (2.0 backwards compatibility) - DisplayLink DL-3900 with VIA VL811 chipset - usb ethernet not working - two dvi not working - 20V psu 2a (40w) with a 5.5 - 2.5mm tip (no bus power) - data through a-b printer/scanner usb lead - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} ==Internet== ===rndis.class USB Tethering === The rndis class provides support for Ethernet access over Remote NDIS. Most USB based devices should be supported including smartfones. Before opening Network Prefs, activate USB Tethering on the Smartfon, on Network prefs, type in usbrndis.device and tick "Start Network during system boot" and saved the configuration, the Connection is immediate no reboot is needed. When restart AROS my Smartphone deactivates the connection and to access the network again, have to reactivate it before starting the browser. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alcatel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | Huawei U8800 | 0x12d1 | 0x1039 | | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Huawei | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | HTC (Android phone) | 0x0bb4 | 0x0ffe | | {{Yes|any android phone with usb tethering option}} |- | <!--Description-->Nokia | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Oppo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung Galaxy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- |- | <!--Description-->iPhone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft winPhone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ===USB &rarr; ethernet lan adaptor=== *2002 playstation 2 usb1.1 era - a little support but very old and slow *2006 wii asix era - a little support but very much miss than hit *2026 usb0: or eth0: of CDC Ethernet protocol (cdcether) with Ethernet Control Model (ECM) and [https://www.usb.org/document-library/class-definitions-communication-devices-12 others like Wireless Mobile Communication Devices WMC] and later CDC EEM (Ethernet Emulation Model) and NCM (Network Control Model) are USB Communication Device Class (CDC) protocols packing more Ethernet traffic over every USB bundle. For CDC Ethernet - NCM is better than EEM is better than ECM * USB1.1 Up to 010 meg broadband (1.25MBytes/s) - ADM8511, DM9601 poor speeds * USB2.0 Up to 400 meg broadband (60MBytes/s) - MCS7830, AX88772 a little especially the 2010 apple version but buy many as very very poor odds of working one * USB3.0 Over 400 meg broadband (60+MBytes/s) - not supported at the moment SANA (Standard Amiga Network Architecture) to usb ADMtek Infineon ADM8511 Pegasus II (USB 1.1 and 10Mbit/s - Sony PlayStation 2 network adapter) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | 3Com 3c460b | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | Abocom UFE1000 / Abocom DSB650TX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Accton USB320-EC / Accton SpeedStream Ethernet | 0x083a | 0x0320 | <!--Revision--> | {{unk|2002 }} |- | AEI USB Fast Ethernet / Allied Telesyn AT-USB100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2002 }} |- | ATEN UC-110T | 0x0557 | 0x4000 | | {{unk|2001 }} |- | BAFO USB To Ethernet Adapter BF-310 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | Belkin F5D5050 v1 1101 | 0x050D | | <!--Revision--> | {{maybe|2002 sometimes works from old amiga.org post which is now removed}} |- | Belkin F5D5050 v2 2101 | 0x050D | 0x0121 | <!--Revision--> | {{no|2006 does not works}} |- | Belkin F5U122-PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Billionton USB-100 / Billionton USBLP-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Billionton USBEL-100 / Billionton USBE-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Compex LinkPort/UE202A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DSB-H3ETX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DSB-650 / D-Link DSB-650TX / D-Link DSB-650TX-PNA | 0x2001 | 0x4000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DU-E10 / D-Link DU-E100 | 0x2001 | | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Edimax USB Ethernet Adapter EU-4201 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Elsa AG MicroLink USB2 Lan Ethernet adapter | 0x05cc | 0x3000 | <!--Revision-->1.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | GetNet | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | GIGABYTE GN-BR402W Wireless Router | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Goodway Fellowes USB UE-120 REV:V1 UE120 ADMTek 1011594 HO2419741 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07a6 | <!--Product ID-->0x0986 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2001 USB Specification 1.1 compliant}} |- | GWC Tech USB Ethernet Adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Hawking UF100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | HP HN210E / I/O DATA USB ETTX / Kingston KNU101TX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Jinco USB Ethernet Adapter 10/100 Base-T UE-110 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Kouwell USB to Ethernet 588A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Linksys USB10T / TA / TX | 0x066b | 0x2202 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested - possible peg1/peg2}} |- | Linksys (Cisco) USB100TX / H1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitec LAN-TX/U1 H2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | [http://www.mayflash.com/psps2/ps2024/ps2024.htm Mayflash PS2024] Playstation2 compatible clone of Proxim/Farallon NetLine? | 0x07a6 | 0x8511 | <!--Revision-->1.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with DHCP router option on old 32bit distros but not on newer 64bit, best to go asixeth apple 2010 but buy many of them as poor success rate i.e. a lottery}} |- | Netgear FA101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Philips CPWUE01/00 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Planet UE-9500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | PlayStation 2 SCPH-10000 50000 models | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Proxim (formerly Farallon) NetLine USB PN796-650 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Siemens SpeedStream USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | SOHOware NUB100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | SMC EZNET-USB 2202USB/ETH / SMC 2206USB/ETH | 0x0707 | 0x0100 0x0200 0x0201 | <!--Revision--> | {{unk|untested but should work very well }} |- | Surecom EP-1427X 100/10M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Target USB to 10/100M Fast Ethernet Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Trendnet TU-ET100C | 0x07a6 | 0x8511 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | {{yes| sometimes works well, very stable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Digitus USB NIC DN-3016-A | 0x07a6 | 0x8513 | 1.01 | {{unk|untested new chipset }} |- | Digitus lanusb ADM8515 | 0x07a6 | 0x8515 | 1.01 | {{unk|untested because new chipset }} |- | VE285 usblan ADMtek 8515 | 0x07a6 | 0x8515 | 1.01 | {{no|not working as new chipset }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Davicom DM9601 eth (USB 1.1 and up to 10Mbit/s) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Davicom USB-100 see clone below | 0x0a46 | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | [http://wiki.maemo.org/USB_to_ethernet_networking chinese translucent transparent crystal blue] but variants are also found in clear, white and black. Just over 6&nbsp;cm long. | 0x0a46 | 0x9601 | 0x0 | {{yes|2002 success can be sporadic so technically okay, but lacking in reliability. Out of 4 tested by me, only 2 worked. One case cracked open. }} |- | Corega FEther USB-TXC | 0x07aa | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Dynamode USB-NIC-1427-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Hirose USB-100 | 0x0a47 | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | KY-RS9600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585358&postcount=12 works] }} |- | ShanTou ST268 USB NIC | 0x0a46 | 0x0268 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | ZT6688 USB NIC | 0x0a46 | 0x6688 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ICS Advent DM9601 USB 2.0 10/100M Ethenet Adaptor JP1081B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FE6 | <!--Product ID-->0x9700 | <!--Revision-->0101 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|not working 32bit and 64bit - USB 1.1 10M ethernet}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} MosChip MCS7830 (USB 2) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Digitus DN-10050 | 0x9710 | 0x7830 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 }} |- | Edimax [http://www.edimax.co.uk/images/Image/datasheet/USB/EU-4206/EU-4206.pdf EU-4206] | | | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 }} |- | Speed Dragon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | STLabs | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | StarTech Compact USB2105S [http://www.kustompcs.co.uk/acatalog/info_6790.html USB2106S] | 0x9710 | 0x7830 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | Sunrich Technologies [http://www.st-lab.com/admin/upfile/UploadFile/manual/manual(u-250).zip U-250] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 }} |- | Syba | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->MCS 7832 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2008 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} * USB2 [https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet Asix Ethernet] AX88178A, AX88772C, AX88772B, AX88772A (wii), AX88172A * USB3 AX88179A, AX88179 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | AirLink101 AGIGAUSB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 AX88172}} |- | ATEN UC210T | 0x0557 | 0x2009 | 0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88172}} |- | <!--Description-->Billionton Systems USB2AR | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08dd | <!--Product ID-->0x90ff | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->Buffalo LUA-U2-KTX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0411 | <!--Product ID-->0x003d | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->corega FEther USB2-TX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07aa | <!--Product ID-->0x0017 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| }} |- | D-Link DUB-E100 up to rev A4 | 0x2001 | 0x1a00 | | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->D-Link DUB-E100 rev B1 onwards | 0x07d1 or 0x2001 | 0x3c05 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|AX88172 works on Deneb with [http://amigax.com/2010/02/21/usb-ethernet-speed-test-amigaos-4-0-classic/ Amiga OS4 Classic] and [http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 on a1k] }} |- | <!--Description-->goodway corp USB gwusb2e | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1631 | <!--Product ID-->0x6200 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hawking UF200 | 0x07b8 | 0x420a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[Linksys USB200M] | 0x077b | 0x2226 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585601&postcount=20 works] }} |- | <!--Description-->Netgear FA120 | 0x0846 | 0x1040 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2002 10/100 Rev.B1" is silkscreened on the board of the device populating this entry (S/N: FA12254CB100409, date code 0508). This device may be manuf. by [http://www.cameo.com.tw/ Cameo] "AX88172 L", "F05040157", and "ED3" Chip1 ASIX AX88172 Chip2 Realtek RTL8201BL}} |- | <!--Description-->Intellinet | 0x0b95 | 0x1720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->JVC MP-PRX1 Port Replicator | <!--Vendor ID-->0x04f1 | <!--Product ID-->0x3008 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ST Lab USB Ethernet | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sitecom LN-029 "USB 2.0 10/100 Ethernet adapter" | <!--Vendor ID-->0x6189 | <!--Product ID-->0x182d | <!--Revision-->0 | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->Surecom EP-1427X-2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1189 | <!--Product ID-->0x0893 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v2 | 0x07b8 | 0x420a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|version 2}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->A-LINK NA1GU | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 88772}} |- | <!--Description-->AirLink101 ASOHOUSB Wii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AirLive EtherWe-1000U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->APPLE AX88772 Model No. A1277 MC704LL/A P/N 825-7098-A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1402 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2008 usb2, }} |- | <!--Description-->APPLE Model No. A1277 (MB442Z/A 0885909217434) MC704ZM/A PN 825-7579-A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1402 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|2010 model, usb2 and controller AX88772 where prehaps 1in3 units working with owb - really poor odds i.e. a lottery, could be situation where various ethernet phy chipsets are used - press Use in network prefs after Save initial setup typing in usbasixeth.device, }} |- | <!--Description-->ASIX AX88772 bulbous casing | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2008 works on 32bit and 64bit though setup can take a few attempts but may have issues with phy ethernet chip changing, }} |- | <!--Description-->Datel Wii Lan Adapter DUS0204 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->EdiMax EU-4207 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->Goodway HE2230 Maplin ASIX 88772 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->Intec LAN G5626 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->LevelOne USB-0202 | 0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->LevelOne USB-0301 | 0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | <!--Description-->Linksys USB200M Rev 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13b1 | <!--Product ID-->0x0018 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2008 sparsely randomly working AX88772 or with "Sana-II Meter Tool 37.11" network monitoring program, showing continuous "Bad Packet" errors which could means "CRC" errors}} |- | <!--Description-->Linksys USB300M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2009 AX88772 }} |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash W001 or clones Lupo/PEGA S-Wii-0680 light gray rectangular with third of one top 45 degree angled slope | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| may have randomly changed phy ethernet chips, }} |- | <!--Description-->Max Value MVF00446 ASIN B006EG568A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Trident prefs recognises as AX88772 sometimes works on 32bit and 64bit}} |- | <!--Description-->NEWLink N14050 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->NEWLink Wii-ETH USB2.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nintendo Wii LAN Adaptor 2110566 and clones | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Poseidon recognises as AX88772 with usbasixeth.device sometimes works seems different ethernet phy chips can be matched affecting compatibility}} |- | <!--Description-->Nyko Wii Net Connect 87024 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585624&postcount=22 works] }} |- | <!--Description-->0Q0 cable ethernet | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1557 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB2-E100 (2009/2010) Bulbous housing | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Trident prefs recognises it as ax88772A and typing in usbasixeth.device sometimes works}} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent KINAMAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SpeedLink SL-3401-SGY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->UGreen 20254 USB2 to 10/100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88772}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Afunta Apple-style White USB2.0 I/O Crest SY-ADA24005 ASIX Electronics Corp. AX88772A Fast Ethernet Adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{no|usbasixeth.device accepted by network prefs but does not work}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Basics USB 2.0 AX88772A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Digitus DN-10050-1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Edimax EU-4230 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent KINAMAX NT-USB20 AX88772A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88772B USB 2.0 to 10/100M | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EdiMax EU-4208 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772b | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Detected but not working}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB2100 ASIX AX88772C | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet/High-Speed_USB_Ethernet/AX88772D AX88772D] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet/High-Speed_USB_Ethernet/AX88772E AX88772E] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->AX88178 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2004 }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB2-E1000 i.e. USB 2.0 to Gigabit Ethernet 10/100/1000 LAN | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 ASIX AX88178 Controller and Realtek RTL8211CL PHY}} |- | <!--Description-->AX88178A USB 2.0 to 10/100/1000M Gigabit Ethernet controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2005 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AmazonBasics USB3.0 adapter [https://github.com/nothingstopsme/AX88179_178A_Linux_Driver AX88179] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cable Matters SuperSpeed USB 3.0 RJ45 adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hori Nintendo Switch 1 USB3 ethernet AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 AX88179 not binding to asixeth.class }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB3-E1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2020 ASIX AX88179 not binding to class, USB 3.2 Gen1 to Gigabit Ethernet controller with integrated 10/100/1000Mbps Gigabit Ethernet PHY}} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable AX88179 = [https://plugable.com/products/usb3-e1000-deal USB3-E1000] before mid-2023 or USB3-E1000; AX88179A = USBC-E1000 after mid-2023 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 controller is AX88179 phy is ??, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000SPTW ax88179 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| AX88179 not binding to asixeth.class, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000NDS AX88179 USB-A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech US1GC301AU AX88179 USB-c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech US1GC30B2 AX88179A USB-c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB32000SPT AX88179A USB-c Rev 1 (AX88179) Rev 2 (AX88179A) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->USB32000SPT the Lot code sticker will have a bar code accompanied by a 10 digit number. The 5th and 6th digits of this lot code number would signify the revision. (Ex. xxxx02xxxx which would indicate rev. 2) |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SYBA SY-ADA24029 Gigabit AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} may depend on the PHY chip connected to the controller chipset |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TP-Link UE306 AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet® Orico UL677G 10/100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet® UL688G USB 3.0 10/100/1000 Base-T Ethernet port | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->AX88179 178A |- | <!--Description-->Tecknet UL699G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v6 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07b8 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|no support }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->uGreen 50922 USB3-A to 100/1000 dark grey rounded barrels | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| ax88179 not binding to asixeth.class, }} |- | <!--Description-->UGreen USB3-C to 100/1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->uGreen CR111 20256 usb3 a black plastic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88179}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88179A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB3-E1000 USBC-E1000 after mid-2023 i.e. AX88179A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000SPTB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88179A USB-A, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88179B | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==USB &rarr; SerialPort Converter== *2002 some support for early revisions of PL2303 *2005 Prolific PL2303H PL-2303X and Pl-2303HX (same usb ids as pl2303) no support *2025 FTDI 232R [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1135&highlight=232r&rowstart=20 work in progress] *2026 CDC-ACM i.e. Serial port over USB standard serialpl2303.class make sure you specify serialpl2303.device or Echo "Test" >SER1: {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | ATEN UC-232A | 0x0557 | 0x2008 | Full 0x0300 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | IOGear GUC232A | 0x0557 | 0x2008 | Full 0x0110 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Alcatel | 0x11f7 | 0x02df | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | BAFO BF-810 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U103 | 0x | 0x | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Davibe SP611 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Dcu10 | 0x0731 | 0x0528 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Elcom | 0x056e | 0x5003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | IOData | 0x04bb | 0x0a03 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Itegno | 0x0eba | 0x1080 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Nokia CA42 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Radioshack | 0x1453 | 0x4026 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Ratoc | 0x0584 | 0xb000 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung | 0x04e8 | 0x8001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Siemens DCA-510 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sitecom CN104 | 0x6189 | 0x2068 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sitecom CN116 | 0x6189 | 0x2068 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Some Cut Ma620 | 0x0df7 | 0x0620 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Speed Dragon Multimedia MS3303H | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Syntech | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Tripp | 0x2478 | 0x2008 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Airlink101 AC-USBS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Belkin F5U103v | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{no|no driver }} |- | Dynamode U232-P9 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 300 | {{no| no driver [http://koti.mbnet.fi/lonnberg/pl2303x.html linux patch] and using lsusb -v -d 067b:2303 gave bMaxPacketSize as 64 - pl2303x }} |- | Konig CABLE-146/2 USB to RS232 | 0x067b | 0x2303 | 400 | {{no|no driver }} |- | MANHATTAN 205146 USB to Serial Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | Sabrent SBT-USC1M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Trendnet TU-59 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Unbranded black case and lead USB 232 Converter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x067B | <!--Product ID-->0x2303 | <!--Revision-->0300 | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- |} [http://www.ftdichip.com/index.html Future Technology Devices International Ltd FTDI]-FT232R.class [https://ftdichip.com/software-examples/code-examples/c-builder/ FTProg src], [http://rtr.ca/ft232r/ ft232r src], [https://ftdichip.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/DS_FT232R.pdf FT232R datasheet], [], {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID-->0x6001 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1GE-gKgHxZI beware of cheap clones fake with s/n A50285BI SN] |- | <!--Description-->Lynx Astro FTDI | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232R |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent CB-FTDI | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{no|no driver TTL-232R cables use FTDI's [http://n1mm.hamdocs.com/tiki-index.php?page=USB+Interface+Devices FT232RQ ic device] }} |- | <!--Description-->Startech.com 1 Port FTDI USB to Serial RS232 DB9M Adapter Cable with COM Retention ICUSB2321F | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232RL Chipset |- | <!--Description-->StarTech.com 2 Port FTDI USB to Serial RS232 Adapter Cable ICUSB2322F | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FTDI FT2232D Chipset |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232RL is the SSOP-28 and the FT232RQ is the QFN-32 package option |} [https://www.onetransistor.eu/2017/08/ch341a-mini-programmer-schematic.html ch341a.class] *I2C EEPROMS (3.3V and 5V) compatible and also SPI FLASH memories (3.3V devices) making sure 1.8V is covered *each having their own [https://winraid.level1techs.com/t/guide-how-to-use-a-ch341a-spi-programmer-flasher-with-pictures/33041 4x2 connection blocks] using [https://github.com/flashrom/flashrom flashrom] sudo flashrom --programmer ch341a_spi -r backup.bin sudo flashrom --programmer ch341a_spi -w <new bios name> {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Jiangsu QinHeng Ltd CH341A emulate UART communication, standard parallel port, memory parallel port and synchronous serial (I2C, SPI) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x5512 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->QinHeng USB2.0-Serial HL-340 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x7523 | <!--Revision-->0252 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |} ==simplemidi.class and CAMD== Currently support includes * simplemidi.class SimpleMidi maps some keyboard keys to corresponding computer keys as used by music trackers to emulate a musical keyboard * camdusbmidi.class follows the rules of the m68k implementation of Commodore's CAMD midi specification and usb class compliant for * usb host like a computer, pi, etc * usb device controllers - keyboards, drum machines, djay turntables, grooveboxes, etc * interfaces - cables or boxes which convert usb to 5pin DIN plug midi What is needed is a fully class-compliant '''brand name''' USB MIDI keyboard, especially manufactured in the last 15 years are best *Arturia *Novation *M-Audio *Akai Plugging this in one of your USB ports, the camd.library will make the keyboard's MIDI IN/OUT ports available in the system. Then select the keyboard's MIDI IN port (known as a "cluster" in CAMD) for input, and the software instrument's cluster as output ShowCluster (shows midi ports available in and out) MidiWatch (usually port usbmidi.in.0 less often usbmidi.out.0) (Ctrl-C to end output stream) usbmidi.in.0 Message on channel 01, NoteOn 90 39 08 00 usbmidi.in.0 Message on channel 01, NoteOff 80 39 00 00 MidiThru (forwards messages from one port to another) run >nil: c:midithru usbmidi.out.0 usbmidi.out.2 MidiSendC (sends a middle C to a specific port) Midi Controller + Sound Module (together aka as a synth) -> Audio Output The difference between midi and midi over USB is that in old school Midi the transmitter transmits whenever it wants and the receiver always has to be prepared to receive data. Easy to do at the rate of a 1990's modem speed these days. USB over midi.. turns midi into a polled protocol.. So the USB host (typically the computer) has to ask "do you have anything for me" before the remote will send. If the USB host gets busy doing other things or there is a lot of things on the USB bus to get polled, you can get delays. For its age midi is still a great protocol for music * [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/midi10.pdf USBIF's "USB Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices" document, version 1.0 from Nov 1, 1999] * [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/USB%20MIDI%20v2_0.pdf MIDI v2.0 from 2020 which AROS still needs, adds support for MIDI 2.0, MIDI-CI, and Universal MIDI Packet] Nearly all synthesizers now use the 16 MIDI channels available on a MIDI bus in one instrument alone, requiring multiple MIDI busses in a typical setup with more than one MIDI instrument. In addition, by handling multiple "virtual" cables, USB offers a solution to go beyond MIDI's 16-channel limit. MIDI data is transferred over USB using 32-bit USB-MIDI Event Packets. These packets provide an efficient method to transfer multiple MIDI streams with fixed length messages. The 32-bit USB-MIDI Event Packet allows multiple "virtual MIDI cables" routed over the same USB endpoint. This approach minimizes the number of required endpoints. It also makes parsing MIDI events easier by packetizing the separate bytes of a MIDI event into one parsed USB-MIDI event. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Computer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|which acts as USB midi host to get all usb devices talking together}} |- | <!--Description-->Hobbytronics usb host standalone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->bomebox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://neuma.studio/rpi-as-midi-host/ raspberry pi] with several midi interface(s) and linux scripting | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kenton MIDI USB Host mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acorn Instruments Masterkey 49 device | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 untested usb powered 5V regulated - similar keybed to keystation 49es but unplug then re-plug the USB cable while it is powered the device might reconnect |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Akai SynthStation 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 - sticky rubber keys - usb |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini Laptop Production Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x09e8 | <!--Product ID-->0x007c | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected and camd usb to use, not tested with apps}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 25 mini key self powered by mini USB lead - sustain port - no top left corner joystick - tested icaros 2.3 - |- | <!--Description-->Akai LPK25 LPK37 LPK49 Laptop Production Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested velocity sensitive mini keys with synth action - weak mini USB port - latency issues - |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional APC Key 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested 49 key 49-key full-sized, semi-weighted keyboard with aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->AKAI Max25 MAX49 control keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional MPK249 MPK261 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB2 USB-b - full keys semi-weighted aftertouch - midi in out - sustain and peddle port |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional Advance 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini MKII MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested USB2 USB-b midi connection only - 4 way thumb joystick top left - 25 tiny keys - velocity drum pads - plastic build quality - |- | <!--Description-->AKAI Professional APC Key 25 MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini Play | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 untested USB2 USB-b midi connection only - synth basic samples - class compliant? - small led display top centre - 25 mini keys - press and hold the "Prog Select" button then use the "Program" knob to assign a MIDI channel - |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini 3 MKIII MK3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x09E8 | <!--Product ID-->0x1049 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - - midi in out untested - }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 USB2 USB-b midi controller connection no 5pin legacy - small led display top centre - 25 mini keys goofy uneven feel of the akai keyboards - press and hold the "Prog Select" button and press pad 1 to 8 to assign a MIDI channel - tested on AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->Akai Force / MPC One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Akai Pro MPK Mini Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested 37 mini keys - class compliant device - usb-b bus powered only with 5pin midi in and out - Shift and Global for Midi Ch - |- | <!--Description-->Akai Pro Ableton Push Mk 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional MPC Key 37 49 61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested USB2 usb-b |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Photon PH-25 X25 Midi & USB keyboard/synth | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Q25 Q49 Q61 Q88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 untested |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Coda Pro Portable 88-Key Digital Piano USB MIDI Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V25 V49 V61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Alesis VI49 VI61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Alesis VX49 VX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 1 5-pin MIDI input, 1 5-pin MIDI output, 1 USB port, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Q25 Q49 Q61 Mk2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Recital 88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V25 V49 V61 MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Qmini portable 32-key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->audiothingies MicroMonsta | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested synth - |- | <!--Description-->audiothingies MicroMonsta 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 synth - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Analog Experience “The Player” USB MIDI Master Keyboard Model APE25 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb-b bus powered - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab MkII Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Keystep 32 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested 32 mini keys usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed - reset Press and hold Oct + and Oct – buttons then insert the USB cable - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab mkII | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID-->0x2209 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - - midi in out untested - }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 USB2 usb-b bus power - metal base heavier than most - Shift and press a key to select the MIDI Channel - To reset to original factory, unplug the USB cable, hold down the Oct- and Oct + buttons, plug the USB cable back in and continue to hold the buttons until the pads turn white - need software to change parameters like velocity sensitive assistance - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab MK2 MKII 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MicroFreak | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 hybrid digital/analog synthesis, |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PeYIAfn3UMs Arturia Minilab 3] [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/chj1WgMupGw ] [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/FMVdfhzg1Dw ] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 untested usb-c bus powered - 25 mini keys semi - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Keystep Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab 3 Mk3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFreak | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2022 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab Essential 49 61 88 mk3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested usb-c and 1 midi out - lack of aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia AstroLab | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab MK3 MKIII 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Control UMX490 UMX610 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Control | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Swing 32-Key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MOTOR 49 - 49-Key USB/MIDI Master Controller Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Creative EMU Xboard 25 E-MU X-Board 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CME M-Key Mkey 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 stops sending MIDI on a regular basis. The simplest "fix" is to flip it off and on via the power switch at the back |- | <!--Description-->CME Ukey U-Key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2009 |- | <!--Description-->CME Xkey | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 low-profile aluminium full size pressure sensitive with polyphonic aftertouch but keys make too much noise and that they can be too sensitive to velocity - low power draw 25ma |- | <!--Description-->CME M-Key 49 V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 simplified version of the U-key Mobiltone |- | <!--Description-->CME XKEY AIR 37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->cme xkey 37 le | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Donner Spaceline DMK-25 Donnerdeal Rantion | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Donner DMK25 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> 25 mini velocity keys with limited aftertouch - usb-c powered - 8 drum pads - 3.5mm "midi out" socket - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Digitakt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 expensive later midi usb class compliant with since 1.5 Update |- | <!--Description-->Elecktron Digitone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Digitone Keys 37-key Digital FM Synthesizer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2018 expensive |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Analog Four MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Octatrak MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 49+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 25xt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2702 | <!--Product ID-->0x2702 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected and usb driver working}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 bus powered or 12v 0.5a dc in - metal base so heavy - midi out 5pin - sustain pedal port - modulation slider - rubber coated knobs becomes sticky - |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 49xt 61xt 88xt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2702 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 12v 0.5a center pin +ve external psu required - USB i/o and 1 legacy 5pin out - full sized keys - heavy aluminium case keyboard metal base - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Evolution MK-125 MK-149 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 9v |- | <!--Description-->Evolution MK-225C MK-249C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 9v |- | <!--Description-->Evolution USB/Midi Controller MK-425C MK-449C MK-461C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|25, 49, 61 keys - }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 9V or 12V - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 37 full keys |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys Pro Mobile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 25 or 37 mini keys |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 mini velocity keys no aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys 2 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 full velocity keys no aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Kawai VPC 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> weighted keys - heavy build - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Keith McMillen Instruments K-Board | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> omni class compliant to all channels? each keypad makes them velocity, pressure, and location sensitive but not really suited for piano playing |- | <!--Description-->Keith McMillen BopPad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> omni class compliant to all channels? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg NanoKontrol 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->mini usb |- | <!--Description-->Korg Prophecy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->KORG microKONTROL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Korg microKEY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 velocity-sensitive Natural Touch keys but joystick is an alternative to the common pitch/modulation wheel design - power draw - |- | <!--Description-->Korg nanoKey nanoPad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 |- | <!--Description-->Korg Taktile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg microKEY2 25 37 49 61 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|2015 untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB powered - semi weighted - |- | <!--Description-->Korg MiniList | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg MinKey nanoPad nanoPad 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Nautilus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC3 7 series - Artis 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->fatar TP-8 semi-weighted action |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC3 A8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Mobile keys 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 POD Studio KB37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Tone Port KB37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Midiman (later M-Audio) Oxygen8 Ozone Ozonic 25 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|not class compliant - untested 5pin legacy }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 2004 - 25 full keys - slider/fader to left of lcd display - |- | <!--Description-->m-audio oxygen keystation (61 key) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio eKeys 37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom 25, 49, 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 bus powered and 12v psu - if sliders/faders are on right - legacy midi 5pin - chunky unit - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 8v2, 49, 61 (silver) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 full size velocity sensitive 12v psu - sending random pitchbend info - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 37e 49e, 61e MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 - ok key action - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 37es 49se 61es, 88es MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25/49/61/88 (blue) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 [https://m-audio.com/products/view/oxygen-25-legacy advised Class-compliant and GM/GM2/XG SysEx messages] with full size velocity sensitive 12v psu - sending random pitchbend info - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom 25, 49, 61 (2nd Gen) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 semi-weighted mini keys - bus powered and 9v psu for 25/49 and 12v for 61 - if sliders/faders are on left - legacy midi 5pin - chunky unit - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom Pro 25, 49, 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 poor construction |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Axiom AIR 25 M-Audio Axiom Air Mini 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25 III (3rd Gen) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested - usb only - rubber keys sticky - |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Keyrig 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation Mini 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 - mini usb - plays a few notes and then stops responding randomly - try plugging it into port 1 or 2 on your pc - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 49 MK2 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 USB port and class compliant |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 61 MK3 MKIII MIDI keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 usb compliant untested |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25 IV | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 choice |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio CTRL-49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio ProKeys 88, 88sx | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation Mini 32 MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 mini usb - some power or incompatibility issue with the native USB ports of the laptop, plugged in a passive USB 2.0 HUB (not USB 3.0, not powered) |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3328SvuJsLw M-Audio Oxygen25 MKV] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0763 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0023 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - midi in out untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 25 full size semi keys - USB2 usb-b but no 5pin classic plugs - channel select SHIFT button and CHANNEL on keybed - plastic build - holding down both the Octave + and - for factory reset - more limited in what you can do with it than IV 4th one - tested on AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen Pro 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 untested semi full keys |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen Pro Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested - 32 smaller keys - not endless encoders - usb only - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Hammer 88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Moog | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Moog Minitaur | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-VAVE SMK-25mini 25key MIDI Control Keyboard Y6I0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments NI Primus A25 JamMate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not compliant uses snd-usb-caiaq module, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol S88 S61 S49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 - weighted keys - |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine Micro Mikro MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe? |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Kontrol S49 S61 S88 MkII MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 all MK2 MK3 power up the keyboard using USB, it will set the keyboards MIDI port to computer MIDI only without any option to set it to use the MIDI DIN, meaning you cannot connect the keyboard to hardware and power from USB, you MUST power with the power adapter and physically unplug from any USB connection - |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol A25 A49 A61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/sikorak666/maschine-mikro-mk3-driver Native Instruments Maschine Micro Mikro Plus MK3 MKIII] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol M32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 untested 32 smaller keys - no drum pads - USB only - |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Kontrol S49 S61 S88 MkIII MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description-->NI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Neusonik iBoard 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Impact LX25+ LX49+ LX61+ LX88+ SE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 budget full-size velocity-sensitive synth-action keyboard - |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Impact GX49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> USB port - |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama P4 P6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> USB & USB Micro B, 5-pin MIDI out, 2 x TRS inputs with 49 semi-weighted, velocity sensitive with aftertouch |- | <!--Description-->Nektar SE25 SE49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> mini keys - micro usb bus powered - velocity and sustain button |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama P6 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama T6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nord Stage 3 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> sysex |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMote 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 lhs XY touchpad and the joystick - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 49 61 88 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not USB class compliant |- | <!--Description-->Novation 49 61 SL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 semi-weighted Fatar TP-8 or TP-9 keybed |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMote 25SL 49SL 61SL soft label | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 - two long top liquid-crystal display LCD strips - XY touchpad and the joystick - |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMOTE 25LE | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected, usb driver in devs/midi for camd to use}} | <!--Opinion-->2007 USB-b powered, 9v center pin positive or 6 MN1500 AA batteries - X/Y touchpad and the combined pitch and modulation joystick - no aftertouch but can use both the legacy MIDI OUT and USB port simultaneously |- | <!--Description-->Novation Nocturn 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 untested sending random pitchbend info |- | <!--Description-->Novation 49 61 SL MkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 semi-weighted Fatar TP-8 or TP-9 keybed |- | <!--Description-->Novation MiniNova | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2013 |- | <!--Description-->Novation Impulse 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 velocity aftertouch‑sensitive semi-weighted keyboards and eight backlit pads - USB, 5-pin MIDI out - |- | <!--Description-->Novation Circuit Tracks / Rhythm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 untested |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 49 61 88 MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB class compliant - full keys - |- | <!--Description-->Novation Launchpad Mini MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested 8x8 buttons with 16 backlit |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey Mini MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 untested - 25 soft mini keys - 2 rotary wheels lhs - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 37 49 61 88 MK3 MKIII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 USB class compliant choice - full keys - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey Mini MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested - 25 soft mini keys - 2 sliders lhs - |- | <!--Description-->Novation 61SL Mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Nymphes Dreadbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> 6 voice analog synth |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Oberheim MC 2000 EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 88 keys fully weighted - very heavy - |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus ATOM SQ Hybrid MIDI Keyboard/Pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://polyend.com/tracker/ Polyend Tracker] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland ED PC-300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 USB MIDI keyboard controller 49-key |- | <!--Description-->Roland EDIROL PCR-M30 PCR-M50 PCR-M80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol PCR-30 PCR-50 PCR-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 untested 32 key - |- | <!--Description-->Roland PC-50 PC-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- | <!--Description-->Roland PCR-500 PCR-800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 61 velocity-sensitive keys with aftertouch |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-88 a-49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 USB port - weighted keys velocity no aftertouch - class compliant with press FUNCTION so it is lit. Press the key labelled "ADV.", Press the "+" button so it is lit - |- | <!--Description-->Roland PC-200 mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 some had fatar keys |- | <!--Description-->Roland MC-707 Groovebox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 |- | <!--Description-->Roland MC-101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 untested |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-500 A500Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-300 A300Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Roland JUNO DS, FA, Fantom, JUPITER X / Xm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 (be sure that USB driver is set to "Generic" - requires device rebooting) |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-88 a-49 MKii MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 expensive with USB-c port - hammer-action keyboard weighted keys - Class-compliant if USB-C enables bus power - MIDI 2.0 later - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ROLI Seaboard RISE 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Samson Graphite 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Samson Carbon 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sequential TAKE 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic VMK-161 and VMK-161 Plus Organ version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->TP-8O action is the unweighted, organ-style waterfall keybed - usb midi in out - 9v psu - |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL990XP midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic VMK176 Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->USB and midi connectivity |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL880 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL73 SL88 Studio midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> hammer-action Fatar TP semi-weighted keys |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic Numa Organ 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> 73 key TP-8O action is the unweighted, organ-style waterfall keybed used in nearly all clonewheels |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic Numacompact 2/2x, Numa X Piano | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero CommandKey49 CommandKey25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero SZ-MiniCommand Mini-Command USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero SPC61 MIDI Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> bus powered - 5 octave |- | <!--Description-->SubZero ControlKey49S 49 Key Slim MIDI Controller Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Synido TempoKey K25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 25 mini keys - usb-c powered |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Winterbloom Sol | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Worlde Panda | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha KX8 KX49 KX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha CMC-PD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not class compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha P45B P-45 Digital Piano | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha P-115 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested weighted keys - USB midi port |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha MX49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 should compliant untested |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Montage, CP73/88, YC, MODX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha PSR-E353, PSR-E443 PSR-S670, PSR-S770, PSR-S970, PSR-A3000, TYROS-5 NP-12, NP-32 DGX-650, DGX-660 P-105, P-115, P-255 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha MX49 II V2 Black Blue | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->DJM V10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> dj |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Kontrol DJ Pro midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> detected but untested |- | <!--Description-->Numark Mixtrack Pro II USB DJ Controller Djay | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->older generation pioneer DDJ-SX2 dj | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum AL-22 AL22c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum AL-88 Schneidersladen AL88c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum U3-88c Midi Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> no CopperLan support Midi network using a UTP Ethernet patch cable) |- | <!--Description-->Behringer BCF2000 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.behringer.com/EN/home.aspx Behringer] BCR2000 1in 2out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer B-CONTROL DEEJAY BCD3000 DJ Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMD404 UMD202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Creative EMU 0404/USB midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->DigiDesign / Focusrite Command 8 Control Surface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 supports MIDI continuous controller (CC) and note data. SysEx dumping and loading is also supported |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Digi 002 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 firewire only |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Digi 003 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire only |- | <!--Description-->emagic m4 2x4 AMT8 Unitor 8 Mk2 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x00d0 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0x010 0x0103 | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 offers MTS (Midi Time Stamping) - 12v 2a psu centre pos - usb mini with rs232 and rs422 serial ports - 16 channels (8-in / 8-out), this rack-mountable unit - |- | <!--Description-->Evolution U-Control UC-16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| detected}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Saffire 6 USB 1.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Guillemot Maxi Studio ISIS Vintage Sound Card MIDI Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->1998 |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.ucapps.de/mbhp_usb.html MidiBox] Hardware Platform USB Module | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Control Universal Pro XT with One Two Extenders | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Audiophile USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport UNO old version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio MidiMan 1x1 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 [http://sourceforge.net/projects/linux-hotplug/ firmware update] |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 2x2 yellowy green blue, green or silver chassis plastic box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|MIDISPORT 2x2 or 4x4 interfaces from previous production series (blue, green or silver chassis) are not class-compliant}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Audiosport Quattro USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant as [http://usb-midi-fw.sourceforge.net/ firmware required and that is buggy], |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio UC-33 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 1x1 2x2 4x4 Anniversary Edition, black box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Mooer Steep II Multi-Platform USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?t=52920 Mark of the Unicorn Motu Fastlane] 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=560852&postcount=8 not working on OS4]}} | <!--Opinion--> not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Motu Micro Lite 1x1 and MOTU microlite 5x5 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion--> good unit but poor just plug in support and not class compliant - USB2 usb-b - |- | <!--Description-->Motu MIDI Express 128 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->poor support serial port only - offers MTS (Midi Time Stamping) A serial port based MIDI interface or a USB interface without MTS will have a MIDI slop of up to 2ms on record and playback. MTS provides accuracy for record and playback to around .3ms - five times more accurate than serial or non-MTS." |- | <!--Description-->MOTU.com MIDI Express XT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 for many USB should have octocoupled connection to reduce groundloop humm, usually the timing is off |- | <!--Description-->MOTU MIDI Timepiece AV | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion--> not class compliant is one of the best multi-port MIDI interfaces ever made as USB model connects to the computer as an 8x16 interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments GmbH Audio 8 DJ, 4 DJ, 2 DJ | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|needs dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not class compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Qcon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|did not match to camdusbmidi.class USB audio midi with onboard DSP}} | <!--Opinion-->1998 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Corp Edirol UM-2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0005 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{no|is not bound via camdusbmidi.class }} | <!--Opinion-->1999 not bound to any midi class - 2x2 - tested Aros One USb 2.4 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-100G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->1999 USB audio midi with onboard DSP |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-880 8x8 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 under poseidon but could work with run >nil: c:midithru out.0 "EDIROL UM-880.out.2" |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1 blue plastic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Unk| bound??? via camdusbmidi.class - untested midi in out}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 UM-1 - 1-in/1-out (16 channels) |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 1-in/1-out (16 channels) |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-2E | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1X midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|do not have the Advanced Driver Switch on them}} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1SX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0052 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{No|do not have the Advanced Driver Switch on them}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-2C - 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-1G 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-2G 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/spotify/linux/blob/master/sound/usb/usbquirks.h Roland Edirol UA20 UA-20] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->Roland UM-1EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-2EX 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 adds a second MIDI OUT |- | <!--Description-->Roland Cakewalk UM-3G - 3x3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Cakewalk ua-25excw 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not class compliant mode |- | <!--Description-->[https://alsa.opensrc.org/Edirol_UA-25EX Roland Edirol UA55 UA-55 Cakewalk UA25 EX] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Sonuus B2M Bass MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Sonuus G2M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg CMC Series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Subzero SZ-MB44 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Swisssonic MIDI1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 AmigaOS there is no output at midichannel one and two but if play a midi file there is only output on some channels and if pressed stop the prog freezes or the whole system crashes |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-428 US-422 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2000 not compatible |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.tascam.com/Products/US-224.html US-224] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1604 | <!--Product ID-->0x8004 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2002 does not bind to any class |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-1x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-122 MKII midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID-->0x8021 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not detected / binding to camdusbmidi.class on AROS 2.4 usb }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 detected but not working 2-in/2-out USB two XLR microphone preamps with phantom power for condenser microphones |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-200 US-400 US-600 US-800 US-1200 US-1800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 may not be totally usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha UX-16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE and Pro version midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 dc 6v power - 3 USB hubs, midi in out , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alesis I/O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 powered USB hub required, not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Alesis IO2 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Alesis IO4 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XTouch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> psu needed |- | <!--Description-->Behringer X-Touch Compact | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Behringer X-Touch Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant?, usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Phoria UMD404HD UMD202HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe class compliant - volume low, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CME U2 MIDI Pro 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> current model |- | Creative EMU XMIDI 1X1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 early versions with sysex checksum errors |- | <!--Description-->Creative E-MU Xmidi 1x1 Tab (V3) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 tab version class compliant but report that when transferring 'System Exclusive' messages (SysEx) the unit could not handle the highest data rate leading to data corruption |- | Creative EMU XMIDI 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 sysex errors |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Mbox 2 Mini now Avid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 USB powered but not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Mbox II Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 USB powered but not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Engl Z7 MIDI Interface (E660/E610/E360/E930) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> guitar? |- | <!--Description-->Elektron TurboMidi TM-1 1in 1out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M4U 4x4 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered - |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M8U 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M4U XL 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> ploytec chipset |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M8U XL 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hardware routing e.g. x on input 5 to synth y on output 7 - ploytec chipset |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate II 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI ROM I/O | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 romio version |- | <!--Description-->ESI M4U XT | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2573 | <!--Product ID-->0x0002 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|is bound via camdusbmidi.class AROS One 2.4 - untested midi in out}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 - |- | <!--Description-->ESI M8U XT 8in 8out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 discontinued 2018 |- | <!--Description-->ESI M8UEX USB3.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 current model |- | <!--Description-->ESI M4U eX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 current model |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate eX midi interface 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 current model, well liked and might class compliant?? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->icon midiport 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->iCON CubeMi 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant? |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity mio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 class compliant but reported issues with sending System Exclusive (SysEx) MIDI messages and MIDI signals getting cut off |- | <!--Description--> iConnectMidi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->iCM2 iCM4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity iConnectMIDI4+ L | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 class compliant?? |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity MioXL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig MIDI 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant |- | <!--Description-->iRig Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton Electronics pro solo mk2 midi to cv converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton Midi Thru-25 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Keytech MT18E 8 Way Midi Thru box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> 9 to 12v psu required |- | <!--Description-->MidiPlus Midi 2x2 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->MidiPlus Midi 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered |- | <!--Description-->MidiTech MIT-00151 Midiface 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->MidiTech Midiface 4x4 8x8 16x16 thru merge | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Miditech Midilink mini 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport UNO only if box is labeled Class Compliant and latest MIDISPORT 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track Ultra (6 in 6 out) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not usb compliant, - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midiman Midisport 2x2 Anniversary Edition [https://gearspace.com/board/electronic-music-instruments-and-electronic-music-production/1133862-why-there-hardly-any-midi-interfaces.html not stable enough] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 USB2 usb-b - does not need firmware and supposedly plug and play - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 4x4 Anniversary Edition | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> rumored does not need firmware - supposedly plug and play - issues with its firmware for some and lacks configurable routing |- | <!--Description-->Maudio Fast Track Ultra 8R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Audio 6 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant but bus powered, |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Midiflex 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 class compliant and usb-b powered - used as a 1 in / 3 out, 2 in / 2 out or 4 out 5pin sockets - |- | <!--Description-->Neusonik IM-One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Peavey Xport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> guitars only |- | <!--Description-->Roland UM-ONE UM-1 mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 USB class compliant if switch to TAB for class compliant mode rather than the COMPUTER mode |- | <!--Description-->Squarp Hermid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg Midex 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant? supporting MIDI Time Stamping protocol |- | <!--Description-->Swissonic MidiConnect 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Tapco LiNK.midi USB 4x4 (Loud technologies) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-2x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2014 5v dc power, midi out in, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-4x4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-16x08 US-20x20 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom U-24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi to 5pin interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi to 5pin interface |- | <!--Description-->Unbranded cable | 0x552d | 0x4348 | F110 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|detected but no usb driver in devs/midi for camd to use}} | <!--Opinion-->detected but not working the USB-MIDI conversion functionality of the cheapo USB MIDI "cable" interface is simply lacking, possibly being incapable of handling MIDI strings longer than 3 bytes long SysEx strings (e.g. SysEx dumps) - tested in Icaros 2.3 - |- | <!--Description-->USB2.0-MIDI Unbranded cable with clear braided underneath leads | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x752D | <!--Revision-->0254 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|detected binding to camdusbmidi.class but untested midi in / out}} | <!--Opinion-->untested but better to get a branded version - tested AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->LogiLink USB to Midi In-Out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->untested cheap cable version but issues with latency on other systems |- | <!--Description--> gm5 USB midi chip DIY option only | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Doremidi LEKATO MIDI USB C Interface 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Thomann Midi USB 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> Prodipe made |- | <!--Description-->Prodipe MIDI 1i/1o | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |} Classic 5pin DIN controllers for above interfaces {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai s5000 s6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi digital samplers |- | <!--Description-->Akai AX80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Casio CZ-5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Casio CZ-3000 CZ-1000 CZ-101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Cheetah MS6 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 multi-timbral, six-voice (twelve-oscillator), analogue synthesiser module is loaded with CEM 3396s |- | <!--Description-->Ensoniq ESQ1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Integra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Wavestation Ex A/D SR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1986 ex has piano and drum sounds |- | <!--Description-->Korg DW-8000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg DW-6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Poly 800 MK1 Poly-800ii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> all plastic and can run on batteries - 49 keys non-velocity dco synt analogue filter |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland D-50 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|1987 untested greater concern would be moisture and wear}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland A50 (76) A80 (88) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|1989 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->ROLAND JUNO-D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland Juno 106 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->80s kx73 or kx88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland ED PC-160A PC-180A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} legacy DIN5 MIDI port only - 6 AA batteries or 9v psu - One regular source of failure for me were emty batteries (even with red control light still active). Another source was a bad MIDI cable - unplug then re-plug the USB cable while it is powered the device might reconnect |- | <!--Description-->Roland M1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland S-550 S-760 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> digital samplers kontakt replaced these? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha DX7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1983 12bit |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha DX7S DX72IID DX7IIFD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1987 16bit versions |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} The MIDI standard was published in August 1983. The inventors, Kakehashi and Smith finally received a Technical Grammy Award in 2013 for their work. The MIDI files that contained just the note data, velocity and timing meant you could transfer an entire studio session from one place to another on one floppy disk and it could control all the synths and drum samplers. Pass-thru meant that one computer could run an entire bands worth of instruments. It's bulletproof too. MIDI never goes wrong, it's always a bug in software that causes any issue - you can absolutely rely on it to go gigging with, take your synths, controllers and computers and not crash an entire gig at your 100,000 person venue. The MIDI hardware specification is very simple (voltage, polarity, screening, protection and a fast enough opto-isolator), it assumes that the data it sends and receives between MIDI devices is to the MIDI data standard and just passes it on. The microprocessor in the hardware does all the work. The minimum for a computer/MIDI interface is that it meets the MIDI hardware specification. It is attached to the computer bus and handles the electrical conversions required. To meet the MIDI hardware specification, to be class compliant as a USB device all it has to do is report itself properly when plugged in. The other half of the equation is the MIDI data standard, and for a computer MIDI interface the main issue is the speed of data transmission. The bus speed of the computer is faster than the speed of the MIDI standard so it can generate and send MIDI data faster than a MIDI device can receive it. The MIDI standards have nothing to say on that bottleneck at all. MIDI was designed to be very simple and very open, it just defines a standard for the messages and leaves it up to manufacturers to implement them in the way they want. That's what makes it so powerful a tool, and also what makes it so confusing and frustrating at times. For midi, the hardware/software combination at various connection points handles the translation to/from midi (or other protocols). Drivers would be needed for midi, including clock and SysEx signal (actually claiming to handle ALL midi quirks transparently All the important MIDI data types can be sent (CC, NRPN, RPN, MMC, Note On/Off, program change) There is no official way to solve the data bottleneck. Early software sequencers and librarians tried to solve it by having an option to buffer SYSEX data in software and transmit it at the MIDI data rate. The downside is that hogs the bus and can hit computer performance. Interface manufacturers would add a hardware buffer which would take all the MIDI data from the PC bus and feed it into the MIDI at the slower data rate, but that added cost and created timing issues. Things have moved on since then, but the principles remain the same. You can buffer in the hardware or in software, whether that is in the application or the interface driver. SYSEX will work perfectly well with that budget cable if your software handles the buffering. And while the cables with hardware buffers make SYSEX easier, they still have potential problems because of the limitations of the MIDI data rate. Your MIDI clock doesn't like being interrupted with a big program dump The serial / parallel ports were a direct connection, so faster. Now, everything in the computer is virtual and the only thing connected to the hardware is the kernel, hence everything is by default bottlenecked and jittery, regardless of which connection. So by the time the interface gets the information it's already too late. Ethernet network cable to transport MIDI over large distances, connect 2 MIDI In and 2 MIDI Out ports to patch, remap, filter and merge MIDI flows on a fine channel basis for tight MIDI throughput, latency and jitter Possibilities for DAWs of the future including a kind of sync reference for timing reference which an interface could sync to, hence all the timings then would be locked between the grid on the DAW screen and the MIDI info. Preemptible, low latency and accuracy are essential for good communication. One of the first things you need to do, is make sure your MIDI software sets the interface to the same MIDI channel as your keyboard (usually 1) Do you want to send just your master keyboard to other synths or to be able to use any keyboard with any synth? 1st option is relatively simple. Just need to send midi from your master keyboard into a midi splitter that redistributes the signal onto your synths. Each synth will be set up to receive midi on a specific channel so the only challenge is to find a way to select to which channel you are sending midi. Some master keyboards can do that although not many that have a dedicated knob or switch on the panel and most require a bit of menu diving. Could use a midi box that offers channel selection but usually this is not very workflow friendly. The software route would require using the mouse. 2nd option is a bit more complex but superior workflow by sending midi messages into a merge box, from there into a hardware sequencer that allows to select midi channel, then on to a midi interface that distributes the signal to the synths. Master keyboard MIDI-in to computer. External hardware sampler MIDI-out from computer. Audio-out from sampler to audio-in on computer/device. Blue Ribbon Soundworks Bars & Pipes Professional (1993/4) GM (1984), GS (1987), XG level 1-3 (1994-1997), GM level 2 (1999) GM GM1 imposes several requirements beyond the MIDI 1.0 specification. While MIDI 1.0 by itself provides a communication protocol which ensures that different instruments can interoperate at a fundamental level e.g sound modules. GM goes further in two ways. First, GM requires that all compliant MIDI instruments meet a certain minimal set of features, such as being able to play at least 24 notes simultaneously (polyphony). Second, GM attaches specific interpretations to many parameters and control messages which were left unspecified in the MIDI 1.0 specification. A minimum of 128 MIDI Program Numbers (conforming to the GM 1 Instrument Patch Map) and 47 percussion sounds (conforming to the GM 1 Percussion Key Map). Support for controller number 1, 7, 10, 11, 64, 100, 101, 121 and 123; support for channel pressure and pitch bend controllers. General MIDI Level 2 or GM2 is a specification for synthesizers which defines several requirements beyond the MIDI standard and is based on General MIDI (GM) and Roland GS extensions. It was adopted in 1999 by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA). * Number of Notes: 32 simultaneous notes * MIDI Channels: 16 * Simultaneous Melodic Instruments – up to 16 (all Channels) * Simultaneous Percussion Kits – up to 2 (Channel 10/11) Program and bank change events General MIDI 2 compatible synthesizers access all of the 256 instruments by setting cc#0 (Bank Select MSB) to 121 and using cc#32 (Bank Select LSB) to select the variation bank before a Program Change. Variation bank 0 contains the full GM (General MIDI 1) sound set. Variations using other bank numbers are new to General MIDI 2, and correspond to variation sounds introduced in Roland GS. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CluuHrr7HG4 Major WWHWWWH, Minor WHWWHWW scale], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jjm7Ti-iwz0 Chords], ==usb audio== USB audio has recently made available for Aros, there are many standards introduced over the years. Much is still untested. *Introduced 2000 and from 2014 USB Audio 1 UAC1 16bit 44.1kHz *Introduced 2006 and from 2014 USB Audio 2 [https://www.usb.org/document-library/usb-device-class-definition-audio-devices-release-20-errata-and-ecn-through-april UAC2] 24bit 192kHz *Introduced 2016 and from 2024 USB Audio 3 [https://www.usb.org/documents UAC3] 32bit 384kHz USB group decided to rewrite the audio standard, so [https://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/record/usbaudio2.lha UAC2] and [https://archive.fosdem.org/2019/schedule/event/linux_and_usb_audio_class_3/attachments/slides/3345/export/events/attachments/linux_and_usb_audio_class_3/slides/3345/Linux_and_USB_Audio_Class_3___FOSDEM_2019.pdf UAC3]. They added clock selection and control, timing domains and others. Part of the changes included changing many of the descriptors that an audio device uses to describe itself to the machine. PsdErrorlog/PsdDevlister? The AHI driver generated only supports mono/stereo at any bit rates between 8 and 32 bit per sample, but not multichannel modes and only rates up to 65KHz (because AHI uses a 16-bit word for frequencies). If the soundcard does not offer such a PCM 8-32 bit mode at frequencies lower than 65 KHz, there's nothing much that can be done about it on the computer side other than revising and expanding the AHI standard. Most cheap USB soundcards do though. AHI does not support six channel playback. It only supports mono, stereo and multichannel (8 channels). Due to the multichannel mode not being used by any application so far, the usbaudio.class does not support multichannel playback, especially not "upchannelling" stereo to six or more channels. If this USB device does not support a two channel mode, you can't use it under AHI. Untested but most likely to work, at least 2 mic inputs (low impedance) & instruments (high impedance) and made in the last 10 years *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMuA-2FbJxE Entry level <100Euro] BOMGE U202, Behringer UMC, Presonus Studio, *[ Next tier <200Euro] Audient iD, Solid SSL2 and SSL2+, Lewitt, Focusrite Scarlett, Arturia MiniFuse, *[ Prosumer <300Euro] Focusrite Clarett+, *[ Professional <500Euro] RME Babyface, *[ Studio >500Euros] Bands should need 4 or more mic inputs [http://forum.xda-developers.com/showthread.php?p=38364030 XDA Forum thread], <pre> <- Computer <- Mobile Phone / Tablet (OTG) <- Digital Cameras <- Video <- Webcams Base Computer <-> OBS like <- Audio Mixer <- Microphone(s) -> Internet -> Youtube & Chat </pre> USB AUDIO CARDS - UAC Compliant {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" |Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Playback ! width="10%" |Records ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Antelope Galaxy 64 Synergy Core | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> not compliant so does not wotk with Aros and a high-end 64-channel AD/DA converter HDX, Dante connectivity and a Thunderbolt Audio interface |- | <!--Description-->Antelope Galaxy 32 Synergy Core | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> not be compliant so does not wotk with Aros as Antelope Audio does not provide official drivers, control software, or an Antelope Launcher |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Mini Fuse 1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, okay pre amp 1 combi input, cirrus logic cs4272 ad converter, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFuse 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant usb-c with usb2.0, okay pre amps with good dynamic range 110dB, cirrus logic cs4272 ad converter, two combi inputs for mic, line or guitar, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFuse 4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, okay 110dB dynamic range, -129dB EIN, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia AudioFuse 16Rig | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD44 mk1 mki | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Audient evo4 EVO8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD4 mk2 mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Audient id14 mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant and usb-c bus powered, good, , 0-in/14-out audio interface with ADAT expandability, balanced inserts |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD44 Mk2 Mkii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC22 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC202HD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps ein -129 dBu, 24bit ADC, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC404HD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps, 24bit adc, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC204HD 192 Empower Tribe | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID-->0x0508 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMC1820 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2016, bus complaint?, okay midas pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UM2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, poor zenyx pre-amps with high noise floor, plastic build no rf shielding, latency issues, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer x Air XR12 XR16 XR18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 usb and network |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Saffire 6 USB 1.1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, , , midi, strictly NEC USB 2.0, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 8i6 Gen 1 MOSC0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, but |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 1 MOSC0003 *TP1 - 3.3V, tested ok *TP2 - U4 control signal, 3.3V present at all time. *TP4 - Ground *TP6 - 48V, tested ok *TP7 - Ground *TP8 - Ground | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 usually avoid early Gen 1, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2021/08/75-focusrite-scarlett-2i4-1st-gen.html Focusrite Scarlet 2i4 Gen 1 (slide toggles) MOSC0004] *TP1 - 3.3V, tested 3.22v *TP2 - U4 control signal, 3.3V present *TP4 - Ground *TP6 - measure 47.72v * AKM 4384ET (VDD 5v) * Cirrus Logic CS4272-CZZ (VA 4.94v/ VD 3.2v/ VL 3.2v) * all four HC4066 (VCC 4.96v) * XMOS XS1-L01A-TQ128-C5 (all VDD 1.08v/ all VVDIO 3.23v/ PPLAVDD 0.99v/ PCU-VDDIO 3.23v) 2i4S *TP1 seems to be 0V *TP2 should be 5V *TP3 should be *TP6 should be 48V *TP8 should be 3.3V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, pre amps JRC NJM2122 and NJM4565, [https://statics.cirrus.com/pubs/proDatasheet/CS4272_F1.pdf CS4272 adc], [https://pdf.datasheet.live/e5e5fd1c/akm.com/AK4384.pdf AK4384 output pair], Xmos XS1-L8A-64-TQ128 processor and firmware in Winbond 25X40CL 4Mbit, an SMSC Microchip USB3343 interface and a Microchip PL611 clock generator - two Intersil / Renesas ISL97519A for the phantom power rail, two OnSemi NCP1521B for the 3.3V (digital) and 1V (Xmos core) rails - |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite iTrack Solo USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 1st Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, , Cirrus CS4272, |- | <!--Description-->[http://wiki.linuxaudio.org/wiki/current_audio_gear Focusrite ] Scarlett 4i4 Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, , Cirrus CS4272, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 6i6 Gen1 MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, , , 12v psu, the headphone outs mirror the outs on the back panel, so that's six independent outs. 4 independent analog output paths, plus two over spdif, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2019/03/38-focusrite-scarlett-18i8-gen1-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 1st Gen MOSC0008] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, JRC NJM4565 provide most of the opamps, pair of JRC NJM2122's for inputs 1 and 2, [http://www.mouser.com/ds/2/76/cs4272_f1-43250.pdf Cirrus CS4272], 12v 1a +central psu to a pair of National Semiconductor LM2672 for 3.3V rail and the +6.9V rail, Xmos XS1–L16A–128 dual-row QFN package, firmware a Winbond 25X40C 4Mbit SPI Flash and an SMSC USB3343 interface chip, the two headphone outs are completely independent so 6 independent analog output paths, plus two over spdif, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Clarett+ 8Pre | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 great, expensive, maybe usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 2 (slide toggles) MOSC0006 *TP6 should be 48V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8202 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, USB-b bus powered, good preamps ein equivalent input noise -128 dBu, 24-bit 192kHz CS4272 as well as an additional AKM AK4384ET for the second stereo output pair, 4 screws under bottom rubber, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2021/07/focusrite-scarlett-2i4-2nd-gen-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 2i4 Gen 2 (slide toggles) MOSC0014] *TP6 should be 48V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, USB-b bus powered, good preamps NJM2122's, NJM4565's and CMOS switches (HEF4053 and HEF4066), CS4272 and a AKM AK4384ET, Xmos XU208-256-TQ64-C10 with firmware stored in a Macronix MX25L8006E 8Mbit flash memory, clocking by a Cirrus Logic CS2100, an MP1542 boost converter creates +6V and -6V rails, powering the opamps and the rest of the analog circuitry, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 6i6 Gen2 MOSC0016 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 2nd Gen MOSC0019 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2024/03/focusrite-scarlett-18i8-gen2-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 2nd Gen MOSC00] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Red 16Line | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 may not be compliant as Focusrite provides no drivers - 64-in/64-out Pro Tools - dual Thunderbolt 3 audio interface with ultra-low latency A-D/D-A conversion - Red Evolution mic preamps |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 3rd Gen MOSC0024 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant usb-c but usb2, preamps, ad/dc 24bit 192kHz, most Focusrite gen3 interfaces have encrypted processors, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i6 Gen3 MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, USB2 class compliant device, but with custom mixer interface |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 3 (push in switches) MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8210 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, USB-c bus powered, good preamps ein equivalent input noise -128 dBu, 24-bit 192kHz Cirrus Logic xfr002c and cs4272 chips, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 3rd gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 3rd Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8214 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, , , no screws under the rubber pads on the bottom, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo Studio Mk3 USB Audio Interface MOSC0030 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 4i4 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Studio 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 4th Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 4th Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FractalAudio FM9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Fractal Audio AM4 platform | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 not working |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Lewitt Connect 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Lewitt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mooer Steep II Multi-Platform USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Motu UltraLite AVB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb not compliant? |- | <!--Description-->MOTU M2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant?, usb-c, good pre amps, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->MOTU M4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description-->MOTU U2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, good but latest had hardware revision |- | <!--Description-->MOTU UltraLite-mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description-->MOTU UltraLite-mk5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nuemann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb audio compliant, great pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Neumann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->neuralDSP Quad Cortex QC platform | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 cc compliant but plugins not working |- | <!--Description-->NeuralDSP QC Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 cc complaint |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Neve Genesys Black G16 G32 G64 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> not compliant - very good very expensive |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Presonus AudioBox USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe not usb compliant, usb1.1 usb-b bus powered, okay pre-amps, 24bit ADC 48Khz max, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus Audiobox 1818VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus AudioBox 44VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 may not be usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus AudioBox 22VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 2|4 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, usb-b, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 2|6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 6|8 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe compliant, needs ext psu, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus Studio 24c 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, good, adc, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus Studio 26c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus® Studio 68c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus AudioBox USB 96 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, high preamp noise, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus Quantum ES2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prism | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prism Lyra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Platane UP1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant usb- UAC2 asynchronous protocol, 64dB Low-noise Mic amplifier, 32Bit High End ADC and DAC, 16dBu High-power ti headphone amplifier |- | <!--Description-->Platane UP2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Platane | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RME Babyface/UC/UFX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->RME Fireface UCX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 might be able to put into class compliant cc although a firewire device, pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->RME Babyface Pro FS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe not usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->RME Fireface UCX II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 might be class compliant usb-b, pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL2 SSL2+ Mk1 1st Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, good, adc, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL12 SSL18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, bus powered, good pre-amps, up to 32-bit 192kHz AD/DA converters, 12-in 8-out, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL2 SSL2+ MkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, good pre amps ein -130 dBu, ad/dc, okay latency, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Topping E1x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->Topping Pro E2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->UAD UA Apollo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->UA apollo 2nd Gen twin X (Duo/Quad), X4, X6, X8, X8P, and X16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 bus compliant?, usb- |- | <!--Description-->UA apollo twin x quad 3rd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 bus compliant?, usb- |- | <!--Description-->Universal Audio Volt 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->|Universal Audio Volt 276 2|76 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Universal Audio Volt 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE Pro AI01 Electromusic Interface Expander - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, 4-in/4-out USB 2.0 audio interface with a built-in USB hub and MIDI I/O, up to 24-bit/96kHz |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE Pro AI02 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->|Alesis io2 io|2, io14 io|14, io26 io|26 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 bus powered but not usb compliant, okay pre-amps, 2, 4 or 8 mics respectively, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis iO2 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Core 1 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe cc, mini usb, poor latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire only, not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel two‑in, two‑out, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Ensemble | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire, not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 1st Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant micro-usb for basic features, , , single‑channel up to 48kHz |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 2nd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant usb- and maybe aa batteries, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c with most features, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 3rd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Ensemble Thunderbolt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Boom | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c with most features, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ART PRO Audio Usb Mix | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant bus powered, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 1 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID-->01000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 mbox original was usb1 and not a usb class compliant device, and had the much hated "focusrite designed" mic preamps, light blue front plate and the sticky out feet |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 midi not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Pro USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Mini USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Micro USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->AVID MBox 3rd gen Mini or Standard but Pro is Firewire | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->behringer u-control uca202 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x8bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2902 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, draws a lot of power - dac ti burr-brown - no microphone pre-amp - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-CONTROL UCA 222 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 maybe usb compliant, - no microphone pre-amp - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Black Lion Audio 2x2 evolution | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant but , okay with 109dB range - poor noise floor, 24-bit 192kHz Cirrus Logic CS4272, average latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Bomge 11s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 |- | <!--Description-->Bomge 22s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 |- | <!--Description-->Bomge BMG22 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb-c, 24bit 192kHz but only use much lower, may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge U202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-c, 32bit 192kHz but only use much lower, may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge U204 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-c, 32bit 192kHz but only use much lower , may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->TI Burr-Brown PCM2702E PCM2704 PCM2704C Muse Audio Mini USB DAC board | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2704 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, no mic input - goodish quality |- | <!--Description-->TI Burr-Brown PCM2900 PCM2902 PCM2906 USB DAC board | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2900 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, no mic input - goodish quality |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng MD22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-b powered, 24bit 192kHz though is 96kHz, |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 usb-b powered, 24bit 192kHz though is 96kHz, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 2|6 em2|6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 not uac |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 6|2m | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 not uac |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 6|2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 not uac |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Ego Systems, Inc. in Korea (ESI) joining with RIDI GmbH | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2006 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->esi Mixvibes U46 Mk II USB audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 not usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->ESI ESU22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->esi U24XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 24 bits, 2 analogue inputs and outputs with 6.3 mm jack connection, Output L can be used as a headphone output, S / PDIF digital input - |- | <!--Description-->esi U46XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->ESI Originals, Inc ESIO MAYA22USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI MAYA44USB+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI Originals, Inc ESIO MARA22XTU | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI U22XT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb class compliant |- | <!--Description-->ESI Gigaport Ex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 usb compliant?, usb-c usb3.1, , , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity iConnectAUDIO2+ icaudio-02 USB audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->LexiconPro - Omega 8x4x2 (USB-1.1) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not usb complaint |- | <!--Description-->Lexicon Alpha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Lexicon Lambda | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 may not be compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Toneport UX1 and Tone Port UX2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 TonePort UX8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 maybe not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 POD Studio UX1 UX2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Lokchonk UX22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljSiNmudMm0 Lokchonk UX44HD] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 usb-b , , , 2in 2out only, average latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Artist 1·2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 maybe not usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Producer 2X2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b midi |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Blackjack | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 USB powered but maybe not usb compliant, Two Onyx Preamps, 2-in, 2-out which are combo Neutrik-type connectors to handle XLR, instrument or line level |- | <!--Description-->Mackie | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, , , |- | <!--Description-->Media Assistance USB-One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not uac cc comliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 maybe not usb compliant, - guitar |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track Ultra (6 in 6 out) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb cc providing 24-bit/96kHz audio capabilities but requires manual configuration of the mixer settings |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 usb compliant?, okay - guitar and vocal mainly |- | <!--Description-->[https://htyp.org/M-Audio/Fast_Track_Ultra/Linux M-Audio FastTrack Ultra] and Ultra 8R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe usb compliant, low round-trip latency, okay octane pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track 2x2M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb compliant? usb-c - okay pre-amps, , |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track (MkII) 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb compliant? usb-c - okay pre amps, , |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track Solo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb compliant? - okay but issues, MJN4580C opamps (lower gain 55 dB at volume 9-10), ti PCM2900C ADC 16bit means there is a hard noise floor at -96 dB, plastic build no rf shielding, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track DUO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb compliant? - okay but issues, MJN4580C opamps (lower gain 55 dB at volume 9-10), ti PCM2900C ADC 16bit means there is a hard noise floor at -96 dB, plastic build no rf sheild, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, okay |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NI AK1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.pogo.org.uk/~mark/linuxdj/ Native Instruments Traktor Audio 8 DJ], [ Traktor Audio 4 DJ], [ Traktor Audio 2 DJ], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17cc | <!--Product ID-->0x1978, 0x0839, 0x041C | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not usb compliant uses snd-usb-caiaq module, [https://mixxx.discourse.group/t/problems-with-native-instruments-audio-8-dj-on-linux/14719/2 Audio 8 device has 4 subunits which are not recognized correctly], Cirrus Logic DACs spec'd at 24-bit/96KHz over a USB2, |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Audio 6 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, pre amps, 24bit 96kHz adc, ocassional dropouts, plastic build top with metal around 3/4, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments NI Komplete Audio 1 and 2 USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, good pre amp ein -129.5 dBu, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->[https://support.native-instruments.com/hc/en-us/articles/360014683497-Apple-Silicon-Compatibility-News Native Instruments Komplete Audio 6 Mk2] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, pre amps, 24bit 192kHz adc, black aluminum glass build, |- | <!--Description-->[ Native Instruments Traktor Pro] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17cc | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Novation AudioHub 2x4 NOVHUB01 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, no xlr, focusrite sounds inside, |- | <!--Description-->Novation AudioHub | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prodipe Studio 22 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Schiit HEL 1 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Schiit HEL 2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 gaming headsets mostly |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-3 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1998 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-30 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->1999 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA1A UA-1D Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-5 Audio Capture (Roland) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-1000 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-1EX, Cakewalk UA-1G | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not usb compliant driver also supports ASIO (Steinberg Audio Stream I/O Interface), noisy |- | <!--Description-->Roland Duo Capture UA-11 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland QUAD-CAPTURE Analog 2x2 Digital 2x2 USB 2.0 4in/4out | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not usb compliant, usb-b powered |- | <!--Description-->[https://wiki.debian.org/DebianEdu/Documentation/Manuals/Rosegarden/Setup Roland Edirol UA-101 and UA-1000 (Clemens Ladisch driver)] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/mmueller-kaffeeschluerfercom/UA-25-Firmware-Modification Roland Edirol ua-25] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 maybe usb compliant 16bit 44.1kHz sampling without MIDI but not USB class complient when in Advanced mode for 24bit or midi |- | <!--Description-->Edirol by Roland USB AudioCapture UA-25EX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x00e6, 0x00e7 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant if ADVANCED DRIVER switched to OFF might play and record at 44.1kHz and 16-bit samples |- | <!--Description-->Roland Audio Interface V-Studio 20 VS-20 Cakewalk | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA55 UA-55 Quad Cakewalk | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x012f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not USB class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland DUO-CAPTURE EX UA-22 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0159 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant but not be used with a USB 3.0 port that is not compatible with USB 2.0 specification, vs pre amps, adc, three AA batteries in base, or an AC adapter psb-1u 9V 2A - |- | <!--Description-->Roland Rubix series Roland Rubix22 USB 2.0 Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Rubix series Roland Rubix24 USB 2.0 Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg MI2, Steinberg MI4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg (2004 Yamaha buys) MIDI interface hardware including the CC like CC121 CC-121 and CI1 CI2 series. | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR12 UR22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR44 usb audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR242 audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 maybe usb compliant, usb powered or 5v psu, okay pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR22mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, okay pre-amps ein -123 dBu, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR-RT 2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, usb2.0 usb-b, pre-amps, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR44C (USB3) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg URX22C UR22C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, preamps okay but little noisy, ad/dc. |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR22 MkIII UR series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant usb-c, okay pre-amps, adc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Tapco LiNK.USB 2x2 (Loud technologies WA, USA) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 maybe not compliant, usb-b, poor pre-amps hum, latency issues, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://git.alsa-project.org/?p=alsa-tools.git;a=blob;f=usx2yloader/README;hb=3843634ef0310a952b256bcb6a4ddd0ad4ebe396 Teac Tascam US-422 US-428 US2XYloader] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US-122 US-224 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not usb compliant, needing firmware usx2yloader/us122fw.ihx for audio sound card - Tascam US-122 and US-122L are not the same - |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US-122L | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID-->0x800e | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, obsolete needs tascam_loader.ihx and us122fw.ihx firmware loaded each time unless automated |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US122 US-122 Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant although USB2 downgrade so using USB1.1 UHCI, tascam units suffer from high round-trip latency as do most typical USB units |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US144 US-144 Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 maybe usb compliant although USB2 downgrade so using USB1.1 UHCI, tascam units suffer from high round-trip latency as do most typical USB units |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-200 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac US-366 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-600 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-800 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 may not be totally usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam iU2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-2x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 usb compliant?, 5v dc power, midi out in, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-4x4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb compliant?, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-16x08 US-20x20 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->teyun q12 Q-12, q22 Q-22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant - unknown pre amp, unknown ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Teyun q26 Q-26, q24 Q-24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant - unknown pre amp, unknown ad/dc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha UW500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Audiogram 3 USB Digital Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe usb compliant, okay pre amp, 16bit 44kHz adc no advanced features without dedicated asio driver, 1 xlr, 1 instrument, |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Audiogram 6 USB Digital Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, okay, 2 xlr, 2 instrument, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom UAC-232 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description-->Zoom UAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.arcam.co.uk/products,rseries,usb-dacs,rPAC.htm Arcam rPac] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audioquest Dragonfly | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audioengine D1 Premium 24-bit DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beresford TC-7520 (Burr Brown PCM 1716) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beresford TC-7520 + Burson Buffer + MK3 JKSPDIF | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://epiphany-acoustics.co.uk/products-page/dacs/e-dac-24bit-miniature-usb-dac/ Epiphany E-DAC 24bit] ES9023 DAC chip | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Firestone Audio FUBAR II Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Firestone Audio iLoveTW 24Bit USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO D5 ta2020 chip amp | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO E07K Andes | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO E17 Alpen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Magnum | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Martini-U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Vulcan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Halide Design DAC HD (Wolfson WM8716) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->HRT Steamer II USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->John Kenny JKDAC uses a 24-bit/192&nbsp;kHz Sabre ES9022 DAC or better JKDAC32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> iBasso D12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Leckerton UHA-6S MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MyST 1866 PortaDAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Objective DAC ODAC+O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Rega DAC (Wolfson WM8742) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.henryaudio.com/open-source.php Henry Audio USB DAC 128 also known as QNKTC AB-1.2 open source DAC] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Henry Audio mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->AKM4430 DAC chip comes from Asahi Kasai |- | <!--Description-->DevilSound USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom U series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->KingRex UD-01 SE (Burr-Brown PCM 2702E) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SuperPro 24/192 USB DAC (24bit 192&nbsp;kHz, CS-4398 D/A chip) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | CMedia CM108 7.1ch emulation I2S in and out | 0x1926 | 0x0003 | 0x0100 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | [http://www.lindy.co.uk/usb-2-audio-adapter/42961.html Lindy USB 2.0] (Chipset CM108) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Speed-Link SL-8850-SBK Vigo ([http://mightyohm.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1036#p1030 CMedia CM108]) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Dynamode USB SOUNDCARD 2.0 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0003 | <!--Product ID-->0x1130 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Dynamode Virtual 7.1 USB-SOUND7 (C-Media ) | 0x0d8c | 0x000c 0x000e | 1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Generic White box with very little red led and white USB lead (CMedia ) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID--> 0c000e | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | CM109 CiT SC-U119 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | CMedia CM1197.1ch I2C MCU port Penguin | 0x0D8C | 0x0000 | 0x010 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Sweex 7.1 Startech External USB, WMA Blue metal box SYBA SD-AUD20040, Sabrent USB-SND8, Sewell Vantec NBA-200U (C-Media CM6206 CM106 like) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x0102 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->50/50 if the item is detected but does not work |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative Labs SoundBlaster X-fi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative X-Fi Go | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative X-Fi 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative Sound Blaster Play! USB sound adapter (SB1140) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> working with [http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=646431&postcount=15 Deneb on OS3] |- | <!--Description-->Asus Xonar U1 (ASUS UA100 USB Audio Chip) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Asus Xonar U3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Griffin iMic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Transit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Icemat Siberia (steel series) (Cmedia chipset) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->JMTek HY554, ZyXEL NSA-220, Logilink (Tenx Technology TP6911 and SSS-1623 headphone set) | 0x0C76 0x1130 | 0x1605 0x1607 0xf211 | 0x | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> reports on other OS not good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Plantronics "DSP Adapter-01" (or "USB Adapter-02") | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Rocksmith Real Tone Cable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RSA Intruder Predator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->StarTech ICUSBAUDIO7 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x000c | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Stoner Acoustics UD100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Teac UDH01-B | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Aureon 5.1 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Aureon 5.1 USB MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->TerraTec Electronic GmbH Aureon Dual USB | 0x0ccd | 0x0077 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Phase26 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trust 510 EX 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Logitech A-5572A USB 2.0 to 3.5mm jacks Virtual 7.1 Surround Sound Adapter or accessory of Logitech Clearchat pro USB or Logitech USB Headset H530 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0003 | <!--Product ID-->0x046D | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trumix TM-10 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe cc |- | <!--Description-->Trumix TM-12 USB-C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe cc usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Turtle Beach Audio Advantage Amigo Micro II USB Sound Card & Headset Adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x10F5 | <!--Product ID-->0x0211 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Vantec NBA-100U 7.1 Channel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |} Companies including Access, Alesis, Allen&Heath, American Audio, CME, ESI, Infrasonic, Lexicon, Numark, Presonus, Reloop, SIMS, Sound Devices, Steinberg, Swissonic, Tascam, Terrasoniq, Terratec, Yamaha and Yellowtec decided to license and bundle this driver. So fully functional custom drivers are available for Access Virus TI, Access Virus TI snow, Alesis Multimix 8 USB2.0, Alesis Multimix 16 USB2.0, Allen&Heath XONE:2D, Allen&Heath XONE:3D, Allen&Heath XONE:4D, Allen&Heath XONE:DX, Allen&Heath XONE:DB4, American Audio Versa Port, CME XCORPIO, ESI ESU1808, ESI Gigaport AG / DG, ESI Maya 44 USB, Infrasonic Amon, Lexicon I-ONIX U22, Lexicon I-ONIX U42S, Lexicon I-ONIX U82S, Mindprint DI-MOD USB, Numark DJ IO, Numark NS6, Numark NS7, Numark Omni Control, Numark V7, Presonus Audiobox USB, Reloop Digital Jockey, SIMS Primus, Sound Devices USB pre, Steinberg MI2, Steinberg MI4, Swissonic Easy USB, Tascam M-164UF, Tascam US-122L, Tascam US-144, Tascam US-Tascam US-144mkII 122mkII, Tascam US-200, Tascam US-600, Tascam US-1641, Tascam US-1800, Tascam US-2000, Terratec Area 61, Terrasoniq Phase X64, Terratec Phase 26 USB, Yamaha UW10, Yamaha UW500, Yellowtec PUC2 and many others. Well, those companies are using the same driver framework because all of those interfaces use the same microprocessor/firmware architecture to communicate with the USB bus. Just like almost all FireWire audio interfaces use the same TC Dice or BridgeCo chipsets. Usually it does not make sense for companies to develop their own USB1.1/USB2/FW framework for a product they are going to sell for <$500. However, that isn't the end of the story. The companies who develop audio interfaces implement different features into their devices and must update the driver and firmware to accommodate those features. That is where things can go wrong. Sometimes there is miss-communication about how things are coded, sometimes the developer who started a project leaves without transferring his knowledge to his successor, etc. You have to keep in mind that there are no "big" computer audio companies. Even the companies that seem big in the scale of the market, probably have fewer employees than you'd think. A very well made interface that is designed from scratch from the ground up would be a very expensive device, regardless of whether it's USB, FW, PCIe or whatever. Round-trip latency is the sum of the following: <pre> ASIO input buffer ASIO output buffer A/D D/A converter latency The driver's hidden safety buffer </pre> At a 64-sample ASIO buffer size/44.1k, Tascam units yield ~18ms total round-trip latency. Typical USB audio interfaces use a large hidden safety buffer. This helps ensure glitch-free playback... even under less than ideal circumstances. But... this comes at the expense of much higher round-trip latency. Short of doubling the sample-rate, there's no means of mitigating the higher round-trip latency. If you have no plans of ever monitoring in realtime thru software based EFX/processing (ie: playing/monitoring DI bass thru an AmpSim plugin as you're playing), then this may not matter to you. If you want the ability this play/monitor in realtime thru software based EFX/processing, make sure to get an audio interface that yields low round-trip latency. As a point of reference the best PCI/e audio interfaces yield about 5ms total round-trip latency at a 64-sample ASIO buffer size/44.1k The best Firewire and USB units yield 5.5-5.6ms total round-trip latency at those same settings. Typical USB and Firewire units (that use a large hidden safety buffer) yield 12-18ms total round-trip latency at those same settings. Anything above ~6ms starts to feel sluggish. Anything above ~10ms feels like playing thru molasses. USB Microphones {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->C-Media Electronics, Inc. CM108 Audio Controller Mic | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x013c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato WaveMic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Wave:1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Wave:3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 no driver lightweight }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->hyperx solocast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->hyperx quadcast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sennheiser CC510 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alesis USB-Mic microphone podcasting kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio-Technica AT2020 (AT202) AT4040 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio-Technica AT2035 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer B1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Snowball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Snowball iCE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| cardioid only }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Yeti | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|can pick up a lot of background noise but not sure if right mode used }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Yeti Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| can pick up a lot of background noise but not sure if right mode used }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MXL 2001A/600 Studio Microphone Pack / MXL 2003A Studio Condenser | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeChat LX-3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Namtai SingStar(TM) PS2 SCEH-0001 USBMIC | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1415 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| mono microphones }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Neumann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Seiren X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Seiren Mini USB Condenser Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rockband USB Mic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rode NT1A VideoMic Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rode Podcaster 2 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| RODECaster Pro usb audio compatible}} |- | <!--Description-->Rode NT1A NT2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| NT2 better }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Roland R-07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Go Mic - Portable USB Microphone for Recording | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| mini usb r.h.s. and clip on the bottom left hand side}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Go Mic Clip On USB Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| switch to choose between Cardiod, Omni and -10&nbsp;dB modes, a 3.5mm headphone socket and a USB socket}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson C01U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| cardoid only}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson C03U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shure MV7 USB Podcast Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shure MV7+ XLR & USB-C dynamic microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->SONY PCM-D50 handy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb 5V, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PCM-M10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out 5V, }} |- | <!--Description-->SONY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->SONY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->TASCAM DR-1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008, one mini usb out, lithium battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009, one mini usb out, aa battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR05 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011, one mini usb port for file transfer and charging the AA batteries }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 mini usb aa battery }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 , one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-05X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb 3 aa battery }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-05XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-100mkIII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| , usb , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| , usb , }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID-->0x0095 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 no driver, mini usb 5V audio i/f USB Card and USB Audio; press the Record button when USB Audio is displayed. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4n | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID-->0x0120 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 no driver, mini usb 5V and display will alternate between USB Card and USB Audio; press the Record button when USB Audio is displayed. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H2n | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 no driver, mini usb 5V audio i/f press the Record. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4n PRO | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H6 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 untested, 2xlr, 5v mini usb, }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H5 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 no driver, 5v mini usb, 2 xlr, }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H1n-vp handy | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H6studio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 untested usb a cord, no hdmi, 480p}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q3HD Handy Video Recorder | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 untested, built in usb-a cord, mini hdmi, 1 hour on 2 AA batteries, H.264 movies 480p }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q2HD Handy | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 untested, up 720p but no stablisation, mini usb cord, 1 hour on 2 AA batteries}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 untested, li-ion battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q4N | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 untested, li-ion battery}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio Technica ATR4697-USB Boundary Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->CAD Audio CAD USB Condenser Boundary Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MXL AC-44 Boundary Conferencing Mic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Audio SAUB1 Boundary Microphone (USB) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} USB Speakers {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Focal XS 2.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} USB Headset Wired/Wireless {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Logitech Vantage Wired (came free with PS2 Socom3) | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech G330 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech Premium USB Stereo Headset 350 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Plantronics DSP-300 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Plantronics GameCom 777 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech G-930 Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | [http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/set-usb-wireless-earphones/ Plantronics Audio 995 Wireless RF] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Sennheiser Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Be1e0QPIPK0 Mixers] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->ALESIS MULTIMIX 4 CHANNEL USB MIXER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Alesis - MultiMix 8 USB FX (USB 1.0) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb compliant?, up to 16-bit/48kHz, 18v 500mA - |- | <!--Description-->Alesis - MultiMix 8 USB 2.0 FX (USB 2.0) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2012 usb compliant?, up to 16-bit/48kHz, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Allen&Heath MixWiz16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Allen and Heath ZED Power 1000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 8 xlr, usb-b out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Allen & Heath ZEDi-10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XENYX 302USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 5-Input Mixer/Audio Interface - 1 xlr - }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx Q502USB Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|no driver}} Behringer 2*18.5V 250ma psu - 1 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx Q802USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} Behringer 2*18.5V 250ma psu - 2 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->BEHRINGER XENYX 1204USB 8-Channel 2-Bus Mixer USB/Audio Interface Studio/Live | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} iec kettle psu lead - can develop constant background hiss over time |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XENYX X1222USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver - 12-Channel Analog Mixer with USB Interface and Effects}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng HT-7 HT7USB 7 Channel Audio Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2023 cheap no driver, USB MP3 player to work, format your USB stick Fat32 as a Logical drive - not primary}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng XT7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2025 cheap no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng DT8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2025 cheap no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Spirit soundcraft Folio FX8 with Lexicon Effects Processor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} unusual power connector - [https://github.com/lack/soundcraft-utils usb routing] - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic Professional F7 7-Channel 2-Bus Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2022 no driver, cheap mixer with 3pin ac input (introduces noise) and 1 usb-a port}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic Professional F7-Pro 7-Channel 2-Bus Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2022 no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic A80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2024 no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} Mixer no hardware usb {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->ALTO Lynx MIX82FX Audio Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Alto L16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MXUL5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MX602A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB502 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 17.5V 3pin psu needed}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB802 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 2 xlr,}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1002 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 2 xlr,}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 4 xlr, }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1602 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer RX1602 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer 802 XENYX 8-Input 2-Bus Mixer Small Format Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} Behringer 18.5V ???ma psu - 2 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx 502 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->IMG stage Line MMX-122 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, 4 xlr, iec cable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie 802VLZ4 Mackie 802-VLZ4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb , psu}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie 1202-VLZ Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, mains iec}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Mix5 Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} 18v 300mA psu - 5 Channel - |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Mix8 Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} 9v x2 600mA psu - |- | <!--Description-->Mackie MIX12FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, 4 xlr, 9v 500mA x2 psu, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.soundcraft.com/en/product_documents/en/owners_manual Soundcraft] Spirit Folio F1 Fader 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} 16 Channel Mixer - |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Harman Soundcraft EPM 12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} iec kettle power lead - |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM 16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad 8FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad UI12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> connect via wifi |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad UI16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> connect via wifi |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad 124FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection, 14.8V x2 3 pin psu}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->t.mix xmix 1402fx mp usb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection, mains iec, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- |} ==Webcameras== A USB camera has two dedicated chips: a controller or bridge and an image sensor. There was no Commodore support for video interfaces. The only commercial, now discontinued application that defined some sort of standard was VHI Studio by iospirit. ===OLD standards=== See [http://www.e3b.de/usb/main_supported_e.html support pages] and [http://www.e3b.de/usb/main_faq_e.html here] and some [http://webcam-osx.sourceforge.net/cameras/index.php?orderBy=status further compatibility] Pencam STV680 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | AIPTEK stv680 | 0x0553 | 0x0202 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Konica e-mini | 0x04c8 | 0x0722 | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | DigitalDream l'espion XS | 0x1183 | 0x0001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | [http://reviews.cnet.com/webcams/creative-webcam-go/1707-6502_7-1446174.html Creative WebCam Go mini] | 0x041e | 0x4007 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- |} SonixcamTool (Sonix webcams and derivates) '''Note [http://amigadev.free.fr/sonix/ some] Sonix Webcams with a Sonix SN9C1xx controller ''and'' a pas106b or tas5110c1b sensor support bulk mode which works even with pciusb.device!''' {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Macally IceCam II | 0x0c45 | 0x05d8 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sweex MiniCam 100K | 0x0c45 | 0x6005 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor tas5110c1b}} |- | Macally IceCam Portable | 0x0c45 | 0x6007 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor tas5110d}} |- | Sweex 100K | 0x0c45 | 0x6009 | 0x0101 | {{yes|bulk works - sensor pas106b}} |- | [http://www.epinions.com/pr-Chicony_TwinkleCam_Webcam/display_~full_specs Chicony Twinkle DC-2110A] | 0x0c45 | 0x600d | | {{no|no}} |- | Unknown | 0x0c45 | 0x601e | | {{no|no}} |- | USB PC Camera (SN9C102) | 0x0c45 | 0x6028 | | {{no|no - sn9c10x + pas202b}} |- | Trust SpaceC@m 120 and 150 | 0x0c45 | 0x6029 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor pas106a}} |- | HiRes Webcam Live | 0x0c45 | 0x602c | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | [http://www.sweex.com/en/assortiment/sound-vision/webcams/JA000020 Sweex USB Webcam 300K] | 0x0c45 | 0x608f | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | Speedlink Sphere Webcam SL-6820, 350K | 0x0c45 | 0x613c | 0x0101 | {{N/A|untested - sensor HV7131R}} |- | WB-3250P | 0x0c45 | 0x613e | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | Unknown | 0x0c45 | 0x6207 | | {{no|no}} |} <pre> micromaxx USB Camera STM 1363 514 works --- USB Tower Lego 1684 1 works need NCQ Trust Spycam 100plus STM 1363 514 works </pre> ov51x.class - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | D-Link VGA Webcam (640x480) | 0x05a9 | 0x8519 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sony PS2 EyeToy Logitech/Logicool Black (ov519) SCEH-0004 | 0x054c | 0x0154 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sony PS2 EyeToy Namtai Silver (ov519) SLEH-00031 SLEH-00030 | 0x054c | 0x0155 | | {{no|no driver}} |- |} ===UVC.class - [https://www.usb.org/document-library/video-class-v15-document-set USB Device Class Definition for Video Devices or USB Video Class]=== AROS does not supported as still needs an uvc.class which might create a virtual UVC.VHI or an expanded streaming device driver for use by AROS apps *2003 UVC 1.0 baseline streaming of uncompressed YUV422, MJPEG, and compressed MPEG-2 TS, DV *2005 [http://www.cajunbot.com/wiki/images/8/85/USB_Video_Class_1.1.pdf UVC 1.1] baseline HD 720p streams formats, usb2 support, *2012 [https://www.usb.org/document-library/video-class-v15-document-set UVC 1.5] added usb3 devices and compressed h.264 and VP8 formats *2019 the market is filled with UVC Compliant USB HDMI Capture *Aros needs to read the camera’s class-specific Video Control (VC) unit and terminal descriptors. *Identifies the devices as UVC-compatible and links it to the native UVC class driver, so no separate driver installation is required. *Aros and camera determine the appropriate streaming settings, including format, resolution, and frame rate. *Once set, video data moves from the image sensor to the onboard ISP, then through the USB controller and into the host system for viewing, analysis, or recording *More advanced functions, such as HDR, ROI, and hardware trigger support, can be managed {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K60 HD VS009 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|4k 60hz ok for chat streams}} |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K60 HDMI HDR Game Live Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| for chat streams }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AJA U-tap HDMI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->ASUS TUF CU4K30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ATEN CAMLIVE HDMI to USB-C UVC Video Capture adapter UC3020 HDMI (F) TO USB-C M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 possibly UVC and UAC standard support allows up to 1080P @ 60}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia Live Streamer Cap 4K - BU113 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 uvc usb3}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia GC515 video capturing device | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.2 Gen 1 (3.1 Gen 1)}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra GC553 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 usb3 powered by Type C USB cable and 4K HDMI cable}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra S GC553PROW 302AGC553DL2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1553 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 powered by good quality type C USB3 cable and 4K HDMI 2.0 cable}} |- | <!--Description-->AVermedia Live Gamer Mini GC311 302AGC311DG9 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1311 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 uvc compliant up to 1080p 60fps capture and supports internal hardware H.264 encoding - if flashing blue light try another '''quality''' micro usb cable - }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Ez Recorder 330 (ER330) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 designed to work independently and is generally not compatible as a plug-and-play UVC capture card }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer extreme3 GC551G2 (LGX3) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x3551 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc compliant for intensive gaming streams, some vrr but no hdr with maximum recording resolution of 4K30/1080p60 from fully wired usb3 compatible cable - passing through 4K60/1080p120 Game Capture video capturing device HDMI}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra Pro GC553Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 usb3 }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra 2.1 GC553G2 61GC553G20BV video capturing device | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 USB 3.2 Gen 1 (3.1 Gen 1)}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia GC575 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 usb3 powered by Type C USB cable and 4K HDMI cable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AVMatrix | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ClonerAlliance Flint 4KP Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->DIGITNOW U600 video capture card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc uac }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Epiphan AV.io HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Epiphan AV.io 4K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Cam Link 4K | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/elgatosf/capture-device-support Elgato HD60 S+] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID-->0x006C, 0x006E | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 4K 30FPS capture, 1080p 60FPS uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato HD60 X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Cam Link 4K HDMI video capture card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 uvc compliant but can have usb disconnects}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.0 device with 1080/60 capture and 4K/60 passthrough}} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 lite USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 USB 3.0 device }} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 Pro USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.0 device with 1080/60 capture and 4K/60 passthrough}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EZcap Game Link Raw - ezcap321 usb3.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 2160p30, 1080p120 and 1440p60 HDMI input and pass-through. - 1080p120, 2160p30 and 1440p60 recording. - Latency less than 50ms uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->EZCap GameDock Ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 record at 4K30, 1440p60, and 1080p120}} |- | <!--Description-->EZcap 360 Game Capture Extreme | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 USB 3.0, 4K 60FPS passthru and 1080p 240FPS}} |- | <!--Description-->EZCAP 364 GameDock Extreme 2.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Genki ShadowCast 1 & 2, the Pro version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HAUPPAUGE HD PVR Pro 60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 4K in/Out 1080P 60fps Capture and Streaming PC Connected and Stand Alone }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->INOGENI 4K2USB3 2830 3826 HDMI 4K to USB 3.0 UHD 1080p Video Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2997 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 uvc compliant made in Canada - usb3-b socket and 1 hdmi 1080p from 23.98 up to 60p, 4K@30 fps maybe - }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kondor Blue | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nanjing Magewell Electronics Co ltd USB 3.0 XI100DUSB-HDMI Pro Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB3.0 Silver HDMI Full HD Video Capture Device 1080p 32011 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 usb audio extract HDMI embedded audio output via headphones}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB capture HDMI PLUS 2K 32040 320400000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 captures video up to 1920×1200, 1920×1080 or 2048×1080 at 60 fps over an HDMI capture from devices such as game consoles in up to DCI 4Kp60 4:2:0 input resolution, and it automatically upscales/downscales the signal to 2K for recording or streaming}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB capture HDMI Gen2 32060 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 1080p gets hot, 165M HDMI receiver, max input 2048x1080 60fps 4:4:4, RGB/YUV 4:4:4 8/10/12-bit, YUY 4:2:2 12-bit, up to 8-channel 24-bit HDMI-embedded audio at 192kHz, HDMI 1.4a, output from 480p to 1080p, YUY2/UYVY/RGB24/RGB32 support video cropping, up/down scaling, de-interlacing, aspect ratio conversion, color format conversion, frame rate conversion, flip and mirror, up to 2-channel IEC60958 audio streams, 5V 0.5A 2.5W, }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Capture 4K Plus 32090 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 limited by the bandwidth of USB 3.0, the maximum frame rate can only reach 30 fps when capturing}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Capture 4K PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell Pro Convert IP to USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Captures one network eth NDI® High Bandwidth, NDI® HX2, NDI® HX3 sources or H.264/H.265 video source into software at resolutions up to 1080p60}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Fusion | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|versatile USB video capture device that allows users to switch between two HDMI inputs and one USB webcam input for live presentations}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ROLAND UVC-01 USB Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sunplus Innovation Technology Inc. MiraBox HSV321 ARX321 Video Capture device | <!--Vendor ID-->ox1bcf | <!--Product ID-->0x2c99 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc uac }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->UGREEN CM716 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| uvc uac but disable HDCP on your source device (PS4/PS5, Xbox) }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->VisionTek UVC HD60 Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acer Aspire Crystal Eye AOA110 AOA150 0.3M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2008 webcam }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Streamer CAM 313 (PW313) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2019 uvc 1080p/30 webcam}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Streamer DUO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2021 uvc 1080p/60 webcam}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://reviews.cnet.co.uk/webcams/creative-live-cam-optia-af-review-49294183/ Creative Live Cam Optia AF] 2.0M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{no|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->DSLR macro extensions + a cheap 50mm E-Series lens + some PVC tubing and a negative holder | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes| if uvc camera chosen}} |- | <!--Description-->DSLR scanning using a macro lens, for the adapter, for a 3d printed negative holder) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes| if uvc camera used }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C270 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x0825 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|720p }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C910 C920 HD Pro 5Megapixels 720p | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Output mjpg 1080p}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C920s c922 HD Pro 5Megapixels 1080p | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Output mjpg 1080p}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Brio 100 300 500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} 1080p |- | <!--Description-->Logitech MX Brio 4k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|4k}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft's LifeCam HD-3000 HD-5000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID--> 0x0779 | <!--Revision-->1.06 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeCam Cinema | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeCam Studio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} sony imx179 1080p |- | <!--Description-->Pi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} 1/2.8” Sony IMX291 image sensor, it's a 2MP, UVC-compliant, ultra-wide-angle, low light, high-speed USB 2.0 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} OV5648 |- | <!--Description-->razer kiyo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} 4 megapixel sensor 1080p 30fps 720p 60fps - 12 led ring light adjustable |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet C068 1.3mpixel HTD USB2.0 Camera Vimicro Z-Star Corp | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0AC8 | <!--Product ID--> 0x3420 | <!--Revision-->0x01FA | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/wltechblog/thingino-installers/tree/main/wyze-cam-4 Wyze Cam V4] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0QLiC9QoQU firmware] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| verified with os04d10 sensor (i2c 0x3c) but not GC4653 (i2c 0x29)}} |- | <!--Description-->YEALINK(XIAMEN) NETWORK UVC50 is compatible with the UVC 1.1 protocol CP960-UVC50 and CP960-UVC80 kits PTZ, CP960-UVC30 Kit is UVC 1.5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Amcrest ProHD 1080P WiFi Wireless IP Security Camera - 1080P (1920TVL), [https://www.ispyconnect.com/man.aspx%3Fn%3DAmcrest IP2M-841] nvr | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} h264/rtsp, motion detection, features Sony image sensor and Ambarella processor - rtsp://[username]:[password]@[IPaddress]:[port]/cam/realmonitor?channel=[channel]&subtype=[stream] - [username] - username to login to the DVR or NVR, [password] - password, [IPaddress] - IP address of the device. If you are not on the same local network, this should be the external IP address of the device's network, [port] - port number, [channel] - channel number of the stream, [stream] - view the Main or Sub stream. (main stream is 0, sub stream is 1) , eg. rtsp://admin:admin@192.108.1.108:80/cam/realmonitor?channel=1&subtype=1 - utilizing RTSP ( rtsp://user:pass@ipcam1 ) |- | <!--Description-->Axis all modern ones | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} RTSP/RTP + H264/mjpeg or MJPEG over HTTP |- | <!--Description-->PTZ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->DLink DCS-5222 5222L network camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} camera streams H.264 over RTP controlled by RTSP |- | <!--Description-->Dlink DCS900 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Wansview 1080p [http://marc.merlins.org/perso/linuxha/post_2013-11-10_Reviewing-IP-Webcams-for-Linux-and-Zoneminder_Dlink-DCS900_-Ubnt-Aircam_-Foscam-FI8904W-FI8910W_-FFI9820W_-FI9821W_-Wansview-NCB541W_-and-Zavio-F3210.html#NCM625GA NCM625GA] IP Camera WiFi Wireless IP Security Camera , Full HD Plug n Play Home Surveillance / Baby Monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} RTSP/RTP + H264/mjpeg - play its HD stream without problem with vlc rtsp://ip/live/ch0 and getting jpegs http://ipaddr/mjpeg/snap.cgi?chn=0 - methods involve transcoding h.264 video from the camera into jpeg's, which is cpu intensive - able to pull images manually, using http://username:password@ip/mjpeg/snap.cgi - |- | <!--Description-->Wansview NCB541W | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia Game Capture HD C281 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2011 standalone h.264 recording of up to component cable not hdmi but not uvc}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia GL310 Live Gamer Portable (LGP Lite) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 not working usb2 and USB Lite no uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia AVerMedia Live Gamer Portable ([https://github.com/Trouffman/octv_gears_lgp Model C875]) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 usb2 no uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia LGX Live Gamer extreme GC550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2015 but [https://github.com/ChrisAJS/lgx2userspace driver]}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia LGX2 Live Gamer extreme2 gc550 plus gc551 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 but [https://github.com/ChrisAJS/lgx2userspace driver]}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia ExtremeCap UVC - BU110 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 maybe not uvc and uac}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Portable 2 Plus GC513 Micro-USB Capture Box LGP2 Plus | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1513 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 powered by a standard Micro-USB cable, video capture output up to 1080p60 capture to hdmi in, standalone sd card recording on exFAT or FAT32 of .MOV, 2160p pass-through hdmi out to tv - no vrr - [https://www.avermedia.com/uk/support/download#ans_part firmware latest 2.1.7.13, 2.1.7.14], SN74AVC8T245 8bit, DRV604 stereo, iTE IT6663FN hdmi 2.0 splitter, TLV320DAC3101 DAC, CS42L73 audio codec, CDCE913 PLL clock, W29N01HVSINA nand bios, I-Catch V35MA SOC CPU 32bit MIPS24K, ADV7480 hdmi mhl, }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer 4K LG4K GC573 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2018 not uvc but [https://github.com/derrod/lg4k-linux drivers here], }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Blackmagic intensity Extreme Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2011 not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->BlackMagic Intensity Pro 4k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2015 }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Video Capture (1VC108601000) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc, mini usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture HD60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc, }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture HD GCHD 2GC309901000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc https://github.com/tolga9009/elgato-gchd needs firmware mb86h57_h58_idle.bin and mb86h57_h58_enc_h.bin - mini usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato HD60S Elgato Game Capture 4K60 S+ Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|non uvc, }} |- | <!--Description-->August EZCap.tv model 116 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} poor audio recording |- | <!--Description-->E-SDS Diamond Maplin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1212 HD PVR | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} analog and component only - PlayStation (.m2ts), AVCHD (ts), or XBox(.mp4) recording formats - switched the component output from the default YPbPr to RGB. |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1431 1445 HD PVR Gaming Edition HDMI Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 not working, can get warm}} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge HD Rocket | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge HD-PVR2 (model 145210 Rev E4) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xE502 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1480 1482 HD PVR 2 GE Gaming Edition HDMI Capture green LED - 1498 1503 1504 Plus version with Mac support | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe514 0xe524 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| can get warm - [https://ez.analog.com/video/w/documents/581/adv7482-design-support-files ADV7482] [https://patchwork.kernel.org/patch/9201075/ video chip] with Magnum DXT H.264 encoder blob, IDR keyframe generation poor - best for model 157210 and not 157221 and Game Edition Plus (model 157320) 2040:E505 E505-00-00AF1234 [http://www.hauppauge.com/site/support/linux.html#tabs-3 ]}} * HDMI: 1920x1080p50/60, 1920x1080i50/60, 1280x720p50/60, 720x480i, 720x576i, 640x480p60. * Component: 1920x1080p50/60, 1920x1080i50/60*, 1280x720p50/60, 720x480p60, 720x480i, 720x576i. * Composite: 720x480i and 720x576i * Audio Inputs : HDMI PCM and RCA support with Adjustable Bitrate Quality 2 Channel AAC/AC3 audio codec |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1512 HD PVR 2 PC blue LED with optical in input on the back | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe525 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} can get quite warm - IR Blaster added - |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge Colossus2 E585-00-00AF4321 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe585 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Ion SLIDES2PC 35mm Portable Slide & Film Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Ion Pics 2 PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->ION PowerScan USB film and slide scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2011 not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Koolertron Sunny | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->FilmScan35 35mm Film Negative Scanner 1304 marks spencer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->U3 HD Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/openrazer/openrazer Razer Ripsaw HD] Game Capture (RZ20-01780100) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2017 not uvc put in usb2 slot and use video BGR3 (Emulated) and OpenRazer drivers }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Ripsaw HD USB HDMI Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0x0d01 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2018 not uvc compliant}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Silvercrest 35mm Photo Slide Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc but not great quality}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Z-Star Microelectronics Corp. Traveler TV 6500 SF Dia-scanner | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0ac8 | <!--Product ID-->0x3370 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2010 not uvc and poor scans}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- |} === WebAR + WebVR = WebXR Headset === AROS needs an usb based uvc.class to vhi like type driver for virtual display The primary engineering challenge of VR is motion sickness caused by a mismatch of visual and inner ear information, which is extremely well established as causing people to throw up in a wide range of contexts outside of VR. The experiences that make some people sick are low framerate. Foveated rendering doesn't solve vergence accommodation. Your eye will still be focused at infinity regardless of where you are looking, you'll just have the illusion that the foreground or background are out of focus. Eye tracking plus dynamic lenses (perhaps liquid lenses) or real light fields are necessary. First start with apps that have simple static features at first, then advance to dioramasa and teleportation options for 10, 20 minutes and then gradually upgrade over a timespan of four weeks to train your brain. Avoid smooth motion stuff like rollercoaster or mountain heights until much later. Even with this preparation, VR makes 40% of people seasick nausea. If so, you may be able to use VR glasses just to watch videos and some slow moving apps [https://www.emuvr.net/ emuVR] instead. *2014-2019 1st Gen, low resolution, *2020-2025 2nd Gen, higher resolution, *2026- Most hardware typically has a 1-3 year retail lifespan with 1-3 years of updates after. Really need "right" tethered PCVR rather than wireless. The advantage to being tethered to a PC is processing power. Any standalone headset is going to be running purely off of batteries. VR and AR are known as XR Technology will get immersed enough so not making people sick. Higher resolution, faster frame rates, and [https://github.com/opentrack/opentrack better tracking]. Eventually, hyper reality brings VR, AR and MR digital layers together as a less chaotic, optic tracking with no delay, agents understanding, experiences with objects 3Dgs 4Dgs gassian splats bullet time slice photo snaps .ply for WebXR [https://lvra.gitlab.io/docs/hardware/ ], {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Big Screen Beyond 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 pcvr 2560 x 2560, fixed IPD, }} |- | <!--Description-->bigscreen Beyond 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pcvr oled 5120 x 2560 @75Hz 2688x2688 @90Hz over pancake lenses, 116 FOV, virtual screens, custom facial plate from iphone app, streamvr 2.0 basestations and controllers not included, no passthrough, 107g-196g, }} |- | <!--Description-->bigscreen Beyond 2e | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 pcvr oled 5120 x 2560 total up to 90Hz pancake lens 116 FOV adjustable IPD app needed for adjustment, eye tracking, custom face mask cushion, streamvr 2.0 basestations and controllers not included, seperate head strap and speaker modules extra costs, 110g-300g }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Dpvr P1 Pro 4k Ultra Vr Headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 wireless snapdragon, }} |- | <!--Description-->DPVR P2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Play for Dream MR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android modular 3840x3552 uoled per eye 90Hz or qled mura issues, Arm snapdragon XR2+ Gen 2, eye tracking and 11 cameras 7 sensors 22 ir leds 14ms latency and foveated rendering, 1.5hrs battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Play for Dream GravityXR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 ultralight head gear gx100 3w }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://lvra.gitlab.io/docs/community/ Valve Index HMD] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 tethered PC VR headset 1440 x 1600 120Hz, 108° and 104° FOV, fresnel lenses, SteamVR2 compatible tracking ir basestations, controllers aka Knuckles, dp 1.2 and usb3 cable proprietary cable end, no battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Valve Steam Frame (Valve Deckard / Valve’s Index 2) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 - 2160 x 2160 up to 144Hz pancake lens, 108° and 96° FOV, wifi 6 fovelated streaming, Qualcomm Snapdragon 8 Gen 3 with [https://github.com/FEX-Emu/FEX fex] arm-to-x86 x64 translation layer, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PSVR2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 PCVR with adapter, two, one for each eye, 2000 x 2040 resolution OLED panels from 90Hz 120Hz refresh rates, fresnel lenses, 116° and 102° FOV, sony proprietary headset cable end, needs additional comfort options, }} |- | <!--Description-->VisionPro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Goertek glasses | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive ? | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| 2016 2x 1080x1200 needs external power supply, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Original | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 108° and 96° FOV}} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 , uvc, at least 2 powered steamvr basestations so 3 to 5 wall warts in total, proprietary cable end, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 dual 1440x1600 oled displays, 116° and 100° FOV - steamvr 2.0 basestation 2 for 5m2 area 4 for 10m2 - steamvr 2.0 joypads - low latency wireless later - type USB-c headphone adapter required, [https://github.com/CertainLach/VivePro2-Linux-Driver Rust on Linux] with [https://github.com/santeri3700/vive-pro-2-on-linux Shell], proprietary cable end, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lynx R1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 android Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->Lynx R2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2026 company liquidated, 2 x 2312x2160 110 FOV pancake lenses, LynxOS android Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen, openxr 1.1, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Oculus Rift prototype development kit [https://www.virtual-boy.com/forums/t/the-oculus-rift-dk1-thread/ DK1] with [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_T4DJyy2Bo wired razer hydra controllers] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2013 pcvr LCD 1280 × 800 resolution 640 × 800 per eye up to 110° FOV, and 3DoF rotational tracking via a 1000Hz 9-axis IMU (Accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer), no positional optical tracking either inside-out or outside-in, 380g, nausea issues, , }} |- | <!--Description-->Oculus Rift prototype development kit [https://github.com/facebookarchive/RiftDK2/tree/master DK2], [https://www.ifixit.com/Teardown/Oculus+Rift+Development+Kit+2+Teardown/27613 ifixit teardown] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 pcvr, 5.7" Super AMOLED display with a resolution of 960 x 1080 per eye 100° field of view, 1 usb Positional Tracker DK2 camera, lots of wires}} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook [https://github.com/thaytan/OpenHMD/tree/rift-kalman-filter Oculus Rift CV1] [https://noraisin.net/diary/?m=202201 some Linux support] [] [https://github.com/OpenHMD/OpenHMD/issues/330 AMD usb issues] [https://github.com/OpenHMD/OpenHMD/wiki/Xorg ] [https://github.com/Doc-Ok/OculusRiftCV1Camera Live Video] [https://www.youtube.com/@thaytan Youtube] [https://github.com/Fredrum/riftOnLinux Pi] [https://github.com/OhioIon/riftDriverPi ], but not quite there with the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSsCN6HFkWc consumer CV1], [https://forum.dcs.world/topic/142259-cv1-not-working-in-dcs/#comment-2878168 orange led could be HDMI Signal is not within HDMI Spec and might be Overclocked or usb3 not getting enough power frustrating], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x3031, 0x2031, 0x0031 and 0x0211 for 3p-a basestations lighthouses, 0x045e 0x02e6 for xbox wireless adapter | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2016 powered run from your PC maybe uvc via wired dual PenTile OLED 2160x1200 (1080x1200 per eye) @ exactly 90Hz but screen door effect (space between pixels), 87 FOV, IPD from 58mm to 72mm, good 3D audio and okay mic, constellation headset 6DOF (3-axis rotational tracking + 3-axis positional tracking) with up to 3 usb infrared basestation (1 in front and 2 behind pointing upwards) on usb3 and usb2 to your PC but the tracking can be fragile so set it up on a weekly basis, wired only HDMI 1.3, USB 3.0 bus powered with proprietary plug in headset, 470g 1lb front heavy, 2 robust 1st Gen touch controllers with external sensors i.e. outside-in - 1 aa alkaline over rechargable battery each , press occulus and B buttons for 2 secs to connect, headset traps air so gets very warm inside and random disconnects due to twisting action on the top of the headset and/or cables, t4 torx screws }} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Occulus Go 32Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2018 discontinued 2020 android based, Qualcomm Snapdragon 821 chipset (quad kyro with Adreno 530 gpu 3Gb RAM), single 5.5-inch LCD 2560x1440 or 1280×1440 pixels per eye and a refresh rate of 72 or 60Hz, 100 deg viewing angle, no inside-out and limited self tracking, micro usb, limited 2600mAh battery lasts under 2 hours at best, one wireless controller, not for gaming but very casual use, }} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Oculus Rift S [https://noraisin.net/diary/?m=202201 some Linux support] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x0051 headset (cdc, audio, tracking data), 0x2052 usb hub, | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 PCVR wired dual LCD 1080 by 1200, 88 horizontal FOV, display port (fibre optic strands) and annoying USB3 copper cables (power, audio and other data) but proprietary port in the headset, no battery, cameras on the headset ("inside-out") tracking so no base stations, non removeable head band and cushions and ipd hard to set, requires specific fragile Rift S/Quest1 2nd Gen Touch controllers which has a ring of translucent plastic with leds inside - t5 torx to disassemble for sticks drifting}} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Reality Labs Occulus Quest 1 *064Gb *128Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x0183 (single adb boot), 0x0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 android standalone wireless, low clocked Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 (MSM8998) (4x Kryo 280 Gold A73) + (4x Kryo 280 Silver A53) adreno 540 GPU, 4Gb RAM, 1440 x 1600 72Hz oled, front heavy 3640mAh battery 2̟ hrs play time, 575g total, 2nd Gen touch controllers, usb-c on side near end of arm, 4 cameras on head, }} *V29 16476800119700000 (29.0.0.66.370.290246252) *v50 50.0.0.198.257.455911078 / 49845030443200410 |- | <!--Description-->Meta Oculus Quest 2 KW49CM aka Codename Del Mar Hollywood [https://www.meta.com/en-gb/help/quest/967070027432609/ fragile 3rd Gen Touch controllers] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cgejky8ZeoM internal 3640mAh battery] and selling over 20 million, more than all other quest headsets combined *064Gb *128Gb (110Gb free) *256Gb Setup continuous wifi, create Meta Oculus account, [https://developers.meta.com/horizon/ verify dev account, click on My apps], [ create Organization -> My Organization Groupings], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPInS5xxF-0 finally, meta quest mobile app to switch on adb], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x5010 (), 0x0083 (massstorage), 0x0086 (), 0x0186 (adb and xrsp [https://github.com/shinyquagsire23/xrsp_tests tests]), 0x0090 (composite adb), 0x0081 (), | <!--Revision-->0419 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 android stand alone, low clocked Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 1 (Kryo 585 octo 8core specific xr vr mr ar cpu, adreno 650 gpu and 3rd gen hexagon npu), 6Gb RAM, lcd 1832x1920 per-eye 90Hz refresh rate, 97 FOV, fresnel lenses, 6DOF (degrees of freedom), 58-63-68 IPD settings, b/w but no color passthrough, 6 t2 torx and 5 ph00 screws in headset (long bit), discontinued end 2024, feature updates until December 2026, security updates until December 2027, 470g, Oculus + B button on right controller (move) and Menu + Y button on left controller (click) for about 3 seconds, 10W 5v 2a, RTL8153 chipset usb support, *V29 16476800118700000 (29.0.0.65.370.289987413) *V59 50670960048600150 *V60 efuse OTP to prevent firmware bios reversal *V76 android 14 *V77 pcvr issues early *V79 update ui and app launcher *V83 navi 2.0 *V85 *V204 boot loop issues *V213 final 03-2027 |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Occulus Quest Pro aka Codename Seacliff | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 android standalone wireless dual 1800 x 1920 90Hz, 106° and 96° FOV mini lcd local dimming, pancake lenses, limited eye tracking, play area 2m x 2m or bigger, higher clocked snapdragon xr2 gen 1 arm cpu Arm apps, 1 to 2 hrs play time, new pro controllers non removeable inbuilt lithium battery with 3 cameras each (more trouble than they are worth), 5300mAh battery at rear, wireless charging, color passthrough, 9V 3A or 5V 3A, *v 51503870024400340 *v77 capped wifi *V84 *V213 final 03-2027 |- | <!--Description-->Meta Oculus Quest 3 aka Codename Eureka [ Air Light ALVR] or [ WiVRn] with fragile touch plus q3 controllers *128Gb *512Gb streaming from PC with [https://github.com/alvr-org/Monado-ALVR ALVR], runtime of [https://monado.freedesktop.org/ Monado steamvr alternative openxr openVR], with Envision GUI, | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 standalone, pancake lenses on lcd 2064 x 2208 res panel per eye 1200ppi - 104° and 96° FOV - up to 120Hz, Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 2, 8Gb RAM, foveated rendering, Meta Link cable USB-C 3.2, headstrap clamshell or halo style, speaker arms fragile, color passthrough, 5000mAh battery, 510g, 18W 9v 2A or 15W 5V 3A, *v74 ok *v76 pcvr issues *V79 issues |- | <!--Description-->Meta Quest 3S aka Codename Ventura Panther *128Gb *256Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 2 cpu (6core ), lcd 1832 x 1920 fresnel lenses, 97 FOV, headphone arms fragile, better air flow, no promixity sensor inside, Meta Link cable USB-C 3.2, passthrough, 4300mAh battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Meta Boba 3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 ultra-wide 180° x 120° FOV, snapdragon XR2 G2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Meta Tiramisu | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 µOLED displays with 90 pixels per degree, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 5K Super Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 8K-X 8KX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Crystal Light | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tethered to PC with 2160 x 2160 4k 120Hz, 115° and 96° FOV, inside-out tracking, no battery, display port cable, variable qc and customer service, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Crystal Super | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tethered to PC with 3640 x 3640 4k 90hz, 116°+ and 100° FOV, eye tracking, inside-out tracking, no battery, display port cable, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Dream Air with Lighthouse(s) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 tethered 3840 by 3552 @90Hz micro oled with pancake lens, 100 HFOV 96 VFOV but FOV IPD changes in app, link box for headset 2 split y cables, removable face gasket, 290g, steamVR2 bases and controllers, eye tracking, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Dream Air SLAM | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) tracking inside-out so no base stations, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://somniumspace.com/ Somnium VR One VR1] [https://portal.vrgineers.com/user-guide/software/ open source] VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pcvr 2880 x 2880 per eye @90 @120Hz, 125° horizontal 100° vertical FOV, 2 x SteamVR 2.0 bases, passthrough, 900g }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero VR-1 Headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 psu needed, 2 x Mini LED binocular of 150 nits, 2880x2720 per, 90Hz, FOV 102° horizontal, 73° vertical, 720g with headstrap, 2 x SteamVR 2.0 basestations, no speakers/mic, hdmi and usb3.0}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero XR-3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero XR-4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Camelo La Melaza Music Shield | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2026 no usb only bluetooth , }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->InAir 2 elite suite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar nits 46FOV , , 4h battery life, 80g, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Oakley Vanguard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 3s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 100in 46FOV 650nits, usb-c 79g }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 3S Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 135in virtual display 46FOV 1200nits, usb-c 80g }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 4 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 AR oled vision 4000 processing, HDR10, 47 FOV }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid Max 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 147in 50 FOV 650nits, usb-c back left, 76g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid AI Spatial with Station 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 600nits 147in 50FOV 75g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ar ai smart glass}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 135in 46 FOV 1000nits, magnetic connector, 77g, }} |- | <!--Description-->VITURE XR Luma | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 147in 1200p 50 FOV, }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Luma Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 152in 52 FOV 1000nits 1200p, 3dof, , 79g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Luma Ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 in FOV, 2 cameras, 3dof 6dof, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/wheaney/XRLinuxDriver Viture Luma Pro] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Beast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 1250nits 58FOV 174in, magnetic, 88g, }} |- | <!--Description-->VITURE Beast X Glasses models (Immersive 3D Moonlight) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 based 2D to 3D conversion with support DP Alt Mode (DisplayPort over USB-C), 1200p, 3df tracking, practic lenses 58deg POV, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xreal One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 600nits, 50FOV, 3dof, usb-c 84g, }} |- | <!--Description-->XReal One Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 700nits 57FOV 171in, usb-c, x1 3dof, }} |- | <!--Description-->Nreal now Xreal Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , micro-oled 1080p, audio, virtual uvc ar displays, }} |- | <!--Description-->Nreal now Xreal Real3D 1S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 AI based 2D to 3D conversion 57 FOV, , virtual uvc ar displays not vr, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xiami XR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xtal 8k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Apple Vision Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 tethered AR mixed reality glasses, 3300ppi, 800g, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Google XR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 standalone }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 android with 2 1440 x 1600 75Hz amoled, inside-out, durable motion controllers, Vive port, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vibe Cosmos | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2018 poor tracking and lifespan on controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro EYE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 dual-OLED displays 2880 x 1600 combined resolution), SteamVR 2.0 tracking, foveated rendering, Tobii, it enables gaze-based menu navigation with avatar eye contact, proprietary cables, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vibe Cosmos Elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2020 1440x1700 per eye resolution, 90 Hz refresh rate, 6 DoF tracking, 2880 x 1700 combined pixel resolution, 97° FoV, two controllers and two base stations. Lighthouse tracking, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro 2 is a tethered PC-powered VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2021 2448x2448 per eye resolution 116° FoV, 120 Hz refresh rate }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 per-eye resolution of 2448×2448 at 90 Hz, a 120-degree field of view, Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive XR Elite VR Headset Deluxe Pack MR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 snapdragon xr2 gen 1, expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive XR Elite 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pico Goblin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 android based, 2.5K 1280x1440 per eye @70Hz, 92° FoV, and 3DoF (three degrees of freedom) tracking (Orientation tracking only—yaw, pitch, roll), single controller, snapdragon 820, ipd adjustment 54-71 mm, 600g, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico G2 4K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 android standalone VR headset, 3840 x 2160 (4K) LCD screen, Snapdragon 835 processor, 3DoF so rotational movement (looking around, pointing) rather than positional movement (walking, leaning), does not support hand or eye tracking, 800g }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico NEO 2 EYE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 6DoF 360g snapdragon 845 display 4k 75Hz tracking inside-out - magnetic field for controllers - pico software on android 8 - eye tracking }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 Snapdragon XR2 Gen, 4K 3664 x 1920 90Hz lcd, battery at rear, displayport, Pico apparently emulates Oculus controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 Link | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 2160x2160 panel per eye 75Hz 90Hz 105 FOV, Arm snapdragon xr gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 4 ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 2160 x 2160 @90 105 FOV, snapdragon XR2 G2, streaming from PC with alvr, wireless streaming from PC with WiVRn, Pico apparently emulates Oculus controllers, not plug and play, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 5 aka Project Swan aka Vision Pro Competitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 micro-oled BOE 3840 x 3840 4000ppi per eye, MLA pancake lenses, custom pico arm cpu, pico os 6 android, eye and hand tracking, 300g, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung Galaxy XR VR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 3552 x 3840 @60-90 109 FOV , Arm snapdragon XR2+ Gen 2, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall MeganeX 8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 android }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://en.shiftall.net/products/meganex8k MeganeX Superlight 8K] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android (3552 x 3840 pixels) into pixel count yields 27.27MP 10-bit HDR-compatible 4K resolution micro OLED panels @90Hz, pancake lenses 94 FOV, SteamVR™ tracking, 180g, 5V 2A, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://en.shiftall.net/products/meganex8kmk2 MeganeX 8K Mk2 MkII] [https://github.com/sboys3/CustomHeadsetOpenVR community] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 pcvr linux, 4K per eye (1.35inch micro OLED 3552x3840 10 bit HDR) 27MP @90Hz 75Hz 72Hz pancake, upto 108 hor 100 vert FOV, usb-c and dp cables to breakout box, 5V 2.1A, 200g}} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 }} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acer Windows(TM) MR AH101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 Dual 2.89” LCD panels 2880 x 1440 combined (1440 x 1440 per eye) Up to 90Hz (HDMI 2.0), or 60Hz (HDMI 1.4), Field of View FOV 95, Tracking Inside-out, lots of light leak, }} |- | <!--Description-->Acer H7001 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 wmr 1440 x 1440 per-eye resolution @90Hz refresh rate, and 100-degree field of view FOV, inside-out tracking with front-mounted cameras so no external sensors, flip-up visor design but has a "screen door effect," subpar foam padding, win10 to win11 24H2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Dell Visor Mixed Reality VRP100 VR118 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 2x 1440x1440 a bit of nose light leak }} |- | <!--Description-->Fujitsu | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 cheap and lots of light leak }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/HadesVR HadesVR] with [https://github.com/ManoloMancelli/Persephone-Classic-Controller Persephone Controller] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFaVjB1uNOM Persephone 3 Pro DiY 6Dof SteamVR Headset], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HP Reverb G1 VR1000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 WMR 2160 x 2160 @90Hz, 115 FOV, , hp proprietary headset cable end, 2 camera tracking but poor and controllers can be unresponsive, 500g front heavy, flight sims rather than gaming, }} |- | <!--Description-->HP 1440p Spatial Computing | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 dim display }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://forums.x-plane.org/forums/topic/294764-vr-in-linux-without-steam/ HP Reverb G2] WMR VR3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 2 2160 x 2160 90Hz, needs Windows10 or Win 11 24H2, 4 camera tracking, controllers can be unresponsive, hp proprietary headset cable end, , }} |- | <!--Description-->HP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Mirage Solo is a Standalone VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 Qualcomm Snapdragon 835, 1280x1440 per eye resolution, 75 Hz refresh rate, }} |- | <!--Description-->Lenovo Explorer VR2511N (G0A2) VR windows mixed reality (WMR) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 LCD 2.89" 1440 x 1440 per eye @90Hz, 6 DOF position tracking, 400g, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/relativty/relativty open source relativty] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung MHD Odyssey XE800ZAA WMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 9V 500mA oled screens 2x 1440x1600 with usb3 and hdmi cables but bluetooth dongle required }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung MHD Odyssey+ Plus WMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 dual 3.5-inch AMOLED displays 2880 x 1600 total @90Hz, 6DOF inside-out tracking with usb3 and hdmi cables but bluetooth dongle required, use only win10 or win11 24H2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PSVR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2016 2x 1080x960 up to 120Hz, lots of cables and computation brick, sony camera needed for tracking, ps4 or move controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->Virtuality | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|1992 , , Amiga 3000 with TI chips, }} |- | <!--Description-->Virtuix Omni | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 VR treadmill changed course to commercial VR and pivotted back again 2020, }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} === HDMI CEC transmitter and receiver === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} === TV Remote Control MCE IR transmitter and receiver === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Compro K100 K300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Elitegroup Computer Systems | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1019 | <!--Product ID-->0x0f38 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GMYLE MCE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|acts as usb-hid with limited keyboard like controls }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge WinTV-PVR kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Harmony 300 i300 600 650 800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft MCE Commander | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2005 need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1039 rev 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2005 home top of square shape direction keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1039 rev 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2006 home under circle spaced direction keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1069 SMK Manufacturing, Inc | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0609 | <!--Product ID-->0x0334 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2007 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Philips RC1974506/00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0471 | <!--Product ID-->0x0815 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE10E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGN-AR21M VGX-XL100 VGN-AR21B/AR21S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE20E PC REMOTE CONTROL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE30E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGN-AW21XY VGX-TP3E VGX-TP3G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE50E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGC-LA2R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->TSDX-IR14 USB MCE Media Center External Infrared IR Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->chipsets support CIR (consumer IR) Winbond W83977F/AF, SMC IrCC 2.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|technical reasons it's not possible to use USB IrDA dongles}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Zotac RC2604323/01G Zbox Media Remote Control with IR USB Receiver OVU710 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Anycubic Cobra 2 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs A1 Mini 3D printer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 EMS proprietary slicer app and cloud use, eSUN}} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs X1 Carbon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs X2D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality K1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality K2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elegoo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lulzbot | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Prusa | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Qidi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Snapmaker U1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tool changer }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sovol SV08 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| open source voron model, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->desktop pick and place machines AFARCO PNP running OpenPnP for Desktop SMT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==ethwrap.class - Host Data Link "Cable Bridge" for data transfer== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Advance USBNET (eTEK design) | 0x0525 | 0x9901 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ALi Uli M5632 (chip) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Aten (Ali Corporation) UN201 | 0x0402 | 0x5632 | | {{maybe|force binding from rawwarp to ethwrap}} |- | Belkin (eTek design see below) | 0x050d | 0x0004 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Digitus DN-3004 - USB Host Link | | | | {{yes|works}} |- | EPSON USB client | 0x0525 | 0x2888 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | eTEK | 0x056c | 0x8100 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | KC-190 | 0x050f | 0x0190 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | GeneSys GL620USB | | | | {{no|no driver the half-duplex GL620USB is NOT supported, products using it include the Inland Pro USB Quick Link}} |- | GeneSys GL620USB-A | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Laplink Gold (uses NetChip 1080) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Prolific 2301/2302 (Jaton USB ConNET) (BAFO DirectLinq) | 0x067b | 0x0000 and 0x0001 | 0x0004 | {{maybe|detected but untested}} |- | Xircom PGUNET (uses AnchorChips 2720) | 0x0547 | 0x2727 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} ==cdcacm.class - USB modem== The CDC ACM driver exposes the USB modem as a virtual serial modem or a virtual COM port to the operating system. The driver enables sending both data and AT commands, either through ACM (separating data and AT commands over different channels) or through Serial Emulation (passing the AT commands as is and as part of the data stream). {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Alcatel OT-I650 | 0x1bbb | 0x0003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Acatel Dymamode/Dynamite | 0x06b9 | 0xa5a5 | | {{N/A|untested Zyxel Prestige 630-13 - untested PROLiNK Hurricane 8000 external link }} |- | AnyData ADU-100A ADU-E100A ADU-E100D ADU-E100H D10 | 0x16d5 | 0x6501 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-310 | 0x16d5 | 0x650 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-500A ADU-510A ADU-510L ADU-520A | 0x16d5 | 0x6502 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-610 ADU-620 | 0x16d5 | 0x650 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | BT On-Air USB MODEM | 0x079b | 0x000f | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant USB MODEM CX93010 | 0x0572 | 0x1321 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant USB MODEM RD02-D400 | 0x0572 | 0x1324 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant Chipset | 0x06ea | 0x0002 | | {{N/A|untested AUS N367 Roadster II 56 USB (Model AM5050R3) - untested }} |- | [http://accessrunner.sourceforge.net/ Conexant AccessRunner] | 0x0586 | 0x330a | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | Creative Modem Blaster USB DE5670 | 0x1690 | 0x0101 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | FIREFLY, MediaTek Inc | 0x0e8d | 0x0003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Huawei E122 | 0x12d1 | 0x1446 | | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=49126#forumpost49126] |- | Huawei E160, E160E, E160G | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | |{{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=51888#forumpost51888] (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6246) |- | Huawei E169 also known as Vodafone K3715 and Huawei K3715 | 0x12d1 | 0x1001 | |{{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4941&forum=4&post_id=44683#forumpost44683] (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200) |- | Huawei E220 "Vodafone EasyBox II" "T-Mobile wnw Box Micro" also known as Huawei K3565 | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | | {{yes|works, see E169 above (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6280)}} |- | Huawei E1750 | 0x12d1 | 0x1001 | | {{N/A|untested (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6290)}} |- | Huawei E170, E172, E176 | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | | {{N/A|untested (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200)}} |- | Huawei E180 | 0x12d1 | 0x1406 | | {{yes|Works (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200)}} |- | KYOCERA AH-K3001V | 0x0482 | 0x0203 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | LG CU515 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | MediaTek Inc GPS | 0x0e8d | 0x3329 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Metricom GS Modem | 0x0870 | 0x0001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Motorola MOTOMAGX phones | 0x22b8 | 0x6425 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Motorola Q Phone | 0x22b8 | 0x7000 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Hummingbird huc56s (Conexant) | 0x0572 | 0x1329 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Netcomm Roadster II 128 ISDN | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Nokia n70 N95 HSDPA | | | | {{yes|works - see [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=4415&viewmode=flat&order=ASC here]}} |- | OGO | 0x045E | 0x0079 | 0090 | {{no|no driver}} |- | Olitec ADSL Modem V2 | 0x08e3 | 0x0100 / 0x0102 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Onda PT502HS | <!--Vendor ID-->0x19D2 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | Radicom V92HU-E2 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung i8510 Innov8 Symbian smartphone | 0x04e8 | 0x6651 | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=5552&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&type=&mode=0] |- | Samsung Tocco Lite (aka GT-S5230) | 0x04e8 | 0x6795 | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=5552&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&type=&mode=0] |- | Shiro / Aztech USB MODEM UM-3100 | 0x0572 | 0x1328 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM | 0x0ace | 0x1602 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM | 0x0ace | 0x1608 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM - new version | 0x0ace | 0x1611 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Zoom Telephonics Model 3095F USB MODEM | 0x0803 | 0x3095 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Ugobe Pleo | 0x6962 | 0x0100 | 0x0100 | {{Yes|Works}} |} ==Misc== palmpda.class - no [http://aminet.net/package/util/libs/PdaLinkPoseidon pdalink.library and tools] in AROS Palm PDA (discontinued) synchronisation requires a port of pdalink.library and its tools through virtual usbpalm.device. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Palm IIIx (OS3.1) serial rs-232 only | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm IIIc (OS3.5) | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm V | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m100 | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m125 first USB - last with aaa batteries | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m500 (OS4) | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Tungsten T (OS5) first arm cpu | 0x | 0x | 0x | {{no|no }} |- | Zire 31 (OS 5.28) color arm-based | | | | {{no|no }} |- | [[:w:Handspring (company)|Handspring Visor]] – USB support out of box | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Handspring Treo 600 – last one for [[:w:Handspring (company)|Handspring]] | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Treo 700w | | | | {{no|no }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} bluetooth.class - needs Bluetooth (Viking King Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson (Old Norse: Haraldr Blátǫnn Gormsson; Danish: Harald Blåtand Gormsen) stack to work (not written due to licensing fees to use the symbol merging the Younger Futhark runes for H (ᚼ) and B (ᛒ), representing Harald's initials) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} ccid.class - Chip/Smart Card Interface Devices (not implemented) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->cyberJack RFID basis | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0C4B | <!--Product ID-->0x9102 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} dfu.class - DFU firmware upgrade {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->iPhone 3, 4, 5, 5c | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1290 0x1292 0x1294 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 32bit use with caution could cause damage}} |- | <!--Description-->iPhone 5s, 6, 7, 8, X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 64bit use with caution could cause damage}} |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio/Midiman USB audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->iPad 1, iPad 2 A1395 A1430, iPad 3, ipad mini A1432, iPad A1458 4th Gen (MD512LL/A), | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2008-2013 32bit A4, A5 up to Apple A6X, iOS 1 to 10, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->iPad Air (1st generation) A1474, A1475, A1476, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2014-2015 [https://github.com/AsahiLinux 64bit], A7, iOS 11 up to |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2015 64bit A8, A8X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2016 64bit A9, A9X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2017 64bit A10, A10X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2018 64bit A11 |- | <!--Description-->iPad Air 3rd Gen A2153, A2123, A2154, iPad Mini 5th Gen, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2019 64bit A12 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} RocketTool (USB Rocket Launchers - Toy missile launchers) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="3px" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Original Launcher and StrikerII (includes laser) | 0x1130 | 0x0202 | | {{yes|works }} |- | Dream Cheeky USB Missile Launcher or USB Cirus Cannon | 0x1941 | 0x8021 | | {{no|no driver }} |- | Dream Cheeky USB Webcam Missile Launcher | 0x1941 | | | {{no|no driver }} |- | Rocket Baby | 0x0a81 | 0x0701 | | {{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |} DRadioTool (FM Radios - USB radio devices D-Link/Gemtek) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | D-Link DSB-R100 USB | 0x04b4 | 0x1002 | 0x0410 | {{yes|works }} |- | [http://www.neoseeker.com/forums/383/t257009-link-usb-dru-r100-radio/ GemTek USB FM Radio 21] | 0x04b4 | 0x1002 | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |} UproarTool (Valencia MPX mp3 player and others) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="3px" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Korean D Square Valencia MPX-Player | 0x04e8 | various | | {{N/A|untested }} |- |} {{BookCat}} jgl7c8pkka63vt36vrzpy3wj5s77lq0 4681718 4681717 2026-11-11T18:43:17Z Jeff1138 301139 4681718 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ArosNav}} ==Host Adapter Protocol USB1 OHCI UHCI USB2 EHCI USB3.0 USB3.1 xHCI == Please let us know any mistakes or any information to be added, use Prefs/Trident to confirm Vendor and Product IDs Please chat at [https://www.arosworld.org/index.php AROS World] *1996 USB1.0 *1998 USB1.1 *2000 USB2.0 *2008 USB3.0 *2013 USB3.1 *2017 USB3.2 AROS has these USB transfers *Control - *Bulk - Midi 1.0 ( 'send my data when you can' ) *Interrupt - Midi 2.0 *Isochronous - USBAudio, Webcams, etc Isochronous is the starting point of modern types of multimedia creativity. IsoChronous isoc code is already in place in poseidon.library and '''scheduled''' transfers are queued to be later rerouted in the host driver code (needs to be written for each host protocol e.g. OCHI, UCHI, EHCI and [https://cdrdv2-public.intel.com/625472/625472_xHCI_Rev1_2b.pdf#:~:text=Page%203.%20Document%20Number:%20625472%2C%20Revision:%201.2b.%203. XHCI rev1.2], [https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/content-details/868296/extensible-host-controller-interface-for-universal-serial-bus-xhci-requirements-specification-r2-0.html rev2], etc). There seems to be 2 types of isoc transfers, one is just the normal isoc transfer and the other is realtime implementation of isoc transfer. For isoc transfer there needs to be a scheduler that makes sure no isoc transfers are dropped (in or out) and that they happen at the right time. It all gets difficult as the device making use of the isoc transfer may be at any point on the device tree. One needs to calculate the USB bandwidth for the packet based periodic transfers that are initiated by the host which have fixed but guaranteed bandwidth. Host controllers guarantee this bandwidth by planning a schedule of transfers ahead of time to ensure there is enough time reserved on the bus. [https://www.intel.co.uk/content/www/uk/en/products/docs/io/universal-serial-bus/ehci-specification.html EHCI] [https://www.thegoodpenguin.co.uk/blog/understanding-why-usb-isochronous-bandwidth-errors-occur/ bus-bandwidth] vs payload-bandwidth and the algorithm of the EHCI scheduler. The bandwidth of the endpoint in terms of payload data (stuff we put in a packet) and the protocol overhead, signalling imposed bit stuffing, host delays etc. Poseidon controls the driver and device tree and it provides an API to communicate with the USB devices. Poseidon really doesn't care much about what sort of transfer pipe is opened or used, it only provides the means to do so and forwards the iorequests to the correct driver. Poseidon code is the higher level code for USB communication and drivers are of course the lower level one. [[File:Psd.svg|220px|right]] ; Best Hardware - NEC Chipset (OHCI + EHCI), Intel Chipset (UHCI + EHCI), XHCI USB3.0, USB3.1 & gen 2 Type-A Type-B Type-C ; Next Best Set - General OHCI, SIS (OHCI + EHCI), ; Buggy Chipset - [ Early AMD OHCI], ALi OHCI, VIA UHCI, Nvidia OHCI & EHCI, === USB1.1 === OHCI USB 1.1 - USB-IF sanctioned standard but hardware physical form removed with USB2.0 and replaced with virtual emulation of USB1 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | ALi Agere M5273 A1 M5237 Lucent USS-312 | | | | <!--Boots-->{{Maybe}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | StarTech PCI425USB, CompUSA Iogear GIC220U-b, Nvidia 220 mobo, USBA2041P, ALi SU2A-PS, |- | AMD 756 Chipset (onboard motherboard) | 0x1022 | 0x740c | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | no [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=31308#forumpost31308 usb devices detected] Geode GX1, |- | CMD DU-A2 Silicon Image 0670 (pci AMD chipset) | 0x1095 | 0x0670 | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Silicon Image 0673 (pci AMD chipset) | 0x1095 | 0x0673 | 0x06 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Nvidia Nforce2 USB | 0x10de | | | <!--Boots-->{{Maybe|Bios options vary but does with Plop Boot}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Tested with 20th Aug 2012 improvement |- | NEC µPD720100AGM | 0x1033 | 0x0035 | 0x | <!--Boots-->{{Unk}} | <!--Detects-->{{Unk}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | untested - Amiga Spider card with possible bottleneck issues at higher speeds |- | NEC µPD720101AGM 720101GJ | 0x1033 | 0x0035 | 0x43 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Mac mini, Belkin F5U219vea (2+1 ports), Belkin F5U220vea1 (4+1 ports), Adaptec 3100LP, BAFO BF-460, GWC UC-160, IOGear GIC250U, Keyspan U2PCI-5, O'toLink U2-C2B U2-C2A U2-P20N U2-P50, Ratoc PCIU5, USBWholesale UII-PCIP |- | NEC µPD720102 | 0x1033 | 0x00 | 0x | <!--Boots-->{{Unk|untested }} | <!--Detects-->{{Unk|untested }} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Opti 82C861 2-port | 0x1045 | 0xc861 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{No}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | no USB devices detected - Belkin F5U005, |- | SIS 7001 OCHI | 0x1039 | 0x7001 | 0x0f | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | 20th Aug 2012 - not booting stalls on GRUB word with Plop Boot |- |} UHCI USB 1.1 - Intel standard but since 2009 no hardware support as USB2 introduced virtual emulation of USB1 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | Intel | 0x8086 | 0x | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{No|not in bios use AROS floppy disc boot}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Intel 82371AB EB MB PIIX4 | 0x8086 | 0x7112 | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{No|none in bios use other booting options}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|Detects most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led not on and does not work}} | |- | Intel 82801DB/DBL/DBM (onboard i830 mbd) | 0x8086 | 0x24c4 | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes|but not from bios but floppy options}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes|}} | <!--Works-->{{Yes|}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led on and although device has software failure and recoverable error IT STILL WORKS. Fresh start sometimes needs Network Prefs Saved to work. |- | VIA MVP4 (onboard mbd) | 0x1106 | 0x30 | 0x40 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not wireless options}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 detected but blue led not on and does not work |- | VIA VT82xx (onboard mbd) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | 0x40 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|most devices}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|most devices but not wireless usb}} | RTL8187b WG111v3 blue led on but does not work |- | VIA VT6202 (VIA VT83C572) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | A-Best USB-200, Cables N Mor USBPCI, CompUSA, D-Link DSB500, Digital/Research DRUSBCARD, Kouwell IOFlex 580, StarMount USB VIA, |- | VIA VT6112 | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6212 (pci card) | 0x1106 | 0x3038 | 0x61 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | 2011 seems to have issues with other identical via based USB controller(s) present |- | VIA VT6214L | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- |} === USB 2.0 EHCI === The USB-IF insisted on only one implementation of EHCI but it creates 4 virtual hcd to cover USB1.1 support. The virtual HCD on Intel and VIA EHCI controllers are UHCI. All other vendors use virtual OHCI controllers. Hardware EHCI USB2.0 ended in most chipsets in 2014/5 and is now virtual through most newer USB3.0 chipsets {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | ALi Agere M5273 A1 Lucent USS-344 | | | | <!--Boots--> | <!--Detects--> | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | {{N/A|untested}} belkin F5U006, |- | Nvidia Nforce2 USB | | | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | Intel 82801DB/DBM (onboard mbd) | 0x8086 | 0x24cd | 0x01 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | NEC µPD720100AGM | 0x1033 | 0x00E0 | 0x | <!--Boots--> | <!--Detects--> | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | {{N/A|untested - Amiga Spider card}} |- | NEC 72101 GJ | 0x1033 | 0x00e0 | 0x04 | <!--Boots-->{{Yes}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | Belkin F5U219 VEA1 (pci), |- | SIS ECHI | 0x1039 | 0x7002 | 0x00 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Maybe|issues about which port is used if it works at all}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6202 | 0x1106 | 0x3104 | | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- | VIA VT6212 (pci card) | 0x1106 | 0x3104 | 0x62 | <!--Boots-->{{No}} | <!--Detects-->{{Yes|detects}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} | |- |} === USB 3.x SuperSpeed SS (Speed 5Gbit/s 3.1 gen 1) aka xHCI eXtensible === USB Attached SCSI (UAS or UASP) is a protocol used for high-speed data transfer between computers and external storage devices like SSDs, HDDs, and some flash drives. It provides up to 70% faster read/write speeds than traditional Bulk-Only Transport (BOT) by allowing multiple commands to run in parallel, rather than waiting in a queue {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1000 FL 1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B73 | <!--Product ID-->0x1000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->link power management (LPM, USB 3.0 power saving) cannot be disabled so random connection issues |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1009-200 FL 1009 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1009 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->Orico PFU3-2P |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1100-100 FL 1100SX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1100 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->LPM cannot be disabled so issues with disconnecting WD drives etc - CalDigit, ORICO PFU3-2P, FASTA-6GU3 Pro, inatech KTU3FR-2P 2 port USB 3.0, and Inateck KT4004 (KTU3FR-4PA rev B2) for storage and hubs, etc |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic FL1400 FL 1400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x1400 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fresco Logic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720200 uPD720200a chip | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1d6b | <!--Product ID-->0x0194 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|no USB3 but seems to works like USB2}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported for USB3 but works like USB2 - ORICO PRU3-4P 4 Port USB, early Dell Wyse zx0 thin client, |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720201 uPD720201 chip | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x114 0x0115 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported |- | <!--Description-->NEC Renesas xHCI µPD720202 uPD720202 chip | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1912 | <!--Product ID-->0x0015 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.ti.com/product/tusb7340 TI] tusb7340 TUSB732 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x8241 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported Koutech IO-PEU436 but only one with open docs |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->recognized but not supported - integrated since Ivybridge |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL800 xHCI 0.96 support in VL800, VIA VL811 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x3432 0x3438 0x3515 and 0x9201 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{Maybe|}} 2.0 backwards support | <!--Opinion-->Anker 68UPPCIE-2S20PU 2 port, Plugable 4-Port, GA-z77x-ud5h rev. 1.1 mobo, |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL811+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Via Labs VL812 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->xHCI 1.0 support in VL805 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} USB 3.1 (power up to 100W and data 10Gbit/s USB 3.2 gen 2 - USB-A Full size plug - USB-B micro USB size - USB-C reversible) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1142 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->Connector: USB Type C and USB Type A x 1 - Ugreen USB C PCI Card 2 Port USB 3.1 Type C |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[ Intel] Revision 1.8 1.9 Updated | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion-->AUKEY 4 Ports USB C , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion-->Startech - PEXUSB312C - 2-port Usb 3.1 10Gbit/s |- |} USB 3.2 (power up to 100W and data 20Gbit/s gen 2x2 - USB-A Full size plug - USB-B micro USB size - USB-C reversible) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->AMD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Intel xHCI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[ Intel] Revision 2.6 Update | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{unk| }} | <!--Detects-->{{unk|}} | <!--Works-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} === USB 4 (40Gbps thunderbolt, pcie 3.0 tunnelling, ) === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Boot from USB ! width="10%" |Detect USB device ! width="10%" |USB device works ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Marvell | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->AMD Ryzen7 6800U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->Intel Goshen Ridge JHL8440 Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->VLI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Boots-->{{N/A}} | <!--Detects-->{{N/A|}} | <!--Works-->{{N/A|}} | |- |} == hid.class (Human Interface Device) == === Keyboard === Some multi-finger touchpad support works but not on all touchpads {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Retro N C64 edition Keyboard, the super button accessory and optional N30 mouse | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 87 keys Kailh white}} |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo 108 Retro Mechanical Keyboard (white kailh) and two superbuttons (green) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Apple Pro Keyboard | 0x05ac | 0x0205 | 0x0122 | {{yes|works (its two hub ports) but mouse scroll wheel issues}} |- | Apple Pro Keyboard | 0x05AC | 0x020B | | {{yes|works (two onboard ports also)}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Aigo K68 60% red switches, A68 A87 wireless 2G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[http://amigakit.leamancomputing.com/catalog/product_info.php?cPath=49&products_id=973 AmigaOne Keyboard] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko TAC87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 80% TKL }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko MonsGeek FUN60 PRO&MAX HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 60% hall effect }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Akko | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 hall effect, good but expensive and software poor}} |- | <!--Description-->Akko | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Arteck HW197 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 keyboard and touchpad combo, aluminum frame, aa battery }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Azio Cascade | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Chilkey ND75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->Chilkey ND104 (Wuque Studios) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 premium clicky (WS Blue) or silent (WS White) key options with Ansi and ISO formats also numpad and calculator, aluminum machined, tri mode, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2026 untested magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K65 Mech MX no numeric keypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair CH-9000045 K70 Blue MX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K95 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cherry G80 G80-3000L[x]C[yy]-[z] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cooler Master CM Storm Quickfire Rapid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Corsair K100 Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 okay low profile but expensive |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Dell SK-8135 Dell USB Keyboard for Internet and Multimedia rev H for Dimension 4500, Dimension 8250, OptiPlex GX260n, OptiPlex GX60n, Precision 350 (R42232) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x413C | <!--Product ID-->0x2010 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes| usb1.1 keyboard hub 0x413C 0x1003 works as well - multimedia keys not mapped }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Deepcool KG722 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 65% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Ducky Channel Zero DK2108 Mech Mechanical Cherry MX Red | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Ducky Shine 3 Brown or Blue (DK9087) MX keys | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Das Keyboard Model S Ultimate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Cidoo V75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker rt100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 plastic build and no screws, numpad with small 0, mostly quiet seasalt switches, gimmick usb-c 1in screen}} |- | <!--Description-->EPOMAKER TH99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} USB-C full numpad keyboard |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker P75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker p87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Leobog Hi75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Feker Galaxy80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Galaxy100 gmk/via | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 96% }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker Aula F75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 budget version good 75% choice of 4 leobog switches}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker Tide75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% and not too expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK992 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 109 key }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK820 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker Ajazz AK35I V3 MAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 104 keys - two models: wired and tri-mode connection - }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker Aula F108 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pricy but okay 100% but only leobog graywood switches but hotswap available afterwards}} |- | <!--Description-->eopmaker Ajazz AK980 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 97 keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker G87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker RT82 RT85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker RT100 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 96% }} |- | <!--Description-->epomaker x Galaxy100 lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 good 96% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ATTACK SHARK X98 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 98% maybe silent linear feel with Two-color PBT keycap}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker ATTACK SHARK X68HE and X65HE 65% Wired Gaming Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID-->0x502D | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|2025 tested on Aros running on Raspberry Pi wired usb-c with magnetic hall effect keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Epomaker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Filco Ninja Majestouch-2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Focus FK-760 Wireless Keyboard & Trackball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} but quality build issues raised |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->GMMK Tenkeyless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested default Gateron Brown switches for Kailh Box Jades default Gateron Brown switches for Kailh Box Jades}} |- | <!--Description-->GK61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->GMK67 GMK87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested budget good option}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Hengchangtong HCT Limeme gk103s Entry Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0xC0F4 | <!--Product ID-->0x0009 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|half Keyboard left side only}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Hexgears M2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested hotswap kaihl green switches}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hexgears | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Iqunix mq80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 good 75% low profile keys |- | <!--Description-->Iqunix Magi65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested good 65% low profile keys }} |- | <!--Description-->iqunix ez60 ez80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 untested specific hall effect switches - actuation point, rapid trigger, etc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Jomaa YiChip Wireless 50% key with touchpad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3151 | <!--Product ID-->0x3000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|dongle detected, keys and pad not working - 2 AAA NM}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 untested numpad only}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q1 v1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 untested okay}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Q6 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested 75% with numeric numpad, barebones so choose switches and keycaps to suit }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron q1 MAX V1 MAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Lemokey P1 QMK | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested best option to customise switches and keycaps}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron LemoKey X1 X3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested keycap swap only not switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K2HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested okay}} wireless hall effect analogue on all keys |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K4HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 untested hall effect but software }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K5 K17 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 untested okay low profile but }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron Q5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Keychron K10 HE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kiiboom Breeze 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 good 75% }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Meletrix Boog 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 magnetic hall effect, good but expensive and software poor}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Melgeek O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 low profile 75% but not repairable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->MOSART 2.4G Wireless 60% Keyboard Trackball | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062a | <!--Product ID-->0x4105 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|dongle recognised HID, keys worked, roller worked, scroll wheel works and shoulders works but buttons around left, top and right hand side (RHS) do not work and plastic and 2 AA MN1500}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Mucai SiGma Micro MKA610 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1c4f | <!--Product ID-->0x0084 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| unknown red keys - rgb backlighting - }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://hjldemo.clsc.cn/ Guangzhou Zhentian Electronics Ltd] Perixx Periboard 505 Plus with Trackball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|okay dome keyboard - poor trackball}} |- | <!--Description-->Guangzhou Zhentian Electronics Co., Ltd Perixx Periboard 706 Plus with Trackball Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|generally okay dome with good sized keys but piano black surround fingerprint magnet, occasional brief trackball freezes after no use, takes some time to get used to the trackball size}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard-716 Wireless (Chicony) | <!--Vendor ID-->04f2:1013 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|okay dome keyboard and trackpad}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard- | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Perixx Periboard- | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Lenovo SK-8825 41A5327 SIL12-W07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->works manufactured for |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Lite-On USB NetVista Full Width Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x04b3 | <!--Product ID-->0x3025 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->works |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K320 Wireless Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|The Logitech USB Unifying, Bolt, Lightspeed, or Nano receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K340 Wireless Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.logitech.com/en-us/product/wireless-touch-keyboard-k400r Logitech Wireless Touch Keyboard k400] | <!--Vendor ID--> 0x046D | <!--Product ID--> 0xC52B | <!--Revision--> 1201 | <!--Opinion--> {{yes|All (including multimedia) keys work. Some keys requires remapping with Trident. Touchpad works and acts as normal mouse. Presents itself in Trident as USB Receiver from Logitech with 3 HID bindings}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K400 Plus K400+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech K600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech TK820 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech TK830 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G915 TKL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Unk|okay keyboard TKL means no number pad}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lofree Lite84 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Lofree Flow Lite100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 silent switches and low profile keys}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->MACHENIKE K500 Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 94 keys untested Hot Swappable 94 Keys 90% Layout }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MechLands Vibe99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 100 keys untested Gasket-mounted Wired/Bluetooth/2.4GHz Wireless Mechanical Keyboard}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Comfortable Curve 2000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| recognized but not supported}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Natural Ergonomic Keyboard 4000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|recognized but not supported}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Wireless Media Desktop 1000 (1356) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x00f9 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|working but not mouse part}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Niz Micro84 Duo82 X87 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 electro capacitive }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy gem80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy kick 75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 low profile 75% }} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy Air75 V3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 75% }} |- | <!--Description-->nuphy node 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 96% layout, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Qpad MK-50 MK-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Qpad MK-90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Chroma | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0203 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://openrazer.github.io/ Razer] Lycosa | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow 2013 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Cherry MX Blue }} |- | <!--Description-->Razr Blackwidow Ultimate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Cherry MX Blue }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer Orange keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 Low Profile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Blackwidow V4 Pro 75% | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Razer keys }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Cynosa Lite V2 | <!--Vendor ID-->1532 | <!--Product ID-->0x023f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer DeathStalker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer HuntsMan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Ornata | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Orbweaver Chroma Keypad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0207 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Tartarus Keypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| not hall effect and very expensive}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Redragon K668 RGB Gaming Keyboard Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested 108 Keys Mechanical Keyboard w/Extra 4 Hotkeys Upgraded Hot-swappable Socket，Red Switch}} |- | <!--Description-->Redragon K689 PRO Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested Gasket RGB Gaming Keyboard, 108 Keys Mechanical Keyboard w/Extra 4 Hotkeys, Upgraded Hot-swappable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Rii K22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 keyboard trackpad combo, non replaceable lithium battery, very compact}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2027 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Risophy 60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 75% mechanical, hotswap so okay for price untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Risophy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Royal Kludge RK65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested cream switches }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->SINO WEALTH Gaming KB SkyLion K68 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x258a | <!--Product ID-->0x003a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| blue stalks with rgb lighting}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->SKYLOONG GK104 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested gateron }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->SteelSeries | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet x300 2.4G Keyboard Mouse MosART | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062A | <!--Product ID-->0x4101 | <!--Revision-->0312 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|1 AAA for each and works well - mouse slightly better built than keyboard rubberised membrane}} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet X331 HDE 2.4G Keyboard wireless RCMCU | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0C45 | <!--Product ID-->0x7000 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|wireless can be glitchy but few extra keys are mapped }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet X500 2.4G Keyboard Mouse MOSArt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x062A | <!--Product ID-->0x2901 | <!--Revision-->0112 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|works well especially large touchpad - usual rubber domed membraned keyboard mechanism }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tecware Specter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested good 75%}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Unicomp Model M USB 104 key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} IBM's and later Lexmark buckling spring switches |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo Minilo Bluebell (prestige silent) and Eculapytus (violet tactile) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 75% plastic build no screws not great to mod}} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo Sword 68 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| expensive but good}} |- | <!--Description-->Varmilo 98 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 expensive but good and Kailh silent}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Weikav Velocifire Choice65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Weikav Velocifire Lucky65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Rainy 75 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID-->0x5055 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 good 75% but not as expensive CNC Aluminum HMX/JWK/Cocoa Switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Crush 80 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID-->0x5588 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Crush80 Reboot Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 very good but expensive Aluminum Hotswap Wireless RGB}} |- | <!--Description-->Wobkey Rainy 75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x320F | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wooting HE60 HE80 HE90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 hall effect but expensive with good software}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description-->Womier WK61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2021 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk71 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk75 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Womier Sk75 TMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 hall effect }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xenta White Wireless HK6718B+HM3302--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|works with Raspberry Pi untested on AROS native}} |- | <!--Description-->Xinmeng X87 MAGIC_REFINER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 untested keycap swap but not hotswapable switches}} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL66 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| milk switches, cherry PBT, }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzi B75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 budget good with cocoa cream switches }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|good budget option with swappable switches, }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzii AL80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 switches }} |- | <!--Description-->Yunzi C75 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 budget good with switches }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2028 magnetic hall effect software should be better and surpasses mechanical}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} <pre> linear - creamy tactile - thocky clicky - clacky </pre> <pre > Cherry MX Black are linear switches (no feedback); good for gaming. Cherry MX Red are linear (less noise no click) but more squishy; Cherry MX Brown are in between Blue and Red in style and tactile; Cherry MX Clear switches have soft tactile feedback (with no click). Cherry MX Blue have tactile feedback with a click (noisy); good for typing. Gateron Yellows KS-3, KS-3x47 or better Pros have a milky top and black bottom and linear TTC Silent Frozen v2. Linear and dead silent Mouse the huano brown with yellow dot for silent mouse clicks Kailh red dust proof encoder for smooth and close to silent scrolling Boba U4 Silent Tactile switches Husky linears HMX </pre > === Mouse === if the USB mouse is non-functional put a USB pendrive in before or add the following to user-startup in '''s''' drawer/folder/directory sys:prefs/trident NOGUI > NIL: {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" | Brand ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" | Model ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | 3Dconnexion | 3D Mouse | <!--Model-->[http://www.3dconnexion.com/products/spacenavigator.html SpaceNavigator] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | 3D Mouse | <!--Model-->SpacePilot Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | Mouse | <!--Model-->SpaceExplorer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | 3Dconnexion | Wireless Mouse | <!--Model-->SpaceMouse | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->3D Optical | <!--Description-->Wired | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0000:3825 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin | Combo mouse | | 0x05FE | 0x0011 | Low 0100 | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Cytec | <!--Description-->Wired Mouse Gaming | <!--Model-->R.A.T 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Dell | Mouse | MO56UC | 0x413C | 0x3200 | | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->equatech / clone logitech | <!--Description-->wireless mouse | <!--Model-->49779 / M185 | <!--Vendor ID--> 3151:2020 later 3151:3020 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{Yes|detected and works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Hama | RF Optical Mouse | AM-6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->M3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->M5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Keycron | <!--Description-->Optical Wireless | <!--Model-->M6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1k polling and 16k dpi }} |- | <!--Brand-->Keychron | <!--Description-->Optical Wireless | <!--Model-->M7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested barebones 1k polling and 16k dpi, great for small hands, loud clicks}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->LogiCAD 3D | <!--Description-->3D Mouse | <!--Model-->Magellan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Cordless Desktop Navigator | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech Inc. | First/Pilot Wheel Mouse | N48/M-BB48 M-BE58 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Wireless mouse | [http://www.logitech.com/en-roeu/mice_pointers/mice/devices/5484 M305] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | Wireless RF Mouse | MK710 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|The Logitech Unifying Receiver pairing}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitach | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->G304 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 very clicky}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless Mouse | <!--Model-->MX Master Anywhere 2S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|untested}} micro USB charge port on front |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model-->M220 silent touch MR0085 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2018 needs usb dongle - quiet clicking }} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech Logi | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->MX Master 3S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|2021 untested usb-c bluetooth, inbuilt battery but muted clicks}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitach | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->G502 X Plus | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 very clicky}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model-->M240 silent touch MR0105 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2022 no dongle as bluetooth enabled but could work with Logi Bolt USB Receiver - 1 aa battery - quiet clicking}} |- | <!--Brand-->Logitech | <!--Description-->Optical | <!--Model-->MX Master 4 MXM | <!--Vendor ID-->0x | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Bluetooth usb-c dongle, inbuilt lithium battery}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Brand | Description | Model | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion--> |- | <!--Brand-->Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8566 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8518 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->OrzerHome Maxxter | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID-->248a:8514 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1 aa with no on/off switch }} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Wheel Mouse optical | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Sidewinder Mouse | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | IntelliMouse Explorer USB optical | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Microsoft | Wireless Optical Mouse 2000 | | 0x045E | 0x00F9 | | {{no|not working see keyboard Media Desktop 2000 above}} |- | <!--Brand-->Microsoft | <!--Description--> | <!--Model-->1461 1447 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{No|usb dongle matched to one mouse only no others}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Orochi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Mamba | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Naga | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} 17 buttons |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB Optical | <!--Model-->Naga Hex V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} MOBA Gaming Mouse, Professional Grade 16,000 DPI Sensor - RGB lighting |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->DeathAdder | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Viper | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->Razer | <!--Description-->USB optical | <!--Model-->Basilisk V3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested 1k polling, 35k dpi, }} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | Trust | Slimline Lasermouse | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | SteelSeries | Tobii EyeX EyeMobile PCEye | Eye Tracking Control | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} gaze interaction track technology for augment augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand-->The Eye Tribe Tracker | <!--Description-->Eye | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description-->USB Optical Mouse | <!--Model-->MV3000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x192f | <!--Product ID-->0x0916 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Brand--> | <!--Description--> | <!--Model--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> {{N/A|untested}} |} === Trackball === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->3Dconnexion SpaceBall 5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{N/A|untested}} Labtec designed and rolled into new company 3dconnexion 2001 by owners Logitech |- | <!--Description-->ACCO Kensington Orbit optical F1233A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kensington Turbo Mouse 64210 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Clearly Superior Technologies. Model:CST 1000-RC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Trackman Marble Mouse Wired USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Cordless Trackman Wheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Optical Trackman T-RB22 - Cordless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech M570 wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Trackball Mouse Optical 1.0 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft X05-87473 Trackball USB Optical | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === KVM === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->NanoKVM | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === Gamepad === Controllers have mostly decided that the left analog joystick is keyboard equivalent of WASD and right joystick is your mouse. You also have 2 bumpers above the triggers. Shoot could be right trigger (so it doesn't involve taking your thumb off the right joystick). Face buttons for reloading or jump or other non-critical functions. Crank up the sensitivity and practice. Testing can be done with the TRIDENT Prefs, [https://devicetests.com/controller-tester html5], [https://greggman.github.io/html5-gamepad-test/ html5], or [https://gamepad-tester.com/ Tester] ==== Dinput Poseidon Default Plugin - Playstation(TM) style ==== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Betop Betong Bat D2E BTP-BD2E XD4D2E | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gravis Eliminator Gamepad Pro USB | <!--Vendor ID-->047d | <!--Product ID-->4005 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 2d only |- | Hama Black Force USB Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 psx clone look |- | <!--Description-->Jess Tech Game Elements Philips GGE909 PC Recoil Pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCbAmIhj6P4 Logitech Wingman Precision USB] G-UC3B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 no 3D but good for 2D retro games like Turrican II |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman Action Pad G-UB3A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 1 blue lucid translucent - thin analog stick N64 type - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman RumblePad UB05B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc20a | 1.12 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 twin blue analogue sticks N64 type - poor 2d controls with single molded blue piece - vibration feedback - single shoulder buttons with throttle control below right one |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Wingman Cordless RumblePad G-RA4A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc211 | 1.12 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 twin blue analogue sticks N64 type - poor 2d controls with single molded black piece - vibration feedback - dual shoulder buttons L1 L2 R1 R2 with blue throttle control below right one - 4 aa mn1500 batteries; life not great - C-UD10A usb dongle - overall big and bulky |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Precision Wired G-UG15 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 psx styling blue outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Cordless Precision G-X2E14A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 ps2 styling blue outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G-X5C11A Cordless Precision Wireless Controllers | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A|N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->2002 psx styling black outer shell - no 3D analog and no shoulder buttons - no rumble |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/logitech-dual-actiontm-gamepad/ Logitech Dual Action] * G-UD8 has no mode (2D only?) button and no rumble * G-UF13A later | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision-->0xc2 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|[http://www.morphzone.org/modules/newbb_plus/viewtopic.php?topic_id=7018&forum=12 G-UF13A tested only]}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 New body shape psx style - dual analog 3D sticks - 4 small travel shoulder triggers no 5,6,7,8 |- | <!--Description-->Logitech RumblePad 2 G-UF13 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc218 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 usb wired light blue top/black base - twin analogues 3D along with dual short travel shoulder buttons - rumble present - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech RumblePad 2 Cordless * G-RC?? OLD version that take FOUR batteries and RED Logitech logo * G-RC14 uses TWO batteries has an ORANGE logo - dongle C-UE10 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc219 | <!--Revision-->0x0200 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 wireless may have to remove 1 battery - G-RC?? 5 + 7 buttons - G-RC14 use buttons 6 + 8 to reset sticks - replace battery and push large button on receiver - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech F310 Wired Dual Action G-U0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc21 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|D mode switch}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 best option for old usb wired style dual analog 3D with pc-xbox/psx switch on back (only D works) - both rear shoulder RT LT buttons have excess travel - no rumble vibration - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech F510 Wired G-UG0002 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc21 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 dual analog with dual xbox pc/psx X/D switched compatibility modes - |- | Logitech F710 Wireless / Cordless RumblePad 2 G-R0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0xc219 | <!--Revision-->3.05 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe|Mouse only not joypad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 When switch on top set to D and nano receiver for each controller to pair - 2 aa mn1500 batteries required - rumble support sometimes - rear back shoulder buttons excessive travel needed - does have rubber backing that becomes sticky - |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Megaworld 'TIME' USB pad | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0735 | <!--Product ID-->0x9902 | <!--Revision-->Low 0100 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No |}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 Poor quality |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft * SideWinder Precision Pro USB (1997) * SideWinder Precision 2 (1998) * Game Pad Pro (1999) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Game Pad USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> possible setup first |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Gamepad X04 Freestyle | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{N/A}} | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} 1998 might need USB adapter |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder X05 63895 92626 Flight stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|2000 [https://ae.amigalife.org/index.php?topic=929.msg11309#new tested]}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Sidewinder Flight Stick X08-58736 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Plug & Play Game Pad (2000) SideWinder Joystick (2000) Game Pad 2.0 (2001) SideWinder Force Feedback 2 (2002) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 long-standing static buildup problem and Force Feedback 2 was the removal of the power brick |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | Saitek [http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/saitek-ps1000/ PS1000 Cyborg V.1], [http://www.testfreaks.co.uk/game-console-accessories-controls/saitek-ps2700-rumble-pad/ PS2700] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 no rumble function |- | Saitek [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xG0v-hf6ZPA P2600] [http://compactiongames.about.com/od/hardware/tp/gamepads.htm P3600], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 no rumble function |- | Saitek P2900 wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 runs on 1 AA battery |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Sony Batoh PS3 mini USB Wired hookup [http://ps3.jim.sh/sixaxis/usb/ SIXAXIS] *PCB Ribbon Notes *Protos ALPS MSU Rev3 M3 and the later CBEH-1019 *? SA1Q135A for sixaxis *PP4 *V2 *V25 *VX SA1Q146A first dualshock 3 model *VX SA1Q147A CECHZC2U (USA) *VX35 SA1Q159A *VX3 SA1Q160A *VX? SA1Q188A *VX4 SA1Q189A shipped with a CECH-2504 datecode 0C *VX5 SA1Q194A changed design ALPS, PS button changes *VX6 SA1Q195A red case, *VX7 SA1Q222A superslims 2 ribbons *VX8 SA1Q224A superslims 2 ribbons | <!--Vendor ID-->0x054c | <!--Product ID-->0x0268 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No|}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|}} | <!--Opinion-->Sometimes detected but no support - no sixaxis features detected - mini usb lead will have varying results - |- | <!--Description-->Sony PS4 *JDM JDS 001 010 011 *JDM 030 040 055 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sony PS5 Dual Sense | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Speed Link Strike 2 FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Firestorm Dual Power 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|[http://www.morphzone.org/modules/newbb_plus/viewtopic.php?topic_id=7018&forum=12 only 1 axis joystick only]}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator GM-1500 GM-1520 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 M series Aluminum Metal Joystick Hitbox Controller Arcade Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 T series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 G series Gamefinger G12 G13 G16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> plastic - |- | <!--Description-->Haute42 S series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> thinner and lighter than G series |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mad Catz sf2 fightstick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Datel Paewang Arcade Pro Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash F300 Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash F500 Fighting Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Pico Flatbox GP2040-CE Hot Swappable Mini Hitbox Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> default it is configured for PS4 but before plugging usbc cable in, X for Dinput, B Xinput, RT HID - plastic build case - Rev4 based on RP2040 chip and firmware is based on GP2040-CE (Community Edition) - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Shenzhen Onebitdo Tech 8bitdo Fighting stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Venom 8 button | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} ==== Xinput Xbox Style Plugin ==== 2018 extension added originally called AROSx but later redacted. Latest [https://github.com/medusalix/xone linux driver] might be useful. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate C Wired 82CB (Shenzhen ONEBITDO TECH - GWOWO) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2dc8 | <!--Product ID-->0x3106 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 - 4 t6 torx screws - non hall effect so drifting issues - triggers go faulty often - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 2C Wired Controller 82CD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2dc8 | <!--Product ID-->0x310A | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - HID keyboard assigned - 4 t6 torx screws - hall effect analogs and triggers - 1000Hz polling - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 2C wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - 400mw battery - hall effect 3d nubs and triggers - micro switch shoulder buttons - d-pad poor for retro games - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo ULtimate Mini Wired Controller for Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 2 *Wired Controller *Wireless *Bluetooth | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect - playstation style layout for pc - slide button for S-A-D-X switch, android, dinput or xinput - |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 tmr hall effect analogs, hall effect triggers and some microswitches - button swap - ps2 style layout - |- | <!--Description-->8bitdo Ultimate 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2026 - mw battery - hall effect 3d nubs and triggers - micro switch shoulder buttons - d-pad for retro games - |- | <!--Description-->8BitDo Pro 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2026 hall effect analogs, hall effect triggers and some microswitches - button swap - ps2 style layout - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Ace Aurora | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect joysticks with no deadzone mode, gyro, linear rumble, trigger stops, back paddles, button swap, macro, turbo, RGB LED effects - tri-mode connection - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Betop Beitong Spartan BTP-2270U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hall effect |- | <!--Description-->Betop Betong Asura 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hall effect - noble linear trigger potentiometer and alps shoulder LB/RB micro switch |- | <!--Description-->BEITONG ASURA 2 Pro+ Game Controller Wireless Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beitong Zeus 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BebonCool Dinofire Model Number: Q218 / TP28 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 - triggers aren't progressive but ON/OFF - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X05 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect analog and triggers - tri mode connection - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX Wireless Controller PC PS3, 9013pro ESM-9013PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 linear hall effect but device sometimes will not connect tried multiple attempts with the dongle |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 ABXY MICRO SWITCH - Bumpers Tactile switch Hall Effect analog |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX X15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect analog and triggers - membrane buttons - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX S10 Wireless Gamepad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 TMR Hall effect and compatible with Switch 2/PC/Phone/TV/Steam, NFC, Gyro, HD Rumble - |- | <!--Description-->EasySMX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->202 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Fantech World EOS Pro WGP15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect trigger and sticks,2 back paddles, motion controlling |- | <!--Description-->Fantech EOS PRO II S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 controller with TMR hall effect analogues, mechanical face buttons and D-pad, 63 input macro, back paddles, turbo - analog triggers with trigger stops - tri mode bt wifi and wired - slide switch on back for switch, macos/android and xinput - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Apex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 luxury model |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader Pro 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 the Pro(Hall Effects) and Non-Pro (No Hall) |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Direwolf 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 hall effect sticks and triggers - poor wifi connection - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Apex 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 luxury model |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader 4 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - hall effect, DInput mode (o+A hold) - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Direwolf 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect analog and triggers but membrane buttons with gold contacts - 800mhA battery - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Dunefox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 basic model hall effect analog and triggers but membrane buttons - 500mha battery - no gyros - |- | <!--Description-->Flydigi Vader 5 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 - hall effect stick with tension control, linear triggers, DInput mode (o+A hold) - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir T4K Keleid, T4C Cyclone wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 poor to ok switch |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir Nova | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no|| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - switch type layout |- | <!--Description-->Guangzhou Chicken Run Network Tech Nova Lite GameSir-T4n LITE - Zikway HID gamepad *[https://www.reddit.com/r/Gamesir/comments/1c185ve/psa_keep_gamesir_nova_lite_t4n_lite_firmware_at/ fw 4200 seems to be xbox so B then Home for Xinput (green LED), A then Home for HID BT Android (green/yellow LED), Y then Home for Switch Pro (Red LED)] or X then Home for Wifi and start and select to alternatively swap modes * and if on [https://www.reddit.com/r/Gamesir/comments/1c185ve/psa_keep_gamesir_nova_lite_t4n_lite_firmware_at/ fw 5700 ds4 so Home + B (blue LED), ] * firmware 6900 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x3537 | <!--Product ID-->0x1040 0x1041 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - hall effect 3d nubs - no usb-c cable - rubber membrane analog trigger travel and bumpers shoulder buttons - wifi 2.4G and bluetooth - xbox layout so ab and xy might need to be swapped via m and a buttons for switch type [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=po-nNuC5fps fixes video] - 250Hz polling - 600mah battery - rigid carry case - poor d-pad esp diagonals - gamesir settings software only on android 6+ or ios based only - |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir Nova 2 Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G7 SE Wired Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Gamesir TEGENARIA T3 Lite Wired | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 playstation aesthetic hall effect analog and membrane buttons - X+Home button connects as an Xbox controller |- | <!--Description-->GameSir Cyclone 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 TMR Joysticks with anti-friction rings and metal anti-friction rings around the stems, gyro, rumble, macro, turbo, 2 back paddles, hall analog triggers with micro-switch trigger - tri mode bluetooth, 2.4GHz wifi and wired, 1000hz polling rate - gamesir connect software - |- | <!--Description-->GameSir G7 Pro for Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 TMR hall effect - hall effect triggers, tri mode connection - gamesir nexus software - |- | <!--Description-->GameSir Super Nova Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2026 hall effect sticks and triggers, 1000Hz polling, tri mode connectivity, |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GameSir | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong 2 NS08 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->Electromagnetic Stick hall effect - hall linear triggers - Mechanical face buttons - wired and wireless - Built-in rechargeable lithium battery |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong 2 PRO NS09 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->hall efect - wired and wireless - Mechanical face buttons - Built-in rechargeable lithium battery |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KingKong MAX 3 KK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->hall effect - wired and wireless - lithium battery - |- | <!--Description-->Gulikit KK3 Max USB-c Bluetooth Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 Hall Joysticks and Triggers, Maglev/Rotor/HD Vibration, 1000Hz Polling Rate, 4 Back Buttons, |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit KK3 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 smaller version of KK3 MAX - hall effect analog and triggers, face buttons , maglev rumble, gyro, 4 back paddles - rigid case - 950mAh up to 8 hrs - |- | <!--Description-->GuliKit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Hyperkin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Hori EX2 Turbo UHX3-45 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Machenike G1 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 Wireless Gaming Controller with 1K Polling Rate Hall Effect Trigger Joystick For Nintendo Switch PC iOS Android |- | <!--Description-->Machenike G5 Pro Wireless Gaming Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 ABXY Switch Membrane, Bumpers Tactile switch and hall effect analog |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->microsoft sidewinder precision pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | [https://pineight.com/mw/index.php?title=USB_game_controllers Xbox 360 Wired Controller] | 0x045e | 0x028e | 0x | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|needs specific driver and has poor 2D control pad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Microsoft (R) [https://blog.tkjelectronics.dk/2012/12/xbox-360-receiver-added-to-the-usb-host-library/ Xbox 360] (TM) Wireless Receiver for Windows(R) Model 1086 and Controller | 0x045e | 0x0719, 0x or 0x0291 | 0x0100 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->{{No|separate standalone usb dongle detected and shows as 8 vendor interfaces but no class associated and so not working - may need new class from code from xpad or xboxdrv to work the controllor}} |- | <!--Description-->Xbox 360 Kinect [http://hackaday.com/2010/11/10/kinect-open-source-driver-demo-and-hacking/ Video] [http://git.marcansoft.com/?p=libfreenect.git;a=commit;h=7655fcf7239ba4907654089dba535a196685dbe5 GIT] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 proprietary 2.4GHz RF protocol, |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One Wired Controller | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One wireless controller newer model with the 3.5mm headphone jack 1537 1697 and microsoft adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02d1 or 0x02dd | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Elite Series 1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02e3 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 ok - |- | <!--Description-->Xbox later models 1708+ Xbox One and Series use 5GHz and use Bluetooth, | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02e0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Xbox One S | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02ea 0x02fd | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft Elite Series 2 Core | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045E | <!--Product ID-->0x02ff | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{no| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 ok - no hall - 125Hz polling - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Minisform MGP01 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MOBAPAD N1HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 has liquid silicone face buttons, hall effect analog, D-Pad swap, two back paddles, USB-A dongle, HD Rumble - |- | <!--Description-->Mobapad Huben 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 |- | <!--Description-->Mobapad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON Gale 墨将 mòjiāng | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON Blitz PRO 2 TMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BIGBIG WON now MOJHON AETHER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 hall effect joysticks, hall effect triggers, mechanical bumpers, 1000hz polling rate, mechanical D-pad, membrane face buttons, mechanical back paddles, rumble, deadzone issues - tri mode |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MSI FORCE GC20 GC30 V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 not hall effect |- | <!--Description-->MSI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mytrix Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NACON GC-100XF Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 average |- | <!--Description-->PXN P5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall effect joysticks & triggers, limited trigger stops, 1000hz polling rate on wired, 4 back paddles, 32 macro record, anti-deadzone mode, RAW mode, gyro, turbo, tri-mode connection - |- | <!--Description-->PXN P50L | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->PowerA | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD Stellar T5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD Junior E5 Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->QRD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Razer Wolverine V3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 hall |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RetroFlag | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Speedlink XEOX Pro Analog Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->enclosed lithium battery? - xbox layout - switchable on back of controller to directinput (dinput) or xinput - USB dongle switchable to pc and ps3 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SCUF Instinct Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 good |- | <!--Description-->SCUF Envision Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Steel Series Stratus Duo XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->usb adapter needed |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://inputlabs.io/Inputlabs InputLabs Alpakka Open Source and build yourself] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->DIY it with 3d printer, pcb and components - pi pico needed - 2 gyros for better accuracy - |- | <!--Description-->[https://inputlabs.io/kapybara Inputlabs kapybara] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->DIY one handed version wip |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Vilcorn Z03 BT Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 - other Bluetooth modes (green, red, blue, purple, etc.) Select + M1 (or M2) - 400mAh - not great latency wired - 800mhz polling - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->zd ultimate legend | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->zd 0+ elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description-->zd 0+excellent | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} <pre> #ifndef AROSX_LIBRARY_H #define AROSX_LIBRARY_H #include <exec/types.h> #define AROSX_CONTROLLER_TYPE_UNKNOWN 0x00 #define AROSX_CONTROLLER_TYPE_GAMEPAD 0x01 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_UP 0x0001 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_DOWN 0x0002 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_LEFT 0x0004 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_DPAD_RIGHT 0x0008 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_START 0x0010 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_BACK 0x0020 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_LEFT_THUMB 0x0040 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_RIGHT_THUMB 0x0080 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_LEFT_SHOULDER 0x0100 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_RIGHT_SHOULDER 0x0200 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_A 0x1000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_B 0x2000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_X 0x4000 #define AROSX_GAMEPAD_Y 0x8000 struct AROSX_GAMEPAD { ULONG Timestamp; UWORD Buttons; UBYTE LeftTrigger; UBYTE RightTrigger; WORD ThumbLX; WORD ThumbLY; WORD ThumbRX; WORD ThumbRY; }; #define AROSX_EHMB_CONNECT 0x00 #define AROSX_EHMB_DISCONNECT 0x01 #define AROSX_EHMF_CONNECT (1L<<AROSX_EHMB_CONNECT) #define AROSX_EHMF_DISCONNECT (1L<<AROSX_EHMB_DISCONNECT) struct AROSX_EventHook { struct Node eh_Node; struct MsgPort *eh_MsgPort; ULONG eh_MsgMask; }; struct AROSX_EventNote { struct Message en_Msg; ULONG en_Event; APTR en_Param1; APTR en_Param2; }; #endif /* AROSX_LIBRARY_H */ </pre> === Joystick === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->CH Products CombatStick 568 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Cyborg X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Extreme 3D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | [Logitech Attack 3 Joystick] | 0x0464 | 0xC214 | 0205 | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->saitek X-52 x52 pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->saitek aviator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Speedlink Competition Pro USB | | | | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{maybe|works but games not working "out of the box"}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator QZ 501 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator TH 400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust Predator GM-2500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Trust XK 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} ===[https://github.com/JacKeTUs/linux-steering-wheels Gaming Racing Steering Wheels]=== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="40%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/documents/pid1_01.pdf USB PID standard not supported], |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cammus C5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fanatec CSL Elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS4 and Xbox - belt driven wheel - 30cm wheel swapping |- | <!--Description-->Fanatec Club Sport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> top belt $600 £500 system |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->FFBeast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius TRIO RACER F1 Racing Wheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Cheap and cheerful but not great - may need calibrating |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hama PC Racing Wheel Thunder V18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Average |- | <!--Description-->Hori Racing Wheel 3 with pedals | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS3 PC |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Logic3 PXU450 TopDrive GT450 Steering Wheel for PS3, PS4, XBox One and PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech MOMO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Very good |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Driving Force GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Drive Force Pro DFP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> wheel 900 degree - weighs in at 15&nbsp;lbs |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Formula Force EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->200 degrees turn for the EX model is arcade-like driving - adds PS3 compatibility via the PSx/2 adaptor - weighs in at 9&nbsp;lbs |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G27 PC/PS3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> comes with gear shifter - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G29 PC PS3/PS4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> may need additional shifter - gear 900deg wheel / rumble - 3 peddle - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G920 PC XboxOne | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> may need additional shifter - gear 900deg wheel / rumble - 3 peddle - needs external psu - |- | <!--Description-->Logitech G923 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft(R) SideWinder Precision Racing Wheel (1999) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R5 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R9 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Moza R12 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x346E | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/Ultrawipf/OpenFFBoard OpenFFBoard], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->PXN V12 Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simagic M10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> base direct drive $900 £800 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simplicity Simwheel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> direct |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simucube | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Simxperience Accuforce V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SPEEDLINK Drift O.Z. Racing Wheel with Pedals and Gear Stick | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SteelSeries Simraceway SRW-S1 Steering Wheel (PC) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Nascar Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Ferrari Challenge Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> Poor |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster Ferrari FGT Rumble GT Experience 3-in-1 (PC/PS3) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID-->b658 | <!--Revision-->0102 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Wheel and all buttons detected}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|}} | <!--Opinion-->Not great - gear driven 240deg wheel rotation - no psu needed - 2 peddle - flappy gear change - rumble untested - red switch for PC PS3 selection |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster F430 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T500 RS Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> belt driven wheel/rumble for GT5 |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T60 Challenge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T150 Wheel | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> gear / belt combo wheel / rumble - 2 peddle |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster TMX Pro PC/XboxOne | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> direct drive rumble - no manual gear shift included |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T80 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->Base level and OK - PS4 - 270deg rumble - 2 peddle |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T300 RS GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS3 PS4 - belt driven - 900deg rotation and modular 28cm wheel out - 2 peddles but 3 available |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster TX Leather | <!--Vendor ID-->0x044f | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->TX Xbox version - 900deg rotation |- | <!--Description-->Thrustermaster TS PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PC only belt wheel |- | <!--Description--> TS XW Racer PC Xbox1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> top belt system |- | <!--Description-->Thrustmaster T-GT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->PS4 $700 £600 with T-DFB |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Tracer Zonda Racing Steering Wheel PC PS3 Vibration Feedback Pedals Gearbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ===Gamepad Joypad Adapters=== * Most adapters will work in most OS's without installing a driver. Special functions needing drivers will be noted. * Some adapters do not work with some [http://www.stepmania.com/wiki/Dance_Pads dance pads] because of voltage issues. Other adapters map the dancemat arrows as axes and not as buttons, causing problems. * If using an adapters should be compatible with '''original''' PlayStation PS/Xbox Xbox/GameCube GC /Dreamcast DC/Sega Saturn SS gamepads. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="35%" |Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Merge with USB on Digital Pad ! width="10%" |Analogue Hack with Analog Stick ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.maplin.co.uk/psx-usb-bridge-34887?tabid=3&worldid=&doy=21m9&faqitem=playstation%20controller%20to%20pc%20adaptor Maplin] [http://www.rockfire.com.tw/ Padix Co. Ltd. Rockfire] PX-205 PSX/USB Bridge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0583 | <!--Product ID-->0x2050 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes}} but buttons mapped different from others | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Maybe|poor}} | <!--Opinion-->Ok with dpads, but very poor support with analogue hack |- | Boom PS Joy Converter adaptor | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | discontinued (2004/5). Hold Up, Start, and Select for three seconds. Very good [http://www.stepmania.com stepmania] recommendation. |- | [http://www.hkems.com/m_main.htm EMS] [http://www.hkems.com/product/ps2/ps2-usb2.htm USB2] grey plastic box with 2 PSX ports, one on either side - UP and Select pressed for 3 seconds at the same time or the dance code (start+select+up) | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Tests/joystick shows the PS port works in digital mode on d-pad}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | Set in PC switch mode. Does not work when using 2 pads at the same time, likely higher power requirements. FPSE emu DualShock untested, Mat and Guitar untested but known lag involved |- | Joytech (play.com) (EMS USB2 bad clone) Black box twin PSX | 0x0b43 | 0x0003 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|buggy hardware}} | but poor on dance ddr mat and guitar hero as the left and right keys do not like being pressed together, Dual shock untested |- | [ EMS Trio Linker ] 1 PSone connection at bottom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX discontinued 2005 |- | [http://psxemulator.proboards.com/index.cgi?board=support&action=display&thread=421 EMS Trio Linker Plus] (blue box) 1 PSx at bottom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX discontinued |- | Gamtec [http://www.gamestone.co.uk/gradius/guides_usb_smartjoy_guide.php SmartJoy Plus] Lik Sang PS->USB converter Red 2005 | 0x0925 | 0x0005 | Low 0110 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe|detected and digital dpad works with [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4138&forum=2&post_id=35952#forumpost35952 joystick and testjoystick tests] but the second analog control is not mapping correctly in digital mode}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|Analogue Hack - hardware buggy not useable}} | Dual shock untested, Mat and Guitar untested. Nothing picked up upon plugging it in. Quite common, these items have grounding issues or feed voltage back into the USB host and freeze the host controller, preventing any plugins or removals being detected. |- | Gamtec SmartJoy Plus Dual PS->USB converter Red | 0x0925 | 0x00 | Low | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|buggy hardware}} | |- | [http://uk.gear.ign.com/articles/700/700334p1.html Lik-Sang Super SmartJoy PSX] | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1PSX |- | Soyo Kiki Kiky | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | eXcel PSX adaptor shaped a little like a stealth bomber with USB pass through | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | Venom | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | Dragon Plus (Radio Shack) Pantherlord GreenAsia USB to PS2/PS3 converter single black cable | 0x0e8f | 0x03 | 1.07 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes| }} | |- | Deal Extreme 2 PSX black cables from 1 USB port | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->HDE 2014 Personal Communication Systems Inc | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0810 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0106 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Same as single cable above but with black block midway along cable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC001 Super Joy Box 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC016 Super Joy Box arrowhead triangle twin PSX] Original was lack with RED Leds. Clones Dilong pu203, Blue HDE Neewer ShineData SD-APS2USB, Red Octane and Black PC Power Box (NS3454) '''embossed circle''' on top | 0x0810 | 0x0001 | 1.06 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes|Tests/joystick shows one PS port does not work with analog control at all but the other port does and maps correctly in digital mode}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|Analogue hack works }} | Still available 2013, poor construction though, falls to pieces easily. Dual Shock untested, Mat and Guitar untested |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd [http://www.mayflash.com/pc/pc038/pc038-1.htm Mayflash PC038 Super Joy Box Pro triangle twin PSX] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Limited Mayflash SuperJoy Box 5 PC006 long V-shaped 4 port PS/PS2 Game Controller Adapter | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Limited Mayflash SuperJoy Box 5 PRO PC039 PS/PS2 Game Controller Adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Merge with USB on Digital Pad | Analogue Hack with Analog Stick | Opinion |- | Boom PSX+N64 USB converter (purple or blue see through box) (2003/4) - red led for psx and green led for n64 | 0x6666 | 0x0667 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|not detected by Tests/joystick}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No|Analogue hack }} | Rumble Pak untested |- | [http://www.hkems.com/product/ps2/TrioLinkerPlus2.htm EMS Trio Linker Plus II] | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4753&forum=24&post_id=43102#forumpost43102 ] | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | 1DC 1GC 1PSX but not for ddr mat games |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC043 clone HuiJia Black twin N64 converter for PC USB | 0x0e8f | 0x3013 | 0x0 | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|detected by Tests/joystick though two digital pads have their settings wrong}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{Yes|Analogue hack works well with middle handle/grip little joystick}} | Rumble Pack untested |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC MagicBox SuperBox 3 | | | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | untested 1SS 1DC 1PSX } |- | <!--Description-->Lik Sang SmartJoy X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x0285 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SmartJoy X2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID-->0x0289 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC018 Super Joy Box 9 Xbox (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x060 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | does not work. Hub(s) 0x0288 detected but 0x0289 xbox1 joypads are not detected as hid let alone as [http://www.amiga.org/forums/archive/index.php/t-62940.html xpad] or [http://pingus.seul.org/~grumbel/xboxdrv/ linux xboxdrv driver] |- | TigerGame Mayflash PC019 Super Joy Box 10 Xbox Twin ports (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x060 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | does not work with the big Fatty Duke or smaller S Akebono controller(s) |- | TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC020 Super Joy Box 11 Xbox Quad ports (NOT 360) | 0x05e3 | 0x0604 | | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{No|shows up as a Genesys Logic Hub}} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick-->{{No| }} | |- | <!--Description-->TigerGame Ltd Mayflash PC035 3 in 1 Magic Joy box PS GC Xbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB to NES [http://wiki.nesdev.com/w/index.php/Standard_controller SPI like protocol] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Buffalo Classic USB Pad SNES like | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash PC044 USB to SNES | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB to MEGADRIVE GENESIS Joypad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.retrousb.com/product_info.php?cPath=21&products_id=70 USB to 9 pin ATARI RETROPORT style JOYSTICK PORT] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Atari RetroLink 9pin to SB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SLS Sega Saturn USB pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB on Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash PC050 Dual Saturn ports | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Guitar Hero for PC/Mac | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1430 | <!--Product ID-->0x474C | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad-->{{Yes| }} | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Cronus Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->BrookX One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Gamecube to USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash Magic NS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> WiiU |- | <!--Description-->Brook Converter WiiU P3 P4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CooV Xbox One Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Merge with USB Digital Pad--> | <!--Analogue Hack with Analog Stick--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} * [http://www.bemanistyle.com/forum/f6/best-metal-pad-19066/ Metal dance pads with LEDs] - My My Box Blue Shark (Nexen), Cobalt Flux (CF) (Let's Groove), Red Octane Afterburner, TX-2000, Logic3 (Dance Dance Dance), Gamerose (Stay Cool), * Hard foam mat - [http://www.mayflash.eu/3in1-deluxe-dansmat-ignition-foam-ps2xboxpc-p-5.html Mayflash] FutureMax Deluxe 3 in 1 Ignition, [http://www.gamerose.com/ Gamerose] (Stay Cool), TrinPad orange, * Soft foam mat - Logic3 (PS420N), [http://www.positivegaming.com/index.php?id=36 Positive Gaming Impact], Gamerose Miss Daisys Naki (Stay Cool), Pelican, MadCatz *PS1 PS2 PS3 PS4 flex ribbon big source of button/trigger issues with all controllers *PS2 Phat KSA1Q40A (Board), SA1Q33A (Membrane) SCHP-10010 H *PS2 SA1Q42A SCHP-10010 A *PS2 SA1Q43-A SCHP-10010 H The primary axes are either the Control Pad or the left stick. Buttons come in a rough order: face buttons, then shoulder buttons, then Select and Start, then buttons under sticks, and finally Control Pad directions if not assigned to a hat. But the order and number of buttons within a category are unpredictable, as is which button the user expects to use for each action. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="10%" | Joypad ! width="5%" | HATS ! width="5%" | Button 01 ! width="5%" | Button 02 ! width="5%" | Button 03 ! width="5%" | Button 04 ! width="5%" | Button 05 ! width="5%" | Button 06 ! width="5%" | Button 07 ! width="5%" | Button 08 ! width="5%" | Button 09 ! width="5%" | Button 10 ! width="5%" | Button 11 ! width="5%" | Button 12 ! width="5%" | Button 13 ! width="5%" | Button 14 ! width="5%" | Axes 1 ! width="5%" | Axes 2 ! width="5%" | Axes 3 ! width="5%" | Axes 4 ! width="5%" | Axes 5 ! width="5%" | Axes 6 ! width="10%" | Comment |- | [https://pineight.com/mw/index.php?title=USB_game_controllers Xbox 360 Wired Controller] | | A (down-green) | B (right-red) | X (left-blue) | Y (up-yellow) | LB (white) | RB (black) | Back | Start | Guide | L3 | R3 | | | | Left X | Left Y | LT | Right X | Right Y | RT | Poor 2D, Good 3D |- | <!--Description-->Gravis GamePad / Original PlayStation Controller | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Red (Sqleft) | Yellow X (X down) | Green O (O right) | Blue (Tri up) | L1 | R1 | L2 | R2 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | | | | | <!--Axes 1-->Stick X | Stick Y | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> PlayStation 2 Older Adapters | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Blue X (down) | Red O (right) | Pink Sq (left) | Green Tri (up) | L1 | R1 | L2 | R2 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | Stick 1 | Stick 2 | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> PlayStation 2 Newer Adapters | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01-->Up | Right | Down | Left | L2 | R2 | L1 | R1 | Select | <!--Button 10-->Start | Stick 1 (analogue Hack) | Stick 2 | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> Wish Technologies N64 Adaptoid | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> A | C Down | C Right | B | C Left | C Up | L | R | Start | <!--Button 10-->Z | Pad Up | Pad Down | Pad Left | Pad Right | <!--Axes 1-->Stick X | Stick Y | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> | | | | | | | | | <!--Button 10--> | | | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--HATS DPAD--> | <!--Button 01--> | | | | | | | | | <!--Button 10--> | | | | | <!--Axes 1--> | | | | | | <!--Opinion--> |- |} Just plug in your digital/analogue joystick or gamepad into USB port. The device will be handled by Poseidon USB stack. Poseidon is the USB stack with Trident adding a GUI (graphical user interface) prefs. the context sensitive page would come up right on pressing the help key inside the relevant window. The manual is in this archive, just in case it isn't in SYS:Locale/Help *How to change joystick mode to analogue? By default a connected USB joystick emulates Amiga digital joystick. To change this behaviour so that the joystick is presented as analogue you need to use Trident preferences application (System:Prefs/Trident). Open Trident and go to Devices on the left hand side (mouse click once on it). Select your controller from the list to the right and then click on Settings button below. This will open a new window. On the "General" tab find the "Lowlevel Library Joypad Emulation" section near the bottom. Find ports which are set to "Merge with USB" or "Override with USB" and change them to "Analogue Hack". Please note that analogue joystick support is an extension of original Amiga functionality, thus an Amiga application must be explicitly written to use it. AROS SDL library uses this functionality, thus all SDL applications that use joystick, can use the analogue joystick feature. The HID class has several options how to handle the input data: * Don't touch: The movement and button data for is not modified by the hid class. This is the default for the ports 0, 2, and 3. * Overwrite with USB: This will kill the original data that might had come from the internal ports and overwrites it with the joypad data for this USB interface. Note well: If you have multiple joypads connected, take care which setting you have selected for each port, because only the last interface with this option will actually send the joypad data to the game. * Merge with USB: This option merges the input data of the lowlevel.library with the USB stream. This only works, if the connected device on the original Amiga ports is NOT a mouse (because then the streams are incompatible). Merging should be the preferred method, because it leaves the original joysticks working. * Disable: Turns off the port for the application. * Analogue Hack: Tells Poseidon to force reporting of analogue data at the port. Please note that this only works with programs that understand the analogue data, because it's an extension to the original lowlevel.library standard made by Commodore. If you want to incorporate this feature in your software, just contact me and I will send you the necessary information. * Rumble Port: As addition to the analogue data, the HID class supports applications and games that want to utilize a rumble pack or force feedback motors in the gamepads. This field selects to which lowlevel port the hid device responds, when attempting to use the rumble pack. Normally, this corresponds to the port that has been set in the actions for the joypad. *How to change joystick port assignment? The low level library supports up to four ports. Port 0 is usually used by the mouse, port 1 is the standard port for joysticks/joypads. By default a connected USB joystick is present in Port 1. To change its location to Port 0 you need to use Trident preferences. Open Trident and go to Devices window. Select your controller from the list and then click on Settings button. This will open a new window. On the "General" tab find the "Lowlevel Library Joypad Emulation" section. Port 1 should be set as either "Merge with USB" or "Override with USB". Change this setting to "Don't touch". Change Port 0 setting to "Merge with USB". Go to "Actions" tab. In the "Reports and collection" select first entry named "Joystick". in the "Usage items" select "X axis". Go to "Performed actions" area. On the left there will be a list of triggers. Each of them should have (port1) in their params. Click on the first trigger and using buttons to the right of the list change port1 into port 0. Repeat this for all triggers and for all items on "Usage items" list. *How to make joystick simulate keyboard keys? With Poseidon it is possible to make the joystick simulate the keyboard pressings. This might enable using joystick for playing games which only have keyboard support. This feature is configured in Trident preferences. Open Trident and go to Devices window. Select your controller from the list and then click on Settings button. This will open a new window. Go to "Actions" tab. On the right top window select X axis. On the left bottom list select an entry "Digital Joystick, Push left(port 1)". On the panel to the right change "Digital joystick" into "Raw Key". A list of keys will be displayed. Select key you wish to send. Repeat the same procedure for "Digital Joystick, Release left (port 1)" option but this time check "Send key up even instead of key down". Open shell and move your joystick to the left - your selected letter should appear in the shell. *Analogue in Trident Prefs * Open the Trident USB Prefs -> Devices -> Select your joypad -> Settings button -> Action TAB * See some "axis" listed under "Usage items" in the top right of the window. They are your analog stick(s) * Check [x] Track Incoming Events which is half way down the window on the left And you should see some axis activity in "Usage items" when you move the analog stick *Actions HID class item -> Settings -> HID Class Window -> Action Tab -> Action handling area Reports and collections -> Usage Items -> Performed actions Qualifier keys are *special*. You don't only need to create the actual keypress but also modify the qualifiers. Go to the keyboard panel and find the windows menu key by enabling key tracking and pressing the windows menu key. Then assign the right amiga key to it. Go to the actions panel and find the right amiga key (it's called "Keyboard right GUI"). Remember the actions stored there, best write them down in exact order. Then delete them. Find the windows menu item and add the missing qualifier action. Be sure the parameters are exactly the same and the order is right. Set them to Raw, then assign an up and down button for each character, etc. when you change the settings to RAW so you can assign keyboard strokes. it will always say, KEYDOWN or what ever on the left, it never provides and option for key release. The problem still remains though that if I try to assign the Directional Pad (Hat) to Arrow Keys, that things will get screwed up and you either can not move with the directional PAD (HAT), or movements are assigned to the Left Analog, and do not work as they should, it's as if the right and down arrow keys are ALWAYS On, regardless of the fact that I did indeed assign a Key release command to each input. check that by pressing analog directions and see the current values, and the thresholds configured in poseidon to bind them to left/right/up/down. misconfigured too much stuff in the HID settings, you can always go in poseidon->config list entry and delete the config item related to your device (or the HID class setting itself), back to basics. *Rumble in Trident Prefs Open Trident Prefs and click on the Devices option in the left hand window. Click with the mouse once on your gamepad choice on the right hand side and again on the Settings button below. In the new window, select the '''General''' TAB and half way down on the right there is an "Open Now" button in the section "HID output control window". Clicking on that button opens another window (HID Control) with sliders for the two rumble engines inside the controllers and you can test if they work. '''Sometimes clicking that button does nothing, other times it will open the window and say nothing is detected.''' The leftmost two sliders do nothing, the third one has a large rumble effect, and the fourth one has a small rumble effect. ===Graphic Drawing Tablet=== There is a standard in HID for tablets possibly mouse type. If the tablet is HID conforming in that sense, it should work. Aiptek does a fairly good job at this. The other competitor, Wacom, didn't pay too much attention to this and simply adapted their legacy serial protocol into HID in a very awkward way. Older Wacom tablets have worked with the special support in the HID class, but not the more recent ones. to use graphic tablets fully, applications need to be written that make use of the AmigaOS NewTablet events (which AROS has) * Entry level - A6 (6x4) work area * Medium A5 (6x8) A4 (10x7) size (recommended but only a few ie years 2000 to 2003 models supported) * Semi Pro A3 (12x9) * Pro Cintiq * 2005/6 Some support added for Wacom tablets * 2008 Wacom's patent on battery free pens expires {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Micrograf Tabby (late 1980s and early 1990s) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->podscat pt 3030 graphics tablet | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Summagraphics | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom IV compatible (Graphire, ArtPad, A3, A4, A5 and PenPartner CT-0405-P - Wacom intuos GD-0405-R) Waycom Digitiser II UD-0608-R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Artpad II (KT-0405-R) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AceCad boards | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AipTek HyperPen 6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Calcomp | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->AipTek HyperPen 8000 - Aldi/Medion MD 9310 and Aldi/Tevion LT 9310 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- | <!--Description-->Tablet PC penabled | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based like x61t X60t NC4200 NC4400 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Serial RS232 based }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom PenPartner * PenPartner 2 * PenStation 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056a | <!--Product ID-->0x0000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Graphire - Wacom Tablet ET-0405-U UV1.1-1 (Slate Blue) ET-0405UL (lime) (orange) (red) (purple) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0X0010 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|late 90s with A6 size - [Wacom Support] of X-axis 00000-10205 Y-AXIS 0000-7421 Tip Pressure 000-511 under Trident prefs. Air pen mouse type movements }} |- | <!--Description--> * Grapphire 2 4x5 ET-0405A-U UV2.0-3 (Steel Blue) * Graphire 2 5x7 ET-0507A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0011 and 0x0012 | <!--Revision-->0110 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 and A5 versions - [Wacom Support] of X-axis 00000-10205 Y-AXIS 0000-7421 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air pen mouse type movements - mouse EC-120-0K tested}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Graphire 3 * cte-430/w 4x5 pearl sapphire * cte 630 6x8 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0013 and 0x0014 | <!--Revision-->0314 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 and A5 size - [Wacom Support] Xaxis 0-10207 yaxis 0-7423 tip pressure 0-511 and the erase end appears to respond but avoid bluetooth BT versions }} |- | Wacom Graphire 4 * cte-440/B Blue cte 440/s Silver 4x5 * cte-640 6x8 cte 640 u 0403 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0015 and 0x0016 | <!--Revision-->403 | {{Yes|A6 and A5 work area detected [Wacom Support] x-axis 0000-10207 Y axis 0000-7423 Tip Pressure 000-511 and delete rub out end of the pencil seems detected but avoid bluetooth BT versions }} |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom Intuos 4x5 GD-0405 * Intuos 6x8 GD-0608 * Intuos 9x12 GD-0912 * Intuos 12x12 GD-1212-U * Intuos 12x18 GD-1218 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0020 0x0021 0x0022 0x0023 0x0024 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected and responses delivered back - x axis up to 30479 and y axis 31679, tip pressure up to 1023 and x and y tilt up to 127 - Wacom intuos GD-0912-A for Apple Macs NOT SUPPORTED}} |- | <!--Description--> * Intuos 2 4x5 A6 - XD-0405-U * Intuos 2 6x8 A5 - xd 0608u uoc * Intuos 2 9x12 XD-0912-U * Intuos 2 12x12 XD-1212-U * Intuos 2 12x18 XD-1218-U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056a | <!--Product ID-->0x0041 0x0042 0x0043 0x0044 0x0045 | <!--Revision-->0126 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|various sizes and recognised as [Wacom Support] but not working. x-axis 00000-20319 y-axis 00000-16239 tip presure 0000-1023 x-tilt y-tilt 000-127. HID mouse xc-100-03 works but never could use it as a real tablet with pressure with TVPaint 3.6 }} |- | <!--Description--> * Intuos 3 4x5 (PTZ-430) * Intuos 3 4x6 (PTZ-431W ) * Intuos 3 6x8 (PTZ-630 PTZ630) * Intuos 3 6x11 (PTZ-631W A3 wide) * Intuos 3 9x12 (A4 PTZ-930 PTZ930) * Intuos 3 | <!--Vendor ID-->056a | <!--Product ID-->0x00b0 0x00b1 0x00b2 0x00b3 0x00b4 0x00b5 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No}} Actions in HID setup window definitively locks the Pointer (mouse) reports settings and even after a clear and save, nothing changes, the configuration returns to default values. "[Wacom]" reports don't see any events from the tablet, even with "Pointer" reports cleared and save, so is locked a in "mouse" state - but can send a special command to the tablet in order to put it into a special vendor mode. This mode enables Wacom specificities like pressure, tilt, absolute position, buttons, etc... you should send an HID report feature with ReportID=2 and data=2, the current HID class driver doesn't give a way to change that, even using the "initial startup actions" item in the extra collection. No listed features work |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Wacom Volito - Promethean FT-0405-U06 UV1.4-1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0060 | <!--Revision-->0141 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 work area with [Wacom Support] of x-axis 0000-5103 Y axis 0000-3711 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air and touch mouse movement - appears to be the budget option with some but limited features}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Volito 2 * CTF-??? 2x3 * CTF-420G CTF-420 V2.0-0 4x5 * Serif Penabled 6742 rebadge of CTF 420/020-B CTF-420/02 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0062 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|A6 work area with [Wacom Support] of x-axis 0000-5103 Y axis 0000-3711 Tip Pressure 000-511. Air and touch mouse movement - no erase function on the end of the pen - nylon nibs value option}} |- | <!--Description--> * Wacom PL-400 LCD * PL-500 * PL-510 * PL-550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0030 0x0031 0x0032 0x0034 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> * PL-600 * PL-600 SX * PL-700 * PL-710 * PL-800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0033 0x0035 0x0036 0x0037 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Cintiq 21 UX and Cintiq Partner DTF-720 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Wacom PenTablet Bamboo (MTE), Bamboo Craft (CTH), Bamboo Fun (CTE), Bamboo Pen (CTL) and Bamboo Pen & Touch (CTH) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Wacom Bamboo Fun Medium CTE-650 | | 0x0018 | | {{Maybe|[http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 works on a1k forum]}} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Fun Small CTE-450 white | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0017 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo One CTF-430 V2.0-0 CTF 430/S | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0069 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A5 wired air pen and acts like a mouse only}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos 4 * Small PTK-440 PTK-540 * Medium - PTK-640 - PTK 540WL Wireless - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Intuos4 surface sheet was revised in October 2010 to reduce nib wear}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos 5 Touch * * Medium - PTH-650 - USB Wired and Wireless Kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID-->0x0027 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested work, however wireless may glitch or drag }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pro Medium - PTH-651 - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Small Pen Tablet - MTE 450 MTE-450A (MTE-450/k) - | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x0065 | <!--Revision-->0116 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A6 work area - mouse movement but no pen detection except x-axis 2 to -2 and y-axis 2 to -2 - mini usb lead - 4 blue led lit buttons not detected as well as circular touch button?? }} |- | <!--Description-->Bamboo Pen CTL 460 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested all Bamboo versions were criticized for the drawing surface's roughness (which got smoother over time), which caused the small pressure-sensitive 'nib' to wear down, and become slanted or scratchy in the same way as pencil lead, albeit more slowly}} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo Fun CTH-461/S wired | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x00D2 | <!--Revision-->0106 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|A6 size - Pen tracking not working but finger touch works }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Bamboo Connect Pen Tablet CTL-470 CTL-470K 470-DE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->CTH 470K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom CTH 480/S wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} lithium battery for pad - |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pen Small CTL-480/S CTL 480 K wired | <!--Vendor ID-->0x056A | <!--Product ID-->0x030E | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|A5 detected as Intuos PS but not working although the RHS blue led responds to pen on tablet }} |- | <!--Description-->CTH 490 PK S Photo - CTH-490CK-S Comic - CTH-490AK-S Art | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested lower hovering height pen nibs wear fast and input lag/responsiveness}} |- | <!--Description-->Intuos Pen & Touch Medium - CTH-680 - USB Wired and Wireless Kit work | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wacom Intuos Pro (PTH-660 and PTH-860) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 10.6" Genius G-Pen M609 Genius G-Pen M609X iVista Media Tablet 10.6 Aiptek MediaTablet 10000u | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0501 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Slim Tablet 12.1" | <!--Vendor ID-->0x172F | <!--Product ID-->0x0034 | <!--Revision-->0x1105 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 12 by 9" Aiptek HyperPen 12000u T-12000U Tablet Series Nisis T-12000u USB Tablet Series Version 1.05 (aiptek rebadged) Trust item #1535 ADESSO Cyber Tablet 12000 Graphic design tablet iVista Media Tablet 12 PENTAGRAM O'pen Wide P 2003 Genius G-Pen M712 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0500, 0x08ca | <!--Product ID-->0x0010 | <!--Revision-->0105 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected with Nisis/Aiptek functioning as a tablet, untested with others - Puck (mouse) x axis 0000 to 6000 y axis 0000 to 6000 - stylus (pen) x axis 00000 to 12000 y axis 00000 to 12000 tip pressure 0000 to 1023 - 16 function keys - AAA battery needed for pen and another for the mouse}} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Media Tablet 14.1" v5.1e Genius G-Pen M714X Aiptek MediaTablet 14000u WMK-H141 Trust item #15358 Adesso CyberTablet 14000 M14 iVista Media Tablet 14.1 PENTAGRAM O'pen Wide P 2004 | <!--Vendor ID-->0X172f | <!--Product ID-->0X0500 | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|detected with Nisis/Aiptek functioning as a tablet - Stylus (Pen) X 16838 Y 16838 Tip Pressure 1023 }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop PID 0038 Genius G-Pen F509 Manhattan 177405 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0038 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop PID 0052 Yiynova MSP19 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0052 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Q Pad Aiptek HyperPen Mini NGS Flexi Style VisTablet PenPad iVistaTablet Q Flex Pad Bravod Q-PD65-S Trust Flex Design Tablet (#16937) | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0037 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Sirius Battery Free Tablet VisTablet Muse PENTAGRAM Designer P 2700 Princeton PTB-S1BK | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0502 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Slim Tablet 12.1" Genius G-Pen F610 Trust Slimline Widescreen Tablet (#16529) VisTablet Original 12" Adesso CyberTablet Z12 Adesso CT-Z12A PenPower Tooya Pro Aiptek Slim 12.1 Inch Aiptek SlimTablet 600u Premium II NGS Slim Proguess iVistaTablet Slim 12.1 PENTAGRAM ThinType P 2006 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0034 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Slim Tablet 5.8" Genius G-Pen F350 Trust item #16485 VisTablet Mini iVistaTablet Slim 5.8 | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0032 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Waltop Venus S Tablet Trust eBrush Widescreen Tablet (#17939) | <!--Vendor ID-->172f:0503 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Aiptek GmBH MediaTablet Ultimate II - 16:10 Professional Graphic Tablet Model 1400U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Hanvon Beijing HanWang HW Micro Drawing Tablet ET0504U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b57 | <!--Product ID-->0x8030 | <!--Revision-->01111 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|does not work - recognised as an HID mouse - no tablet extensions detected}} |- | <!--Description-->KYE EasyPen 340, Genius EasyPen 340 | <!--Vendor ID-->0458:5014 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | Aiptek Hyper Pen 6000u PC Tablet APT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{No|detected but does not work - win98 era cordless 6in by 4.5in - }} |- | <!--Description-->nisis T-8000U APT-2 Aiptek rebadge | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08CA | <!--Product ID-->0x0021 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|A5 detected but no responses }} |- | <!--Description-->Acecad Flair II GT-504 Init Fkt Fkt 0x5ab450c0 AIPTEK HyperPen 10000 U Aiptek HyperPen 10000U, AIPTEK Slim Tablet U600 Premium II | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0460 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Ace Cad Enterprise Co., Ltd Tablet - 5x3.75 drawing area | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0460 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bosto's | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} UCLogic Digitizer |- | <!--Description-->Adesso CyberTablet Z7, Adesso CyberTablet 12000, Adesso CT-12000A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->UC-Logic / Lapazz WP8060, UC-Logic / Lapazz PF1209, UC-Logic / Lapazz Artistic Tablet 5540, Manhattan 8"x6", Manhattan 3"x4", Manhattan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested but suspect not working}} |- | <!--Description-->DigiPro 5.5×4” Graphics Tablet Digital Ink Pad (A4 format) DigiPro WP8060, DigiPro WP5540, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius G-pen G-Pen 4500 Genius Wizardpen Genius Mousepen Genius Easypen i405 M610 Genius PenSketch 9x12, Genius MousePen i608, Genius MousePen 8x6, Genius MousePen / WizardPen 5x4, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius G-Pen F610 Genius G-Pen M610 Genius G-Pen 340 (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP4030U) Genius G-Pen 450 (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP5540U) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Genius UC-LOGIC iBall Tablet PF8060 iBall Iball Pen Tablet 8060U, Iball Pen Tablet 5540U, Iball Pen Tablet 4030U, Iball Design Tablet PF1209, NGS CADBOY (UC-LOGIC Tablet WP5540U) Pentagram QWare | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Trust TB-3100 Trust TB-5300 Trust 15356 Trust TB-6300 Trust 15357 WP8060U Slimline but bulky with metal backing A5 size Trust 16486, Trust 16447, Sketch Design Tablet, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|clashes with usb and crashes AROS }} |- | <!--Description-->UC-Logic Tablet WP1062 Aiptek HyperPen 10000U Monoprice 10X6.25 Inches Graphic Drawing Tablet Pickle 10x6.25 Inch Graphic Drawing tabletguess | <!--Vendor ID-->5543:0064 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | [ VTech KidiPhoto Art Studio] | | | | {{yes|works}} |- |} Tablet has a squared lines of wires which induce a current into the pen which is then detected by the metal grid in the tablet pad. Tablets report pressure (and tilt on expensive models) and are absolute pointing devices (put the pen at the top left and the mouse pointer will go to the top left of the screen). Graphic drawing area, what keys, report rate, resolution lpi lpmm, accuracy, pressure levels (may come from the app), origin position, Wacom tablets use electromagnetic resonance technology. Since the tablet provides power to the pen through resonant inductive coupling, no power is required for the pointing device. As a result, no batteries are inside the pen (or the accompanying puck), making them lighter and slimmer. Under the tablet's surface (or LCD in the case of the Cintiq) is a printed circuit board with a grid of multiple send/receive coils and a magnetic reflector attached behind the grid. In send mode, the tablet generates a close-coupled electromagnetic field (also known as a B-field) at a frequency of 531&nbsp;kHz. This close-coupled field stimulates oscillation in the pen's coil/capacitor (LC) circuit when brought into range of the B-field. Any excess resonant electromagnetic energy is reflected back to the tablet. In receive mode, the energy of the resonant circuit’s oscillations in the pen is detected by the tablet's grid. This information is analyzed by the computer to determine the pen's position, by interpolation and Fourier analysis of the signal intensity. In addition, the pen communicates information such as pen tip pressure, side-switch status, tip vs. eraser orientation and ID number (to differentiate between different pens, mice, etc.). For example, applying more or less pressure to the tip of the pen changes the value of the pen's timing circuit capacitor. This signal change can be communicated in an analog or digital method. An analog implementation modulates the phase angle of the resonant frequency, while a digital method is communicated to a modulator that distributes the information digitally. The tablet forwards this and other relevant tool information in packets, up to 200 times per second, to the computer. If you disable (delete all of them except for one that needs to be set to "no action", so that it will not be regenerated as default) the Extra Startup actions, the tablet should remain in relative mouse mode—you will not get pressure information in that mode though. [http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/highway_usb/message/2394]}} === Handheld Barcode Scanner Readers === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Farsun 9100 barcode scanner 0-12" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola Symbol LS2203 CMOS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Tysso | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Simple}} Code 11, Code 39, Code 93, Code 128, Coda Bar, UPC-A, UPC-E, EAN-8, EAN-13, MSI/Plessey, Telepen, Interleaved 2 of 5, Industrial 2 of 5, Matrix 2 of 5 |- | <!--Description-->Unitech MS320 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wasp WCS3905 CCD 1" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Code 93, Matrix 2 of 5, Industrial 2 of 5, Code 39, UCC/EAN-128, ISBN, Code 32, EAN/JAN-8 , EAN/JAN-13 , UPC-A, UPC-E, Codabar, Code 128, Code 11, Interleaved 2 of 5, MSI-Plessey, China Post, IATA 2 of 5, ISSN, UK-Plessey |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Datalogic Touch 90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Intermec | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell Metrologic MK9540-32A38 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola LS2208 Laser | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Wasp WWS800 Laser 1D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Datalogic GD4130-BK-C066 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell 1202G-1USB-5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Motorola / Symbol DS6707-DC20007ZZR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->DataMan 8000 2D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Honeywell Voyager 9520/40 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Metrologic MS1690 USB 2D Barcode Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} QR Code GS1 Databar PDF417 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Syscan GM800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} [http://www.scandit.com/2011/11/04/types-of-barcodes-choosing-the-right-barcode-type-ean-upc-code128-itf-14-or-code39/ Types of Barcode] <pre> UPC-A Grocery most common Code 128 EAN-13 Library Books ISBN & ISSN, Code 39 Codabar blood bank, 2D barcodes such as Data Matrix PDF417e Maxicode Aztec QR Code old Nokia handsets, MicroPDF417 </pre> ===TouchScreens=== Projected capacitive (PCAP) touch screen product, amongst many options the widely used are I2C and USB *USB host–device structure which dominates consumer and industrial electronics devices where higher bandwidth needed and user-friendly (multiswipes) *I2C Inter-Integrated Circuit simple serial standard for LCD display in embedded systems because of cost and low power *SPI arduino and rpi single boards We cover the USB here {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | eGalax Touch 4a | 0eef | 0001 | 0001 | {{yes|2009 works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lilliput HDMI Monitors 669GL-70NP/C/T (7 inch) 869GL-80NP/C/T (8 inch) FA1011-NP/C/T (10 inch) FA1046-NP/C/T (10 inch) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Iilyama Prolite Monitors PROLITE T1513SR-1 (15 inch) PROLITE T1730 (17 inch) PROLITE T1713SR-1 (17 inch) PROLITE T1913SR-1 (19 inch) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Smart Display Company (SDC) Touchscreens TFT Monitors TOUCH-TFT-TS07 (7 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS08 (8 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS10 (10 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS12 (12 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS15 (15 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS17 (17 inch) TOUCH-TFT-TS19W (19 inch wide) TOUCH-TFT-TS22W (22 inch wide) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->XENARC Monitors 7 inch models 700TSH 700TSU 700TSV 702TSV 705TSV 706TSA 700IDT MDT-X7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->XENARC 8 inch models: 800TSV 805TSV 10 inch models: 1020TSV 1026TSA 1040TS 12 inch models: 1200TS 1200TR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Asus VT229H 21.5" | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->CUQI 7" Monitor Touchscreen 1024x600 IPS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Espresso 15" Portable Touchscreen Display Monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hannspree HT225HPB 21.5 inch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->WaveShare 13.3inch HDMI LCD (H) (with case) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ===GPS tracking, running, cycling, biking, walking, hiking, ORIENTEERING, boaters and mapping=== Support for OpenStreetMap but not for Ordnance Survey, Map Pilot or National Geographic's Topo maps data gdb, Data output supported nmea 0183 V1.5 APA, V1.5 XTE and V2.1 GSA formats, gpx, kml/kmz, tracks from tcx files, geo: URIs, NMEA0183(which is RS232, voltages range from -15 volts to 15 volts, 4800 baud), or need NMEA sentences connected to your computer other method that some units support is a special serial cable that actually emits raw RS232 NMEA. These usually take 10->30 volts input, can run the unit, and have full voltage I/O for RS232 (not like spanner mode, which effectively turns the unit into a USB->Serial adapter inside the case). Equivalent apps - merkator, mapsource, {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Garmin gpsmap 180 GPS/chart plotter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->1992 GARMIN GPS 55 AVD Portable System | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - waas pinpoint within 3 metres - nmea - 4AA battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS 12 12XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Legend C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eMap | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|possibly through usbmodem rs232 connection nmea 0183 protocol}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} rs232 these older units supported it and would provide the stream in either the standard NMEA 0183 format or a proprietary Garmin format. |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPS 75 AVD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS Map 7000 model 45006 (1994) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS Tracker | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Pioneer Satellite Navigator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan GPS 300 315 320 Mentor Receiver (2003) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Not for dedicated sat nav units like the Nuvi, TomTom, etc | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->NaviLock NL-402U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested u-blox 5 SuperSense® chipset with receivers for GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, BeiDou and QZSS}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->GM1-86UB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| U-BLOX UB-6010 GGA,GSA,GSV, RMC and support VTG, GLL, TXT ublox binary and NMEA Command Dynamic Condition }} |- | <!--Description-->NAVILOCK GPS NL-602U USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|works via usbmodem.device - ublox ag 6 chipset - 50 channel}} |- | <!--Description-->TOPGNSS ton Receiver & Antenna GM702 u-blox 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|UBLOX7020 chip design bloc u-blox}} |- | <!--Description-->VK-162 G-MOUSE u blox 7 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1546 | <!--Product ID-->0x01a7 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|UBX G70xx with RMC VTG GSV TXT GLL GGA GSA}} |- | <!--Description-->VK-172 u-blox 7 G7020-KT gps gnss white pen stick receiver - over 1 inch long | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1546 | <!--Product ID-->0x01a7 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A| detected as cdc controlled plug in device - 18x18x2mm patch antenna but can be slow to update - nmea 0183 and ublox binary protocol}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GlobalSat BU-353 WaterProof USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested SiRF Star III}} |- | <!--Description-->Haicom HI-206 USB GPS receiver with RS-232 interfaces, RJ11 and PS/II connector EB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|usb-serial prolific pl2303 detected but GSP3F SiRF Star IV technology not detected or bound}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->BT760Y, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 5 GPS chipset}} |- | <!--Description-->GM-65 USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 6 GPS chipset - 65 channel}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 7 GPS chipset}} |- | <!--Description-->GM-65 USB GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested Skytraq Venus 8 GPS chipset - 167 channels}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Colorado 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} USB |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Geko 101 201 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} limited waas enabled only - waypoints - aaa battery |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Edge 200 bike mount | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin ForeRunner 10 15 watch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Montana 600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Dakota 10 20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Map76s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Oregon 450T | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} USB nmea 0183 |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex 10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - no nmea0183 sentences data stream output - configuration an option to set it to "Garmin" mode, or "Mass Storage" mode. Since the mass storage mode seems to be required for waypoint/track/etc data exchange, the 'Garmin' mode would be for this data stream. Yet putting it in that mode doesnt seem to produce anything.}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin Oregon 650T | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPSMAP 64S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GPSMap 78S or GPSMap 76CSX which has a NMEA port for talking to Nav equipment | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin eTrex Vista Cx GPS Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested - 2AA battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Garmin GPSmap 276c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan 2000 XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan 3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Triton 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} SiRFstarIII™, Antenna Type Multidirectional Patch with WAAS, EGNOS, MSAS support |- | <!--Description-->Magellan Triton 400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} ==massstorage.class (MSC/UMS - most cameras and mp3 players)== === USB Card Readers === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="15%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Installing ! width="15%" |Booting ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | A-Tec Model CR-362 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{N/A|untested}} |- | [http://www.belkin.com/IWCatProductPage.process?Merchant_Id=&Section_Id=200406&pcount=&Product_Id=179164 Belkin 15 in 1 Card Reader] | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Conrad CP440 60 in 1 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works on a1k forum}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Genesys Gtech Logic 19 in 1 | 0x05E3 | 0x0710 | High 0200 | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Hama 19 in 1 Card Reader | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | Hama 35 in 1 Card Reader | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Integral Single Slot SD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kingston USB 3.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Lexar microsd adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} but wider than Sandisk version - could block other slot if below |- | Pretec CardDriver | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sandisk MicroMate | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate SD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate Micro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} has satisfying 'click' when microsd inserted |- | <!--Description-->Sandisk MobileMate Duo MicroSD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} no 'click' insertion uses pressure so future wear and tear issues |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Serena metal cased microsd only | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|Maybe}} hit or miss on quality |- | <!--Description-->Serena "Sandisk MobileMate" look-alike | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|Maybe}} hit or miss on quality |- | SilverCrest 16in1 | | | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend P5 8 in 1 TSRDP5K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Transcend P8 15 in 1 TSRDP8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Zyxel integralmemory 8 in 1 | 0x0aec | 0x3260 | | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | {{no|not detected}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Installing--> | <!--Booting--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === USB Hard Drives === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Datel MaxDrive | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Inateck 2.5 Inch USB 3.0 Hard Drive Disk Enclosure/ Case (FE2001) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Full USB 3.0 port but plastic teeth keeping drive in place can snap |- | <!--Description-->Inateck case (FE2002) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} full USB 3.0 port - updated design |- | <!--Description-->Inateck case (FE3001) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} wider USB 3.0 port and no on/off switch Jmicron JMS578 chipset |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Iomega Desktop Hard Drive 500GB, 3,5“, USB2.0 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung T3 SSD | | | | {{N/A|untested}} USB 3.1 Gen 1 space grey / black metal/ plastic |- | Samsung T5 SSD | | | | {{N/A|untested}} USB 3.1 Gen 2 256GB 512GB alluring blue 1Tb 2Tb black unibody metal |- | Samsung | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Seagate | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Seagate | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Toshiba Canvio 1TB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|partition fat32 or sfs to 100GB max - ntfs partitions not detected out of the box - select usb drive in trident prefs and press disable to shutdown}} |- | Verbatim 160GB Smartdisk | | | | {{yes|works }} |- | Western Digital USB | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->WD Essential | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->WD Passport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |} === USB DVD CD ROM Drives === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->12.5mm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->12.5mm enclosure mini-sata dvd-rw | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested needs sole usb3 port to power it}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->9.5mm enclosure ECD829 mini-sata dvd-rw with Initio Corporation INIC-1618L SATA | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13fd | <!--Product ID-->0x0840 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested but probably needs sole usb3 port to power it}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |} === USB to NGFF NVMe SDD HDD DVD CD ROM Drives === The older Jmicron JMS539B seems to result in massive filesystem corruption given the amount of corrupted content. Prehaps always avoided Jmicron and opted for Asmedia even if it costed a bit more. Realtek seems to be working okay for me generally speaking and newer Jmicron chipsets are less buggy – but evidently not perfect. From [https://goughlui.com/2025/08/17/psa-validate-your-storage-jmicron-jms583-kioxia-bg4-series-ssd-issue/ thread] Here is a [https://forums.anandtech.com/threads/stable-nvme-usb-adapter.2572973/ very long thread] that discusses data corruption and stability issues with these bridges. The majority of the posts are complaining of dropouts, hangs and the like, which usually down to either a poor USB 3.x implementation (SuperSpeed connections are very picky as to cables, ports and trace routing) or problematic compatibility. Regardless, the [https://www.legitreviews.com/jmicron-jms583-controller-version-matters-for-portable-usb-drives_219422 JMS583 is known to have several versions] noting that the last revision (C) in that article is a 2021 release which should fix earlier stability and cable quality compatibility issues. JMS583-STD-Release-v00.02.01.04-Bus Power.bin is the latest JMS583 firmware as of August 2025. Early firmware RTL9210 seems to have issues as well * RTL9210B * JMS583 rev1 with firmware A2 or A3 * RTL9210A * JMS583 firmware 2.0.9 * Asmedia ASM2362 * RTL9201A The reference Hardware ID for the JMS583 chipset from JMicron is: VID_152D&PID_0583&REV_0209 where "VID_152D" identifies a JMicron product; "PID_0583" is the generation chipset; "REV_0209" is the firmware version installed. In the same way, the reference Hardware ID for the RTL9210 from Realtek is: VID_0BDA&PID_9210&REV_3100 "VID_0BDA" is for a Realtek product, "PID_9210" is referred to the chipset and "REV_3100" to the firmware. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->ASM1153E / ASM1153 with firmware 140509_A1_82_40 or 141126_A1_EE_82. Both supports UASP and TRIM on USB 3.1 Gen.1 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with sabrent ec-uasp}} |- | <!--Description-->ASM235CM Ugreen aluminum bridging the USB3.2 Gen2x1 to Serial ATA host interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->TI 9261 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->ASM225 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->JMicron JMS578 issues USB 3.1 Gen.1 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0578 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|needs fixing on pi4 storage quirks}} |- | <!--Description-->JMicron JMS576 issues USB 3 to usb-c adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0576 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|orico}} |- | <!--Description-->JMS562 JMicron Technology Corp | <!--Vendor ID-->152d | <!--Product ID-->0562 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->JMS561U | <!--Vendor ID-->0x152d | <!--Product ID-->0x1561 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with sabrent ec-uasp}} |- | <!--Description-->VL716Q4 Orico black meshed aluminum usb c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1053E | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->ASmedia ASM1051E | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174c | <!--Product ID-->0x55aa | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM1053 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x174C | <!--Product ID-->0x1536 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Asmedia ASM104x | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1B21 | <!--Product ID-->0x1042 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Unknown Chinese version | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0bc2 | <!--Product ID-->0x2312 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works}} |- | <!--Description-->JMicron N5321 gr | <!--Vendor ID-->0x152d | <!--Product ID-->0xa583 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Initio Corp INIC-1618L mini slimline sata 6 + 7 pins to usb2 adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13FD | <!--Product ID-->0x0840 | <!--Revision-->0114 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works mini sata to usb2 detects 201x laptop DVD as MassStorage(CD/DVD) but may need powered USB hub}} |- | <!--Description-->Unknown mini sata to usb3 adaptor | <!--Vendor ID-->0x01F75 | <!--Product ID-->0x0621 | <!--Revision-->0036 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|sometimes works mini sata to usb3 detects 201x notebook DVD drive as MassStorage(SCSI) but 5V 1.5Amp needs powered hub to burn }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |} === External Floppy === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://techtravels.org/amiga/amigablog/ Amiga Floppy Project] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://aminet.net/package/driver/media/Catweasel_AROS_V1.2 Catweasel Mk4] | <!--Vendor ID-->0xE159 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0x00 | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|2005 [http://archives.aros-exec.org/index.php?function=browse&cat=driver/storage works]}} |- | <!--Description-->Catweazle MK4plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2010 driver for Teac are best, Sony are good, but Mitsumi don't like the Catweasel}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://hxc2001.free.fr/floppy_drive_emulator/ HxC Floppy Emulator] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.softpres.org/glossary:kryoflux KyroFlux] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung SFD-321U/EP USB Floppy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.cbmstuff.com/proddetail.php?prod=SCP SuperCard Pro] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.facebook.com/groups/greaseweazle Greaseweazle STM hardware], [https://cowlark.com/fluxengine/index.html Greaseweasel support], [https://github.com/keirf/greaseweazle python software], [https://amigakit.amiga.store/greaseweazle-p-91279.html buy], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->USB FLOPPY DISK DRIVE (USB External Floppy Disk) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/SukkoPera/OpenFlops OpenFlops] with [https://github.com/keirf/flashfloppy FlashFloppy] Gotech clone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/hmerrett/HenryFlops HenryFlops reworked OpenFlops] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/tebl/Amiga-DrawBridge DrawBridge aka Arduino Amiga Floppy Disk Reader/Writer] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| arduino based hardware }} |- | <!--Description-->FL-2501 USB Portable Diskette Drive | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2009 usb - [https://amiga.robsmithdev.co.uk/ Drawbridge] [https://github.com/RobSmithDev/ArduinoFloppyDiskReader software] ribbon cable compat with p/n 19308801-19 and s/n U356244 - model ASM P/N 27l4226 and FRU P/N 05k9283 - |- | <!--Description-->Dell Floppy Drive Module USB External 3.5" - Teac FD-05PUB 1.44mb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2004 usb 1.1 |- |} ==ptp.class (PTP and MTP - other cameras and mp3 players)== === Cameras === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 20D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 350D (also known as the Digital Rebel XT/Kiss Digital N) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 DIGIC II processor 8-megapixel }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot A430 A560 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 400D (XTi) digital SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1000D also known as Rebel XS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10.2mp 720p }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 450D aka Rebel Xsi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 12.2mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot S90 S95 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 2010 720p video - 10Mpixel }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot SD960 IS Digtal ELPH | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 Still Image: Exif 2.2 (JPEG), Movie: MOV (Image: H.264; Audio: Linear PCM) Lithium-ion Battery Pack NB-4L }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 500D aka Rebel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 1080p 15.1MP Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 550D 600D aka Rebel T2i T3i DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010-2011 1080p 18MP Lithium LP-E8 }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot S100 S110 S120 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011-2013 720p-1080p video 12.1MP and above versions - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1100D DSLR Camera aka Rebel T3 SLR, EOS Kiss X50 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p 10Mpixels Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 650D 700D aka Rebel T4i T5i T6i SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2013 1080p 18Mpixels Lithium LP-E8 articulating flip out twistable screen }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon ELPH 300 HS (IXUS 220 HS) 230 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 blogging camera }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon PowerShot N | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 12.1 MP CMOS, DIGIC 5 Wifi Lithium Battery Pack NB-9L }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot G7 X, G7X-II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014-2016 1080p video 12.1MP and above versions - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 1300D DSLR Camera aka Rebel T6 SLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 1080p 16Mpixels Lithium }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon Powershot G7x G5X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| G7X flip up and G5X flip out - same batteries - no external microphone input - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS M3 M5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| flip out - same batteries - }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon EOS 60D 70D 80D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 6D 7D 8D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Canon 5D Mark II III IV DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Canon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji FinePix A850 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->FujiFilm Finepix F100fd | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji FinePix F810 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xf1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| pocketable exr cmos 12mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xt1 x-t1 x10 x-t10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Fujifilm x100 x100s x100t | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xPro1 xPro2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji xt2 / x-t2 x-t20 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4K video }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Fuji | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GoPro HERO 3 HERO4 HERO 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D100, D60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 Compact flash storage - non interchangeable lenses up to 12.3MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D50, D50x | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 storage - 6.1MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D70, D80, D90 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 Compact flash storage - 10MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D40, D40x | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 storage - 10MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D300, D700 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 storage - 12.3MP sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D2Xs, D2Hs, D3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006-2008 storage - sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 720p video unlike D3000 }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 16mpixel}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 16.2mp 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon L26 L27 L28 L29 L31 Coolpix compact cameras | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p video - 2 AA - pocket sized }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 720p video 14.2mp}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5100 DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 16.2mp 720p}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon L810 L820 L830 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2014 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 storage - sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7100 D7200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012-2014 up to 24.2mp 1080p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 1080p 24MPixel}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5200 D5300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 24.1MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D800 D600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 1080p video sd card storage - dust/oil issue at start}} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3300 DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24.2MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D500, a high-performance DX-format (APS-C) DSLR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D3400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 24.2MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D5500 D5600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016-2018 24.1MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D810 D610 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 1080p video sd card storage }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D7300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4K UHD video }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon D900 D850 D820 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 4k 46MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nikon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus C-370 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 3.2mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Camedia C-725 Ultrazoom | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 3mp aa batteries, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 8mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-410 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus Evolt E-510 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 10MP Live MOS sensor with TruePic III processor, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-420 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10mp, compactflash and xD cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-520 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10mp, compactflash and xD cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-620 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 12.3mp, compactflash, xD and microdrive cards, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus E-450 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 10mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax * ist DS DSLR camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 6.1mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K10D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 10.2mp APS-C CCD no video and older manual Pentax K-mount lenses}} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K20D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2008 14.6MP APS-C but no video recording mode }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K30 K-5 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2012 16MP full HD (1080p) recording at 24/25/30 fps}} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24MP 1080p }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 24MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Pentax K-3 III | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 25.7MP BSI CMOS sensor }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix LZ10 LZ20 DMC-LZ30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 720p video }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic TZ1 TZ5 TZ9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix GH1 GH2 like the DMC-GH2HEB-K - GH3 DMC-GH3HEB-K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Four Thirds (GH2) MFT Micro Four Thirds (GH3) limited to 29mins recording }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic AF series AF100 AF101 AF102 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic Lumix DMC-G2 DMC-G3 G5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic TZ60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic DMC LX7 10 LX15 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GF7 GX8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic G80 G85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| micro 4/3 }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GH4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| micro 4/3 - shooting in MOV or MP4 formats recording limited to sd card size but split files because the FAT32 file system only supports files up 4GB in size, which amounts to around 5 minutes of 4K (100mbps) footage - GH4 appears to create 4GB files as a rule, regardless of whether the memory card’s file system supports larger files or not - }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic GH5 gx80 gx85 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Effective: 20.3 Megapixel 5184 x 3888 - 2 sd card slots compatible with high-speed, high capacity UHS-II - sd card v rating like the v90 should record at 60MB/s to be compatible with the GH5 in the All-I format - possible file corruption with .mdt files - new firmware 2.0 update, the Panasonic GH5 becomes the first 5K - }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic FZ2000 FZ2500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Panasonic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung WB100 WB1100 WB150 WB2200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 16MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung NX11 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung NX200, NX20, NX1000 and NX210 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 20.3Mp APS-C sized CMOS image sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sanyo Xacti CG65 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sanyo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 6.1MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cyber-shot DSC camera models W110 W220 H300 H400 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 10.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Alpha DSLR-A230 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 10.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony A290 DSLR Camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 14.2MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cybershot HX20V HX30V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 18mp 720p - steady shot unit / optical block can cause buzzing noise and/or jumping image in lcd / viewfinder - dots are dirt and this voids the warranty }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony Cybershot HX50V HX60V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 20.2MP 1080p - steady shot unit / optical block can cause buzzing noise and/or jumping image in lcd / viewfinder - dots are dirt and this voids the warranty }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony A77 A99 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony WX100 WX150 wx220 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 2014 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony NEX-6 Sony NEX-7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 16 to 24MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony NEX-3N Sony NEX-5N | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 16MP }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α58 Sony α68 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 20.1 MP 2014 24mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony rx100 mk III | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 20.1MP 1.0-type back-illuminated Exmor R CMOS sensor, often after boot-up, the motor starts running for no reason for first versions' - }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α5000 a5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 20.1 Megapixel APS-C Exmor APS HD CMOS 1080p Sony E-mount [https://github.com/ma1co/Sony-PMCA-RE hack] using [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8M4hR9HiOzM this] }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α6000 a6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 24MP APS-C sensor }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 A7S a7r a7c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 mirror less - more compact }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α77 II, α99 II, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 24.3 MP, 2016 42.4mp }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony rx100 mk IV V | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 2016 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RX0 RX zero, RX0 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 2017 }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α6500 a6500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 24.2MP APS-C sensor 4K }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 Alpha 7 II E-mount interchangeable lens mirrorless camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 24.2mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony α7 A7Sii a7r a7c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 mirror less - more compact }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony a7 III α77 ILCE7M3/B Full-Frame Mirrorless Interchangeable-Lens Camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 24.2mp, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ZV-1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 24mm optical zoom, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ZV-1F | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 entry-level vlogging, 1-inch 20.1MP, ultra-wide 20mm f/2 prime lens}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} <pre > Lens Mounts Canon EF EF-S Nikon F Panasonic Olympus OM Pentax DA, FA, F, A, M, and K series Fujifilm X mount </pre > <pre > Sensors APS-C S35 Full Frame 43 Four Thirds M43 MFT Micro four thirds </pre > === Digital Voice Recorder Dictaphone Dictation Machine Handheld === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2011 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7200 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested 2012 no usb }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2012 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2013 }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus WS-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-7700 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-8600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-711PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-712PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-731PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus WS-811 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested slide out usb-a - aaa battery - ok recordings }} |- | <!--Description-->Olympus VN-540PC Olympus VN-541PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Philips DVT1250 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX470 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX560 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony ICD-UX570 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} === USB eBooks Readers drm free EPUB version 2.0.1 (2007), 3.0 (2011), 3.1 (2015) or [https://www.w3.org/TR/epub-33/ 3.3 (2024)] [https://github.com/thansen0/sample-epub-minimal epub examples] formats access === EPUB file format is an open standard based on XHTML for content and XML for metadata, contained in a zip file archive PDF v2.0 in 2017, 2009 takeover by ISO Org, 1.7 in 2006 , 1.6 in 2005, 1.4 in 2001, 1.3 in 1999, 1.0 in 1993 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Access ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Barnes and Noble Nook Simple Touch NST BNRV300 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2080 | <!--Product ID-->0x0003 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->when finding the right micro usb cable that works, internal nook memory not accessible but sd card fat32 readable and writable outside | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2011 6in 600x800 e-ink 16 grayscale .jpg}} battery remove sd card and Torx T5 back top for Cameron Sino CS-BNR003SL - USA 1.2.2 md5sum 351e26527e80156183e74be2da2ce89f *nook_1_2_update.zip - 1.2.1 UK fdba3981f7f221cc5143db6329645bc2 *nook_1_2_update.zip - skip registration, Turn on the device, but do NOT start setting it up. Hold down the top right button on the front of the device and slide your finger from left to right across the top of the E Ink screen. A ‘Factory’ button should appear in the top left corner of the screen. Press it. Once in the Factory menu, hold down the top right button on the front of the device and tap the bottom right corner of the screen should now see a ‘Skip Oobe’ button. Tap that and the Nook should finally load the home screen. Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description-->Barnes and Noble Nook Simple Touch with Glowlight *2012 Nook Simple Touch with GlowLight BNRV350 *2013 Nook GlowLight BNRV500 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2080 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 0x0007 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2012 untested }} perform a hard reset: Turn off the nook completely, turn it on, as soon as you see the screen flash begin holding the bottom page turn buttons until the screen flashes with a message asking reset, press the 'n' key twice to start the reset - Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description-->Nook Glowlight 4 Plus 7.8-inch screen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} Poor battery management - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> *NOOK 1st Edition (2009-2018) BNRZ100 *NOOK Color (2010-2024) BNRV200 *NOOK Tablet (8GB/16GB) (2011-2024) BNTV250A / BNTV250 *NOOK HD (2012-2024) BNTV400 *NOOK HD+ (2012-2024) BNTV600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Elonex 511EB | <!--Vendor ID-->045e:ffff | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2009 untested Preferences->advanced->debug device detection}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://jaforeck.wordpress.com/2012/08/05/ready-to-meet-viktor-navorski-gained-access-to-elonex-621ebs-terminal-52/ Elonex 621EB] eBook | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1f85 | <!--Product ID-->0x1688 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->unlocked ootb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2010 untested usb mini charging 6" diagonal eInk Screen - 800 x 600 pixels, 8 Level 166dpi Paperlike screen, Embedded 1GB Flash NAND, full SD Card Slot up to 16GB - WAV, MP3, JPG, PNG, BMP, GIF support and ePub and PDF(with reflow) (TXT, HTML) support}} |- | <!--Description-->Elonex 700eb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2011 untested adjust screen blanking by menu then settings then device standby, you can then turn it off}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->iRiver Story HD eBook | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} freescale imx.508 arm mcimx508cvkbb cpu with 2gb samsung nand, m13892aj charging chip, eb07_main_mp1_110321 mobo, mini usb, atheros ar61026 wifi - |- | <!--Description-->iRiver Story | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Rakuten Touch A/B kobo3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Touch C, Kobo Mini, Kobo Glo N613, Kobo Aura HD N514 N204 kobo4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura, Kobo Aura H2O, kobo5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2013 6in untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura H2O Edition 2 v1, Kobo Glo HD, Kobo Touch 2.0, Kobo Aura ONE N709, Kobo Aura ONE Limited Edition, Kobo Aura Edition 2 v1 N236, kobo6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Aura H2O Edition 2 v2, Kobo Aura Edition 2 v2, Kobo Nia, Kobo Clara HD, Kobo Forma, Kobo Libra H2O kobo7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Kobo Elipsa, Kobo Sage kobo8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> *Kobo Libra 2 kobo9, Kobo Clara 2E kobo10, Kobo Elipsa 2E kobo11 *Kobo Libra Colour kobo13, Kobo Clara BW, Kobo Clara Colour kobo12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pandigital Personal eReader aka? Papyre 6.2 very similar to BQ Avant Firmware | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS 300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS 350 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2009 epub bbeb cbz untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PRS-650 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle K1 D00111 - Main Menu=: Settings: Menu=: Device Info shows S/N | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0002 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->256mb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2007 untested Marvell Xscale PXA255}} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle K2, D00511 170-1012-00, D00701 D00801 S11S01B * k2 means K2 US * k2i means K2 GW * dx means KDX US * dxi means KDX GW * dxg means KDX Graphite | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0003 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb unless jb | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2010 untested Freescale i.MX31 }} the Kindle is a small computer running Linux 2.6 on an ARM processor |- | <!--Description-->AMAZON Kindle D00901 3rd Gen with keyboard - Menu, Settings for S/N and then Menu again to choose Update * S/N starts B006 means k3g aka K3 3G US * S/N starts B008 means k3w aka K3 WiFi * S/N starts B00A means k3gb aka K3 3G UK EU - debug mode with ;debugON and ~help | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->{{yes|4Gb internal no access until jailbroken JB}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 with mobi and azw3 formats only - micro usb 5v 0.85a - freescale i.mx35 ARM soc with 12bit parallel interface with epson e-ink cpu, 256MB synchronous dynamic RAM, 4GB eMMC internal memory only but no sd slot, MC13892 PMIC - atheros wifi 54mbit pci-e a e keyed wifi - ?? later models wm96103 audio codec - display has 2Mbit serial memory ic on ribbon cable with 4bpp inverse grayscale display not touchscreen - 3g module - screen replacement really annoying - 4 test points near T07 = TX RX GND ? - as of 2025, JB v0.13.N, MKK2014, MKK2025, KUAL, KoReader Legacy2025, and maybe later SS v0.47.N, Python 0.14.N, Fonts v5.16.N, USBNet v0.57.N - USB-downloader mode when Vol+ is pressed during startup - Shift + Alt + M for Minesweeper - |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle 4th Generation k4 D01100 two buttons, square movement and two buttons at bottom *B00E plastic back clipped in [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV1dyNkjjro many places] and strongly taped down to battery cover | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0005 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb unless jb with USB MS, USBMS aka also known as USB MSC or UMS | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 once back off use Torx T5 to remove battery cover screws - battery glued down S2011-001-A 515-1058-01 DR-A015 MC-265360 - Freescale i.MX508 SOC, 2Gb eMMC storage, 256MiB of LPDDR1, MC13892 PMIC - vendor modified u-boot imximage based on u-boot v2009.08 - USB-downloader mode press the fiveway down button during startup resetmykindle - as of 2025 upgrade firmware from 4.1.x and to 4.1.4, sign into account and copy jb.1.8 bits, mkk-2014, mkk-2025, kual and then uninstall kual, koreader2025 - }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Touch WiFi (Kindle 5th Gen) D01200 K5, KT *Once signed into an Amazon Account get S/N under Settings -> Device Options *B00F Kindle Touch 3G + WiFi (Kindle 5) (U.S. and Canada) [Mostly] *B011 Kindle Touch WiFi (Kindle 5) *B010 Kindle Touch 3G + WiFi (Kindle 5) (Europe) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0006 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->4gb unless jb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 touchscreen i.MX508 SOC, 256MiB of LPDDR1 and USB-downloader mode by the SOC microcode when a specific key is pressed during startup: the home button on model D01200 - update firmware 5.3.2 to 5.3.7.3, access account, }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] PW <pre> B024 Kindle PaperWhite WiFi B01B Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] B020 Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Brazil) B01C Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Canada) B01D Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Europe) B01F Kindle PaperWhite 3G + WiFi (Japan) </pre> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0007 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 Freescale i.MX508 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0008 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 2 (2013) PW2 *B0D4, 90D4 WiFi (U.S., Intl.) *B05A, 905A WiFi (Japan) *B0D5, 90D5 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] *B0D6, 90D6 3G + WiFi (Canada] *B0D7, 90D7 3G + WiFi (Europe) *B0D8, 90D8 3G + WiFi (Russia) *B0F2, 90F2 3G + WiFi (Japan) *B017, 9017 WiFi (4GB) (U.S., Intl.) *B060, 9060 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Europe) *B062, 9062 3G + WiFi (4GB) (U.S.) [Mostly] *B05F, 905F 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Canada) *B061, 9061 3G + WiFi (4GB) (Brazil) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0009 | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->2gb or 4gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| PW2 uses Freescale/NXP i.MX6 SoloLite }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 3 PW3 i.e. Kindle 7th gen *G090G1 (2015) WiFi *G090G2 (2015) 3G + WiFi (U.S.) [Mostly] *G090G4 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Mexico) *G090G5 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Europe, Australia) *G090G6 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Canada) *G090G7 (2015) 3G + WiFi (Japan) *G090KB (2015) WiFi *G090KC (2015) 3G + WiFi (Japan) *G090KE (2016) 3G + WiFi (International) White *G090KF (2016) 3G + WiFi (International) White *G090LK (2016) WiFi, 32GB (Japan) *G090LL (2016) WiFi, 32GB (Japan) White | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x000A | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->4gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ease up glued down front bezel rim panel gently, remove 11 screws underneath and lift screen up from bottom end - battery underneath - }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle PaperWhite 4 (2018) PW4 *G000PP, G8S0PP WiFi, 8GB *G000T6, G8S0T6 WiFi, 32GB *G000T1 WiFi+4G, 32GB *G000T2 WiFi+4G, 32GB (Europe) *G00102 WiFi, 8GB (India) *G000T3 WiFi+4G, 32GB (Japan) *G0016T, G8S16T WiFi, 8GB Twilight Blue *G0016Q, G8S16Q WiFi, 32GB Twilight Blue *G0016U WiFi, 8GB Plum *G0016V, G8S16V WiFi, 8GB Sage *G00103 WiFi, 32GB (India) *G0016R WiFi, 32GB Plum *G0016S WiFi, 32GB Sage | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x000B | <!--Revision-->100 | <!--Access-->8gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Freescale/NXP i.MX6 SoloLite }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Oasis 2 and 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| NXP i.MX7D }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 16gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| MediaTek MT8110 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle 11 Scribe | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->8gb or 16gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| MediaTek MT8113 }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->16gb or 32gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kindle Paperwhite Gen 11 and 12 - Signature | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1949 | <!--Product ID-->0x0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access-->16Gb or 32Gb | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 account not blocked, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/Modos-Labs Modos Labs] open source e-ink 60Hz 75Hz caster controller and glider monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xteink X3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.xteink.com Xteink X4] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->2025 4.3in 220ppi no touchscreen so [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7RuokaVauo buttons navigation] - 650mAh battery - micro-sd slot up to 512Gb covering epub, txt, and jpg in directories with [https://github.com/crosspoint-reader crosspoint reader] esp32 cpu custom rom firmware using [https://xteink.dve.al/ Flash website] on usb-c but no ecosystem store |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="15%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |Access ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Amazon D01400 Kindle Fire (1st Generation) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2010 too old }} android 2.3 and touchscreen digitizer fails often, battery SWE P/N 1002000004742 Model KC1 (EU) QP01 (US) 16.28whr, ti 257epl9l omap 4430 with elpida 88164b3pf-10-f88164b3pf or hynix, mobo ??,, DAOKC1MB8F0 Rev F, ti aic3110 audio codec, |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Fire 7in X43260 X43Z60 2nd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 untested FireOS Android 4 omap 4460 and PowerVR SGX540}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle Fire HD (3rd Gen) P48WVB4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon *Amazon Fire HD10 (2015) *Amazon Fire HD8 (2015) *Amazon Fire HD7 (2015) (5th Generation) 7 inch 8GB SV98LN *Amazon Fire HD7 (2014) *Amazon Fire HD6 (2014) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested android 5.1 max}} |- | <!--Description--> *Amazon Fire 10 (2017) *Amazon Fire 8 (2017) 7th Gen 8 inch SX034OT *Amazon Fire 7 (2017) (7th Generation) 7 inch 16GB (SR043KL) *Amazon Kindle Fire 7 (7th Generation) 7 inch 8GB WIFI Tablet (SR043KL) *Amazon Fire HD8 (2016) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| Android 5.1 max 7in screen resolution of 1024 x 600, }} |- | <!--Description--> *Amazon Fire 10/10+ (2021) *Amazon Fire 8/8+ (2020) *Amazon Fire 10 (2019) *Amazon Fire 7 (2019) *Amazon Kindle Fire 7 9th Gen 16GB M8S26G *Amazon Fire 8 (2018) 8th Gen 8 inch 32GB L5S83A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| android 9 max}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon *Amazon Fire HD 10 (2023) *Amazon Fire Max 11 (2023) *Amazon Fire 8 (2022) *Amazon Fire 7 (2022) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| android 11 max}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Kindle Scribe | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Minimal Phone, Mudita Kompakt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| eink }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B751C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2022 android untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B7 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme B6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android based color eink small - 300dpi b/w 150ppi color -}} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| e-ink }} |- | <!--Description-->Bigme Hibreak Pro, Hisense A9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| e-ink}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->iFlyTech AINote | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->iFlyTech AINote 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Meebook | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Page Palma | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 android untested }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Leaf3C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go Color 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 untested 7in e-ink e-reader android tablet }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx BooxTab Ultra X C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Note Max Air4 C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Leaf5C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Poke6S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go 10.3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox MC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| color e-ink 13.3in }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Boox Go 10.3 (Gen 2) Lumi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 b/w eink with front light, no EMR annd capacitance pen, }} |- | <!--Description-->Onyx Moaan Pantone 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2021 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable Paper Pro Move | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2024 untested but subscriptions needed for some features }} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 untested but subscriptions needed for some features}} |- | <!--Description-->reMarkable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote A5 X2 Manta | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote A6 X2 Nomad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 }} |- | <!--Description-->Supernote | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tolino Vision 2 3 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Tolino Epos2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viwoods AI Paper and AI Paper Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Access--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==printer.class== As the only printer driver that AROS supports natively is Postscript, our focus is on applications that generally output postscript formatted data for printing purposes. There has been an attempt at recent AirPrint support *Inkjet *Laser Start simple and then test every higher level... * can if you ping your printer (the IP addy is good)? * set up LPR/IPP to talk to that known good IP address. * see if you can copy a few words of plain ASCII text to the IPP/LPR device (do you have a connection)? * see if you can find a simple postscript file and then copy it to the IPP/LPR device. * see if you can set up to print directly to the IPP/LPR device (set "Output file" to PRT: or LPR:). * see if you can set up a PS printer config to the IPP/LPR device. * go back and try the tests with the other driver (LPR or IPP). See [http://www.irseesoft.de/tp_drive7.htm here] for compatibility with TP7 (TurboPrint 7) Last update 2004. Not tested under emulation. Janus-UAE, Emumiga, Amiberry etc usbparallel.device untested with USB->Centronics - The printer.class is rather 'clever'. It remembers to which unit the printers were connected (until you reboot). So if you first plug in Printer1, it gets unit 0, and Printer2 gets unit 1. If you now remove both printers and replug Printer2, it still will get unit 1 and not 0. This is used not to confuse the programs using the different units (moreover, if some program uses the usbparallel.device unit of an USB printer, and the printer is unplugged, the device unit cannot be freed immediately as the application still keeps it open). {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Beige cream D shape centronics end (Prolific chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U002v1 centronics end (chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U002VEA v2 centronics end (Prolific PL2305L chipset) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | DYNAMODE USB-C-PP-1284 USB to 36pin (Prolific 2305 chipset) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 0x02 | {{N/A|untested but similar to BAFO below}} |- | IOGear GUC1284B | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | My-Link (raised ellipse on centronics plastic end) (unknown chipset) | | | | {{N/A|untested but more expensive }} |- | NEWLink (Prolific chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Targus PA096E centronics end (chipset?) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | TRENDnet ware TU-P1284 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | True PnP (Prolific chipset 2305) cheap 36pin Centronics (series of ridges along both short sides) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 2.00 | {{N/A|untested on BAFO BF-1284 but reports of poor quality and lack of support on other OSs }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | Transparent See Through Blue | | | | {{N/A|untested but possible poor quality build }} |- | Dynamode USB-PARALLEL 25pin female (prolific) | 0x067b | 0x2305 | 0x02 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | FDL USB to 25pin | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | PlusKom USB to 25pin female connector for printer (IEEE 1284) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | QinHeng Electronics (CH340S chipset) | 0x1a86 | 0x7584 | | {{N/A|untested curvy sides - flat top }} |- | StarTech | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Syba SD-USB-DB25 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- |} Postscript interpreters (eg ghostscript) have been developed as a cheaper option which sit in between postscript data streams and non postscript printers. Ghostscript has internal printer drivers gs -h and with something like gs -sDEVICE=stcolor -r300 -sOutputFile=RAM:tempfile gs813:examples/tiger.ps copytopar ram:tempfile It checks if in RAM: exists a outputfile (Cinnamon can export to PS postscript) then it sends this via copytopar to the printer. There was only support for parport (parallel) but Terminillis added support for USB and ethernet. A big issue with using ghostscript for drivers is that data has to originate as postscript (.PS) file. gs -dSAFER -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -sDEVICE=ljet4 -sOutputFile=RAM:tempfile RAM:file.pdf the ljet4 output device generates PCL also the pxlmono driver, which generates more generic PXL (PCL 6) gs -q -sstdout=%stderr -sDEVICE=pswrite -sOutputFile=- -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -dPARANOIDSAFER testpage-a4.ps > test.pdf gs -q -sstdout=%stderr -sDEVICE=pxlmono -sOutputFile=- -dBATCH -dNOPAUSE -dPARANOIDSAFER test.pdf > test.pxl Printers supported by ghostscript...Explanation [http://freebooks.by.ru/view/RedHatLinux6Unleashed/rhl6u151.htm here] or [http://www.gnu.org/software/ghostscript/devices.html here] and [http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~ghost/doc/printer.htm here] <pre> bit cljet5 ljet4d pjxl300 pxlcolor bitcmyk cljet5c ljetplus pkm pxlmono bitrgb deskjet nullpage pkmraw stp bj10e djet500 pbm pksm tiff12nc bj200 epswrite pbmraw pksmraw tiff24nc bjc600 faxg3 pcx16 png16 tiffcrle bjc800 faxg32d pcx24b png16m tiffg3 bmp16 faxg4 pcx256 png256 tiffg32d bmp16m ijs pcxcmyk pnggray tiffg4 bmp256 jpeg pcxgray pngmono tifflzw bmp32b jpeggray pcxmono pnm tiffpack bmpgray laserjet pdfwrite pnmraw uniprint bmpmono lj5gray pgm ppm x11 bmpsep1 lj5mono pgmraw ppmraw x11alpha bmpsep8 ljet2p pgnm psgray x11cmyk cdeskjet ljet3 pgnmraw psmono x11gray2 cdj550 ljet3d pj psrgb x11gray4 cdjcolor ljet4 pjxl pswrite x11mono cdjmono </pre> ==rawwrap.class - some old flatbed scanners supported== Scandal is the MUI frontend to [http://www.ppa.pl/bugtracker/ Betascan Bugtracker] and [http://aminet.net/search?query=betascan Search for Betascan scanner drivers] derived from [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html sane backends] [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html#S-EPSON2 Epson2] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Expression 1600 1640XL 1680 10000XL | 0x04b8 | 0x0107 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Prefection 1200U, 1200 Photo, | 0x04b8 | 0x0104 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 1240U | 0x04b8 | 0x010b | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{[https://amigaworld.net/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=45760&forum=25 works]|Needs 24V 0.8A psu but in Trident, click on "Classes", then on "rawwrap.class", then on "Configure". There, under "Global", activate the Option "Bind to Vendor/Unknown Interfaces". Now go to the second tab "Default Interface" and select/enter these values: Default usbraw.device Unit: 0 Exclusive access: Yes Out NAK Timeout: 20000ms In NAK Timeout: 20000ms In Buffer Mode: No buffering Buffer Size: 36 KB Short Reads Terminate: Yes Now click on "Use as Default" and select "Devices" on the left. There, click on your scanner and click on "Class Scan". Now close Trident by clicking on "Save". }} |- | Perfection 1640SU Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x010a | 0x0104 | {{yes|works, even the transparency unit}} |- | Perfection 1650 Photo, 1660 Photo, 3200 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x011c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 2400 Photo, 2450 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x011b | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection 4870 Photo, 4990 Photo, | 0x04b8 | 0x0128 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Perfection V700 V750 Photo | 0x04b8 | 0x012c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Stylus CX2800 2900 3200 3500 3600 3650 3700 3800 3900 Stylus CX4100 4200 3500 4600 4700 4800 4900 500 5100 5200 5300 5400 5900 | 0x04b8 | 0x0802 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Stylus Office BX300F USB | 0x04b8 | 0x0848 | | {{yes| works with good scan quality}} |- |} [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ gt68xx] scanners based on the Grandtech GT-6801 and GT-6816 "System-On-Chip" scanner chipsets {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Artec Ultima 2000 and e+, Trust Flat Scan USB 19200 (ePlus2k.usb / Gt680xfw.usb) | 0x05d8 | 0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Genius Colorpage Vivid3x 4x 1200x | 0x0458 | 0x2011 to 0x201f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (ccd548.fw)}} |- | <!--Description-->Lexmark X70 also X73 [http://subfusion.net/drivers/oslo3071b2.usb OSLO3071b2.usb] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x043d | <!--Product ID-->0x002d | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Medion/Lifetec/Tevion/Cytron MD/LT 9375 and Artec Ultima 2000, MD LT 9385 Gt680xfw.usb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05d8 | <!--Product ID-->0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | BearPaw 2448 CS and TA Plus [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/A2Nfw.usb A2Nfw.usb] | 0x055f | 0x021a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | Mustek BearPaw 1200 CS | 0x055f | 0x021e | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/A1fw.usb A1fw.usb])}} |- | <!--Description-->Mustek 1200 CU Plus Scanner [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend PS1Dfw.usb / SBSfw.usb] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2000 }} |- | Mustek ScanExpress 1200 UB plus, Trust Compact Scan USB 19200, ScanMagic 1200 UB Plus | 0x05d8 | 0x4002 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/sbfw.usb sbfw.usb])}} |- | Mustek ScanExpress 1248 UB aka PC-World PC Line PCL-3000 | 0x055f | 0x021f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ([http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/firmware/SBSfw.usb SBSfw.usb])}} |- | Mustek BearPaw 2400CS TA aka Goodmans GSC 12/24 | 0x055f | 0x0218 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Transparency adapter untested) }} |- | BearPaw 2400 CS aka TA Plus | 0x055f | 0x0219 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Transparency adapter) }} |- | Packard Bell Diamond 1200 Plus | 0x055f | 0x021c or 0x021b | 0x0 | {{yes|works - [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ firmware required] but slow usb 1.1 speed with poor quality output (scanner fault not scandal)}} |- | Packard Bell Diamond 2400 Plus aka BearPaw 2400 CU Plus [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/gt68xx-backend/ PS2Dfw2.usb firmware rename to PS2Dfw.usb] | 0x055f | 0x021d | 1.00 | {{yes|works slow usb 1.1 speed with ok quality output (scanner fault not scandal)}} |- | Plustek OpticPro 1248U | 0x07B3 | 0x0400 0x0401 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (ccd548.fw)}} |- | Plustek OpticSlim 2400 | 0x07b3 | 0x0422 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (cis3R5B1.fw)}} |- | Visioneer OneTouch 7300 | 0x04a7 | 0x0444 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| (Cis3r5b1.fw)}} |- | <!--Description-->Mustek ScanEpress 1200 UB (Plus) clone [http://www.meier-geinitz.de/sane/ use mustek_usb backend] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x055f | <!--Product ID-->0x0006 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Lexmark - needs testing {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Lexmark X1110 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1140 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1150 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1170 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1180 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Lexmark X1185 | 0x043d | 0x007c | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Lexmark X12xx | | | | {{N/A|untested in USB1.1, not fully tested in USB2.0}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Dell A920 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} HP - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | HP ScanJet 4100C | 0x03f0 | 0x0101 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 5200C | 0x03f0 | 0x0401 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 62X0C | 0x03f0 | 0x0201 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP ScanJet 63X0C | 0x03f0 | 0x0601 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x0102, 0x0105, 0x0205, 0x0305, 0x0405 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x0705, 0x0805, 0x0901, 0x0a01 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | HP | 0x03f0 | 0x1205, 0x1305, 0x2005, 0x2205 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Plustek [http://www.sane-project.org/sane-backends.html#S-PLUSTEK LM983x] - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Plustek OticPro U12 UT12 UT16 U24 UT24 | 0x07B3 | 0x0010 to 0x0017 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | KYE/Genius Colorpage HR6-V2 HR6A HR7 HR7LE HR6X | 0x0458 | 0x2008 to 0x2016 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Hewlett-Packard ScanJet 2100C and 2200C | 0x03F0 | 0x0505 and 0x0605 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Mustek BearPaw 1200 and 2400 | 0x0400 | 0x1000 and 0x1001 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | UMAX 3400/3450 and 5400 | 0x1606 | 0x0050, 0x0060 and 0x0160 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 1250 and 1260 | 0x04B8 | 0x010f and 0x011d | | {{no|no driver}} |- | CANON CanoScan N650/656U N1220U D660U N670/676U N1240U LIDE20 LIDE25 LIDE30 | 0x04A9 | 0x2206 to 0x2220 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} [http://snapscan.sourceforge.net/ SnapScan] - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Acer Benq 310U, 320U, 340U | 0x4a5 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Acer Benq 620U, 620UT, 640U, 640UT | 0x4a5 | 0x20 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Acer Benq 1240 3300 4300 | 0x4a5 | 0x020 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Agfa SnapScan e10 e20 e25 e26 e40 e42 e50 e52 | 0x06bd | 0x20 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 660 | 0x04b8 | 0x0114 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 1270 1670 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 2480 2580 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Epson Perfection 3490 3590 | 0x04b8 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Mitsubishi | 0x0 | 0x0 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} ==hub.class (self-powered and external ac powered hubs)== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Dynamode USB-H41 4 ports | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Belkin 4 Port | | | | {{yes|works}} |- | Conrad | | | | {{yes|[http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 works on a1k forum] }} |- | DLink DUB-H4 AC Adapter | 0x05e3 | 0x0608 | High 0200 | {{maybe|WARNING Genesys Logic Hub Broken - Will cause failures with USB}} |- | [http://service.targa.co.uk/faq.php?lang_id=2&baseid=178&artdesc=SilverCrest+USB+Hub+2040&artid=760&artpic=silvercrestHUB2040.jpg SilverCrest 4-port slim USB 2.0 HUB - HUB2040 (40775) - Targa GmbH] | 0x05e3 | 0x0608 | 0901 | {{yes|works Genesys Logic, Inc., [http://service.targa.co.uk/dokumente/USB_HUB_2040_0109_manual_EN.pdf Manual]}} |- | Skymaster | 0x05e3 | 0x0605 | 060B | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | No Name active 4-port | 0x1a40 | 0x0101 | 0111 | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Thinkpad USB 3.0 Dock DU9019D1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17e9 | <!--Product ID-->0x4302 | <!--Revision-->0014 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|works a bit}} classed as dfu.class with two further USB 2.0 hubs - USB 3.0 ports detected and work (2.0 backwards compatibility) - DisplayLink DL-3900 with VIA VL811 chipset - usb ethernet not working - two dvi not working - 20V psu 2a (40w) with a 5.5 - 2.5mm tip (no bus power) - data through a-b printer/scanner usb lead - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} ==Internet== ===rndis.class USB Tethering === The rndis class provides support for Ethernet access over Remote NDIS. Most USB based devices should be supported including smartfones. Before opening Network Prefs, activate USB Tethering on the Smartfon, on Network prefs, type in usbrndis.device and tick "Start Network during system boot" and saved the configuration, the Connection is immediate no reboot is needed. When restart AROS my Smartphone deactivates the connection and to access the network again, have to reactivate it before starting the browser. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alcatel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | Huawei U8800 | 0x12d1 | 0x1039 | | {{yes|works}} |- | <!--Description-->Huawei | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | HTC (Android phone) | 0x0bb4 | 0x0ffe | | {{Yes|any android phone with usb tethering option}} |- | <!--Description-->Nokia | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Oppo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung Galaxy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- |- | <!--Description-->iPhone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft winPhone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ===USB &rarr; ethernet lan adaptor=== *2002 playstation 2 usb1.1 era - a little support but very old and slow *2006 wii asix era - a little support but very much miss than hit *2026 usb0: or eth0: of CDC Ethernet protocol (cdcether) with Ethernet Control Model (ECM) and [https://www.usb.org/document-library/class-definitions-communication-devices-12 others like Wireless Mobile Communication Devices WMC] and later CDC EEM (Ethernet Emulation Model) and NCM (Network Control Model) are USB Communication Device Class (CDC) protocols packing more Ethernet traffic over every USB bundle. For CDC Ethernet - NCM is better than EEM is better than ECM * USB1.1 Up to 010 meg broadband (1.25MBytes/s) - ADM8511, DM9601 poor speeds * USB2.0 Up to 400 meg broadband (60MBytes/s) - MCS7830, AX88772 a little especially the 2010 apple version but buy many as very very poor odds of working one * USB3.0 Over 400 meg broadband (60+MBytes/s) - not supported at the moment SANA (Standard Amiga Network Architecture) to usb ADMtek Infineon ADM8511 Pegasus II (USB 1.1 and 10Mbit/s - Sony PlayStation 2 network adapter) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | 3Com 3c460b | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | Abocom UFE1000 / Abocom DSB650TX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Accton USB320-EC / Accton SpeedStream Ethernet | 0x083a | 0x0320 | <!--Revision--> | {{unk|2002 }} |- | AEI USB Fast Ethernet / Allied Telesyn AT-USB100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2002 }} |- | ATEN UC-110T | 0x0557 | 0x4000 | | {{unk|2001 }} |- | BAFO USB To Ethernet Adapter BF-310 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | Belkin F5D5050 v1 1101 | 0x050D | | <!--Revision--> | {{maybe|2002 sometimes works from old amiga.org post which is now removed}} |- | Belkin F5D5050 v2 2101 | 0x050D | 0x0121 | <!--Revision--> | {{no|2006 does not works}} |- | Belkin F5U122-PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Billionton USB-100 / Billionton USBLP-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Billionton USBEL-100 / Billionton USBE-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Compex LinkPort/UE202A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DSB-H3ETX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DSB-650 / D-Link DSB-650TX / D-Link DSB-650TX-PNA | 0x2001 | 0x4000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | D-Link DU-E10 / D-Link DU-E100 | 0x2001 | | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Edimax USB Ethernet Adapter EU-4201 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Elsa AG MicroLink USB2 Lan Ethernet adapter | 0x05cc | 0x3000 | <!--Revision-->1.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | GetNet | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | GIGABYTE GN-BR402W Wireless Router | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Goodway Fellowes USB UE-120 REV:V1 UE120 ADMTek 1011594 HO2419741 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07a6 | <!--Product ID-->0x0986 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2001 USB Specification 1.1 compliant}} |- | GWC Tech USB Ethernet Adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Hawking UF100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | HP HN210E / I/O DATA USB ETTX / Kingston KNU101TX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Jinco USB Ethernet Adapter 10/100 Base-T UE-110 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Kouwell USB to Ethernet 588A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Linksys USB10T / TA / TX | 0x066b | 0x2202 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|untested - possible peg1/peg2}} |- | Linksys (Cisco) USB100TX / H1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitec LAN-TX/U1 H2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | [http://www.mayflash.com/psps2/ps2024/ps2024.htm Mayflash PS2024] Playstation2 compatible clone of Proxim/Farallon NetLine? | 0x07a6 | 0x8511 | <!--Revision-->1.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|works with DHCP router option on old 32bit distros but not on newer 64bit, best to go asixeth apple 2010 but buy many of them as poor success rate i.e. a lottery}} |- | Netgear FA101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Philips CPWUE01/00 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Planet UE-9500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | PlayStation 2 SCPH-10000 50000 models | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Proxim (formerly Farallon) NetLine USB PN796-650 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Siemens SpeedStream USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | SOHOware NUB100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | SMC EZNET-USB 2202USB/ETH / SMC 2206USB/ETH | 0x0707 | 0x0100 0x0200 0x0201 | <!--Revision--> | {{unk|untested but should work very well }} |- | Surecom EP-1427X 100/10M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Target USB to 10/100M Fast Ethernet Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Trendnet TU-ET100C | 0x07a6 | 0x8511 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | {{yes| sometimes works well, very stable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Digitus USB NIC DN-3016-A | 0x07a6 | 0x8513 | 1.01 | {{unk|untested new chipset }} |- | Digitus lanusb ADM8515 | 0x07a6 | 0x8515 | 1.01 | {{unk|untested because new chipset }} |- | VE285 usblan ADMtek 8515 | 0x07a6 | 0x8515 | 1.01 | {{no|not working as new chipset }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} Davicom DM9601 eth (USB 1.1 and up to 10Mbit/s) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Davicom USB-100 see clone below | 0x0a46 | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2001 }} |- | [http://wiki.maemo.org/USB_to_ethernet_networking chinese translucent transparent crystal blue] but variants are also found in clear, white and black. Just over 6&nbsp;cm long. | 0x0a46 | 0x9601 | 0x0 | {{yes|2002 success can be sporadic so technically okay, but lacking in reliability. Out of 4 tested by me, only 2 worked. One case cracked open. }} |- | Corega FEther USB-TXC | 0x07aa | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Dynamode USB-NIC-1427-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Hirose USB-100 | 0x0a47 | 0x9601 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | KY-RS9600 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585358&postcount=12 works] }} |- | ShanTou ST268 USB NIC | 0x0a46 | 0x0268 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | ZT6688 USB NIC | 0x0a46 | 0x6688 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ICS Advent DM9601 USB 2.0 10/100M Ethenet Adaptor JP1081B | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FE6 | <!--Product ID-->0x9700 | <!--Revision-->0101 | <!--Opinion-->{{No|not working 32bit and 64bit - USB 1.1 10M ethernet}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} MosChip MCS7830 (USB 2) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Digitus DN-10050 | 0x9710 | 0x7830 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2004 }} |- | Edimax [http://www.edimax.co.uk/images/Image/datasheet/USB/EU-4206/EU-4206.pdf EU-4206] | | | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2005 }} |- | Speed Dragon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | STLabs | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | StarTech Compact USB2105S [http://www.kustompcs.co.uk/acatalog/info_6790.html USB2106S] | 0x9710 | 0x7830 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | Sunrich Technologies [http://www.st-lab.com/admin/upfile/UploadFile/manual/manual(u-250).zip U-250] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 }} |- | Syba | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->MCS 7832 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2008 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |} * USB2 [https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet Asix Ethernet] AX88178A, AX88772C, AX88772B, AX88772A (wii), AX88172A * USB3 AX88179A, AX88179 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | AirLink101 AGIGAUSB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 AX88172}} |- | ATEN UC210T | 0x0557 | 0x2009 | 0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88172}} |- | <!--Description-->Billionton Systems USB2AR | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08dd | <!--Product ID-->0x90ff | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->Buffalo LUA-U2-KTX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0411 | <!--Product ID-->0x003d | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->corega FEther USB2-TX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07aa | <!--Product ID-->0x0017 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| }} |- | D-Link DUB-E100 up to rev A4 | 0x2001 | 0x1a00 | | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->D-Link DUB-E100 rev B1 onwards | 0x07d1 or 0x2001 | 0x3c05 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|AX88172 works on Deneb with [http://amigax.com/2010/02/21/usb-ethernet-speed-test-amigaos-4-0-classic/ Amiga OS4 Classic] and [http://www.a1k.org/forum/showthread.php?t=11432 on a1k] }} |- | <!--Description-->goodway corp USB gwusb2e | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1631 | <!--Product ID-->0x6200 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hawking UF200 | 0x07b8 | 0x420a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[Linksys USB200M] | 0x077b | 0x2226 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585601&postcount=20 works] }} |- | <!--Description-->Netgear FA120 | 0x0846 | 0x1040 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested 2002 10/100 Rev.B1" is silkscreened on the board of the device populating this entry (S/N: FA12254CB100409, date code 0508). This device may be manuf. by [http://www.cameo.com.tw/ Cameo] "AX88172 L", "F05040157", and "ED3" Chip1 ASIX AX88172 Chip2 Realtek RTL8201BL}} |- | <!--Description-->Intellinet | 0x0b95 | 0x1720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->JVC MP-PRX1 Port Replicator | <!--Vendor ID-->0x04f1 | <!--Product ID-->0x3008 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ST Lab USB Ethernet | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sitecom LN-029 "USB 2.0 10/100 Ethernet adapter" | <!--Vendor ID-->0x6189 | <!--Product ID-->0x182d | <!--Revision-->0 | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->Surecom EP-1427X-2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1189 | <!--Product ID-->0x0893 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v2 | 0x07b8 | 0x420a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|version 2}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->A-LINK NA1GU | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 88772}} |- | <!--Description-->AirLink101 ASOHOUSB Wii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AirLive EtherWe-1000U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->APPLE AX88772 Model No. A1277 MC704LL/A P/N 825-7098-A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1402 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2008 usb2, }} |- | <!--Description-->APPLE Model No. A1277 (MB442Z/A 0885909217434) MC704ZM/A PN 825-7579-A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1402 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|2010 model, usb2 and controller AX88772 where prehaps 1in3 units working with owb - really poor odds i.e. a lottery, could be situation where various ethernet phy chipsets are used - press Use in network prefs after Save initial setup typing in usbasixeth.device, }} |- | <!--Description-->ASIX AX88772 bulbous casing | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2008 works on 32bit and 64bit though setup can take a few attempts but may have issues with phy ethernet chip changing, }} |- | <!--Description-->Datel Wii Lan Adapter DUS0204 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 }} |- | <!--Description-->EdiMax EU-4207 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->Goodway HE2230 Maplin ASIX 88772 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->Intec LAN G5626 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->LevelOne USB-0202 | 0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->LevelOne USB-0301 | 0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 }} |- | <!--Description-->Linksys USB200M Rev 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x13b1 | <!--Product ID-->0x0018 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2008 sparsely randomly working AX88772 or with "Sana-II Meter Tool 37.11" network monitoring program, showing continuous "Bad Packet" errors which could means "CRC" errors}} |- | <!--Description-->Linksys USB300M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{maybe|2009 AX88772 }} |- | <!--Description-->Mayflash W001 or clones Lupo/PEGA S-Wii-0680 light gray rectangular with third of one top 45 degree angled slope | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| may have randomly changed phy ethernet chips, }} |- | <!--Description-->Max Value MVF00446 ASIN B006EG568A | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Trident prefs recognises as AX88772 sometimes works on 32bit and 64bit}} |- | <!--Description-->NEWLink N14050 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->NEWLink Wii-ETH USB2.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nintendo Wii LAN Adaptor 2110566 and clones | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x07720 | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Poseidon recognises as AX88772 with usbasixeth.device sometimes works seems different ethernet phy chips can be matched affecting compatibility}} |- | <!--Description-->Nyko Wii Net Connect 87024 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=585624&postcount=22 works] }} |- | <!--Description-->0Q0 cable ethernet | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1557 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB2-E100 (2009/2010) Bulbous housing | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x7720 | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|Trident prefs recognises it as ax88772A and typing in usbasixeth.device sometimes works}} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent KINAMAX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SpeedLink SL-3401-SGY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->UGreen 20254 USB2 to 10/100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88772}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Afunta Apple-style White USB2.0 I/O Crest SY-ADA24005 ASIX Electronics Corp. AX88772A Fast Ethernet Adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{no|usbasixeth.device accepted by network prefs but does not work}} |- | <!--Description-->Amazon Basics USB 2.0 AX88772A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Digitus DN-10050-1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision-->0x0 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Edimax EU-4230 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772a | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent KINAMAX NT-USB20 AX88772A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88772B USB 2.0 to 10/100M | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EdiMax EU-4208 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID-->0x772b | <!--Revision-->0x | <!--Opinion-->{{No|Detected but not working}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB2100 ASIX AX88772C | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet/High-Speed_USB_Ethernet/AX88772D AX88772D] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.asix.com.tw/en/product/USBEthernet/High-Speed_USB_Ethernet/AX88772E AX88772E] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0B95 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->AX88178 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2004 }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB2-E1000 i.e. USB 2.0 to Gigabit Ethernet 10/100/1000 LAN | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 ASIX AX88178 Controller and Realtek RTL8211CL PHY}} |- | <!--Description-->AX88178A USB 2.0 to 10/100/1000M Gigabit Ethernet controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2005 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AmazonBasics USB3.0 adapter [https://github.com/nothingstopsme/AX88179_178A_Linux_Driver AX88179] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Cable Matters SuperSpeed USB 3.0 RJ45 adapter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Hori Nintendo Switch 1 USB3 ethernet AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 AX88179 not binding to asixeth.class }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB3-E1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2020 ASIX AX88179 not binding to class, USB 3.2 Gen1 to Gigabit Ethernet controller with integrated 10/100/1000Mbps Gigabit Ethernet PHY}} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable AX88179 = [https://plugable.com/products/usb3-e1000-deal USB3-E1000] before mid-2023 or USB3-E1000; AX88179A = USBC-E1000 after mid-2023 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 controller is AX88179 phy is ??, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000SPTW ax88179 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| AX88179 not binding to asixeth.class, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000NDS AX88179 USB-A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech US1GC301AU AX88179 USB-c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech US1GC30B2 AX88179A USB-c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB32000SPT AX88179A USB-c Rev 1 (AX88179) Rev 2 (AX88179A) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->USB32000SPT the Lot code sticker will have a bar code accompanied by a 10 digit number. The 5th and 6th digits of this lot code number would signify the revision. (Ex. xxxx02xxxx which would indicate rev. 2) |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->SYBA SY-ADA24029 Gigabit AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} may depend on the PHY chip connected to the controller chipset |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TP-Link UE306 AX88179 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet® Orico UL677G 10/100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet® UL688G USB 3.0 10/100/1000 Base-T Ethernet port | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->AX88179 178A |- | <!--Description-->Tecknet UL699G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->TrendNet TU2-ET100 v6 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07b8 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|no support }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->uGreen 50922 USB3-A to 100/1000 dark grey rounded barrels | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| ax88179 not binding to asixeth.class, }} |- | <!--Description-->UGreen USB3-C to 100/1000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->uGreen CR111 20256 usb3 a black plastic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88179}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88179A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Plugable USB3-E1000 USBC-E1000 after mid-2023 i.e. AX88179A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->StarTech USB31000SPTB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0b95 | <!--Product ID-->0x1790 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| AX88179A USB-A, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> AX88179B | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==USB &rarr; SerialPort Converter== *2002 some support for early revisions of PL2303 *2005 Prolific PL2303H PL-2303X and Pl-2303HX (same usb ids as pl2303) no support *2025 FTDI 232R [https://www.arosworld.org/infusions/forum/viewthread.php?thread_id=1135&highlight=232r&rowstart=20 work in progress] *2026 CDC-ACM i.e. Serial port over USB standard serialpl2303.class make sure you specify serialpl2303.device or Echo "Test" >SER1: {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | ATEN UC-232A | 0x0557 | 0x2008 | Full 0x0300 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | IOGear GUC232A | 0x0557 | 0x2008 | Full 0x0110 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Alcatel | 0x11f7 | 0x02df | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | BAFO BF-810 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Belkin F5U103 | 0x | 0x | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Davibe SP611 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Dcu10 | 0x0731 | 0x0528 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Elcom | 0x056e | 0x5003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | IOData | 0x04bb | 0x0a03 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Itegno | 0x0eba | 0x1080 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Nokia CA42 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Radioshack | 0x1453 | 0x4026 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Ratoc | 0x0584 | 0xb000 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Samsung | 0x04e8 | 0x8001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Siemens DCA-510 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sitecom CN104 | 0x6189 | 0x2068 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sitecom CN116 | 0x6189 | 0x2068 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Some Cut Ma620 | 0x0df7 | 0x0620 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Speed Dragon Multimedia MS3303H | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Syntech | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Tripp | 0x2478 | 0x2008 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Airlink101 AC-USBS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Belkin F5U103v | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 0x0 | {{no|no driver }} |- | Dynamode U232-P9 | 0x067B | 0x2303 | 300 | {{no| no driver [http://koti.mbnet.fi/lonnberg/pl2303x.html linux patch] and using lsusb -v -d 067b:2303 gave bMaxPacketSize as 64 - pl2303x }} |- | Konig CABLE-146/2 USB to RS232 | 0x067b | 0x2303 | 400 | {{no|no driver }} |- | MANHATTAN 205146 USB to Serial Converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | Sabrent SBT-USC1M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Trendnet TU-59 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Unbranded black case and lead USB 232 Converter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x067B | <!--Product ID-->0x2303 | <!--Revision-->0300 | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} |- |} [http://www.ftdichip.com/index.html Future Technology Devices International Ltd FTDI]-FT232R.class [https://ftdichip.com/software-examples/code-examples/c-builder/ FTProg src], [http://rtr.ca/ft232r/ ft232r src], [https://ftdichip.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/DS_FT232R.pdf FT232R datasheet], [], {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID-->0x6001 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1GE-gKgHxZI beware of cheap clones fake with s/n A50285BI SN] |- | <!--Description-->Lynx Astro FTDI | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232R |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Sabrent CB-FTDI | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{no|no driver TTL-232R cables use FTDI's [http://n1mm.hamdocs.com/tiki-index.php?page=USB+Interface+Devices FT232RQ ic device] }} |- | <!--Description-->Startech.com 1 Port FTDI USB to Serial RS232 DB9M Adapter Cable with COM Retention ICUSB2321F | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232RL Chipset |- | <!--Description-->StarTech.com 2 Port FTDI USB to Serial RS232 Adapter Cable ICUSB2322F | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0403 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FTDI FT2232D Chipset |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} FT232RL is the SSOP-28 and the FT232RQ is the QFN-32 package option |} [https://www.onetransistor.eu/2017/08/ch341a-mini-programmer-schematic.html ch341a.class] *I2C EEPROMS (3.3V and 5V) compatible and also SPI FLASH memories (3.3V devices) making sure 1.8V is covered *each having their own [https://winraid.level1techs.com/t/guide-how-to-use-a-ch341a-spi-programmer-flasher-with-pictures/33041 4x2 connection blocks] using [https://github.com/flashrom/flashrom flashrom] sudo flashrom --programmer ch341a_spi -r backup.bin sudo flashrom --programmer ch341a_spi -w <new bios name> {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Jiangsu QinHeng Ltd CH341A emulate UART communication, standard parallel port, memory parallel port and synchronous serial (I2C, SPI) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x5512 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->QinHeng USB2.0-Serial HL-340 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x7523 | <!--Revision-->0252 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |} ==simplemidi.class and CAMD== Currently support includes * simplemidi.class SimpleMidi maps some keyboard keys to corresponding computer keys as used by music trackers to emulate a musical keyboard * camdusbmidi.class follows the rules of the m68k implementation of Commodore's CAMD midi specification and usb class compliant for * usb host like a computer, pi, etc * usb device controllers - keyboards, drum machines, djay turntables, grooveboxes, etc * interfaces - cables or boxes which convert usb to 5pin DIN plug midi What is needed is a fully class-compliant '''brand name''' USB MIDI keyboard, especially manufactured in the last 15 years are best *Arturia *Novation *M-Audio *Akai Plugging this in one of your USB ports, the camd.library will make the keyboard's MIDI IN/OUT ports available in the system. Then select the keyboard's MIDI IN port (known as a "cluster" in CAMD) for input, and the software instrument's cluster as output ShowCluster (shows midi ports available in and out) MidiWatch (usually port usbmidi.in.0 less often usbmidi.out.0) (Ctrl-C to end output stream) usbmidi.in.0 Message on channel 01, NoteOn 90 39 08 00 usbmidi.in.0 Message on channel 01, NoteOff 80 39 00 00 MidiThru (forwards messages from one port to another) run >nil: c:midithru usbmidi.out.0 usbmidi.out.2 MidiSendC (sends a middle C to a specific port) Midi Controller + Sound Module (together aka as a synth) -> Audio Output The difference between midi and midi over USB is that in old school Midi the transmitter transmits whenever it wants and the receiver always has to be prepared to receive data. Easy to do at the rate of a 1990's modem speed these days. USB over midi.. turns midi into a polled protocol.. So the USB host (typically the computer) has to ask "do you have anything for me" before the remote will send. If the USB host gets busy doing other things or there is a lot of things on the USB bus to get polled, you can get delays. For its age midi is still a great protocol for music * [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/midi10.pdf USBIF's "USB Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices" document, version 1.0 from Nov 1, 1999] * [https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/USB%20MIDI%20v2_0.pdf MIDI v2.0 from 2020 which AROS still needs, adds support for MIDI 2.0, MIDI-CI, and Universal MIDI Packet] Nearly all synthesizers now use the 16 MIDI channels available on a MIDI bus in one instrument alone, requiring multiple MIDI busses in a typical setup with more than one MIDI instrument. In addition, by handling multiple "virtual" cables, USB offers a solution to go beyond MIDI's 16-channel limit. MIDI data is transferred over USB using 32-bit USB-MIDI Event Packets. These packets provide an efficient method to transfer multiple MIDI streams with fixed length messages. The 32-bit USB-MIDI Event Packet allows multiple "virtual MIDI cables" routed over the same USB endpoint. This approach minimizes the number of required endpoints. It also makes parsing MIDI events easier by packetizing the separate bytes of a MIDI event into one parsed USB-MIDI event. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Computer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Yes|which acts as USB midi host to get all usb devices talking together}} |- | <!--Description-->Hobbytronics usb host standalone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->bomebox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://neuma.studio/rpi-as-midi-host/ raspberry pi] with several midi interface(s) and linux scripting | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kenton MIDI USB Host mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="25%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="5%" |Product ID ! width="5%" |Revision ! width="15%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acorn Instruments Masterkey 49 device | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 untested usb powered 5V regulated - similar keybed to keystation 49es but unplug then re-plug the USB cable while it is powered the device might reconnect |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Akai SynthStation 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 - sticky rubber keys - usb |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini Laptop Production Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID-->0x09e8 | <!--Product ID-->0x007c | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected and camd usb to use, not tested with apps}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 25 mini key self powered by mini USB lead - sustain port - no top left corner joystick - tested icaros 2.3 - |- | <!--Description-->Akai LPK25 LPK37 LPK49 Laptop Production Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested velocity sensitive mini keys with synth action - weak mini USB port - latency issues - |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional APC Key 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested 49 key 49-key full-sized, semi-weighted keyboard with aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->AKAI Max25 MAX49 control keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional MPK249 MPK261 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB2 USB-b - full keys semi-weighted aftertouch - midi in out - sustain and peddle port |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional Advance 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini MKII MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested USB2 USB-b midi connection only - 4 way thumb joystick top left - 25 tiny keys - velocity drum pads - plastic build quality - |- | <!--Description-->AKAI Professional APC Key 25 MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini Play | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 untested USB2 USB-b midi connection only - synth basic samples - class compliant? - small led display top centre - 25 mini keys - press and hold the "Prog Select" button then use the "Program" knob to assign a MIDI channel - |- | <!--Description-->Akai MPK Mini 3 MKIII MK3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x09E8 | <!--Product ID-->0x1049 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - - midi in out untested - }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 USB2 USB-b midi controller connection no 5pin legacy - small led display top centre - 25 mini keys goofy uneven feel of the akai keyboards - press and hold the "Prog Select" button and press pad 1 to 8 to assign a MIDI channel - tested on AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->Akai Force / MPC One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Akai Pro MPK Mini Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested 37 mini keys - class compliant device - usb-b bus powered only with 5pin midi in and out - Shift and Global for Midi Ch - |- | <!--Description-->Akai Pro Ableton Push Mk 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Akai Professional MPC Key 37 49 61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested USB2 usb-b |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Photon PH-25 X25 Midi & USB keyboard/synth | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Q25 Q49 Q61 Q88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 untested |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Coda Pro Portable 88-Key Digital Piano USB MIDI Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V25 V49 V61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Alesis VI49 VI61 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Alesis VX49 VX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 1 5-pin MIDI input, 1 5-pin MIDI output, 1 USB port, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Q25 Q49 Q61 Mk2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Recital 88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis V25 V49 V61 MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Qmini portable 32-key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->audiothingies MicroMonsta | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested synth - |- | <!--Description-->audiothingies MicroMonsta 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 synth - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Analog Experience “The Player” USB MIDI Master Keyboard Model APE25 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb-b bus powered - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab MkII Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Keystep 32 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested 32 mini keys usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed - reset Press and hold Oct + and Oct – buttons then insert the USB cable - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab mkII | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID-->0x2209 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - - midi in out untested - }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 USB2 usb-b bus power - metal base heavier than most - Shift and press a key to select the MIDI Channel - To reset to original factory, unplug the USB cable, hold down the Oct- and Oct + buttons, plug the USB cable back in and continue to hold the buttons until the pads turn white - need software to change parameters like velocity sensitive assistance - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab MK2 MKII 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MicroFreak | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 hybrid digital/analog synthesis, |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PeYIAfn3UMs Arturia Minilab 3] [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/chj1WgMupGw ] [https://www.youtube.com/shorts/FMVdfhzg1Dw ] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 untested usb-c bus powered - 25 mini keys semi - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Keystep Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniLab 3 Mk3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe class complaint |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFreak | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2022 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab Essential 49 61 88 mk3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested usb-c and 1 midi out - lack of aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->Arturia AstroLab | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description-->Arturia KeyLab MK3 MKIII 61 88 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 untested hammer-action Fatar keybed |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Control UMX490 UMX610 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Control | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Swing 32-Key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MOTOR 49 - 49-Key USB/MIDI Master Controller Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Creative EMU Xboard 25 E-MU X-Board 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CME M-Key Mkey 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 stops sending MIDI on a regular basis. The simplest "fix" is to flip it off and on via the power switch at the back |- | <!--Description-->CME Ukey U-Key | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2009 |- | <!--Description-->CME Xkey | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 low-profile aluminium full size pressure sensitive with polyphonic aftertouch but keys make too much noise and that they can be too sensitive to velocity - low power draw 25ma |- | <!--Description-->CME M-Key 49 V2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 simplified version of the U-key Mobiltone |- | <!--Description-->CME XKEY AIR 37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->cme xkey 37 le | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Donner Spaceline DMK-25 Donnerdeal Rantion | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Donner DMK25 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> 25 mini velocity keys with limited aftertouch - usb-c powered - 8 drum pads - 3.5mm "midi out" socket - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Digitakt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 expensive later midi usb class compliant with since 1.5 Update |- | <!--Description-->Elecktron Digitone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Digitone Keys 37-key Digital FM Synthesizer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2018 expensive |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Analog Four MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Elektron Octatrak MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{ | }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 49+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 25xt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2702 | <!--Product ID-->0x2702 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected and usb driver working}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 bus powered or 12v 0.5a dc in - metal base so heavy - midi out 5pin - sustain pedal port - modulation slider - rubber coated knobs becomes sticky - |- | <!--Description-->ESI keycontrol 49xt 61xt 88xt | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2702 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 12v 0.5a center pin +ve external psu required - USB i/o and 1 legacy 5pin out - full sized keys - heavy aluminium case keyboard metal base - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Evolution MK-125 MK-149 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 9v |- | <!--Description-->Evolution MK-225C MK-249C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 9v |- | <!--Description-->Evolution USB/Midi Controller MK-425C MK-449C MK-461C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|25, 49, 61 keys - }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 9V or 12V - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 37 full keys |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys Pro Mobile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2014 25 or 37 mini keys |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 mini velocity keys no aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys 2 PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 full velocity keys no aftertouch - |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig Keys | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Kawai VPC 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> weighted keys - heavy build - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Keith McMillen Instruments K-Board | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> omni class compliant to all channels? each keypad makes them velocity, pressure, and location sensitive but not really suited for piano playing |- | <!--Description-->Keith McMillen BopPad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> omni class compliant to all channels? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg NanoKontrol 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->mini usb |- | <!--Description-->Korg Prophecy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->KORG microKONTROL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Korg microKEY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 velocity-sensitive Natural Touch keys but joystick is an alternative to the common pitch/modulation wheel design - power draw - |- | <!--Description-->Korg nanoKey nanoPad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 |- | <!--Description-->Korg Taktile | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg microKEY2 25 37 49 61 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|2015 untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB powered - semi weighted - |- | <!--Description-->Korg MiniList | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg MinKey nanoPad nanoPad 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Nautilus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC3 7 series - Artis 7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->fatar TP-8 semi-weighted action |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Kurzweil PC3 A8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Mobile keys 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 POD Studio KB37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Tone Port KB37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Midiman (later M-Audio) Oxygen8 Ozone Ozonic 25 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|not class compliant - untested 5pin legacy }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 2004 - 25 full keys - slider/fader to left of lcd display - |- | <!--Description-->m-audio oxygen keystation (61 key) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio eKeys 37 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom 25, 49, 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 bus powered and 12v psu - if sliders/faders are on right - legacy midi 5pin - chunky unit - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 8v2, 49, 61 (silver) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 full size velocity sensitive 12v psu - sending random pitchbend info - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 37e 49e, 61e MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 - ok key action - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 37es 49se 61es, 88es MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25/49/61/88 (blue) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 [https://m-audio.com/products/view/oxygen-25-legacy advised Class-compliant and GM/GM2/XG SysEx messages] with full size velocity sensitive 12v psu - sending random pitchbend info - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom 25, 49, 61 (2nd Gen) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 semi-weighted mini keys - bus powered and 9v psu for 25/49 and 12v for 61 - if sliders/faders are on left - legacy midi 5pin - chunky unit - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Axiom Pro 25, 49, 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 poor construction |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Axiom AIR 25 M-Audio Axiom Air Mini 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25 III (3rd Gen) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 untested - usb only - rubber keys sticky - |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Keyrig 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation Mini 32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 - mini usb - plays a few notes and then stops responding randomly - try plugging it into port 1 or 2 on your pc - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 49 MK2 II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2012 USB port and class compliant |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation 61 MK3 MKIII MIDI keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 usb compliant untested |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen 25 IV | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2016 choice |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio CTRL-49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2017 |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio ProKeys 88, 88sx | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Keystation Mini 32 MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2019 mini usb - some power or incompatibility issue with the native USB ports of the laptop, plugged in a passive USB 2.0 HUB (not USB 3.0, not powered) |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3328SvuJsLw M-Audio Oxygen25 MKV] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0763 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision-->0023 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected audio class and bindings with camdusbmidi.class - midi in out untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2020 25 full size semi keys - USB2 usb-b but no 5pin classic plugs - channel select SHIFT button and CHANNEL on keybed - plastic build - holding down both the Octave + and - for factory reset - more limited in what you can do with it than IV 4th one - tested on AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen Pro 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 untested semi full keys |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Oxygen Pro Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested - 32 smaller keys - not endless encoders - usb only - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Hammer 88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Moog | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Moog Minitaur | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-VAVE SMK-25mini 25key MIDI Control Keyboard Y6I0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments NI Primus A25 JamMate | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine MK1 MKI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not compliant uses snd-usb-caiaq module, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol S88 S61 S49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 - weighted keys - |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Maschine Micro Mikro MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe? |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Kontrol S49 S61 S88 MkII MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 all MK2 MK3 power up the keyboard using USB, it will set the keyboards MIDI port to computer MIDI only without any option to set it to use the MIDI DIN, meaning you cannot connect the keyboard to hardware and power from USB, you MUST power with the power adapter and physically unplug from any USB connection - |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol A25 A49 A61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/sikorak666/maschine-mikro-mk3-driver Native Instruments Maschine Micro Mikro Plus MK3 MKIII] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Kontrol M32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 untested 32 smaller keys - no drum pads - USB only - |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Kontrol S49 S61 S88 MkIII MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description-->NI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2025 |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Neusonik iBoard 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Impact LX25+ LX49+ LX61+ LX88+ SE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 budget full-size velocity-sensitive synth-action keyboard - |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Impact GX49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> USB port - |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama P4 P6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> USB & USB Micro B, 5-pin MIDI out, 2 x TRS inputs with 49 semi-weighted, velocity sensitive with aftertouch |- | <!--Description-->Nektar SE25 SE49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> mini keys - micro usb bus powered - velocity and sustain button |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama P6 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Panorama T6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nord Stage 3 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> sysex |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMote 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 lhs XY touchpad and the joystick - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 49 61 88 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not USB class compliant |- | <!--Description-->Novation 49 61 SL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 semi-weighted Fatar TP-8 or TP-9 keybed |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMote 25SL 49SL 61SL soft label | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 - two long top liquid-crystal display LCD strips - XY touchpad and the joystick - |- | <!--Description-->Novation ReMOTE 25LE | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--CAMD-->{{Yes|detected, usb driver in devs/midi for camd to use}} | <!--Opinion-->2007 USB-b powered, 9v center pin positive or 6 MN1500 AA batteries - X/Y touchpad and the combined pitch and modulation joystick - no aftertouch but can use both the legacy MIDI OUT and USB port simultaneously |- | <!--Description-->Novation Nocturn 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 untested sending random pitchbend info |- | <!--Description-->Novation 49 61 SL MkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 semi-weighted Fatar TP-8 or TP-9 keybed |- | <!--Description-->Novation MiniNova | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2013 |- | <!--Description-->Novation Impulse 25 49 61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 velocity aftertouch‑sensitive semi-weighted keyboards and eight backlit pads - USB, 5-pin MIDI out - |- | <!--Description-->Novation Circuit Tracks / Rhythm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 untested |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 49 61 88 MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 USB class compliant - full keys - |- | <!--Description-->Novation Launchpad Mini MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested 8x8 buttons with 16 backlit |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey Mini MK2 MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 untested - 25 soft mini keys - 2 rotary wheels lhs - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey 25 37 49 61 88 MK3 MKIII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 USB class compliant choice - full keys - |- | <!--Description-->Novation LaunchKey Mini MK3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 untested - 25 soft mini keys - 2 sliders lhs - |- | <!--Description-->Novation 61SL Mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Nymphes Dreadbox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> 6 voice analog synth |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Oberheim MC 2000 EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 88 keys fully weighted - very heavy - |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus ATOM SQ Hybrid MIDI Keyboard/Pad | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://polyend.com/tracker/ Polyend Tracker] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland ED PC-300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 USB MIDI keyboard controller 49-key |- | <!--Description-->Roland EDIROL PCR-M30 PCR-M50 PCR-M80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol PCR-30 PCR-50 PCR-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 untested 32 key - |- | <!--Description-->Roland PC-50 PC-80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 |- | <!--Description-->Roland PCR-500 PCR-800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 61 velocity-sensitive keys with aftertouch |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-88 a-49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 USB port - weighted keys velocity no aftertouch - class compliant with press FUNCTION so it is lit. Press the key labelled "ADV.", Press the "+" button so it is lit - |- | <!--Description-->Roland PC-200 mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 some had fatar keys |- | <!--Description-->Roland MC-707 Groovebox | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 |- | <!--Description-->Roland MC-101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 untested |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-500 A500Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-300 A300Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Roland JUNO DS, FA, Fantom, JUPITER X / Xm | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 (be sure that USB driver is set to "Generic" - requires device rebooting) |- | <!--Description-->Roland A-88 a-49 MKii MK2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 expensive with USB-c port - hammer-action keyboard weighted keys - Class-compliant if USB-C enables bus power - MIDI 2.0 later - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ROLI Seaboard RISE 25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Samson Graphite 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Samson Carbon 49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Sequential TAKE 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic VMK-161 and VMK-161 Plus Organ version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->TP-8O action is the unweighted, organ-style waterfall keybed - usb midi in out - 9v psu - |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL990XP midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic VMK176 Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->USB and midi connectivity |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL880 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic SL73 SL88 Studio midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> hammer-action Fatar TP semi-weighted keys |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic Numa Organ 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> 73 key TP-8O action is the unweighted, organ-style waterfall keybed used in nearly all clonewheels |- | <!--Description-->Studiologic Numacompact 2/2x, Numa X Piano | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero CommandKey49 CommandKey25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero SZ-MiniCommand Mini-Command USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SubZero SPC61 MIDI Controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> bus powered - 5 octave |- | <!--Description-->SubZero ControlKey49S 49 Key Slim MIDI Controller Keyboard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Synido TempoKey K25 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 25 mini keys - usb-c powered |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Winterbloom Sol | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{maybe| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Worlde Panda | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha KX8 KX49 KX61 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha CMC-PD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not class compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha P45B P-45 Digital Piano | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha P-115 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 untested weighted keys - USB midi port |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha MX49 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 should compliant untested |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Montage, CP73/88, YC, MODX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha PSR-E353, PSR-E443 PSR-S670, PSR-S770, PSR-S970, PSR-A3000, TYROS-5 NP-12, NP-32 DGX-650, DGX-660 P-105, P-115, P-255 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha MX49 II V2 Black Blue | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi keyboard controller |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->DJM V10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> dj |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Kontrol DJ Pro midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> detected but untested |- | <!--Description-->Numark Mixtrack Pro II USB DJ Controller Djay | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->older generation pioneer DDJ-SX2 dj | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum AL-22 AL22c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum AL-88 Schneidersladen AL88c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alyseum U3-88c Midi Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> no CopperLan support Midi network using a UTP Ethernet patch cable) |- | <!--Description-->Behringer BCF2000 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.behringer.com/EN/home.aspx Behringer] BCR2000 1in 2out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer B-CONTROL DEEJAY BCD3000 DJ Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMD404 UMD202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Creative EMU 0404/USB midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->DigiDesign / Focusrite Command 8 Control Surface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 supports MIDI continuous controller (CC) and note data. SysEx dumping and loading is also supported |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Digi 002 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 firewire only |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Digi 003 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire only |- | <!--Description-->emagic m4 2x4 AMT8 Unitor 8 Mk2 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x00d0 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0x010 0x0103 | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2000 offers MTS (Midi Time Stamping) - 12v 2a psu centre pos - usb mini with rs232 and rs422 serial ports - 16 channels (8-in / 8-out), this rack-mountable unit - |- | <!--Description-->Evolution U-Control UC-16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| detected}} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Saffire 6 USB 1.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Guillemot Maxi Studio ISIS Vintage Sound Card MIDI Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->1998 |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.ucapps.de/mbhp_usb.html MidiBox] Hardware Platform USB Module | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Control Universal Pro XT with One Two Extenders | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Audiophile USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport UNO old version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio MidiMan 1x1 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 [http://sourceforge.net/projects/linux-hotplug/ firmware update] |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 2x2 yellowy green blue, green or silver chassis plastic box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|MIDISPORT 2x2 or 4x4 interfaces from previous production series (blue, green or silver chassis) are not class-compliant}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->MAudio Audiosport Quattro USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant as [http://usb-midi-fw.sourceforge.net/ firmware required and that is buggy], |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio UC-33 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not compliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 1x1 2x2 4x4 Anniversary Edition, black box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Mooer Steep II Multi-Platform USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showthread.php?t=52920 Mark of the Unicorn Motu Fastlane] 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|[http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=560852&postcount=8 not working on OS4]}} | <!--Opinion--> not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Motu Micro Lite 1x1 and MOTU microlite 5x5 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion--> good unit but poor just plug in support and not class compliant - USB2 usb-b - |- | <!--Description-->Motu MIDI Express 128 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->poor support serial port only - offers MTS (Midi Time Stamping) A serial port based MIDI interface or a USB interface without MTS will have a MIDI slop of up to 2ms on record and playback. MTS provides accuracy for record and playback to around .3ms - five times more accurate than serial or non-MTS." |- | <!--Description-->MOTU.com MIDI Express XT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 for many USB should have octocoupled connection to reduce groundloop humm, usually the timing is off |- | <!--Description-->MOTU MIDI Timepiece AV | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion--> not class compliant is one of the best multi-port MIDI interfaces ever made as USB model connects to the computer as an 8x16 interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments GmbH Audio 8 DJ, 4 DJ, 2 DJ | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID-->0x | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|needs dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not class compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Qcon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|did not match to camdusbmidi.class USB audio midi with onboard DSP}} | <!--Opinion-->1998 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Corp Edirol UM-2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0005 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{no|is not bound via camdusbmidi.class }} | <!--Opinion-->1999 not bound to any midi class - 2x2 - tested Aros One USb 2.4 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-100G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->1999 USB audio midi with onboard DSP |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-880 8x8 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 under poseidon but could work with run >nil: c:midithru out.0 "EDIROL UM-880.out.2" |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1 blue plastic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{Unk| bound??? via camdusbmidi.class - untested midi in out}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 UM-1 - 1-in/1-out (16 channels) |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 1-in/1-out (16 channels) |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-2E | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1X midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|do not have the Advanced Driver Switch on them}} | <!--Opinion-->2001 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-1SX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0052 | <!--Revision-->0200 | <!--CAMD-->{{No|do not have the Advanced Driver Switch on them}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-2C - 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-1G 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol Cakewalk UM-2G 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/spotify/linux/blob/master/sound/usb/usbquirks.h Roland Edirol UA20 UA-20] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 |- | <!--Description-->Roland UM-1EX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UM-2EX 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 adds a second MIDI OUT |- | <!--Description-->Roland Cakewalk UM-3G - 3x3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 |- | <!--Description-->Roland Cakewalk ua-25excw 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not class compliant mode |- | <!--Description-->[https://alsa.opensrc.org/Edirol_UA-25EX Roland Edirol UA55 UA-55 Cakewalk UA25 EX] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|detected but not working}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Sonuus B2M Bass MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Sonuus G2M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg CMC Series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Subzero SZ-MB44 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Swisssonic MIDI1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 AmigaOS there is no output at midichannel one and two but if play a midi file there is only output on some channels and if pressed stop the prog freezes or the whole system crashes |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-428 US-422 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2000 not compatible |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.tascam.com/Products/US-224.html US-224] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1604 | <!--Product ID-->0x8004 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2002 does not bind to any class |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-1x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-122 MKII midi interface | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID-->0x8021 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{No|not detected / binding to camdusbmidi.class on AROS 2.4 usb }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 detected but not working 2-in/2-out USB two XLR microphone preamps with phantom power for condenser microphones |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-200 US-400 US-600 US-800 US-1200 US-1800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 may not be totally usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha UX-16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | CAMD | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE and Pro version midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 dc 6v power - 3 USB hubs, midi in out , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Alesis I/O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 powered USB hub required, not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Alesis IO2 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Alesis IO4 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XTouch | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> psu needed |- | <!--Description-->Behringer X-Touch Compact | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Behringer X-Touch Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant?, usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-Phoria UMD404HD UMD202HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe class compliant - volume low, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->CME U2 MIDI Pro 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> current model |- | Creative EMU XMIDI 1X1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 early versions with sysex checksum errors |- | <!--Description-->Creative E-MU Xmidi 1x1 Tab (V3) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 tab version class compliant but report that when transferring 'System Exclusive' messages (SysEx) the unit could not handle the highest data rate leading to data corruption |- | Creative EMU XMIDI 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 sysex errors |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Mbox 2 Mini now Avid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 USB powered but not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Digidesign Mbox II Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 USB powered but not compliant |- | <!--Description-->Engl Z7 MIDI Interface (E660/E610/E360/E930) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> guitar? |- | <!--Description-->Elektron TurboMidi TM-1 1in 1out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M4U 4x4 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered - |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M8U 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M4U XL 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> ploytec chipset |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiTerminal M8U XL 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> no hardware routing e.g. x on input 5 to synth y on output 7 - ploytec chipset |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate II 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ESI ROM I/O | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 romio version |- | <!--Description-->ESI M4U XT | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2573 | <!--Product ID-->0x0002 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|is bound via camdusbmidi.class AROS One 2.4 - untested midi in out}} | <!--Opinion-->2010 - |- | <!--Description-->ESI M8U XT 8in 8out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 discontinued 2018 |- | <!--Description-->ESI M8UEX USB3.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 current model |- | <!--Description-->ESI M4U eX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 current model |- | <!--Description-->ESI MidiMate eX midi interface 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 current model, well liked and might class compliant?? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->icon midiport 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->iCON CubeMi 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant? |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity mio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 class compliant but reported issues with sending System Exclusive (SysEx) MIDI messages and MIDI signals getting cut off |- | <!--Description--> iConnectMidi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 |- | <!--Description-->iCM2 iCM4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity iConnectMIDI4+ L | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 class compliant?? |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity MioXL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->IK Multimedia iRig MIDI 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant |- | <!--Description-->iRig Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton Electronics pro solo mk2 midi to cv converter | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Kenton Midi Thru-25 5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Keytech MT18E 8 Way Midi Thru box | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> 9 to 12v psu required |- | <!--Description-->MidiPlus Midi 2x2 midi interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->MidiPlus Midi 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> supposedly class compliant - USB bus powered |- | <!--Description-->MidiTech MIT-00151 Midiface 4x4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->MidiTech Midiface 4x4 8x8 16x16 thru merge | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Miditech Midilink mini 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport UNO only if box is labeled Class Compliant and latest MIDISPORT 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track Ultra (6 in 6 out) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not usb compliant, - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midiman Midisport 2x2 Anniversary Edition [https://gearspace.com/board/electronic-music-instruments-and-electronic-music-production/1133862-why-there-hardly-any-midi-interfaces.html not stable enough] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 USB2 usb-b - does not need firmware and supposedly plug and play - |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Midisport 4x4 Anniversary Edition | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> rumored does not need firmware - supposedly plug and play - issues with its firmware for some and lacks configurable routing |- | <!--Description-->Maudio Fast Track Ultra 8R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments Komplete Audio 6 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant but bus powered, |- | <!--Description-->Nektar Midiflex 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2015 class compliant and usb-b powered - used as a 1 in / 3 out, 2 in / 2 out or 4 out 5pin sockets - |- | <!--Description-->Neusonik IM-One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Peavey Xport | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> guitars only |- | <!--Description-->Roland UM-ONE UM-1 mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 USB class compliant if switch to TAB for class compliant mode rather than the COMPUTER mode |- | <!--Description-->Squarp Hermid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg Midex 8x8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> class compliant? supporting MIDI Time Stamping protocol |- | <!--Description-->Swissonic MidiConnect 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Tapco LiNK.midi USB 4x4 (Loud technologies) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no|dedicated driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-2x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> 2014 5v dc power, midi out in, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-4x4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-16x08 US-20x20 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom U-24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi to 5pin interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi to 5pin interface |- | <!--Description-->Unbranded cable | 0x552d | 0x4348 | F110 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|detected but no usb driver in devs/midi for camd to use}} | <!--Opinion-->detected but not working the USB-MIDI conversion functionality of the cheapo USB MIDI "cable" interface is simply lacking, possibly being incapable of handling MIDI strings longer than 3 bytes long SysEx strings (e.g. SysEx dumps) - tested in Icaros 2.3 - |- | <!--Description-->USB2.0-MIDI Unbranded cable with clear braided underneath leads | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1A86 | <!--Product ID-->0x752D | <!--Revision-->0254 | <!--CAMD-->{{Maybe|detected binding to camdusbmidi.class but untested midi in / out}} | <!--Opinion-->untested but better to get a branded version - tested AROS One 2.4 usb |- | <!--Description-->LogiLink USB to Midi In-Out | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk|}} | <!--Opinion-->untested cheap cable version but issues with latency on other systems |- | <!--Description--> gm5 USB midi chip DIY option only | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Doremidi LEKATO MIDI USB C Interface 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description-->Thomann Midi USB 1x1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> Prodipe made |- | <!--Description-->Prodipe MIDI 1i/1o | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb to 5pin midi interface |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |} Classic 5pin DIN controllers for above interfaces {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" | Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |CAMD ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai s5000 s6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> midi digital samplers |- | <!--Description-->Akai AX80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Casio CZ-5000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Casio CZ-3000 CZ-1000 CZ-101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Cheetah MS6 midi controller | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{No|untested}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 multi-timbral, six-voice (twelve-oscillator), analogue synthesiser module is loaded with CEM 3396s |- | <!--Description-->Ensoniq ESQ1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Integra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Wavestation Ex A/D SR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1986 ex has piano and drum sounds |- | <!--Description-->Korg DW-8000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg DW-6000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Korg Poly 800 MK1 Poly-800ii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> all plastic and can run on batteries - 49 keys non-velocity dco synt analogue filter |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland D-50 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|1987 untested greater concern would be moisture and wear}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland A50 (76) A80 (88) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|1989 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->ROLAND JUNO-D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland Juno 106 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->80s kx73 or kx88 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Roland ED PC-160A PC-180A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} legacy DIN5 MIDI port only - 6 AA batteries or 9v psu - One regular source of failure for me were emty batteries (even with red control light still active). Another source was a bad MIDI cable - unplug then re-plug the USB cable while it is powered the device might reconnect |- | <!--Description-->Roland M1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland S-550 S-760 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> digital samplers kontakt replaced these? |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha DX7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1983 12bit |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha DX7S DX72IID DX7IIFD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1987 16bit versions |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--CAMD-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- |} The MIDI standard was published in August 1983. The inventors, Kakehashi and Smith finally received a Technical Grammy Award in 2013 for their work. The MIDI files that contained just the note data, velocity and timing meant you could transfer an entire studio session from one place to another on one floppy disk and it could control all the synths and drum samplers. Pass-thru meant that one computer could run an entire bands worth of instruments. It's bulletproof too. MIDI never goes wrong, it's always a bug in software that causes any issue - you can absolutely rely on it to go gigging with, take your synths, controllers and computers and not crash an entire gig at your 100,000 person venue. The MIDI hardware specification is very simple (voltage, polarity, screening, protection and a fast enough opto-isolator), it assumes that the data it sends and receives between MIDI devices is to the MIDI data standard and just passes it on. The microprocessor in the hardware does all the work. The minimum for a computer/MIDI interface is that it meets the MIDI hardware specification. It is attached to the computer bus and handles the electrical conversions required. To meet the MIDI hardware specification, to be class compliant as a USB device all it has to do is report itself properly when plugged in. The other half of the equation is the MIDI data standard, and for a computer MIDI interface the main issue is the speed of data transmission. The bus speed of the computer is faster than the speed of the MIDI standard so it can generate and send MIDI data faster than a MIDI device can receive it. The MIDI standards have nothing to say on that bottleneck at all. MIDI was designed to be very simple and very open, it just defines a standard for the messages and leaves it up to manufacturers to implement them in the way they want. That's what makes it so powerful a tool, and also what makes it so confusing and frustrating at times. For midi, the hardware/software combination at various connection points handles the translation to/from midi (or other protocols). Drivers would be needed for midi, including clock and SysEx signal (actually claiming to handle ALL midi quirks transparently All the important MIDI data types can be sent (CC, NRPN, RPN, MMC, Note On/Off, program change) There is no official way to solve the data bottleneck. Early software sequencers and librarians tried to solve it by having an option to buffer SYSEX data in software and transmit it at the MIDI data rate. The downside is that hogs the bus and can hit computer performance. Interface manufacturers would add a hardware buffer which would take all the MIDI data from the PC bus and feed it into the MIDI at the slower data rate, but that added cost and created timing issues. Things have moved on since then, but the principles remain the same. You can buffer in the hardware or in software, whether that is in the application or the interface driver. SYSEX will work perfectly well with that budget cable if your software handles the buffering. And while the cables with hardware buffers make SYSEX easier, they still have potential problems because of the limitations of the MIDI data rate. Your MIDI clock doesn't like being interrupted with a big program dump The serial / parallel ports were a direct connection, so faster. Now, everything in the computer is virtual and the only thing connected to the hardware is the kernel, hence everything is by default bottlenecked and jittery, regardless of which connection. So by the time the interface gets the information it's already too late. Ethernet network cable to transport MIDI over large distances, connect 2 MIDI In and 2 MIDI Out ports to patch, remap, filter and merge MIDI flows on a fine channel basis for tight MIDI throughput, latency and jitter Possibilities for DAWs of the future including a kind of sync reference for timing reference which an interface could sync to, hence all the timings then would be locked between the grid on the DAW screen and the MIDI info. Preemptible, low latency and accuracy are essential for good communication. One of the first things you need to do, is make sure your MIDI software sets the interface to the same MIDI channel as your keyboard (usually 1) Do you want to send just your master keyboard to other synths or to be able to use any keyboard with any synth? 1st option is relatively simple. Just need to send midi from your master keyboard into a midi splitter that redistributes the signal onto your synths. Each synth will be set up to receive midi on a specific channel so the only challenge is to find a way to select to which channel you are sending midi. Some master keyboards can do that although not many that have a dedicated knob or switch on the panel and most require a bit of menu diving. Could use a midi box that offers channel selection but usually this is not very workflow friendly. The software route would require using the mouse. 2nd option is a bit more complex but superior workflow by sending midi messages into a merge box, from there into a hardware sequencer that allows to select midi channel, then on to a midi interface that distributes the signal to the synths. Master keyboard MIDI-in to computer. External hardware sampler MIDI-out from computer. Audio-out from sampler to audio-in on computer/device. Blue Ribbon Soundworks Bars & Pipes Professional (1993/4) GM (1984), GS (1987), XG level 1-3 (1994-1997), GM level 2 (1999) GM GM1 imposes several requirements beyond the MIDI 1.0 specification. While MIDI 1.0 by itself provides a communication protocol which ensures that different instruments can interoperate at a fundamental level e.g sound modules. GM goes further in two ways. First, GM requires that all compliant MIDI instruments meet a certain minimal set of features, such as being able to play at least 24 notes simultaneously (polyphony). Second, GM attaches specific interpretations to many parameters and control messages which were left unspecified in the MIDI 1.0 specification. A minimum of 128 MIDI Program Numbers (conforming to the GM 1 Instrument Patch Map) and 47 percussion sounds (conforming to the GM 1 Percussion Key Map). Support for controller number 1, 7, 10, 11, 64, 100, 101, 121 and 123; support for channel pressure and pitch bend controllers. General MIDI Level 2 or GM2 is a specification for synthesizers which defines several requirements beyond the MIDI standard and is based on General MIDI (GM) and Roland GS extensions. It was adopted in 1999 by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA). * Number of Notes: 32 simultaneous notes * MIDI Channels: 16 * Simultaneous Melodic Instruments – up to 16 (all Channels) * Simultaneous Percussion Kits – up to 2 (Channel 10/11) Program and bank change events General MIDI 2 compatible synthesizers access all of the 256 instruments by setting cc#0 (Bank Select MSB) to 121 and using cc#32 (Bank Select LSB) to select the variation bank before a Program Change. Variation bank 0 contains the full GM (General MIDI 1) sound set. Variations using other bank numbers are new to General MIDI 2, and correspond to variation sounds introduced in Roland GS. [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CluuHrr7HG4 Major WWHWWWH, Minor WHWWHWW scale], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jjm7Ti-iwz0 Chords], ==usb audio== USB audio has recently made available for Aros, there are many standards introduced over the years. Much is still untested. *Introduced 2000 and from 2014 USB Audio 1 UAC1 16bit 44.1kHz *Introduced 2006 and from 2014 USB Audio 2 [https://www.usb.org/document-library/usb-device-class-definition-audio-devices-release-20-errata-and-ecn-through-april UAC2] 24bit 192kHz *Introduced 2016 and from 2024 USB Audio 3 [https://www.usb.org/documents UAC3] 32bit 384kHz USB group decided to rewrite the audio standard, so [https://os4depot.net/?function=showfile&file=audio/record/usbaudio2.lha UAC2] and [https://archive.fosdem.org/2019/schedule/event/linux_and_usb_audio_class_3/attachments/slides/3345/export/events/attachments/linux_and_usb_audio_class_3/slides/3345/Linux_and_USB_Audio_Class_3___FOSDEM_2019.pdf UAC3]. They added clock selection and control, timing domains and others. Part of the changes included changing many of the descriptors that an audio device uses to describe itself to the machine. PsdErrorlog/PsdDevlister? The AHI driver generated only supports mono/stereo at any bit rates between 8 and 32 bit per sample, but not multichannel modes and only rates up to 65KHz (because AHI uses a 16-bit word for frequencies). If the soundcard does not offer such a PCM 8-32 bit mode at frequencies lower than 65 KHz, there's nothing much that can be done about it on the computer side other than revising and expanding the AHI standard. Most cheap USB soundcards do though. AHI does not support six channel playback. It only supports mono, stereo and multichannel (8 channels). Due to the multichannel mode not being used by any application so far, the usbaudio.class does not support multichannel playback, especially not "upchannelling" stereo to six or more channels. If this USB device does not support a two channel mode, you can't use it under AHI. Untested but most likely to work, at least 2 mic inputs (low impedance) & instruments (high impedance) and made in the last 10 years *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMuA-2FbJxE Entry level <100Euro] BOMGE U202, Behringer UMC, Presonus Studio, *[ Next tier <200Euro] Audient iD, Solid SSL2 and SSL2+, Lewitt, Focusrite Scarlett, Arturia MiniFuse, *[ Prosumer <300Euro] Focusrite Clarett+, *[ Professional <500Euro] RME Babyface, *[ Studio >500Euros] Bands should need 4 or more mic inputs [http://forum.xda-developers.com/showthread.php?p=38364030 XDA Forum thread], <pre> <- Computer <- Mobile Phone / Tablet (OTG) <- Digital Cameras <- Video <- Webcams Base Computer <-> OBS like <- Audio Mixer <- Microphone(s) -> Internet -> Youtube & Chat </pre> USB AUDIO CARDS - UAC Compliant {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="20%" |Description ! width="10%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="10%" |Playback ! width="10%" |Records ! width="30%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Antelope Galaxy 64 Synergy Core | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> not compliant so does not wotk with Aros and a high-end 64-channel AD/DA converter HDX, Dante connectivity and a Thunderbolt Audio interface |- | <!--Description-->Antelope Galaxy 32 Synergy Core | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion--> not be compliant so does not wotk with Aros as Antelope Audio does not provide official drivers, control software, or an Antelope Launcher |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Arturia Mini Fuse 1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, okay pre amp 1 combi input, cirrus logic cs4272 ad converter, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFuse 2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant usb-c with usb2.0, okay pre amps with good dynamic range 110dB, cirrus logic cs4272 ad converter, two combi inputs for mic, line or guitar, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia MiniFuse 4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, okay 110dB dynamic range, -129dB EIN, |- | <!--Description-->Arturia AudioFuse 16Rig | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1C75 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD44 mk1 mki | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Audient evo4 EVO8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD4 mk2 mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Audient id14 mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant and usb-c bus powered, good, , 0-in/14-out audio interface with ADAT expandability, balanced inserts |- | <!--Description-->Audient iD44 Mk2 Mkii | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC22 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC202HD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps ein -129 dBu, 24bit ADC, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC404HD | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps, 24bit adc, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UMC204HD 192 Empower Tribe | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID-->0x0508 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 maybe usb compliant, okay, midas pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Behringer UMC1820 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2016, bus complaint?, okay midas pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-PHORIA UM2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1397 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, poor zenyx pre-amps with high noise floor, plastic build no rf shielding, latency issues, |- | <!--Description-->Behringer x Air XR12 XR16 XR18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 usb and network |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Saffire 6 USB 1.1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, , , midi, strictly NEC USB 2.0, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 8i6 Gen 1 MOSC0001 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, but |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 1 MOSC0003 *TP1 - 3.3V, tested ok *TP2 - U4 control signal, 3.3V present at all time. *TP4 - Ground *TP6 - 48V, tested ok *TP7 - Ground *TP8 - Ground | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 usually avoid early Gen 1, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2021/08/75-focusrite-scarlett-2i4-1st-gen.html Focusrite Scarlet 2i4 Gen 1 (slide toggles) MOSC0004] *TP1 - 3.3V, tested 3.22v *TP2 - U4 control signal, 3.3V present *TP4 - Ground *TP6 - measure 47.72v * AKM 4384ET (VDD 5v) * Cirrus Logic CS4272-CZZ (VA 4.94v/ VD 3.2v/ VL 3.2v) * all four HC4066 (VCC 4.96v) * XMOS XS1-L01A-TQ128-C5 (all VDD 1.08v/ all VVDIO 3.23v/ PPLAVDD 0.99v/ PCU-VDDIO 3.23v) 2i4S *TP1 seems to be 0V *TP2 should be 5V *TP3 should be *TP6 should be 48V *TP8 should be 3.3V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, pre amps JRC NJM2122 and NJM4565, [https://statics.cirrus.com/pubs/proDatasheet/CS4272_F1.pdf CS4272 adc], [https://pdf.datasheet.live/e5e5fd1c/akm.com/AK4384.pdf AK4384 output pair], Xmos XS1-L8A-64-TQ128 processor and firmware in Winbond 25X40CL 4Mbit, an SMSC Microchip USB3343 interface and a Microchip PL611 clock generator - two Intersil / Renesas ISL97519A for the phantom power rail, two OnSemi NCP1521B for the 3.3V (digital) and 1V (Xmos core) rails - |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite iTrack Solo USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 1st Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, , Cirrus CS4272, |- | <!--Description-->[http://wiki.linuxaudio.org/wiki/current_audio_gear Focusrite ] Scarlett 4i4 Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, , Cirrus CS4272, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 6i6 Gen1 MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, , , 12v psu, the headphone outs mirror the outs on the back panel, so that's six independent outs. 4 independent analog output paths, plus two over spdif, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2019/03/38-focusrite-scarlett-18i8-gen1-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 1st Gen MOSC0008] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, JRC NJM4565 provide most of the opamps, pair of JRC NJM2122's for inputs 1 and 2, [http://www.mouser.com/ds/2/76/cs4272_f1-43250.pdf Cirrus CS4272], 12v 1a +central psu to a pair of National Semiconductor LM2672 for 3.3V rail and the +6.9V rail, Xmos XS1–L16A–128 dual-row QFN package, firmware a Winbond 25X40C 4Mbit SPI Flash and an SMSC USB3343 interface chip, the two headphone outs are completely independent so 6 independent analog output paths, plus two over spdif, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Clarett+ 8Pre | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 great, expensive, maybe usb compliant? |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 2 (slide toggles) MOSC0006 *TP6 should be 48V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8202 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, USB-b bus powered, good preamps ein equivalent input noise -128 dBu, 24-bit 192kHz CS4272 as well as an additional AKM AK4384ET for the second stereo output pair, 4 screws under bottom rubber, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2021/07/focusrite-scarlett-2i4-2nd-gen-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 2i4 Gen 2 (slide toggles) MOSC0014] *TP6 should be 48V | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, USB-b bus powered, good preamps NJM2122's, NJM4565's and CMOS switches (HEF4053 and HEF4066), CS4272 and a AKM AK4384ET, Xmos XU208-256-TQ64-C10 with firmware stored in a Macronix MX25L8006E 8Mbit flash memory, clocking by a Cirrus Logic CS2100, an MP1542 boost converter creates +6V and -6V rails, powering the opamps and the rest of the analog circuitry, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 6i6 Gen2 MOSC0016 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 2nd Gen MOSC0019 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://khronscave.blogspot.com/2024/03/focusrite-scarlett-18i8-gen2-teardown.html Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 2nd Gen MOSC00] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Red 16Line | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 may not be compliant as Focusrite provides no drivers - 64-in/64-out Pro Tools - dual Thunderbolt 3 audio interface with ultra-low latency A-D/D-A conversion - Red Evolution mic preamps |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 3rd Gen MOSC0024 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant usb-c but usb2, preamps, ad/dc 24bit 192kHz, most Focusrite gen3 interfaces have encrypted processors, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i6 Gen3 MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, USB2 class compliant device, but with custom mixer interface |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 Gen 3 (push in switches) MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8210 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, USB-c bus powered, good preamps ein equivalent input noise -128 dBu, 24-bit 192kHz Cirrus Logic xfr002c and cs4272 chips, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 3rd gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i8 3rd Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID-->0x8214 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, , , no screws under the rubber pads on the bottom, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo Studio Mk3 USB Audio Interface MOSC0030 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2020 |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 2i2 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 4i4 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Studio 4th Gen USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett Solo 4th Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 4th Gen MOSC00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1235 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FractalAudio FM9 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 |- | <!--Description-->Fractal Audio AM4 platform | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 not working |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Lewitt Connect 6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Lewitt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mooer Steep II Multi-Platform USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Motu UltraLite AVB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb not compliant? |- | <!--Description-->MOTU M2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant?, usb-c, good pre amps, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->MOTU M4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description-->MOTU U2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, good but latest had hardware revision |- | <!--Description-->MOTU UltraLite-mk3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description-->MOTU UltraLite-mk5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Nuemann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb audio compliant, great pre-amps |- | <!--Description-->Neumann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->neuralDSP Quad Cortex QC platform | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 cc compliant but plugins not working |- | <!--Description-->NeuralDSP QC Lite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 cc complaint |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Neve Genesys Black G16 G32 G64 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> not compliant - very good very expensive |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Presonus AudioBox USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe not usb compliant, usb1.1 usb-b bus powered, okay pre-amps, 24bit ADC 48Khz max, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus Audiobox 1818VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus AudioBox 44VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 may not be usb compliant, 12v psu, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus AudioBox 22VSL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 2|4 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, usb-b, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 2|6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->|PreSonus Studio 6|8 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe compliant, needs ext psu, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus Studio 24c 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, good, adc, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus Studio 26c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus® Studio 68c | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, usb-c, |- | <!--Description-->PreSonus AudioBox USB 96 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, high preamp noise, |- | <!--Description-->Presonus Quantum ES2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prism | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prism Lyra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe not usb compliant, great |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Platane UP1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant usb- UAC2 asynchronous protocol, 64dB Low-noise Mic amplifier, 32Bit High End ADC and DAC, 16dBu High-power ti headphone amplifier |- | <!--Description-->Platane UP2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Platane | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RME Babyface/UC/UFX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->RME Fireface UCX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 might be able to put into class compliant cc although a firewire device, pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->RME Babyface Pro FS | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe not usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->RME Fireface UCX II | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 might be class compliant usb-b, pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL2 SSL2+ Mk1 1st Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe usb compliant, good, adc, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL12 SSL18 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, bus powered, good pre-amps, up to 32-bit 192kHz AD/DA converters, 12-in 8-out, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic SSL2 SSL2+ MkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant, good pre amps ein -130 dBu, ad/dc, okay latency, |- | <!--Description-->Solid State Logic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Topping E1x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description-->Topping Pro E2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant, good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->UAD UA Apollo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->UA apollo 2nd Gen twin X (Duo/Quad), X4, X6, X8, X8P, and X16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 bus compliant?, usb- |- | <!--Description-->UA apollo twin x quad 3rd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 bus compliant?, usb- |- | <!--Description-->Universal Audio Volt 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->|Universal Audio Volt 276 2|76 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description-->Universal Audio Volt 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant, good, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE Pro AI01 Electromusic Interface Expander - | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, 4-in/4-out USB 2.0 audio interface with a built-in USB hub and MIDI I/O, up to 24-bit/96kHz |- | <!--Description-->Akai EIE Pro AI02 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->|Alesis io2 io|2, io14 io|14, io26 io|26 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 bus powered but not usb compliant, okay pre-amps, 2, 4 or 8 mics respectively, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis iO2 Express | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Alesis Core 1 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe cc, mini usb, poor latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire only, not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel two‑in, two‑out, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Ensemble | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 firewire, not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 1st Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant micro-usb for basic features, , , single‑channel up to 48kHz |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 2nd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant usb- and maybe aa batteries, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c with most features, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee One USB 3rd Gen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Ensemble Thunderbolt | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 maybe not usb compliant micro-usb with most features, , , two‑channel |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Boom | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee Duet 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2022 maybe usb compliant usb-c with most features, , , |- | <!--Description-->Apogee | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->ART PRO Audio Usb Mix | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 maybe usb compliant bus powered, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 1 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID-->01000 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2002 mbox original was usb1 and not a usb class compliant device, and had the much hated "focusrite designed" mic preamps, light blue front plate and the sticky out feet |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 midi not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Pro USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Mini USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Avid Digidesign Mbox 2 Micro USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0dba | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->AVID MBox 3rd gen Mini or Standard but Pro is Firewire | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->behringer u-control uca202 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x8bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2902 | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, draws a lot of power - dac ti burr-brown - no microphone pre-amp - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer U-CONTROL UCA 222 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 maybe usb compliant, - no microphone pre-amp - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Black Lion Audio 2x2 evolution | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant but , okay with 109dB range - poor noise floor, 24-bit 192kHz Cirrus Logic CS4272, average latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Bomge 11s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 |- | <!--Description-->Bomge 22s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 |- | <!--Description-->Bomge BMG22 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb-c, 24bit 192kHz but only use much lower, may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge U202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-c, 32bit 192kHz but only use much lower, may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge U204 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-c, 32bit 192kHz but only use much lower , may have to spend time cleaning up some of the noise, high latency, |- | <!--Description-->Bomge Mini | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->TI Burr-Brown PCM2702E PCM2704 PCM2704C Muse Audio Mini USB DAC board | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2704 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, no mic input - goodish quality |- | <!--Description-->TI Burr-Brown PCM2900 PCM2902 PCM2906 USB DAC board | <!--Vendor ID-->0x08bb | <!--Product ID-->0x2900 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, no mic input - goodish quality |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng MD22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 usb-b powered, 24bit 192kHz though is 96kHz, |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 usb-b powered, 24bit 192kHz though is 96kHz, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 2|6 em2|6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2002 not uac |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 6|2m | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 not uac |- | <!--Description-->|Emagic emi 6|2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 not uac |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Ego Systems, Inc. in Korea (ESI) joining with RIDI GmbH | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2006 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->esi Mixvibes U46 Mk II USB audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 not usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->ESI ESU22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->esi U24XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 24 bits, 2 analogue inputs and outputs with 6.3 mm jack connection, Output L can be used as a headphone output, S / PDIF digital input - |- | <!--Description-->esi U46XL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->ESI Originals, Inc ESIO MAYA22USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI MAYA44USB+ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI Originals, Inc ESIO MARA22XTU | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->ESI U22XT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb class compliant |- | <!--Description-->ESI Gigaport Ex | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2020 usb compliant?, usb-c usb3.1, , , |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->iConnectivity iConnectAUDIO2+ icaudio-02 USB audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->LexiconPro - Omega 8x4x2 (USB-1.1) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not usb complaint |- | <!--Description-->Lexicon Alpha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Lexicon Lambda | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 may not be compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 Toneport UX1 and Tone Port UX2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 TonePort UX8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2005 maybe not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Line 6 POD Studio UX1 UX2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Lokchonk UX22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljSiNmudMm0 Lokchonk UX44HD] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 usb-b , , , 2in 2out only, average latency, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Artist 1·2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 maybe not usb compliant, usb-b powered, |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Producer 2X2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b midi |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Onyx Blackjack | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 USB powered but maybe not usb compliant, Two Onyx Preamps, 2-in, 2-out which are combo Neutrik-type connectors to handle XLR, instrument or line level |- | <!--Description-->Mackie | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, , , |- | <!--Description-->Media Assistance USB-One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not uac cc comliant, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 maybe not usb compliant, - guitar |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Fast Track Ultra (6 in 6 out) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb cc providing 24-bit/96kHz audio capabilities but requires manual configuration of the mixer settings |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 usb compliant?, okay - guitar and vocal mainly |- | <!--Description-->[https://htyp.org/M-Audio/Fast_Track_Ultra/Linux M-Audio FastTrack Ultra] and Ultra 8R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe usb compliant, low round-trip latency, okay octane pre amps, adc, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track 2x2M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb compliant? usb-c - okay pre-amps, , |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track (MkII) 2x2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2016 usb compliant? usb-c - okay pre amps, , |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track Solo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb compliant? - okay but issues, MJN4580C opamps (lower gain 55 dB at volume 9-10), ti PCM2900C ADC 16bit means there is a hard noise floor at -96 dB, plastic build no rf shielding, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio M-Track DUO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 usb compliant? - okay but issues, MJN4580C opamps (lower gain 55 dB at volume 9-10), ti PCM2900C ADC 16bit means there is a hard noise floor at -96 dB, plastic build no rf sheild, |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, okay |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->NI AK1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.pogo.org.uk/~mark/linuxdj/ Native Instruments Traktor Audio 8 DJ], [ Traktor Audio 4 DJ], [ Traktor Audio 2 DJ], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17cc | <!--Product ID-->0x1978, 0x0839, 0x041C | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2009 not usb compliant uses snd-usb-caiaq module, [https://mixxx.discourse.group/t/problems-with-native-instruments-audio-8-dj-on-linux/14719/2 Audio 8 device has 4 subunits which are not recognized correctly], Cirrus Logic DACs spec'd at 24-bit/96KHz over a USB2, |- | <!--Description-->NI Komplete Audio 6 Mk1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe usb compliant, pre amps, 24bit 96kHz adc, ocassional dropouts, plastic build top with metal around 3/4, |- | <!--Description-->Native Instruments NI Komplete Audio 1 and 2 USB | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, good pre amp ein -129.5 dBu, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->[https://support.native-instruments.com/hc/en-us/articles/360014683497-Apple-Silicon-Compatibility-News Native Instruments Komplete Audio 6 Mk2] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17CC | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, pre amps, 24bit 192kHz adc, black aluminum glass build, |- | <!--Description-->[ Native Instruments Traktor Pro] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x17cc | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2023 maybe usb compliant |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Novation AudioHub 2x4 NOVHUB01 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant, usb-b powered, no xlr, focusrite sounds inside, |- | <!--Description-->Novation AudioHub | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Prodipe Studio 22 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Schiit HEL 1 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 |- | <!--Description-->Schiit HEL 2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 gaming headsets mostly |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-3 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->1998 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-30 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->1999 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA1A UA-1D Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-5 Audio Capture (Roland) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-1000 Audio Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA-1EX, Cakewalk UA-1G | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not usb compliant driver also supports ASIO (Steinberg Audio Stream I/O Interface), noisy |- | <!--Description-->Roland Duo Capture UA-11 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland QUAD-CAPTURE Analog 2x2 Digital 2x2 USB 2.0 4in/4out | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2005 not usb compliant, usb-b powered |- | <!--Description-->[https://wiki.debian.org/DebianEdu/Documentation/Manuals/Rosegarden/Setup Roland Edirol UA-101 and UA-1000 (Clemens Ladisch driver)] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/mmueller-kaffeeschluerfercom/UA-25-Firmware-Modification Roland Edirol ua-25] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2007 maybe usb compliant 16bit 44.1kHz sampling without MIDI but not USB class complient when in Advanced mode for 24bit or midi |- | <!--Description-->Edirol by Roland USB AudioCapture UA-25EX | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x00e6, 0x00e7 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2008 maybe usb compliant if ADVANCED DRIVER switched to OFF might play and record at 44.1kHz and 16-bit samples |- | <!--Description-->Roland Audio Interface V-Studio 20 VS-20 Cakewalk | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2010 maybe not usb compliant, usb-b powered, 1 xlr, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Edirol UA55 UA-55 Quad Cakewalk | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x012f | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2011 not USB class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland DUO-CAPTURE EX UA-22 USB Audio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0582 | <!--Product ID-->0x0159 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant but not be used with a USB 3.0 port that is not compatible with USB 2.0 specification, vs pre amps, adc, three AA batteries in base, or an AC adapter psb-1u 9V 2A - |- | <!--Description-->Roland Rubix series Roland Rubix22 USB 2.0 Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland Rubix series Roland Rubix24 USB 2.0 Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2017 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Roland | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg MI2, Steinberg MI4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg (2004 Yamaha buys) MIDI interface hardware including the CC like CC121 CC-121 and CI1 CI2 series. | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2008 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR12 UR22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR44 usb audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 maybe not usb compliant, poor pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR242 audio interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2015 maybe usb compliant, usb powered or 5v psu, okay pre-amps, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR22mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, okay pre-amps ein -123 dBu, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR-RT 2 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2018 maybe usb compliant, usb2.0 usb-b, pre-amps, ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR44C (USB3) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2019 maybe usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg URX22C UR22C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2021 maybe usb compliant, preamps okay but little noisy, ad/dc. |- | <!--Description-->Steinberg UR22 MkIII UR series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe usb compliant usb-c, okay pre-amps, adc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Tapco LiNK.USB 2x2 (Loud technologies WA, USA) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2005 maybe not compliant, usb-b, poor pre-amps hum, latency issues, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[https://git.alsa-project.org/?p=alsa-tools.git;a=blob;f=usx2yloader/README;hb=3843634ef0310a952b256bcb6a4ddd0ad4ebe396 Teac Tascam US-422 US-428 US2XYloader] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2000 not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US-122 US-224 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2003 not usb compliant, needing firmware usx2yloader/us122fw.ihx for audio sound card - Tascam US-122 and US-122L are not the same - |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US-122L | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID-->0x800e | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2006 not usb compliant, obsolete needs tascam_loader.ihx and us122fw.ihx firmware loaded each time unless automated |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US122 US-122 Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 not usb compliant although USB2 downgrade so using USB1.1 UHCI, tascam units suffer from high round-trip latency as do most typical USB units |- | <!--Description-->Tascam US144 US-144 Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2004 maybe usb compliant although USB2 downgrade so using USB1.1 UHCI, tascam units suffer from high round-trip latency as do most typical USB units |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-200 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac US-366 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-600 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac TASCAM US-800 USB 2.0 Audio / MIDI Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Records-->{{no|no driver}} | <!--Opinion-->2011 may not be totally usb compliant |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam iU2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{no| }} | <!--Records-->{{no| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-2x2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2014 usb compliant?, 5v dc power, midi out in, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Corp Tascam US-4x4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> usb compliant?, |- | <!--Description-->Teac Tascam US-16x08 US-20x20 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0644 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->teyun q12 Q-12, q22 Q-22 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant - unknown pre amp, unknown ad/dc, |- | <!--Description-->Teyun q26 Q-26, q24 Q-24 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe usb compliant - unknown pre amp, unknown ad/dc, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha UW500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2000 not class compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Audiogram 3 USB Digital Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2012 maybe usb compliant, okay pre amp, 16bit 44kHz adc no advanced features without dedicated asio driver, 1 xlr, 1 instrument, |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha Audiogram 6 USB Digital Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2013 maybe usb compliant, okay, 2 xlr, 2 instrument, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom UAC-232 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description-->Zoom UAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, okay, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.arcam.co.uk/products,rseries,usb-dacs,rPAC.htm Arcam rPac] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audioquest Dragonfly | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Audioengine D1 Premium 24-bit DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beresford TC-7520 (Burr Brown PCM 1716) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Beresford TC-7520 + Burson Buffer + MK3 JKSPDIF | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->[http://epiphany-acoustics.co.uk/products-page/dacs/e-dac-24bit-miniature-usb-dac/ Epiphany E-DAC 24bit] ES9023 DAC chip | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Firestone Audio FUBAR II Mk2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Firestone Audio iLoveTW 24Bit USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO D5 ta2020 chip amp | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO E07K Andes | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->FiiO E17 Alpen | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Magnum | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Martini-U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->GoVibe Vulcan | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Halide Design DAC HD (Wolfson WM8716) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->HRT Steamer II USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->John Kenny JKDAC uses a 24-bit/192&nbsp;kHz Sabre ES9022 DAC or better JKDAC32 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> iBasso D12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Leckerton UHA-6S MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->MyST 1866 PortaDAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Objective DAC ODAC+O2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Rega DAC (Wolfson WM8742) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->[http://www.henryaudio.com/open-source.php Henry Audio USB DAC 128 also known as QNKTC AB-1.2 open source DAC] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Henry Audio mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->AKM4430 DAC chip comes from Asahi Kasai |- | <!--Description-->DevilSound USB DAC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Zoom U series | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->KingRex UD-01 SE (Burr-Brown PCM 2702E) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->SuperPro 24/192 USB DAC (24bit 192&nbsp;kHz, CS-4398 D/A chip) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | CMedia CM108 7.1ch emulation I2S in and out | 0x1926 | 0x0003 | 0x0100 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | [http://www.lindy.co.uk/usb-2-audio-adapter/42961.html Lindy USB 2.0] (Chipset CM108) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Speed-Link SL-8850-SBK Vigo ([http://mightyohm.com/forum/viewtopic.php?p=1036#p1030 CMedia CM108]) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Dynamode USB SOUNDCARD 2.0 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0003 | <!--Product ID-->0x1130 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | Dynamode Virtual 7.1 USB-SOUND7 (C-Media ) | 0x0d8c | 0x000c 0x000e | 1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Generic White box with very little red led and white USB lead (CMedia ) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID--> 0c000e | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | CM109 CiT SC-U119 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | CMedia CM1197.1ch I2C MCU port Penguin | 0x0D8C | 0x0000 | 0x010 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Sweex 7.1 Startech External USB, WMA Blue metal box SYBA SD-AUD20040, Sabrent USB-SND8, Sewell Vantec NBA-200U (C-Media CM6206 CM106 like) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x0102 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->50/50 if the item is detected but does not work |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative Labs SoundBlaster X-fi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative X-Fi Go | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative X-Fi 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Creative Sound Blaster Play! USB sound adapter (SB1140) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> working with [http://www.amiga.org/forums/showpost.php?p=646431&postcount=15 Deneb on OS3] |- | <!--Description-->Asus Xonar U1 (ASUS UA100 USB Audio Chip) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Asus Xonar U3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Playback | Records | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Griffin iMic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio Transit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Icemat Siberia (steel series) (Cmedia chipset) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->JMTek HY554, ZyXEL NSA-220, Logilink (Tenx Technology TP6911 and SSS-1623 headphone set) | 0x0C76 0x1130 | 0x1605 0x1607 0xf211 | 0x | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> reports on other OS not good |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Plantronics "DSP Adapter-01" (or "USB Adapter-02") | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Rocksmith Real Tone Cable | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->RSA Intruder Predator | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->StarTech ICUSBAUDIO7 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x000c | <!--Revision-->1.00 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Stoner Acoustics UD100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Teac UDH01-B | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Aureon 5.1 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Aureon 5.1 USB MKII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->TerraTec Electronic GmbH Aureon Dual USB | 0x0ccd | 0x0077 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Terratec Phase26 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trust 510 EX 5.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Logitech A-5572A USB 2.0 to 3.5mm jacks Virtual 7.1 Surround Sound Adapter or accessory of Logitech Clearchat pro USB or Logitech USB Headset H530 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0003 | <!--Product ID-->0x046D | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Trumix TM-10 USB Audio Interface | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe cc |- | <!--Description-->Trumix TM-12 USB-C | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion-->2024 maybe cc usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Turtle Beach Audio Advantage Amigo Micro II USB Sound Card & Headset Adapter | <!--Vendor ID-->0x10F5 | <!--Product ID-->0x0211 | <!--Revision-->0100 | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->Vantec NBA-100U 7.1 Channel | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback-->{{unk| }} | <!--Records-->{{unk| }} | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Playback--> | <!--Records--> | <!--Opinion--> |} Companies including Access, Alesis, Allen&Heath, American Audio, CME, ESI, Infrasonic, Lexicon, Numark, Presonus, Reloop, SIMS, Sound Devices, Steinberg, Swissonic, Tascam, Terrasoniq, Terratec, Yamaha and Yellowtec decided to license and bundle this driver. So fully functional custom drivers are available for Access Virus TI, Access Virus TI snow, Alesis Multimix 8 USB2.0, Alesis Multimix 16 USB2.0, Allen&Heath XONE:2D, Allen&Heath XONE:3D, Allen&Heath XONE:4D, Allen&Heath XONE:DX, Allen&Heath XONE:DB4, American Audio Versa Port, CME XCORPIO, ESI ESU1808, ESI Gigaport AG / DG, ESI Maya 44 USB, Infrasonic Amon, Lexicon I-ONIX U22, Lexicon I-ONIX U42S, Lexicon I-ONIX U82S, Mindprint DI-MOD USB, Numark DJ IO, Numark NS6, Numark NS7, Numark Omni Control, Numark V7, Presonus Audiobox USB, Reloop Digital Jockey, SIMS Primus, Sound Devices USB pre, Steinberg MI2, Steinberg MI4, Swissonic Easy USB, Tascam M-164UF, Tascam US-122L, Tascam US-144, Tascam US-Tascam US-144mkII 122mkII, Tascam US-200, Tascam US-600, Tascam US-1641, Tascam US-1800, Tascam US-2000, Terratec Area 61, Terrasoniq Phase X64, Terratec Phase 26 USB, Yamaha UW10, Yamaha UW500, Yellowtec PUC2 and many others. Well, those companies are using the same driver framework because all of those interfaces use the same microprocessor/firmware architecture to communicate with the USB bus. Just like almost all FireWire audio interfaces use the same TC Dice or BridgeCo chipsets. Usually it does not make sense for companies to develop their own USB1.1/USB2/FW framework for a product they are going to sell for <$500. However, that isn't the end of the story. The companies who develop audio interfaces implement different features into their devices and must update the driver and firmware to accommodate those features. That is where things can go wrong. Sometimes there is miss-communication about how things are coded, sometimes the developer who started a project leaves without transferring his knowledge to his successor, etc. You have to keep in mind that there are no "big" computer audio companies. Even the companies that seem big in the scale of the market, probably have fewer employees than you'd think. A very well made interface that is designed from scratch from the ground up would be a very expensive device, regardless of whether it's USB, FW, PCIe or whatever. Round-trip latency is the sum of the following: <pre> ASIO input buffer ASIO output buffer A/D D/A converter latency The driver's hidden safety buffer </pre> At a 64-sample ASIO buffer size/44.1k, Tascam units yield ~18ms total round-trip latency. Typical USB audio interfaces use a large hidden safety buffer. This helps ensure glitch-free playback... even under less than ideal circumstances. But... this comes at the expense of much higher round-trip latency. Short of doubling the sample-rate, there's no means of mitigating the higher round-trip latency. If you have no plans of ever monitoring in realtime thru software based EFX/processing (ie: playing/monitoring DI bass thru an AmpSim plugin as you're playing), then this may not matter to you. If you want the ability this play/monitor in realtime thru software based EFX/processing, make sure to get an audio interface that yields low round-trip latency. As a point of reference the best PCI/e audio interfaces yield about 5ms total round-trip latency at a 64-sample ASIO buffer size/44.1k The best Firewire and USB units yield 5.5-5.6ms total round-trip latency at those same settings. Typical USB and Firewire units (that use a large hidden safety buffer) yield 12-18ms total round-trip latency at those same settings. Anything above ~6ms starts to feel sluggish. Anything above ~10ms feels like playing thru molasses. USB Microphones {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->C-Media Electronics, Inc. CM108 Audio Controller Mic | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0d8c | <!--Product ID-->0x013c | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato WaveMic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Wave:1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 no driver }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Wave:3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 no driver lightweight }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->hyperx solocast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->hyperx quadcast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sennheiser CC510 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Alesis USB-Mic microphone podcasting kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio-Technica AT2020 (AT202) AT4040 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio-Technica AT2035 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer B1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Snowball | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Snowball iCE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| cardioid only }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Yeti | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|can pick up a lot of background noise but not sure if right mode used }} |- | <!--Description-->Blue Microphones Yeti Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| can pick up a lot of background noise but not sure if right mode used }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MXL 2001A/600 Studio Microphone Pack / MXL 2003A Studio Condenser | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeChat LX-3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Namtai SingStar(TM) PS2 SCEH-0001 USBMIC | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1415 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision-->0.01 | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| mono microphones }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Neumann MT48 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Seiren X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Seiren Mini USB Condenser Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rockband USB Mic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rode NT1A VideoMic Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rode Podcaster 2 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| RODECaster Pro usb audio compatible}} |- | <!--Description-->Rode NT1A NT2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| NT2 better }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Roland R-07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Go Mic - Portable USB Microphone for Recording | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| mini usb r.h.s. and clip on the bottom left hand side}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Go Mic Clip On USB Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| switch to choose between Cardiod, Omni and -10&nbsp;dB modes, a 3.5mm headphone socket and a USB socket}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson C01U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| cardoid only}} |- | <!--Description-->Samson C03U | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shure MV7 USB Podcast Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shure MV7+ XLR & USB-C dynamic microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->SONY PCM-D50 handy | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb 5V, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PCM-M10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out 5V, }} |- | <!--Description-->SONY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->SONY | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->TASCAM DR-1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008, one mini usb out, lithium battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009, one mini usb out, aa battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR05 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011, one mini usb port for file transfer and charging the AA batteries }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 mini usb aa battery }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07mkII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 , one mini usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-05X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40X | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 , one micro usb 3 aa battery }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-05XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-07XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-40XP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , one usb-c, }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam DR-100mkIII | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| , usb , }} |- | <!--Description-->Tascam | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| , usb , }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2006 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID-->0x0095 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2007 no driver, mini usb 5V audio i/f USB Card and USB Audio; press the Record button when USB Audio is displayed. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4n | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2009 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H1 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID-->0x0120 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 no driver, mini usb 5V and display will alternate between USB Card and USB Audio; press the Record button when USB Audio is displayed. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H2n | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 no driver, mini usb 5V audio i/f press the Record. Press Record again to choose the default }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H4n PRO | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2011 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H6 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 untested, 2xlr, 5v mini usb, }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H5 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 no driver, 5v mini usb, 2 xlr, }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H1n-vp handy | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 no driver, mini usb 5V }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom H6studio | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2008 untested usb a cord, no hdmi, 480p}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q3HD Handy Video Recorder | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2010 untested, built in usb-a cord, mini hdmi, 1 hour on 2 AA batteries, H.264 movies 480p }} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q2HD Handy | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2012 untested, up 720p but no stablisation, mini usb cord, 1 hour on 2 AA batteries}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q4 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 untested, li-ion battery}} |- | <!--Description-->Zoom Q4N | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1686 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 untested, li-ion battery}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Audio Technica ATR4697-USB Boundary Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->CAD Audio CAD USB Condenser Boundary Microphone | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->MXL AC-44 Boundary Conferencing Mic | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samson Audio SAUB1 Boundary Microphone (USB) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} USB Speakers {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Focal XS 2.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} USB Headset Wired/Wireless {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Logitech Vantage Wired (came free with PS2 Socom3) | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech G330 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech Premium USB Stereo Headset 350 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Plantronics DSP-300 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Plantronics GameCom 777 | | | | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Logitech G-930 Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | [http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/set-usb-wireless-earphones/ Plantronics Audio 995 Wireless RF] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | Sennheiser Wireless | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Be1e0QPIPK0 Mixers] {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->ALESIS MULTIMIX 4 CHANNEL USB MIXER | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Alesis - MultiMix 8 USB FX (USB 1.0) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2010 usb compliant?, up to 16-bit/48kHz, 18v 500mA - |- | <!--Description-->Alesis - MultiMix 8 USB 2.0 FX (USB 2.0) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2012 usb compliant?, up to 16-bit/48kHz, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Allen&Heath MixWiz16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description-->Allen and Heath ZED Power 1000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 8 xlr, usb-b out, }} |- | <!--Description-->Allen & Heath ZEDi-10 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> maybe not usb compliant, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XENYX 302USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 5-Input Mixer/Audio Interface - 1 xlr - }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx Q502USB Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|no driver}} Behringer 2*18.5V 250ma psu - 1 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx Q802USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} Behringer 2*18.5V 250ma psu - 2 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->BEHRINGER XENYX 1204USB 8-Channel 2-Bus Mixer USB/Audio Interface Studio/Live | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} iec kettle psu lead - can develop constant background hiss over time |- | <!--Description-->Behringer XENYX X1222USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver - 12-Channel Analog Mixer with USB Interface and Effects}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng HT-7 HT7USB 7 Channel Audio Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2023 cheap no driver, USB MP3 player to work, format your USB stick Fat32 as a Logical drive - not primary}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng XT7 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2025 cheap no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Depusheng DT8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2025 cheap no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Spirit soundcraft Folio FX8 with Lexicon Effects Processor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} unusual power connector - [https://github.com/lack/soundcraft-utils usb routing] - |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic Professional F7 7-Channel 2-Bus Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2022 no driver, cheap mixer with 3pin ac input (introduces noise) and 1 usb-a port}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic Professional F7-Pro 7-Channel 2-Bus Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2022 no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Weymic A80 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2024 no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Yamaha | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} Mixer no hardware usb {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->ALTO Lynx MIX82FX Audio Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Alto L16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MXUL5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer MX602A | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB502 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 17.5V 3pin psu needed}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB802 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 2 xlr,}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1002 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 2 xlr,}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1202 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb 4 xlr, }} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Eurorack UB1602 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer RX1602 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer 802 XENYX 8-Input 2-Bus Mixer Small Format Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} Behringer 18.5V ???ma psu - 2 xlr - phanton power - |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx 502 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer Xenyx | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Behringer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->IMG stage Line MMX-122 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, 4 xlr, iec cable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie 802VLZ4 Mackie 802-VLZ4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb , psu}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie 1202-VLZ Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, mains iec}} |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Mix5 Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} 18v 300mA psu - 5 Channel - |- | <!--Description-->Mackie Mix8 Mixer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} 9v x2 600mA psu - |- | <!--Description-->Mackie MIX12FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb, 4 xlr, 9v 500mA x2 psu, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no usb}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.soundcraft.com/en/product_documents/en/owners_manual Soundcraft] Spirit Folio F1 Fader 100 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} 16 Channel Mixer - |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM6 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM8 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Harman Soundcraft EPM 12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} iec kettle power lead - |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft EPM 16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad 8FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad UI12 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> connect via wifi |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad UI16 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> connect via wifi |- | <!--Description-->Soundcraft Notepad 124FX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection, 14.8V x2 3 pin psu}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description-->t.mix xmix 1402fx mp usb | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection, mains iec, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no hardware usb connection}} |- |} ==Webcameras== A USB camera has two dedicated chips: a controller or bridge and an image sensor. There was no Commodore support for video interfaces. The only commercial, now discontinued application that defined some sort of standard was VHI Studio by iospirit. ===OLD standards=== See [http://www.e3b.de/usb/main_supported_e.html support pages] and [http://www.e3b.de/usb/main_faq_e.html here] and some [http://webcam-osx.sourceforge.net/cameras/index.php?orderBy=status further compatibility] Pencam STV680 {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | AIPTEK stv680 | 0x0553 | 0x0202 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Konica e-mini | 0x04c8 | 0x0722 | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | DigitalDream l'espion XS | 0x1183 | 0x0001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | [http://reviews.cnet.com/webcams/creative-webcam-go/1707-6502_7-1446174.html Creative WebCam Go mini] | 0x041e | 0x4007 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- |} SonixcamTool (Sonix webcams and derivates) '''Note [http://amigadev.free.fr/sonix/ some] Sonix Webcams with a Sonix SN9C1xx controller ''and'' a pas106b or tas5110c1b sensor support bulk mode which works even with pciusb.device!''' {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Macally IceCam II | 0x0c45 | 0x05d8 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Sweex MiniCam 100K | 0x0c45 | 0x6005 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor tas5110c1b}} |- | Macally IceCam Portable | 0x0c45 | 0x6007 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor tas5110d}} |- | Sweex 100K | 0x0c45 | 0x6009 | 0x0101 | {{yes|bulk works - sensor pas106b}} |- | [http://www.epinions.com/pr-Chicony_TwinkleCam_Webcam/display_~full_specs Chicony Twinkle DC-2110A] | 0x0c45 | 0x600d | | {{no|no}} |- | Unknown | 0x0c45 | 0x601e | | {{no|no}} |- | USB PC Camera (SN9C102) | 0x0c45 | 0x6028 | | {{no|no - sn9c10x + pas202b}} |- | Trust SpaceC@m 120 and 150 | 0x0c45 | 0x6029 | | {{N/A|untested - sensor pas106a}} |- | HiRes Webcam Live | 0x0c45 | 0x602c | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | [http://www.sweex.com/en/assortiment/sound-vision/webcams/JA000020 Sweex USB Webcam 300K] | 0x0c45 | 0x608f | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | Speedlink Sphere Webcam SL-6820, 350K | 0x0c45 | 0x613c | 0x0101 | {{N/A|untested - sensor HV7131R}} |- | WB-3250P | 0x0c45 | 0x613e | | {{no|no - sensor ov7630}} |- | Unknown | 0x0c45 | 0x6207 | | {{no|no}} |} <pre> micromaxx USB Camera STM 1363 514 works --- USB Tower Lego 1684 1 works need NCQ Trust Spycam 100plus STM 1363 514 works </pre> ov51x.class - no driver {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | D-Link VGA Webcam (640x480) | 0x05a9 | 0x8519 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sony PS2 EyeToy Logitech/Logicool Black (ov519) SCEH-0004 | 0x054c | 0x0154 | | {{no|no driver}} |- | Sony PS2 EyeToy Namtai Silver (ov519) SLEH-00031 SLEH-00030 | 0x054c | 0x0155 | | {{no|no driver}} |- |} ===UVC.class - [https://www.usb.org/document-library/video-class-v15-document-set USB Device Class Definition for Video Devices or USB Video Class]=== AROS does not supported as still needs an uvc.class which might create a virtual UVC.VHI or an expanded streaming device driver for use by AROS apps *2003 UVC 1.0 baseline streaming of uncompressed YUV422, MJPEG, and compressed MPEG-2 TS, DV *2005 [http://www.cajunbot.com/wiki/images/8/85/USB_Video_Class_1.1.pdf UVC 1.1] baseline HD 720p streams formats, usb2 support, *2012 [https://www.usb.org/document-library/video-class-v15-document-set UVC 1.5] added usb3 devices and compressed h.264 and VP8 formats *2019 the market is filled with UVC Compliant USB HDMI Capture *Aros needs to read the camera’s class-specific Video Control (VC) unit and terminal descriptors. *Identifies the devices as UVC-compatible and links it to the native UVC class driver, so no separate driver installation is required. *Aros and camera determine the appropriate streaming settings, including format, resolution, and frame rate. *Once set, video data moves from the image sensor to the onboard ISP, then through the USB controller and into the host system for viewing, analysis, or recording *More advanced functions, such as HDR, ROI, and hardware trigger support, can be managed {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K60 HD VS009 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|4k 60hz ok for chat streams}} |- | <!--Description-->Acasis 4K60 HDMI HDR Game Live Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| for chat streams }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AJA U-tap HDMI | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->ASUS TUF CU4K30 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ATEN CAMLIVE HDMI to USB-C UVC Video Capture adapter UC3020 HDMI (F) TO USB-C M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 possibly UVC and UAC standard support allows up to 1080P @ 60}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia Live Streamer Cap 4K - BU113 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 uvc usb3}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia GC515 video capturing device | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.2 Gen 1 (3.1 Gen 1)}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra GC553 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 usb3 powered by Type C USB cable and 4K HDMI cable}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra S GC553PROW 302AGC553DL2 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1553 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 powered by good quality type C USB3 cable and 4K HDMI 2.0 cable}} |- | <!--Description-->AVermedia Live Gamer Mini GC311 302AGC311DG9 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1311 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 uvc compliant up to 1080p 60fps capture and supports internal hardware H.264 encoding - if flashing blue light try another '''quality''' micro usb cable - }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Ez Recorder 330 (ER330) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 designed to work independently and is generally not compatible as a plug-and-play UVC capture card }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer extreme3 GC551G2 (LGX3) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x3551 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc compliant for intensive gaming streams, some vrr but no hdr with maximum recording resolution of 4K30/1080p60 from fully wired usb3 compatible cable - passing through 4K60/1080p120 Game Capture video capturing device HDMI}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra Pro GC553Pro | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 usb3 }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Ultra 2.1 GC553G2 61GC553G20BV video capturing device | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 USB 3.2 Gen 1 (3.1 Gen 1)}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia GC575 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 usb3 powered by Type C USB cable and 4K HDMI cable}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->AVMatrix | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ClonerAlliance Flint 4KP Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->DIGITNOW U600 video capture card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc uac }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Epiphan AV.io HD | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Epiphan AV.io 4K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Cam Link 4K | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/elgatosf/capture-device-support Elgato HD60 S+] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID-->0x006C, 0x006E | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 4K 30FPS capture, 1080p 60FPS uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato HD60 X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Cam Link 4K HDMI video capture card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0FD9 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 uvc compliant but can have usb disconnects}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.0 device with 1080/60 capture and 4K/60 passthrough}} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 lite USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 USB 3.0 device }} |- | <!--Description-->EVGA XR1 Pro USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 USB 3.0 device with 1080/60 capture and 4K/60 passthrough}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->EZcap Game Link Raw - ezcap321 usb3.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 2160p30, 1080p120 and 1440p60 HDMI input and pass-through. - 1080p120, 2160p30 and 1440p60 recording. - Latency less than 50ms uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->EZCap GameDock Ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 record at 4K30, 1440p60, and 1080p120}} |- | <!--Description-->EZcap 360 Game Capture Extreme | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 USB 3.0, 4K 60FPS passthru and 1080p 240FPS}} |- | <!--Description-->EZCAP 364 GameDock Extreme 2.1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Genki ShadowCast 1 & 2, the Pro version | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HAUPPAUGE HD PVR Pro 60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 4K in/Out 1080P 60fps Capture and Streaming PC Connected and Stand Alone }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->INOGENI 4K2USB3 2830 3826 HDMI 4K to USB 3.0 UHD 1080p Video Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2997 | <!--Product ID-->0x0004 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 uvc compliant made in Canada - usb3-b socket and 1 hdmi 1080p from 23.98 up to 60p, 4K@30 fps maybe - }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Kondor Blue | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Nanjing Magewell Electronics Co ltd USB 3.0 XI100DUSB-HDMI Pro Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB3.0 Silver HDMI Full HD Video Capture Device 1080p 32011 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 usb audio extract HDMI embedded audio output via headphones}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB capture HDMI PLUS 2K 32040 320400000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2014 captures video up to 1920×1200, 1920×1080 or 2048×1080 at 60 fps over an HDMI capture from devices such as game consoles in up to DCI 4Kp60 4:2:0 input resolution, and it automatically upscales/downscales the signal to 2K for recording or streaming}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB capture HDMI Gen2 32060 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2015 1080p gets hot, 165M HDMI receiver, max input 2048x1080 60fps 4:4:4, RGB/YUV 4:4:4 8/10/12-bit, YUY 4:2:2 12-bit, up to 8-channel 24-bit HDMI-embedded audio at 192kHz, HDMI 1.4a, output from 480p to 1080p, YUY2/UYVY/RGB24/RGB32 support video cropping, up/down scaling, de-interlacing, aspect ratio conversion, color format conversion, frame rate conversion, flip and mirror, up to 2-channel IEC60958 audio streams, 5V 0.5A 2.5W, }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Capture 4K Plus 32090 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 limited by the bandwidth of USB 3.0, the maximum frame rate can only reach 30 fps when capturing}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Capture 4K PRO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 }} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell Pro Convert IP to USB | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Captures one network eth NDI® High Bandwidth, NDI® HX2, NDI® HX3 sources or H.264/H.265 video source into software at resolutions up to 1080p60}} |- | <!--Description-->Magewell USB Fusion | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|versatile USB video capture device that allows users to switch between two HDMI inputs and one USB webcam input for live presentations}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->ROLAND UVC-01 USB Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sunplus Innovation Technology Inc. MiraBox HSV321 ARX321 Video Capture device | <!--Vendor ID-->ox1bcf | <!--Product ID-->0x2c99 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 uvc uac }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->UGREEN CM716 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| uvc uac but disable HDCP on your source device (PS4/PS5, Xbox) }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->VisionTek UVC HD60 Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acer Aspire Crystal Eye AOA110 AOA150 0.3M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2008 webcam }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Streamer CAM 313 (PW313) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2019 uvc 1080p/30 webcam}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Streamer DUO | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2021 uvc 1080p/60 webcam}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->[http://reviews.cnet.co.uk/webcams/creative-live-cam-optia-af-review-49294183/ Creative Live Cam Optia AF] 2.0M | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | {{no|2008 }} |- | <!--Description-->DSLR macro extensions + a cheap 50mm E-Series lens + some PVC tubing and a negative holder | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes| if uvc camera chosen}} |- | <!--Description-->DSLR scanning using a macro lens, for the adapter, for a 3d printed negative holder) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{yes| if uvc camera used }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C270 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x046d | <!--Product ID-->0x0825 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|720p }} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C910 C920 HD Pro 5Megapixels 720p | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Output mjpg 1080p}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech C920s c922 HD Pro 5Megapixels 1080p | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|Output mjpg 1080p}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Brio 100 300 500 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} 1080p |- | <!--Description-->Logitech MX Brio 4k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|4k}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft's LifeCam HD-3000 HD-5000 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x045e | <!--Product ID--> 0x0779 | <!--Revision-->1.06 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeCam Cinema | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft LifeCam Studio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} sony imx179 1080p |- | <!--Description-->Pi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} 1/2.8” Sony IMX291 image sensor, it's a 2MP, UVC-compliant, ultra-wide-angle, low light, high-speed USB 2.0 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} OV5648 |- | <!--Description-->razer kiyo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} 4 megapixel sensor 1080p 30fps 720p 60fps - 12 led ring light adjustable |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->TeckNet C068 1.3mpixel HTD USB2.0 Camera Vimicro Z-Star Corp | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0AC8 | <!--Product ID--> 0x3420 | <!--Revision-->0x01FA | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/wltechblog/thingino-installers/tree/main/wyze-cam-4 Wyze Cam V4] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H0QLiC9QoQU firmware] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no| verified with os04d10 sensor (i2c 0x3c) but not GC4653 (i2c 0x29)}} |- | <!--Description-->YEALINK(XIAMEN) NETWORK UVC50 is compatible with the UVC 1.1 protocol CP960-UVC50 and CP960-UVC80 kits PTZ, CP960-UVC30 Kit is UVC 1.5 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Amcrest ProHD 1080P WiFi Wireless IP Security Camera - 1080P (1920TVL), [https://www.ispyconnect.com/man.aspx%3Fn%3DAmcrest IP2M-841] nvr | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} h264/rtsp, motion detection, features Sony image sensor and Ambarella processor - rtsp://[username]:[password]@[IPaddress]:[port]/cam/realmonitor?channel=[channel]&subtype=[stream] - [username] - username to login to the DVR or NVR, [password] - password, [IPaddress] - IP address of the device. If you are not on the same local network, this should be the external IP address of the device's network, [port] - port number, [channel] - channel number of the stream, [stream] - view the Main or Sub stream. (main stream is 0, sub stream is 1) , eg. rtsp://admin:admin@192.108.1.108:80/cam/realmonitor?channel=1&subtype=1 - utilizing RTSP ( rtsp://user:pass@ipcam1 ) |- | <!--Description-->Axis all modern ones | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} RTSP/RTP + H264/mjpeg or MJPEG over HTTP |- | <!--Description-->PTZ | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->DLink DCS-5222 5222L network camera | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} camera streams H.264 over RTP controlled by RTSP |- | <!--Description-->Dlink DCS900 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description-->Wansview 1080p [http://marc.merlins.org/perso/linuxha/post_2013-11-10_Reviewing-IP-Webcams-for-Linux-and-Zoneminder_Dlink-DCS900_-Ubnt-Aircam_-Foscam-FI8904W-FI8910W_-FFI9820W_-FI9821W_-Wansview-NCB541W_-and-Zavio-F3210.html#NCM625GA NCM625GA] IP Camera WiFi Wireless IP Security Camera , Full HD Plug n Play Home Surveillance / Baby Monitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} RTSP/RTP + H264/mjpeg - play its HD stream without problem with vlc rtsp://ip/live/ch0 and getting jpegs http://ipaddr/mjpeg/snap.cgi?chn=0 - methods involve transcoding h.264 video from the camera into jpeg's, which is cpu intensive - able to pull images manually, using http://username:password@ip/mjpeg/snap.cgi - |- | <!--Description-->Wansview NCB541W | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|}} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia Game Capture HD C281 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2011 standalone h.264 recording of up to component cable not hdmi but not uvc}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia GL310 Live Gamer Portable (LGP Lite) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 not working usb2 and USB Lite no uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia AVerMedia Live Gamer Portable ([https://github.com/Trouffman/octv_gears_lgp Model C875]) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 usb2 no uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia LGX Live Gamer extreme GC550 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2015 but [https://github.com/ChrisAJS/lgx2userspace driver]}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia LGX2 Live Gamer extreme2 gc550 plus gc551 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 but [https://github.com/ChrisAJS/lgx2userspace driver]}} |- | <!--Description-->Avermedia ExtremeCap UVC - BU110 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 maybe not uvc and uac}} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer Portable 2 Plus GC513 Micro-USB Capture Box LGP2 Plus | <!--Vendor ID-->0x07ca | <!--Product ID-->0x1513 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2017 powered by a standard Micro-USB cable, video capture output up to 1080p60 capture to hdmi in, standalone sd card recording on exFAT or FAT32 of .MOV, 2160p pass-through hdmi out to tv - no vrr - [https://www.avermedia.com/uk/support/download#ans_part firmware latest 2.1.7.13, 2.1.7.14], SN74AVC8T245 8bit, DRV604 stereo, iTE IT6663FN hdmi 2.0 splitter, TLV320DAC3101 DAC, CS42L73 audio codec, CDCE913 PLL clock, W29N01HVSINA nand bios, I-Catch V35MA SOC CPU 32bit MIPS24K, ADV7480 hdmi mhl, }} |- | <!--Description-->AVerMedia Live Gamer 4K LG4K GC573 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2018 not uvc but [https://github.com/derrod/lg4k-linux drivers here], }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Blackmagic intensity Extreme Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2011 not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->BlackMagic Intensity Pro 4k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2015 }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Video Capture (1VC108601000) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc, mini usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture HD60 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc, }} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato Game Capture HD GCHD 2GC309901000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc https://github.com/tolga9009/elgato-gchd needs firmware mb86h57_h58_idle.bin and mb86h57_h58_enc_h.bin - mini usb}} |- | <!--Description-->Elgato HD60S Elgato Game Capture 4K60 S+ Video Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|non uvc, }} |- | <!--Description-->August EZCap.tv model 116 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} poor audio recording |- | <!--Description-->E-SDS Diamond Maplin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1212 HD PVR | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} analog and component only - PlayStation (.m2ts), AVCHD (ts), or XBox(.mp4) recording formats - switched the component output from the default YPbPr to RGB. |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1431 1445 HD PVR Gaming Edition HDMI Capture | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 not working, can get warm}} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge HD Rocket | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge HD-PVR2 (model 145210 Rev E4) | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xE502 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1480 1482 HD PVR 2 GE Gaming Edition HDMI Capture green LED - 1498 1503 1504 Plus version with Mac support | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe514 0xe524 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| can get warm - [https://ez.analog.com/video/w/documents/581/adv7482-design-support-files ADV7482] [https://patchwork.kernel.org/patch/9201075/ video chip] with Magnum DXT H.264 encoder blob, IDR keyframe generation poor - best for model 157210 and not 157221 and Game Edition Plus (model 157320) 2040:E505 E505-00-00AF1234 [http://www.hauppauge.com/site/support/linux.html#tabs-3 ]}} * HDMI: 1920x1080p50/60, 1920x1080i50/60, 1280x720p50/60, 720x480i, 720x576i, 640x480p60. * Component: 1920x1080p50/60, 1920x1080i50/60*, 1280x720p50/60, 720x480p60, 720x480i, 720x576i. * Composite: 720x480i and 720x576i * Audio Inputs : HDMI PCM and RCA support with Adjustable Bitrate Quality 2 Channel AAC/AC3 audio codec |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge 1512 HD PVR 2 PC blue LED with optical in input on the back | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe525 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| }} can get quite warm - IR Blaster added - |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge Colossus2 E585-00-00AF4321 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2040 | <!--Product ID-->0xe585 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Ion SLIDES2PC 35mm Portable Slide & Film Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Ion Pics 2 PC | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->ION PowerScan USB film and slide scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2011 not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Koolertron Sunny | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->FilmScan35 35mm Film Negative Scanner 1304 marks spencer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->U3 HD Capture | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/openrazer/openrazer Razer Ripsaw HD] Game Capture (RZ20-01780100) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2017 not uvc put in usb2 slot and use video BGR3 (Emulated) and OpenRazer drivers }} |- | <!--Description-->Razer Ripsaw HD USB HDMI Capture Card | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1532 | <!--Product ID-->0x0d01 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2018 not uvc compliant}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Silvercrest 35mm Photo Slide Scanner | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc but not great quality}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description-->Z-Star Microelectronics Corp. Traveler TV 6500 SF Dia-scanner | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0ac8 | <!--Product ID-->0x3370 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2010 not uvc and poor scans}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| not uvc }} |- |} === WebAR + WebVR = WebXR Headset === AROS needs an usb based uvc.class to vhi like type driver for virtual display The primary engineering challenge of VR is motion sickness caused by a mismatch of visual and inner ear information, which is extremely well established as causing people to throw up in a wide range of contexts outside of VR. The experiences that make some people sick are low framerate. Foveated rendering doesn't solve vergence accommodation. Your eye will still be focused at infinity regardless of where you are looking, you'll just have the illusion that the foreground or background are out of focus. Eye tracking plus dynamic lenses (perhaps liquid lenses) or real light fields are necessary. First start with apps that have simple static features at first, then advance to dioramasa and teleportation options for 10, 20 minutes and then gradually upgrade over a timespan of four weeks to train your brain. Avoid smooth motion stuff like rollercoaster or mountain heights until much later. Even with this preparation, VR makes 40% of people seasick nausea. If so, you may be able to use VR glasses just to watch videos and some slow moving apps [https://www.emuvr.net/ emuVR] instead. *2014-2019 1st Gen, low resolution, *2020-2025 2nd Gen, higher resolution, *2026- Most hardware typically has a 1-3 year retail lifespan with 1-3 years of updates after. Really need "right" tethered PCVR rather than wireless. The advantage to being tethered to a PC is processing power. Any standalone headset is going to be running purely off of batteries. VR and AR are known as XR Technology will get immersed enough so not making people sick. Higher resolution, faster frame rates, and [https://github.com/opentrack/opentrack better tracking]. Eventually, hyper reality brings VR, AR and MR digital layers together as a less chaotic, optic tracking with no delay, agents understanding, experiences with objects 3Dgs 4Dgs gassian splats bullet time slice photo snaps .ply for WebXR [https://lvra.gitlab.io/docs/hardware/ ], {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Big Screen Beyond 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 pcvr 2560 x 2560, fixed IPD, }} |- | <!--Description-->bigscreen Beyond 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pcvr oled 5120 x 2560 @75Hz 2688x2688 @90Hz over pancake lenses, 116 FOV, virtual screens, custom facial plate from iphone app, streamvr 2.0 basestations and controllers not included, no passthrough, 107g-196g, }} |- | <!--Description-->bigscreen Beyond 2e | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 pcvr oled 5120 x 2560 total up to 90Hz pancake lens 116 FOV adjustable IPD app needed for adjustment, eye tracking, custom face mask cushion, streamvr 2.0 basestations and controllers not included, seperate head strap and speaker modules extra costs, 110g-300g }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Dpvr P1 Pro 4k Ultra Vr Headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 wireless snapdragon, }} |- | <!--Description-->DPVR P2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Play for Dream MR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android modular 3840x3552 uoled per eye 90Hz or qled mura issues, Arm snapdragon XR2+ Gen 2, eye tracking and 11 cameras 7 sensors 22 ir leds 14ms latency and foveated rendering, 1.5hrs battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Play for Dream GravityXR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 ultralight head gear gx100 3w }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://lvra.gitlab.io/docs/community/ Valve Index HMD] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 tethered PC VR headset 1440 x 1600 120Hz, 108° and 104° FOV, fresnel lenses, SteamVR2 compatible tracking ir basestations, controllers aka Knuckles, dp 1.2 and usb3 cable proprietary cable end, no battery, }} |- | <!--Description-->Valve Steam Frame (Valve Deckard / Valve’s Index 2) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 - 2160 x 2160 up to 144Hz pancake lens, 108° and 96° FOV, wifi 6 fovelated streaming, Qualcomm Snapdragon 8 Gen 3 with [https://github.com/FEX-Emu/FEX fex] arm-to-x86 x64 translation layer, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PSVR2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|2023 PCVR with adapter, two, one for each eye, 2000 x 2040 resolution OLED panels from 90Hz 120Hz refresh rates, fresnel lenses, 116° and 102° FOV, sony proprietary headset cable end, needs additional comfort options, }} |- | <!--Description-->VisionPro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Goertek glasses | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive ? | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No| 2016 2x 1080x1200 needs external power supply, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Original | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 108° and 96° FOV}} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2016 , uvc, at least 2 powered steamvr basestations so 3 to 5 wall warts in total, proprietary cable end, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 dual 1440x1600 oled displays, 116° and 100° FOV - steamvr 2.0 basestation 2 for 5m2 area 4 for 10m2 - steamvr 2.0 joypads - low latency wireless later - type USB-c headphone adapter required, [https://github.com/CertainLach/VivePro2-Linux-Driver Rust on Linux] with [https://github.com/santeri3700/vive-pro-2-on-linux Shell], proprietary cable end, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lynx R1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 android Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->Lynx R2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2026 company liquidated, 2 x 2312x2160 110 FOV pancake lenses, LynxOS android Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen, openxr 1.1, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Oculus Rift prototype development kit [https://www.virtual-boy.com/forums/t/the-oculus-rift-dk1-thread/ DK1] with [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X_T4DJyy2Bo wired razer hydra controllers] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2013 pcvr LCD 1280 × 800 resolution 640 × 800 per eye up to 110° FOV, and 3DoF rotational tracking via a 1000Hz 9-axis IMU (Accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer), no positional optical tracking either inside-out or outside-in, 380g, nausea issues, , }} |- | <!--Description-->Oculus Rift prototype development kit [https://github.com/facebookarchive/RiftDK2/tree/master DK2], [https://www.ifixit.com/Teardown/Oculus+Rift+Development+Kit+2+Teardown/27613 ifixit teardown] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2014 pcvr, 5.7" Super AMOLED display with a resolution of 960 x 1080 per eye 100° field of view, 1 usb Positional Tracker DK2 camera, lots of wires}} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook [https://github.com/thaytan/OpenHMD/tree/rift-kalman-filter Oculus Rift CV1] [https://noraisin.net/diary/?m=202201 some Linux support] [] [https://github.com/OpenHMD/OpenHMD/issues/330 AMD usb issues] [https://github.com/OpenHMD/OpenHMD/wiki/Xorg ] [https://github.com/Doc-Ok/OculusRiftCV1Camera Live Video] [https://www.youtube.com/@thaytan Youtube] [https://github.com/Fredrum/riftOnLinux Pi] [https://github.com/OhioIon/riftDriverPi ], but not quite there with the [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSsCN6HFkWc consumer CV1], [https://forum.dcs.world/topic/142259-cv1-not-working-in-dcs/#comment-2878168 orange led could be HDMI Signal is not within HDMI Spec and might be Overclocked or usb3 not getting enough power frustrating], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x3031, 0x2031, 0x0031 and 0x0211 for 3p-a basestations lighthouses, 0x045e 0x02e6 for xbox wireless adapter | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2016 powered run from your PC maybe uvc via wired dual PenTile OLED 2160x1200 (1080x1200 per eye) @ exactly 90Hz but screen door effect (space between pixels), 87 FOV, IPD from 58mm to 72mm, good 3D audio and okay mic, constellation headset 6DOF (3-axis rotational tracking + 3-axis positional tracking) with up to 3 usb infrared basestation (1 in front and 2 behind pointing upwards) on usb3 and usb2 to your PC but the tracking can be fragile so set it up on a weekly basis, wired only HDMI 1.3, USB 3.0 bus powered with proprietary plug in headset, 470g 1lb front heavy, 2 robust 1st Gen touch controllers with external sensors i.e. outside-in - 1 aa alkaline over rechargable battery each , press occulus and B buttons for 2 secs to connect, headset traps air so gets very warm inside and random disconnects due to twisting action on the top of the headset and/or cables, t4 torx screws }} |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Occulus Go 32Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2018 discontinued 2020 android based, Qualcomm Snapdragon 821 chipset (quad kyro with Adreno 530 gpu 3Gb RAM), single 5.5-inch LCD 2560x1440 or 1280×1440 pixels per eye and a refresh rate of 72 or 60Hz, 100 deg viewing angle, no inside-out and limited self tracking, micro usb, limited 2600mAh battery lasts under 2 hours at best, one wireless controller, not for gaming but very casual use, |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Oculus Rift S [https://noraisin.net/diary/?m=202201 some Linux support] | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x0051 headset (cdc, audio, tracking data), 0x2052 usb hub, | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2019 PCVR wired dual LCD 1080 by 1200, 88 horizontal FOV, display port (fibre optic strands) and annoying USB3 copper cables (power, audio and other data) but proprietary port in the headset, no battery, cameras on the headset ("inside-out") tracking so no base stations, non removeable head band and cushions and ipd hard to set, requires specific fragile Rift S/Quest1 2nd Gen Touch controllers which has a ring of translucent plastic with leds inside - t5 torx to disassemble for sticks drifting |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Reality Labs Occulus Quest 1 *064Gb *128Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x0183 (single adb boot), 0x0 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2019 android standalone wireless, low clocked Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 (MSM8998) (4x Kryo 280 Gold A73) + (4x Kryo 280 Silver A53) adreno 540 GPU, 4Gb RAM, 1440 x 1600 72Hz oled, front heavy 3640mAh battery 2̟ hrs play time, 575g total, 2nd Gen touch controllers, usb-c on side near end of arm, 4 cameras on head, *V29 16476800119700000 (29.0.0.66.370.290246252) *v50 50.0.0.198.257.455911078 / 49845030443200410 |- | <!--Description-->Meta Oculus Quest 2 KW49CM aka Codename Del Mar Hollywood [https://www.meta.com/en-gb/help/quest/967070027432609/ fragile 3rd Gen Touch controllers] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cgejky8ZeoM internal 3640mAh battery] and selling over 20 million, more than all other quest headsets combined *064Gb *128Gb (110Gb free) *256Gb Setup continuous wifi, create Meta Oculus account, [https://developers.meta.com/horizon/ verify dev account, click on My apps], [ create Organization -> My Organization Groupings], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QPInS5xxF-0 finally, meta quest mobile app to switch on adb], | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID-->0x5010 (), 0x0083 (massstorage), 0x0086 (), 0x0186 (adb and xrsp [https://github.com/shinyquagsire23/xrsp_tests tests]), 0x0090 (composite adb), 0x0081 (), | <!--Revision-->0419 | <!--Opinion-->2021 android stand alone, low clocked Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 1 (Kryo 585 octo 8core specific xr vr mr ar cpu, adreno 650 gpu and 3rd gen hexagon npu), 6Gb RAM, lcd 1832x1920 per-eye 90Hz refresh rate, 97 FOV, fresnel lenses, 6DOF (degrees of freedom), 58-63-68 IPD settings, b/w but no color passthrough, 6 t2 torx and 5 ph00 screws in headset (long bit), discontinued end 2024, feature updates until December 2026, security updates until December 2027, 470g, Oculus + B button on right controller (move) and Menu + Y button on left controller (click) for about 3 seconds, 10W 5v 2a, RTL8153 chipset usb support, *V29 16476800118700000 (29.0.0.65.370.289987413) *V59 50670960048600150 *V60 efuse OTP to prevent firmware bios reversal *V76 android 14 *V77 pcvr issues early *V79 update ui and app launcher *V83 navi 2.0 *V85 *V204 boot loop issues *V213 final 03-2027 |- | <!--Description-->Facebook Occulus Quest Pro aka Codename Seacliff | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2022 android standalone wireless dual 1800 x 1920 90Hz, 106° and 96° FOV mini lcd local dimming, pancake lenses, limited eye tracking, play area 2m x 2m or bigger, higher clocked snapdragon xr2 gen 1 arm cpu Arm apps, 1 to 2 hrs play time, new pro controllers non removeable inbuilt lithium battery with 3 cameras each (more trouble than they are worth), 5300mAh battery at rear, wireless charging, color passthrough, 9V 3A or 5V 3A, *v 51503870024400340 *v77 capped wifi *V84 *V213 final 03-2027 |- | <!--Description-->Meta Oculus Quest 3 aka Codename Eureka [ Air Light ALVR] or [ WiVRn] with fragile touch plus q3 controllers *128Gb *512Gb streaming from PC with [https://github.com/alvr-org/Monado-ALVR ALVR], runtime of [https://monado.freedesktop.org/ Monado steamvr alternative openxr openVR], with Envision GUI, | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2023 standalone, pancake lenses on lcd 2064 x 2208 res panel per eye 1200ppi - 104° and 96° FOV - up to 120Hz, Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 2, 8Gb RAM, foveated rendering, Meta Link cable USB-C 3.2, headstrap clamshell or halo style, speaker arms fragile, color passthrough, 5000mAh battery, 510g, 18W 9v 2A or 15W 5V 3A, *v74 ok *v76 pcvr issues *V79 issues |- | <!--Description-->Meta Quest 3S aka Codename Ventura Panther *128Gb *256Gb | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2024 Arm snapdragon xr2 gen 2 cpu (6core ), lcd 1832 x 1920 fresnel lenses, 97 FOV, headphone arms fragile, better air flow, no promixity sensor inside, Meta Link cable USB-C 3.2, passthrough, 4300mAh battery, |- | <!--Description-->Meta Boba 3 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 ultra-wide 180° x 120° FOV, snapdragon XR2 G2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Meta Tiramisu | <!--Vendor ID-->0x2833 | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2027 µOLED displays with 90 pixels per degree, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 5K Super Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax 8K-X 8KX | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Crystal Light | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tethered to PC with 2160 x 2160 4k 120Hz, 115° and 96° FOV, inside-out tracking, no battery, display port cable, variable qc and customer service, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Crystal Super | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tethered to PC with 3640 x 3640 4k 90hz, 116°+ and 100° FOV, eye tracking, inside-out tracking, no battery, display port cable, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Dream Air with Lighthouse(s) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 tethered 3840 by 3552 @90Hz micro oled with pancake lens, 100 HFOV 96 VFOV but FOV IPD changes in app, link box for headset 2 split y cables, removable face gasket, 290g, steamVR2 bases and controllers, eye tracking, }} |- | <!--Description-->Pimax Dream Air SLAM | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) tracking inside-out so no base stations, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://somniumspace.com/ Somnium VR One VR1] [https://portal.vrgineers.com/user-guide/software/ open source] VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 pcvr 2880 x 2880 per eye @90 @120Hz, 125° horizontal 100° vertical FOV, 2 x SteamVR 2.0 bases, passthrough, 900g }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero VR-1 Headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 psu needed, 2 x Mini LED binocular of 150 nits, 2880x2720 per, 90Hz, FOV 102° horizontal, 73° vertical, 720g with headstrap, 2 x SteamVR 2.0 basestations, no speakers/mic, hdmi and usb3.0}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero XR-3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Varjo Aero XR-4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Camelo La Melaza Music Shield | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2026 no usb only bluetooth , }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->InAir 2 elite suite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar nits 46FOV , , 4h battery life, 80g, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Oakley Vanguard | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 3s | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 100in 46FOV 650nits, usb-c 79g }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 3S Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 135in virtual display 46FOV 1200nits, usb-c 80g }} |- | <!--Description-->RayNeo Air 4 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 AR oled vision 4000 processing, HDR10, 47 FOV }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid Max 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 147in 50 FOV 650nits, usb-c back left, 76g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid AI Spatial with Station 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 AR 600nits 147in 50FOV 75g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Rokid | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| ar ai smart glass}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 135in 46 FOV 1000nits, magnetic connector, 77g, }} |- | <!--Description-->VITURE XR Luma | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 147in 1200p 50 FOV, }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Luma Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 152in 52 FOV 1000nits 1200p, 3dof, , 79g, }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Luma Ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 in FOV, 2 cameras, 3dof 6dof, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/wheaney/XRLinuxDriver Viture Luma Pro] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Viture Beast | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 1250nits 58FOV 174in, magnetic, 88g, }} |- | <!--Description-->VITURE Beast X Glasses models (Immersive 3D Moonlight) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 based 2D to 3D conversion with support DP Alt Mode (DisplayPort over USB-C), 1200p, 3df tracking, practic lenses 58deg POV, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xreal One | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 600nits, 50FOV, 3dof, usb-c 84g, }} |- | <!--Description-->XReal One Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 ar 700nits 57FOV 171in, usb-c, x1 3dof, }} |- | <!--Description-->Nreal now Xreal Air | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 , micro-oled 1080p, audio, virtual uvc ar displays, }} |- | <!--Description-->Nreal now Xreal Real3D 1S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 AI based 2D to 3D conversion 57 FOV, , virtual uvc ar displays not vr, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xiami XR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Xtal 8k | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Apple Vision Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 tethered AR mixed reality glasses, 3300ppi, 800g, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Google XR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 standalone }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus Plus | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 android with 2 1440 x 1600 75Hz amoled, inside-out, durable motion controllers, Vive port, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vibe Cosmos | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2018 poor tracking and lifespan on controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro EYE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 dual-OLED displays 2880 x 1600 combined resolution), SteamVR 2.0 tracking, foveated rendering, Tobii, it enables gaze-based menu navigation with avatar eye contact, proprietary cables, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vibe Cosmos Elite | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2020 1440x1700 per eye resolution, 90 Hz refresh rate, 6 DoF tracking, 2880 x 1700 combined pixel resolution, 97° FoV, two controllers and two base stations. Lighthouse tracking, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Pro 2 is a tethered PC-powered VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2021 2448x2448 per eye resolution 116° FoV, 120 Hz refresh rate }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive Focus 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2021 per-eye resolution of 2448×2448 at 90 Hz, a 120-degree field of view, Qualcomm Snapdragon XR2 Gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive XR Elite VR Headset Deluxe Pack MR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2022 snapdragon xr2 gen 1, expensive}} |- | <!--Description-->HTC Vive XR Elite 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2028 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Pico Goblin | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 android based, 2.5K 1280x1440 per eye @70Hz, 92° FoV, and 3DoF (three degrees of freedom) tracking (Orientation tracking only—yaw, pitch, roll), single controller, snapdragon 820, ipd adjustment 54-71 mm, 600g, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico G2 4K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 android standalone VR headset, 3840 x 2160 (4K) LCD screen, Snapdragon 835 processor, 3DoF so rotational movement (looking around, pointing) rather than positional movement (walking, leaning), does not support hand or eye tracking, 800g }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico NEO 2 EYE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 6DoF 360g snapdragon 845 display 4k 75Hz tracking inside-out - magnetic field for controllers - pico software on android 8 - eye tracking }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 Snapdragon XR2 Gen, 4K 3664 x 1920 90Hz lcd, battery at rear, displayport, Pico apparently emulates Oculus controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 Pro | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico Neo 3 Link | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 4 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 2160x2160 panel per eye 75Hz 90Hz 105 FOV, Arm snapdragon xr gen 1, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 4 ultra | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2023 2160 x 2160 @90 105 FOV, snapdragon XR2 G2, streaming from PC with alvr, wireless streaming from PC with WiVRn, Pico apparently emulates Oculus controllers, not plug and play, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico 5 aka Project Swan aka Vision Pro Competitor | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 micro-oled BOE 3840 x 3840 4000ppi per eye, MLA pancake lenses, custom pico arm cpu, pico os 6 android, eye and hand tracking, 300g, }} |- | <!--Description-->ByteDance Pico | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung Galaxy XR VR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 3552 x 3840 @60-90 109 FOV , Arm snapdragon XR2+ Gen 2, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall MeganeX 8K | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2024 android }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://en.shiftall.net/products/meganex8k MeganeX Superlight 8K] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 android (3552 x 3840 pixels) into pixel count yields 27.27MP 10-bit HDR-compatible 4K resolution micro OLED panels @90Hz, pancake lenses 94 FOV, SteamVR™ tracking, 180g, 5V 2A, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://en.shiftall.net/products/meganex8kmk2 MeganeX 8K Mk2 MkII] [https://github.com/sboys3/CustomHeadsetOpenVR community] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 pcvr linux, 4K per eye (1.35inch micro OLED 3552x3840 10 bit HDR) 27MP @90Hz 75Hz 72Hz pancake, upto 108 hor 100 vert FOV, usb-c and dp cables to breakout box, 5V 2.1A, 200g}} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2026 }} |- | <!--Description-->Shiftall | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Acer Windows(TM) MR AH101 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 Dual 2.89” LCD panels 2880 x 1440 combined (1440 x 1440 per eye) Up to 90Hz (HDMI 2.0), or 60Hz (HDMI 1.4), Field of View FOV 95, Tracking Inside-out, lots of light leak, }} |- | <!--Description-->Acer H7001 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 wmr 1440 x 1440 per-eye resolution @90Hz refresh rate, and 100-degree field of view FOV, inside-out tracking with front-mounted cameras so no external sensors, flip-up visor design but has a "screen door effect," subpar foam padding, win10 to win11 24H2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Dell Visor Mixed Reality VRP100 VR118 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 2x 1440x1440 a bit of nose light leak }} |- | <!--Description-->Fujitsu | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2017 cheap and lots of light leak }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/HadesVR HadesVR] with [https://github.com/ManoloMancelli/Persephone-Classic-Controller Persephone Controller] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFaVjB1uNOM Persephone 3 Pro DiY 6Dof SteamVR Headset], | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->HP Reverb G1 VR1000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 WMR 2160 x 2160 @90Hz, 115 FOV, , hp proprietary headset cable end, 2 camera tracking but poor and controllers can be unresponsive, 500g front heavy, flight sims rather than gaming, }} |- | <!--Description-->HP 1440p Spatial Computing | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 dim display }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://forums.x-plane.org/forums/topic/294764-vr-in-linux-without-steam/ HP Reverb G2] WMR VR3000 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2020 2 2160 x 2160 90Hz, needs Windows10 or Win 11 24H2, 4 camera tracking, controllers can be unresponsive, hp proprietary headset cable end, , }} |- | <!--Description-->HP | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Mirage Solo is a Standalone VR headset | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 Qualcomm Snapdragon 835, 1280x1440 per eye resolution, 75 Hz refresh rate, }} |- | <!--Description-->Lenovo Explorer VR2511N (G0A2) VR windows mixed reality (WMR) | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 LCD 2.89" 1440 x 1440 per eye @90Hz, 6 DOF position tracking, 400g, }} |- | <!--Description-->[https://github.com/relativty/relativty open source relativty] | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung MHD Odyssey XE800ZAA WMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2018 9V 500mA oled screens 2x 1440x1600 with usb3 and hdmi cables but bluetooth dongle required }} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung MHD Odyssey+ Plus WMR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2019 dual 3.5-inch AMOLED displays 2880 x 1600 total @90Hz, 6DOF inside-out tracking with usb3 and hdmi cables but bluetooth dongle required, use only win10 or win11 24H2, }} |- | <!--Description-->Sony PSVR | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2016 2x 1080x960 up to 120Hz, lots of cables and computation brick, sony camera needed for tracking, ps4 or move controllers, }} |- | <!--Description-->Virtuality | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|1992 , , Amiga 3000 with TI chips, }} |- | <!--Description-->Virtuix Omni | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2013 VR treadmill changed course to commercial VR and pivotted back again 2020, }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} === HDMI CEC transmitter and receiver === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} === TV Remote Control MCE IR transmitter and receiver === {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Compro K100 K300 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Elitegroup Computer Systems | <!--Vendor ID-->0x1019 | <!--Product ID-->0x0f38 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->GMYLE MCE | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{Maybe|acts as usb-hid with limited keyboard like controls }} |- | <!--Description-->Hauppauge WinTV-PVR kit | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Logitech Harmony 300 i300 600 650 800 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft MCE Commander | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|2005 need extra software support}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1039 rev 1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2005 home top of square shape direction keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1039 rev 2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2006 home under circle spaced direction keys}} |- | <!--Description-->Microsoft 1069 SMK Manufacturing, Inc | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0609 | <!--Product ID-->0x0334 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2007 untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Philips RC1974506/00 | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0471 | <!--Product ID-->0x0815 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE10E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGN-AR21M VGX-XL100 VGN-AR21B/AR21S | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE20E PC REMOTE CONTROL | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE30E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGN-AW21XY VGX-TP3E VGX-TP3G | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Sony RM-MCE50E PC REMOTE CONTROL VGC-LA2R | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->TSDX-IR14 USB MCE Media Center External Infrared IR Receiver | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->chipsets support CIR (consumer IR) Winbond W83977F/AF, SMC IrCC 2.0 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|technical reasons it's not possible to use USB IrDA dongles}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Zotac RC2604323/01G Zbox Media Remote Control with IR USB Receiver OVU710 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->Anycubic Cobra 2 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs A1 Mini 3D printer | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{No|2019 EMS proprietary slicer app and cloud use, eSUN}} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs X1 Carbon | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2022 }} |- | <!--Description-->Bambu Labs X2D | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality K1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality K2 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Creality | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Elegoo | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Lulzbot | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Prusa | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Qidi | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Snapmaker U1 | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk|2025 tool changer }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description-->Sovol SV08 Max | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| open source voron model, }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->desktop pick and place machines AFARCO PNP running OpenPnP for Desktop SMT | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |} ==ethwrap.class - Host Data Link "Cable Bridge" for data transfer== {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Advance USBNET (eTEK design) | 0x0525 | 0x9901 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ALi Uli M5632 (chip) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Aten (Ali Corporation) UN201 | 0x0402 | 0x5632 | | {{maybe|force binding from rawwarp to ethwrap}} |- | Belkin (eTek design see below) | 0x050d | 0x0004 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Digitus DN-3004 - USB Host Link | | | | {{yes|works}} |- | EPSON USB client | 0x0525 | 0x2888 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | eTEK | 0x056c | 0x8100 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | KC-190 | 0x050f | 0x0190 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | GeneSys GL620USB | | | | {{no|no driver the half-duplex GL620USB is NOT supported, products using it include the Inland Pro USB Quick Link}} |- | GeneSys GL620USB-A | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Laplink Gold (uses NetChip 1080) | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Prolific 2301/2302 (Jaton USB ConNET) (BAFO DirectLinq) | 0x067b | 0x0000 and 0x0001 | 0x0004 | {{maybe|detected but untested}} |- | Xircom PGUNET (uses AnchorChips 2720) | 0x0547 | 0x2727 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} ==cdcacm.class - USB modem== The CDC ACM driver exposes the USB modem as a virtual serial modem or a virtual COM port to the operating system. The driver enables sending both data and AT commands, either through ACM (separating data and AT commands over different channels) or through Serial Emulation (passing the AT commands as is and as part of the data stream). {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Alcatel OT-I650 | 0x1bbb | 0x0003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Acatel Dymamode/Dynamite | 0x06b9 | 0xa5a5 | | {{N/A|untested Zyxel Prestige 630-13 - untested PROLiNK Hurricane 8000 external link }} |- | AnyData ADU-100A ADU-E100A ADU-E100D ADU-E100H D10 | 0x16d5 | 0x6501 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-310 | 0x16d5 | 0x650 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-500A ADU-510A ADU-510L ADU-520A | 0x16d5 | 0x6502 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | AnyData ADU-610 ADU-620 | 0x16d5 | 0x650 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | BT On-Air USB MODEM | 0x079b | 0x000f | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant USB MODEM CX93010 | 0x0572 | 0x1321 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant USB MODEM RD02-D400 | 0x0572 | 0x1324 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Conexant Chipset | 0x06ea | 0x0002 | | {{N/A|untested AUS N367 Roadster II 56 USB (Model AM5050R3) - untested }} |- | [http://accessrunner.sourceforge.net/ Conexant AccessRunner] | 0x0586 | 0x330a | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | Creative Modem Blaster USB DE5670 | 0x1690 | 0x0101 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | FIREFLY, MediaTek Inc | 0x0e8d | 0x0003 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Huawei E122 | 0x12d1 | 0x1446 | | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=49126#forumpost49126] |- | Huawei E160, E160E, E160G | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | |{{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?post_id=51888#forumpost51888] (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6246) |- | Huawei E169 also known as Vodafone K3715 and Huawei K3715 | 0x12d1 | 0x1001 | |{{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=4941&forum=4&post_id=44683#forumpost44683] (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200) |- | Huawei E220 "Vodafone EasyBox II" "T-Mobile wnw Box Micro" also known as Huawei K3565 | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | | {{yes|works, see E169 above (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6280)}} |- | Huawei E1750 | 0x12d1 | 0x1001 | | {{N/A|untested (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM6290)}} |- | Huawei E170, E172, E176 | 0x12d1 | 0x1003 | | {{N/A|untested (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200)}} |- | Huawei E180 | 0x12d1 | 0x1406 | | {{yes|Works (Chipset: Qualcomm MSM7200)}} |- | KYOCERA AH-K3001V | 0x0482 | 0x0203 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | LG CU515 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | MediaTek Inc GPS | 0x0e8d | 0x3329 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Metricom GS Modem | 0x0870 | 0x0001 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Motorola MOTOMAGX phones | 0x22b8 | 0x6425 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Motorola Q Phone | 0x22b8 | 0x7000 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Hummingbird huc56s (Conexant) | 0x0572 | 0x1329 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Netcomm Roadster II 128 ISDN | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Nokia n70 N95 HSDPA | | | | {{yes|works - see [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=4415&viewmode=flat&order=ASC here]}} |- | OGO | 0x045E | 0x0079 | 0090 | {{no|no driver}} |- | Olitec ADSL Modem V2 | 0x08e3 | 0x0100 / 0x0102 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Onda PT502HS | <!--Vendor ID-->0x19D2 | <!--Product ID-->0x0001 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- | Radicom V92HU-E2 | | | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | <!--Description-->Samsung i8510 Innov8 Symbian smartphone | 0x04e8 | 0x6651 | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=5552&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&type=&mode=0] |- | Samsung Tocco Lite (aka GT-S5230) | 0x04e8 | 0x6795 | <!--Revision--> | {{yes|works}} [http://aros-exec.org/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?start=0&topic_id=5552&viewmode=flat&order=ASC&type=&mode=0] |- | Shiro / Aztech USB MODEM UM-3100 | 0x0572 | 0x1328 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM | 0x0ace | 0x1602 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM | 0x0ace | 0x1608 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | ZyDAS 56K USB MODEM - new version | 0x0ace | 0x1611 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Zoom Telephonics Model 3095F USB MODEM | 0x0803 | 0x3095 | | {{N/A|untested}} |- | Ugobe Pleo | 0x6962 | 0x0100 | 0x0100 | {{Yes|Works}} |} ==Misc== palmpda.class - no [http://aminet.net/package/util/libs/PdaLinkPoseidon pdalink.library and tools] in AROS Palm PDA (discontinued) synchronisation requires a port of pdalink.library and its tools through virtual usbpalm.device. {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Palm IIIx (OS3.1) serial rs-232 only | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm IIIc (OS3.5) | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm V | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m100 | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m125 first USB - last with aaa batteries | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Palm m500 (OS4) | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Tungsten T (OS5) first arm cpu | 0x | 0x | 0x | {{no|no }} |- | Zire 31 (OS 5.28) color arm-based | | | | {{no|no }} |- | [[:w:Handspring (company)|Handspring Visor]] – USB support out of box | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Handspring Treo 600 – last one for [[:w:Handspring (company)|Handspring]] | | | | {{no|no }} |- | Treo 700w | | | | {{no|no }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} bluetooth.class - needs Bluetooth (Viking King Harald "Bluetooth" Gormsson (Old Norse: Haraldr Blátǫnn Gormsson; Danish: Harald Blåtand Gormsen) stack to work (not written due to licensing fees to use the symbol merging the Younger Futhark runes for H (ᚼ) and B (ᛒ), representing Harald's initials) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- |} ccid.class - Chip/Smart Card Interface Devices (not implemented) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->cyberJack RFID basis | <!--Vendor ID-->0x0C4B | <!--Product ID-->0x9102 | <!--Revision-->0001 | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{no|no driver}} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{N/A|untested}} |- |} dfu.class - DFU firmware upgrade {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | <!--Description-->iPhone 3, 4, 5, 5c | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID-->0x1290 0x1292 0x1294 | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 32bit use with caution could cause damage}} |- | <!--Description-->iPhone 5s, 6, 7, 8, X | <!--Vendor ID-->0x05ac | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| 64bit use with caution could cause damage}} |- | <!--Description-->M-Audio/Midiman USB audio | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- style="background:lightgrey;{{text default color}}; text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" | Description | Vendor ID | Product ID | Revision | Opinion |- | <!--Description-->iPad 1, iPad 2 A1395 A1430, iPad 3, ipad mini A1432, iPad A1458 4th Gen (MD512LL/A), | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2008-2013 32bit A4, A5 up to Apple A6X, iOS 1 to 10, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |- | <!--Description-->iPad Air (1st generation) A1474, A1475, A1476, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2014-2015 [https://github.com/AsahiLinux 64bit], A7, iOS 11 up to |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2015 64bit A8, A8X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2016 64bit A9, A9X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2017 64bit A10, A10X, |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2018 64bit A11 |- | <!--Description-->iPad Air 3rd Gen A2153, A2123, A2154, iPad Mini 5th Gen, | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->2019 64bit A12 |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion-->{{unk| }} |- |} RocketTool (USB Rocket Launchers - Toy missile launchers) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="3px" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Original Launcher and StrikerII (includes laser) | 0x1130 | 0x0202 | | {{yes|works }} |- | Dream Cheeky USB Missile Launcher or USB Cirus Cannon | 0x1941 | 0x8021 | | {{no|no driver }} |- | Dream Cheeky USB Webcam Missile Launcher | 0x1941 | | | {{no|no driver }} |- | Rocket Baby | 0x0a81 | 0x0701 | | {{no|no driver }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |} DRadioTool (FM Radios - USB radio devices D-Link/Gemtek) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="5%" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | D-Link DSB-R100 USB | 0x04b4 | 0x1002 | 0x0410 | {{yes|works }} |- | [http://www.neoseeker.com/forums/383/t257009-link-usb-dru-r100-radio/ GemTek USB FM Radio 21] | 0x04b4 | 0x1002 | | {{N/A|untested }} |- | <!--Description--> | <!--Vendor ID--> | <!--Product ID--> | <!--Revision--> | <!--Opinion--> |} UproarTool (Valencia MPX mp3 player and others) {| class="wikitable sortable" width="90%" ! width="30%" | Description ! width="3px" |Vendor ID ! width="10%" |Product ID ! width="10%" |Revision ! width="50%" |Opinion |- | Korean D Square Valencia MPX-Player | 0x04e8 | various | | {{N/A|untested }} |- |} {{BookCat}} 2v1xm4av3gqv30vn46h63ulsqghy9jn 0 219702 4681849 4661095 2026-11-12T11:20:01Z Dom walden 3209423 No longer relevant now FlaggedRevs has been removed 4681849 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ {{pp-protected|small=yes}} <div style="width: 100%; display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; font-size: 120%; line-height: 1.5;"> <div style="margin: 3px; padding: 0.5em 1em 0; border: 1px solid #cfcfcf; background: rgba(255, 255, 204, 0.03); flex-basis: 100%; flex-grow: 1; color: var(--color-base);"> [[File:Child reading (Jessie Willcox Smith).jpg|right|150px|border]] <div style="Font-size: 120%"> === Welcome to Wikijunior! === </div> <!-- alternative: [[File:Child reading at Brookline Booksmith.jpg|right|316px|border]] --> The aim of this project is to produce age-appropriate non-fiction books for children from birth to age 12. These books are richly illustrated with photographs, diagrams, sketches, and original drawings. Wikijunior books are produced by a worldwide community of writers, teachers, students, and young people all working together. The books present factual information that is verifiable. You are invited to join in and write, edit, and rewrite each book and chapter to improve its content. Our books are distributed free of charge under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Please see ''[[Wikibooks:What is Wikijunior?|What is Wikijunior?]]'' for more information about the project. </div> <div style="margin: 3px; padding: 0.5em 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #339; background: rgba(0, 128, 255, 0.12); flex-basis: 400px; flex-grow: 1; color: var(--color-base);"> {{Wikijunior search}}<br /> ---- === Titles === There are more than a dozen Wikijunior books and hundreds of sections within those books being readied for publication. {| cellpadding="0" border="0" cellspacing="0" style="background:transparent;color:inherit;" | [[File:Ancient_Civilizations_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations]] | [[File:Animal_Alphabet_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Animal Alphabet]] | [[File:Biology Spine.svg|link=Wikijunior:Biology]] | [[File:Big_Cats_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Big Cats]] | [[File:Bugs_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Bugs]] | [[File:Dinosaurs_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Dinosaurs]] | [[File:Europe book cover.png|link=Wikijunior:Europe]] | [[File:Elements_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:The Elements]] | [[File:Geometry_Spine.png|link=Geometry for Elementary School]] | [[File:How_Things_Work_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:How Things Work]] | [[File:Human_Body_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Human Body]] | [[File:Kings_and_Queens_of_England_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Kings and Queens of England]] | [[File:Languages_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Languages]] | [[File:Solar_System_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:Solar System]] | [[File:South_America_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:South America]] | [[File:US_Charters_of_Freedom_Spine.png|link=Wikijunior:United States Charters of Freedom]] |} ==== Discovery and innovation ==== [[Wikijunior:The Elements|The Elements]] &mdash; [[Wikijunior:Big Book of Fun Science Experiments|Fun Science Experiments]] &mdash; [[Wikijunior:How Things Work|How Things Work]] ==== The natural world ==== {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Big Cats|Big Cats]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Biology|Biology]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Bugs|Bugs]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Dinosaurs|Dinosaurs]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Human Body|Human Body]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Solar System|Solar System]]}} ==== Our world of people ==== {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Ancient Civilizations|Ancient Civilizations]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Kings and Queens of England|Kings and Queens of England]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Languages|Languages]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:United States Charters of Freedom|United States Charters of Freedom]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:World War II|World War II]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:World at Work|World at Work]]}} ==== Geography ==== {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Europe|Europe]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:South America|South America]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:World Heritage Sites|World Heritage Sites]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Asia|Asia]]}} ==== School time ==== {{nowrap|[[Geometry for Elementary School]]}} ==== Pre-readers ==== {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Alphabet|Alphabet]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Animal Alphabet|Animal Alphabet]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Object Alphabet|Object Alphabet]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Classic_Alphabet_Coloring_Book|Classic Alphabet Coloring Book]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Colors|Colors]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Flower Alphabet|Flower Alphabet]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Food Alphabet|Food Alphabet]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Maze and Drawing Book|Maze & Drawing Book]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Numbers from 1 to 20|Numbers from 1 to 20]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Small_Numbers|Small Numbers]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Skateboard Alphabet Coloring Pages|Skateboard Alphabet Coloring Pages]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Tell Time Clock Coloring Book|Tell Time Clock Coloring Book]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Transport Alphabet|Transport Alphabet]]}} &mdash; {{nowrap|[[Wikijunior:Valentines Hearts Alphabet Coloring Book|Valentines Hearts Alphabet Coloring Book ]]}} ---- [[Wikijunior:All Books|Additional Wikijunior books]] are under development. </div> <div style="margin: 3px; padding: 0.5em 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #f82; background: rgba(255, 170, 0, 0.2); flex-basis: 9em; flex-grow: 1; color: var(--color-base);"> === All for <span style="color:#39f">K</span><span style="color:#f63">I</span><span style="color:#0a0">D</span><span style="color:#f0f">S</span> === Wikijunior has some great books for you to read. But you can also help by ''writing'' books! If you know something about a subject and want to share it with others, just click on the link that says "edit" and type in what you want to say. It's that easy! === Helping out === ''It's easy to get started. Just click on an edit button and begin writing! We encourage you to [[Wikibooks:Be bold|be bold]] and edit articles.'' If you want ideas on what to do, you can consider: * Look through our [[Wikijunior:All Books|full collection]] of books and add content where you can. * Start a class project to write a new book or contribute to an existing, developing one. * Tell us how we're doing on the [[Help:Talk page|talk page]]. * Fact-check a page. * Check articles for grammar, style, and spelling. * Monitor the {{Plain link|{{fullurl:Special:RecentChanges|namespace=110}}|recent changes}} to Wikijunior pages. There's a [[WJ:SG|Wikijunior Style Guide]] with suggestions for how to write great Wikijunior content. === Discussions === You can discuss the project at the [[Talk:Wikijunior|Wikijunior talk page]] or one of the [[Wikibooks:Reading room|Wikibooks reading rooms]] to get a broader audience. To chat about Wikijunior on IRC, use [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikibooks Freenode] or join #wikibooks on [http://www.freenode.net/ Freenode]. ---- </div> <div style="margin: 3px; padding: 0.5em 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #393; background: rgba(0, 255, 0, 0.15); flex-basis: 100%; flex-grow: 1; color: var(--color-base);"> {{Wikijunior Article of the Month}} </div> </div> [[Category:Subject:Wikijunior| ]] [[Category:Wikijunior Policy| ]] qfsteye908t0k5v382x2hhsq0ipya24 0 243158 4681839 4637551 2026-11-12T10:25:54Z CommonsDelinker 49843 Replacing Franco_Folli.jpeg with [[File:Eduardo_De_Filippo_e_Franco_Folli,_Il_sindaco_del_rione_Sanità.jpg]] (by [[:c:User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] because: [[:c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[:c:COM:FR#FR2|Criterion 2]]). 4681839 wikitext text/x-wiki =Luigi Lunari= Luigi Lunari (1934-2019) excelled in the metaphysical play, "Tre sull'altalena" (Wrong address, 1994), a play with a certain affinity with Sartre's "No exit" (1942) with a fourth character added. =="Wrong address"== [[File:Hitachi-phone_and_phonebook.jpg|thumb|A CEO worries over a dysfunctional phone and a Singapore telephone directory]] Time: 1990s. Place: Italy. Text at ? Ernesto, chairman of the board (CEO) of a small company, expects a rendez-vous with a woman named Annalisa from the Aurora Rooming House. Although able to enter the house, he cannot find her or anyone else. After entering the bathroom, a retired captain of the army secret services, Bigongiari, arrives for a meeting with a man named Anselmi from Infomac, without being able to find him either. While inopportunely opening the bathroom door, he discovers Ernesto, much to the latter’s irritation. The CEO is convinced that the house is situated at 2 Carmel Place, not at 1 Light Horses Street as the Captain Bigongiari thinks, so that as the latter leaves in some confusion, a third man, Professor Vittorio Sapponaro, enters to recover preprints from his publisher, only to find a Bible and the Singapore telephone directory. Irate, Captain Bigongiari re-enters to say that the house is not situated at 2 Carmel Place, a matter confirmed by the professor. It is Ernesto’s turn to leave confused, but yet the captain and the professor discover that each may have the wrong address, as the latter believes he is at Minervini Editions, 12 Pacini Street. Supposing the captain to be correct, Vittorio exits while the captain heads for the bathroom. An even more irate Ernesto charges back to say to the returning Vittorio that it is the captain who has the wrong address after all, both men having verified that their own is correct. On his way back in, Bigongiari thinks to have discovered the solution to their conundrum, for each had entered through different doors, presumably representing different addresses. But yet all three are still befuddled as to whether they find themselves in a rooming house, an information center, or a book publisher. Attempting to leave through the door the professor entered, Ernesto finds it locked, a fact confirmed by the captain, but yet when the professor himself turns the knob, the door opens easily enough. Stumped, Ernesto tries to open the captain’s door, but is unable to. For his part, the professor cannot open either the captain’s door or Ernesto’s, each being able to enter only though his own door. Likewise puzzled but unwilling to wait longer, Vittorio turns away and leaves. In the sunny and hot room, Ernesto grabs a beer from the fridge without finding any orange juice to the professor’s taste until the professor himself finds his own drink inside the fridge. The two are stunned after seeing the professor return again wet through. More surprising still, Vittorio finds his needed hot chocolate in the fridge, all three only seeing the type of drink they desire but not that of the other two. Suddenly, the siren sounds to mark the start of the anti-pollution curfew and so they are forced to stay inside for the night, though with the telephone out of order. While waiting for the all-clear, Ernesto complains of Captain Bigongiari’s comments on death, and so the latter tells a story about a man named Ernesto returning home after 20 years abroad. At every station on the way home, his emotions rise on boat, train, and bus up a mountain pass. Finally, he arrives to his village, walking towards his old home while carrying two suitcases. “At a certain moment,” the captain concludes, “he sees the postman coming. One must imagine his emotion...a childhood friend, one of his favorite playfellows unseen for 20 years, 20 years ago!...Ernesto then puts down his suitcases, so moved that he has trouble talking and yells out: ‘Pietro! Pietro!’ The postman stops, turns around, looks at him and calmly says: ‘O, Ernesto, you are going away on a trip?’” “It’s a scandalous story!” Ernesto exclaims. “Unworthy!” To Bigongiari an amusing one, to Ernesto tragic! For his part, Ernesto remembers a story about people having forgot why they entered a boat until they are put to mind of the danger they were previously in, and realize at last that they are dead. “What if we are like them?” Ernesto wonders. While he and the professor discuss the matter, they notice that the captain is lying on the sofa with his eyes closed. Terrified, Ernesto slowly advances towards him to find out whether he passed away first, until he hears him snoring. Nevertheless, Ernesto remains tormented by thoughts of death, but with no qualms of conscience, he says, except for some tax evasion. Persuaded by such thoughts, Vittorio tries the phone to find out whether he is at home, but it is still out of order. Suddenly, the phone rings. All three freeze in fear until it stops ringing, Ernesto blaming the others for staying put until it starts ringing again, only to hear Bigongiari say it is a wrong number. Yet Ernesto worries over the first call: what if the caller was different? He also worries over the presence of the Singapore telephone directory after discovering his name in it, as do the other two men. Suddenly, a trap-door opens from floor level and a cleaning woman emerges, in the CEO’s view perhaps a presence from beyond. He admits to being an atheist, but only “under normal conditions”. Nonplussed, all three men help her do her job while wondering what to say as she sits down to relax. “Six days non-stop of work and then a seventh day to rest!” she exclaims. “Here, everyone has four days of work. And yet when I stop, everything stops.” Ernesto discovers new qualms of conscience: adulteries, and the unnecessary firing of 20 of his employees, which triggers the captain to admit he abandoned a woman long ago. For his part, the professor refuses to engage in such confessions, solidly confident in rationalism until the chair he is standing on crumbles underneath him. In everything she says, Ernesto discovers some metaphysical significance. “Excuse me,” he asks her. “Your only child was not a carpenter by any chance?” “No,” she answers, “but his father was,” which puzzles Ernesto all the more, as does her equivocal phrase of “as long as the barque moves forward, let it slide.” In the professor’s opinion, the phrase may be deep or trivial depending on context, if found in a song trivial, if in the Gospel deep. As the woman readies herself to leave, Ernesto hands over the telephone directory, but she pronounces that it belongs to someone else. When sirens sound to indicate the all-clear, Ernesto rushes out towards his door, as do the others, but they are all forced to return after discovering that all three doors are now locked. =Dario Fo= [[File:Dario Fo in Venice Film Festival 02.jpg|thumb|Dario Fo amalgamated a fine literary style with popular theatre]] Dario Fo (1926-2016) was the most visible representative of late 20th century Italian comedy, featuring the black comedy: "Morte accidentale di un anarchico" (Accidental death of an anarchist, 1970). His comedies are characterized by a mixture of popular and artistic elements. "The subject of Accidental Death of an Anarchist is the death of Giuseppe Pinelli, who allegedly threw himself out of the fourth-story window of the Central Police Headquarters in Milan during an interrogation in 1969. The play goes into the case in exhaustive detail, including in the script lengthy citations from the official police report presented as testimony during the inquiry into the circumstances of Pinelli's death" (Cowan, 1975 p 106). “Fo continually reminds the audience of the tragic circumstances upon which the play is based. The police execution of an innocent Milanese anarchist, Giuseppe Pinelli, who had been accused of a terrorist bombing formed the basis for the play, and although this event has already occurred before the play begins, that is to say the death of Pinelli is outside of the mimetic space of the play, the reenactment of the crime through a farcical investigation constitutes the main action. In this way, Pinelli’s mangled body is never meant to be forgotten even through farcical episodes” (McManus, 2003 p 113). “This farce...was grounded...on 1969 in a bomb exploded in Milan...Pinelli was arrested...and killed...when his body flew out...of police headquarters where he was interrogated...[In the play], it is the maniac’s seemingly insane logic which is instrumental in unmasking the criminal folly of the police in their attempts to cover up their actions...His own distortion of language is the perfect weapon against the distortion of the facts perpetrated by the police and the media...As a certified psychotic suffering, according to the medical report, from ‘histrionic mania’, he is compelled constantly to play the parts of a whole range of characters. His masquerading as Professor Rabbia (the word means madness in Italian) is only the prologue to what will become a rapidly escalating sequence of impersonations. As the judge...he is able to run rings around police in their vain attempt to make sense of their confused and fabricated evidence...He forces the police literally to re-enact the events of the night the anarchist dies, with hilarious consequences, and gets them to admit they completely misled the suspect so as to browbeat him into a confession...They are put in the position of the anarchist as the judge invents the idea of the state using them as scapegoats ‘to salvage what is left of the mangled reputation of its police force’...The farce undergoes a further development with the entry of the journalist, Maria Feletti...Fo has deliberately organized the drama so that the most serious part of the play- the lengthy discussions...which expose...the wider corruption of the establishment- precisely coincides with the most comic: the inevitable realization by Bertozzo that the forensic expert is the maniac and the attempts of the others to silence him on the mistaken assumption that he is the judge in disguise...There is not a gag in the long final scene that is not there to underline a serious point” (Hirst, 1989 pp 41-51). “Having manipulated the cops into confessing the truth to his fictional judge, Fo proceeds to push the theatrical political paradox a step further, into the realm of the grotesque. Late in the play, the cops coax the maniac to assume yet another character, that of forensic expert, Captain Piccini, for the purpose of deflecting the questions of an investigative reporter who is about to arrive on the scene. Fo incarnates Piccini as a preposterous conglomeration of such blatantly bogus body parts that he is transposed into a virtual marionette. The Piccini puppet features a wooden leg, a detachable wooden hand, a crutch, a glass eye (also detachable) and an outrageously fake moustache and wig. As though this physicialization were somehow too subtle, Piccini then proceeds to underline his grotesque condition with each phrase and gesture in such a way as to oppose or contradict every dramatic action that could be construed as constitutive of social, political, or psychological stability and order. His hand comes off when he attempts to shake hands. Just as he finishes a particularly lucid account of the anarchist's jump, his eye pops out. Then when one cop winks at another in an attempt to gain his cooperation, Piccini drops his eye in a glass of water and swallows it. Soon after the revelation that paid informers are the ‘eyes and ears of the state’, the maniac punctuates a comment about the state's gruesome excesses by removing his wooden leg. He rips off his ersatz eyepatch while announcing ‘corruption is the rule’. As the scene builds, it becomes increasingly evident that the grotesquely corrupted body of the maniac and the body politic are theatrical reflections of each other” (Wing, 1990 pp 145-146). “At the foundation of Fo’s theatre there is the relationship with the people which involves a specific style of representation, the grotesque, and a response-link based on anger, and it is helped and maintained by reason in understanding and analyzing reality” (Ghelardi, 2002 p 224). “One of the fundamental political purposes of the play...was the need to draw general conclusions from each individual scandal. At one point, the maniac outlines the normal sequence of events: ‘a huge scandal...a lot of right-wing politicians arrested...a trial or two...a lot of big fish compromised...senators, members of parliament, colonels...the social democrats weeping’...The maniac also clarifies why a society obsessed by scandal furthers bourgeois interests: ‘You see, your average citizen doesn’t actually want all the dirt to disappear. No, for him, it’s enough that it's uncovered. There’s a nice juicy scandal and everyone can talk about it...As far as he’s concerned, that is real freedom, the best of all possible worlds’” (Behan, 2000 p 71). "Although Fo certainly pokes fun at the police officials in 'Accidental death of an anarchist', he does not present them merely as comic figures but rather as devious abusers of power...The maniac, at the play's end...threatens to do what Fo has just done: to put the insanity, injustice, and hypocrisy of the system before the people" (Maceri, 1998 p 13). The play is sometimes distorted in translation, the maniac turned into a fool. “A fool in the US is a harmless entity, a term hardly applicable to the rabid psychotic character Fo created, where the maniac turns into an official investigator to clean up the government’s contradictions. The subject of the play was not a one-off mistake, rather the government’s long-term programme to destroy the left” (Davis, 2017 p 192). “Fo offers a Marxist point of view...If the people producing, directing and acting in a Fo play are non-political, ie if they are bourgeois or liberal-minded, then they are bound to have trouble with this political, Marxist script” (Davis, 1986 p 318). Fo’s “use of commedia techniques and traditions to create an immediate form of political theatre has stirred controversy because his use of this form, which is often seen as merely lighthearted or decorative by modern audiences, is saturated with his political messages. Fo's goal, since discovering his method and stage persona, has clearly been in sight: marxism as an ideology with a focus on examining the social, economic, moral, and political plights of the middle and lower classes...The approach is that of an epic actor, who sees art as political empowerment, and his work can only be understood as it represents a creative reaction to the most topical social, political, and moral issues. Breaking through the fourth wall of realism, which has dominated so much twentieth-century literary drama, Fo, the playwright and actor, is more the exception than the rule” (Fisher, 2001 pp 51-52). “Dario Fo has transgressed many of the boundaries in which European literature has often been confined: between aesthetic distance and direct political action, between high art and popular culture, between literature and theatre, between acting and writing. His works have redefined the role of the artist as a conduit for popular history, an educator, a commentator, a provocateur, a revolutionary” (Rebellato, 2015, p 82). =="Accidental death of an anarchist"== [[File:Giuseppe_Pinelli_2.jpg|thumb|Giuseppe Pinelli at the Anarchist Circle, Ponte della Ghisolfa, Milan, Italy]] Time: 1970s. Place: Milan, Italy. Text at http://www.socialiststories.com/writers/dario-fo-and-franca-rame/ A madman is interrogated by Police Commissioner Bertozzo for impersonating a psychiatrist. The madman explains he has taken on several other roles in the past, calling his condition "histriomania". When Bertozzo leaves his office for a moment, he identifies himself over the telephone as the commissioner's colleague and gives misleading information about Bertozzo. As a result, the caller comes over to the police station and hits Bertozzo. The madman next takes on the role of a counsellor sent to investigate the suicide of a presumed anarchist who fell from a window of the police station. The false counsellor interrogates a second commissioner and a prefect. He determines that the two men told the anarchist that they had proof of his guilt when they had not and that they had lied to the media about the results of the interrogation. He tells them that the ministry of justice and the interior has suspended them. He utters desperate remarks on their situation while pushing them towards the window, then declares that the report is false. He next determines that the two men had untruthfully told the anarchist how they had evidence that an acquaintance of his had engaged in other acts of terrorism. To lessen suspicions of guilt, the madman tries to make them admit that they encouraged him to reveal himself by tapping him in a friendly way on the shoulder, by saying anarchy will not die, and by singing left-wing songs. In investigating the actual suicide act, a police officer reveals that to prevent the fall he had held on to his shoe so that it came off, but the madman points out that on the victim's body both shoes were on. A woman journalist is announced to conduct an interview on this matter. The madman dons yet another disguise, this time as a police technician working in the laboratory. The reporter determines that since no damage was found on the anarchist's hands, he was probably unconscious or dead before his fall. She next determines that the ambulance was suspiciously called before eye-witnesses ever saw him fall. It seems that the anarchist received a blow on the head after being told that the evidence presented by witnesses of his alibi was inadmissible. Commissioner Bertozzo returns and recognizes the madman disguised as his laboratory officer, but his colleagues try to shut him up. The madman next identifies himself to the reporter as a distinguished bishop sent to investigate the matter. To quiet Bertozzo, he injects him with a sedative. When Bertozzo takes out a revolver to defend himself, the madman tricks him into dropping it and then takes out a tape recorder with all the evidence he needs to expose the police. =Eduardo De Filippo = [[File:Eduardo De Filippo in A che servono questi quattrini 3.png|thumb|Eduardo de Filippo plumbed the depths of police mistrust]] Eduardo de Filippo (1900-1984) reached dramatic heights with "Il sindaco del rione Sanita" (The local authority, more precisely The mayor of the Sanita district 1960) about a man serving as the unofficial judge of legal or ethical conflicts. In The Mayor of the Sanita District, "the entire district depends on Antonio. Between one sentence and another he lightly drops crumbs of meditation; actually he speaks a continual monologue, since no one dares hold an opinion in his presence. The are the meditations of an old man who knows the world: on death, customs, and on the function of a Camorra boss. Every now a then the memory emerges of a long-past bloody exploit which turned eighteen-year-old Antonio from a shepherd into a murderer. He became an American gangster and finally a Camorra boss; he is rich, uncensured, and a protector of those 'ignorant whom he believes are the victims of an unjust society'. Only those who 'have saints'- that is support, money, education, etc- go to heaven, which means that they can defend themselves by corruption and the ubiquitous pay-off envelope. Those without 'saints' must seek justice for themselves: threatening, wounding, killing; otherwise they are prey to any bully. Fortunately, the boss is there; he is the 'saint' for the 'ignorants'; he administers justice, makes peace, and controls and limits crime...The comedy's structure- with its long exposure and sudden catastrophe- has been criticized. I don't agree. Even if there is a lack of intensity in the third act, it is not due to a structural fault. On the contrary, the structure is faultless in the third act and masterful in the first two. The fact is there are two opposite interpretations of Antonio's final decision. The first is a confirmation of the Camorra principle: 'he behaves in his own case as he did in others': upholding the peace, limiting bloodshed, and keeping clear of the authorities. In short, his own death has been an accident in the line of duty and the Camorra institution is not involved...There is a second, far more interesting meaning in the dramatic action. To what does Antonio finally bow? To the family. The baker is a hateful individual, 'a heap of dirt..a worm, a sluggard' who deserves death. Certainly Antonio isn't afraid of the sight of blood. What is then that protects the baker?...The rights and dignity of the head of the family" (Codignola and Ruffman, 1964 pp 114-116). “De Filippo continued the old tradition of Neapolitan popular comedy, which typically involved three interacting sets of characters. His works are set in his native city, and depict a wide spectrum of characters mainly from a lower middle-class background” (Marrone, 2006 p 250). "Naples is the reservoir on which, consciously and unconsciously, Eduardo draws. Not only the city as a whole but the Neapolitan theatre in particular. It is a popular as against an art theatre. This means, to begin with, that it is a dialect theatre and not an Italian one. It uses a popularly spoken language and not an official, national, bourgeois language- in this respect resembling Synge and O'Casey rather than Pinero and Galsworthy. The lack of a national theatrical repertoire in Italy may be deplorable but the quality of the defect is the regional repertoire" (Bentley, 1951 p 121). “De Filippo's Neapolitan language reflects the mood or tone of the content or plot. It is the true dialect when Naples and its people are the protagonists, becoming soft, mellow, and humorous; it becomes Italian or very close to it when the subject matter calls for a loftier expression, as in the plays dealing with unreality. It is not Olympian or classical as in Pirandello, but warmer and mellower. Very often, it is a fresh, natural, and melodious Italian with Neapolitan constructions and nuances“ (Maurino, 1960 pp 355-356). “In De Filippo’s plays, there is the continuous examination of the concept of justice” (Laggini, 1986 p 466). =="The mayor of the Sanita district"== [[File:Eduardo De Filippo e Franco Folli, Il sindaco del rione Sanità.jpg|thumb|Played by Eduardo de Fillippo, Antonio Barracano is the local authority, dispensing justice to a man played by Franco Folli (1924-2003)]] Time: 1960s. Place: Naples and surrounding regions. Text at ? Palummiello has just been shot by Nait for attempting to steal his job and is being treated late at night by Dr Fabio Della Ragione. During the same night, Antonio Barracano's wife, Armida, was attacked by one of their dogs and conducted at a hospital by one of their sons. At the age of sixty-four, Fabio has grown tired of his job and consequently wishes to immigrate to America. But he is dissuaded from this purpose after being warned by Antonio, local head of the Camorra, a Neapolitan gangster association equivalent to the Sicilian Mafia. As in other organizations of this kind who needs him to dispense medical treatment just as he himself dispenses justice as the local authority. Indeed, men in the region are in the habit of consulting the respected 75-year old Antonio instead of relying on the police and its judicial system, which is the case of Vicienzo and Pasquale. Vicienzo borrowed money from Pasquale at an exorbitant interest rate so that he can no longer pay the principal. Antonio's judgment is that Pasquale, having obtained more than the principal, should pretend having received his money and forget about it, to which he agrees without protest. Antonio next handles the case of Palummiello and Nait. He lightly blames the former for trespassing into a new territory but blames more harshly the latter for failing to consult him before this happening, slapping him in the face for good measure. Antonio next hears the case of Rafiluccio, a man intent on killing his own father, Arturo, a baker, who will no longer have anything to do with him. Antonio suspends his judgment on this more complex case. He first resolves the question on whether the dog who bit his wife should be shot, concluding that, being trained as a watchdog, his wife is to blame for feeding chickens in the early morning hours. Arturo arrives to explain that his son is shiftless and lazy and useless in his business. Having separated his property in three parts to his progeny in his lifetime, Antonio blames Arturo for being so unfeeling towards a son, but without result. Since Antonio is also unable to dissuade Rafiluccio from his purpose, he heads towards Arturo's shop and is stabbed in the spleen for his pains. "I had my pistol," Antonio explains to Fabio, "but I thought of my sons. If I shoot now, I thought, the chains of killings will stretch our to infinity." Instead, he invites the two along with others to supper and pretends that Arturo gave over to his son a large sum of money, to which Arturo finally submits. But when Antonio dies, Fabio reveals the plot, indifferent to the likelihood of impending massacres. "Perhaps destruction on this scale will pave the way for a different world," he avers, "a world that will have lost some of its gloss but will be that much fairer." =Clotilde Masci= Clotilde Masci (1918-1985, first known as Francesca Sangiorgio) wrote "Le escluse" (The excluded, 1950) concerning the interactions between nine women and one man in a boarding house. It is akin to Terence Rattigan's "Separate tables" (1954) in depicting loneliness and separateness in communal living conditions. Masci also wrote "Wedding eve" (1952) about a woman's lie in robbing a jewelry store the day before her wedding and after the real thief is caught, weakly submitting to her husband and relatives. In "Sunset at dawn" (1955), a woman is beaten by her husband but when he dies, her situation remains equally dismal as the result of the constraining state of widowhood. In "Fire on the rock" (1957), a woman experiences disastrous consequences after falling in love with her husband's brother. All these plays are characterized by the unfortunate circumstances attending women in and out of marriage. =="The excluded"== [[File:Diamond flower branch pin.jpg|thumb|The owner of a boarding house is aghast at the low spelling price one of her boarder's diamond pin]] Time: 1945. Place: Italy. Text at ? Since Mrs Romualdi's husband is enamoured of a younger woman, she must knit twelve hours a day in a woman's boarding-house to pay her lawyer and get her money back from him in a lawsuit. She and other boarders, Paulette, Agata, Andreina, learn that a man will soon occupy an extra room in the house, to which Agata is irate. "I've never liked mingling with the opposite sex," she says. "Men are selfish devourers." Andreina is more cheerful about the prospect. Although her fiancé writes to her every day, the letters are uninteresting. "He's just got three topics: my degree, his grocer's shop, and his rhinitis," she says. Mrs Giacometti helps the half-demented 90-year-old Mrs Teresina walk in and sit down, waiting for her son to return, though dead in the previous war. The owner, Mrs Bianco, explains that she is forced to accept a man because a new rule from the House Commission forbids a war veteran to be refused lodgings, all the more so since Daniele spent twenty months in a German concentration camp. "Let's at least hope he can dance the boogie-woogie and has a presentable face," Paulette lightly comments. "I hope not," Agata sourly retorts. "Men are odious and insolent by nature, but if handsome doubly so, unbearable." Mrs Bianco takes Teresina apart to ask her when she will pay the amount owed her. Since Teresina has no money, Mrs Bianco accepts her piano in exchange for two months rent. Mrs Bianco is aghast at the small sum Teresina previously obtained from Paulette for a diamond pin, asking to become from now on her new dealer in jewelry. A few months later, Andreina is smitten by the charms of the new lodger, Daniele, but no longer wants to miss university classes because he wants to go to the cinema, where they get in for free thanks to her relations. Afraid to lose him, she changes her mind after watching him flirt with the housemaid. After she leaves, he flirts with Paulette, from whom he obtains cigarettes. Although engaged to a rich cheese merchant, she nevertheless promises him more cigarettes should he come to her room that evening to chat. For her part, Mrs Romualdi has very rapidly knit a woolen jacket for him while Renata, a school-teacher, gives her old pupil free English lessons since he hopes to obtain a passport and immigrate to America. However, he has difficulty concentrating on the lessons, being more interested in the jewels Teresina keeps in her room. Renata prevents the distracted old woman from going out and selling them herself, promising to take care of them and consult a jeweler to obtain a fair price. To attract Daniele towards Paris, Paulette now admits she separated from her merchant but has obtained from him a monetary settlement. She also promises to get Daniele a passport. On her part, Agata offers to try to get him a job at her office, a notion Renata strongly approves of. One evening, Agata proposes to Renata that they leave the boarding-house to live on their own, but she declines. As Agata leaves, a desperate Daniele knocks at Renata's door to be let in after strangling Teresina for her jewels. He wants to reach the street-door key to escape, but the two are interrupted by Giacometti and Agata who have discovered the dying Teresina, followed by Mrs Bianco, Andreina, Paulette, and Mrs Romualdi, though the purpose of the latter's entrance is to obtain morphine for her stomach pains after being diagnosed with a terminal neoplasm. With the doorman on his way to call the police and Renata helplessly seeking to protect him, Teresina unexpectedly appears to mumble soothing words over a prostrate Daniele as if he were her son. Mrs Bianco orders Daniele out before the police arrive. He does so with hesitating steps. After Teresina dies in their midst, Renata returns to her desk to continue correcting her students' school-work. {{BookCat}} jmikx4jw6bd52nvm7m8jlr7t5twyoph 0 249490 4681759 4680065 2026-11-12T00:22:25Z Vnw2ur 3574772 Added a chapter 4681759 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:Cases and Ideas in Professional Ethics}} {{book search|prefix=Professionalism}} {{clear}} == Table of Contents == <!-- -When adding entries, please place them in this format: [[/MyPage/]]. Similarly, these entries' titles should start with "Professionalism/MyPage", not "MyPage". --> * [[Professionalism/Foreword|Foreword]] <div><div style="width:49%;float:left"> ;Biomedical Engineering * [[/HeLa Cells and Timeless Ethics/]] * [[/Cheryl Eckard and GlaxoSmithKline/]] * [[/Fishbein and the NIH/]] * [[/Matthias Rath and Cellular Medicine/]] * [[/Frances Oldham Kelsey and Thalidomide/]] * [[/The Guatemala Syphilis Experiment/]] * [[/Peter Buxtun and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study/]] * [[/Purdue Pharma and OxyContin/]] * [[/David Franklin, Parke-Davis, and Neurontin/]] * [[/Vioxx: Merck and the FDA/]] * [[/Love Canal, New York/]] * [[/Kenneth Kendrick and Peanuts/]] * [[/Peter Rost and Pfizer/]] * [[/Resistance to Polio Vaccination in Northern Nigeria/]] * [[/Kunal Saha and the World Bank/]] * [[/Hwang Woo-suk and Stem Cells/]] * [[/Eli Lilly and Zyprexa/]] * [[/Kit Foshee and Beef Product Incorporated/]] * [[/Andrew Wakefield and the MMR Vaccine/]] * [[/Medical Ghostwriting/]] * [[/Conrad Gorinsky, the Wapishana, and Biopiracy/]] * [[/Victoria Hampshire and Lester Crawford/]] * [[/Luk Van Parijs and Data Fabrication/]] * [[/Martin Shkreli, Turing Pharmaceuticals, and Daraprim/]] * [[/Metal-on-Metal Hip Implants/]] * [[/Tyler Shultz, Elizabeth Holmes, and Theranos/]] * [[/The FDA Nine/]] * [[/April Evans and NASA/]] * [[/Krebiozen/]] * [[/Jonathan Lundgren and USDA/]] * [[/Martin Keller, SmithKline Beecham, and Study 329/]] * [[/Fen-Phen and American Home Products/]] * [[/The Disneyland Measles Outbreak of 2014-2015/]] * [[/Rhona Applebaum, Coca-Cola, and Health Research/]] * [[/Yoshitaka Fujii and Medical Research Fraud/]] * [[/Shiv Chopra and Livestock/]] * [[/Medicine, AI, and Professional Discretion/]] * [[/Stanley Pons, Martin Fleischmann, and Cold Fusion/]] * [[/Dr Daniel Merenstein, Medical Screening, and Professional Discretion/]] * [[/Vicky Phelan, Grainne Flanelly, David Gibbons, and Cervical Check/]] * [[/PIP and Silopren/]] * [[/He Jiankui and Designer Babies/]] * [[/Insulin: The Deadly Price/]] * [[/Ethics in Organ Allocation/]] ;Chemical Engineering * [[/OSHA and the Pitkin, LA, Explosion/]] * [[/Union Carbide and Bhopal/]] * [[/Myron Mehlman and Mobil Corporation/]] * [[/Times Beach, Missouri/]] * [[/Frederic Whitehurst and the FBI/]] * [[/Jeffrey Wigand and Brown & Williamson/]] * [[/Deborah Rice and the American Chemistry Council/]] * [[/Mark Whitacre and Archer Daniels Midland/]] * [[/Manjunath Shanmughan and the Indian Oil Corporation/]] * [[/BP Texas City Refinery Explosion/]] * [[/Mectizan Donation Program/]] * [[/Freedom Industries and the Elk River/]] * [[/PEPCON Ammonium Perchlorate Plant Explosion/]] * [[/The Valero Refinery Fire/]] * [[/Gepp, Dee, and Lentz, and the leak at Aberdeen Proving Ground/]] * [[/The Case of Marlene Garcia-Esperat/]] * [[/Greenpeace, Donors Trust, and climate change research/]] * [[/Lenny Bernstein, Exxon, and Climate Change/]] * [[/Raymond Orbach, Charles Groat, and Fracking Research/]] * [[/Tianjin Chemical Storage Explosions/]] * [[/Arthur Galston and Agent Orange/]] * [[/Toxic Gas Releases at Honeywell’s Baton Rouge Refrigerant Plant/]] * [[/Mona Hanna-Attisha and Lead Exposure in Flint, Michigan/]] * [[/DuPont, C8, and Parkersburg, West Virginia/]] * [[/Thomas Midgely Jr. and the Rise and Fall of Tetraethyl Lead/]] * [[/Port of Beirut Chemical Explosion/]] ;Civil Engineering * Alan Reay, David Harding, and the CTV Building * [[Boston's Big Dig Project]] * [[/Bruce Boler and the EPA/]] * [[/Collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge/]] * [[/Collapse of the TV Antenna in Missouri City, Texas/]] * [[/Collapse of the “Swinging Bridge,” Heber Springs, Arkansas/]] * [[/Ed Turner and the City of Idaho Falls/]] * [[/Evan Vokes and TransCanada/]] * [[/The Flint Water Supply/]] * [[/Jack Gillum and the Hyatt Regency Skywalks/]] * [[/Manoj Kumar Gupta and Shiv Das/]] * [[/Satyendra Dubey and the National Highways Authority of India/]] * [[/URS and the I-35 Bridge/]] * [[/William LeMessurier and the CitiCorp Building/]] * [[/The GE Three/]] * [[/San Bruno Pipeline Explosion/]] * [[/FIU Pedestrian Bridge Collapse/]] * [[Professionalism/Collapse of the Morandi Bridge|Collapse of the Morandi Bridge]] ;Computer Science and Engineering * [[/Aaron Swartz and Information Freedom/]] * [[/Eric Raymond and Open Source Software/]] * [[/Shawn Carpenter and Sandia National Laboratories/]] * [[/Mark Klein and Room 641A/]] * [[/Therac-25/]] * [[/Kevin Mitnick/]] * [[/BitTorrent and BitCoin/]] * [[/Kim Dotcom and Megaupload/]] * [[/Suchir Balaji and OpenAI/]] * [[/Yasser Elabd and Microsoft/]] * [[/Sockpuppetry/]] * [[/Lulzsec/]] * [[/Corruption at the National Security Agency/]] * [[/ChatGPT and the New York City Department of Education/]] * [[/Edward Snowden and the NSA/]] * [[/Google Street View and Wi-Spy/]] * [[/The Death of Elaine Herzberg/]] * [[/Response to Sony Hack of 2014/]] * [[/Ariane 5 Flight 501/]] * [[/David Barksdale and Digital Privacy/]] * [[/Ellen Pao, Reddit, and the trolls/]] * [[/Phillip Rogaway, Computer Scientists, and Government Surveillance/]] * [[/Honest Shanghai/]] * [[/Thorlaug Agustsdottir: Free Speech and Abuse on Social Media/]] * [[/Apple, the FBI, Personal Data/]] * [[/Tor, CMU, and the FBI/]] * [[/Volkswagen's Emissions Scandal/]] * [[/Predictive Policing/]] * [[/Zenimax v. Oculus VR/]] * [[/Geofeedia, Social Media, and Law Enforcement/]] * [[/Margaret Goodearl, Ruth Ibarra, and Hughes Microelectronics/]] * [[/Apple Batteries: Transparency, Trust, and Technology/]] * [[/Vigilant Solutions, Law Enforcement, and Privacy/]] * [[/Justin Rosenstein and the Like Button/]] * [[/Tristan Harris, Time Well Spent, and Smartphones/]] * [[/The Equifax Data Leak/]] * [[/Chamath Palihapitiya and Facebook/]] * [[/Ashok Chandwaney, Sophie Zhang, and Facebook/]] * [[/Knightscope and Autonomous Data Machines/]] * [[/Cody Wilson and the Liberator/]] * [[/The Firing of James Damore/]] * [[/The Right to Repair/]] * [[/Apple, iPhone Software, and Planned Obsolescence/]] * [[/Amazon, Rekognition, and Law Enforcement/]] * [[/The 2015 Open Letter in Autonomous Weapons /]] * [[/Microsoft Employees, Project JEDI, and HoloLens/]] * [[/Mike Davidson, Rahul Vohra, and Superhuman/]] * [[/The Rise and Fall of the Advanced Technology External Advisory Council/]] * [[/Google Employees and Project Maven/]] * [[/Andy Rubin, Google, and Sexual Harassment in Tech/]] * [[/Data Ownership/]] * [[/Software Vulnerability Disclosure/]] * [[/Ian Bogost, Nadia Eghbal, and Software Engineers/]] * [[/Barry Lynn, New America Foundation, and Google/]] * [[/The Google Walkouts of 2018/]] * [[/Parler and the Capitol Insurrection of 2021/]] * [[/Timnit Gebru and Ethical AI at Google/]] * [[/Tom Yardic and Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota/]] * [[/The GitHub Employee Dismissal of January 8, 2021/]] * [[/Suspension of @realDonaldTrump/]] * [[/Sexism, Riot Games, and a Class Action Lawsuit/]] * [[/Cher Scarlett and Tech Labor Advocacy/]] * [[/Rebekah Jones, Ron DeSantis, and the Florida Department of Health/]] * [[/Tang Mingfang, Foxconn, and Amazon/]] * [[/Facebook, Cambridge Analytica, and User Data/]] * [[/Frances Haugen and Facebook/]] * [[/Labor Organizing at Google/]] * [[/Thomas le Bonniec and Siri/]] * [[/Rudwin Ayala, the Exploding Hoverboard, and Abuse of AI by Lawyers/]] * [[/The US Tech Sector, the H-1B Visa, and Employment Abuse/]] * [[/Ifeoma Ozoma and Pinterest/]] * [[/OpenAI, Corporate Integrity, and the Firing of Sam Altman/]] * [[Professionalism/Mark Zuckerberg, Corporate Culture, and "Masculine Energy"|Mark Zuckerberg, Corporate Culture, and "Masculine Energy"]] * [[Professionalism/Mobley v. Workday and the Ethics of Algorithmic Hiring|Mobley v. Workday and the Ethics of Algorithmic Hiring]] * [[Professionalism/Kathryn Spiers, Laurence Berland, Google, and IRI Consultants|Kathryn Spiers, Laurence Berland, Google, and IRI Consultants]] ;Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering * [[/Mars Climate Orbiter/]] * [[/Air France Flight 447/]] * [[Professionalism/Air India Flight 171|Air India Flight 171]] * [[/Ernest Fitzgerald and the Lockheed C-5A/]] * [[/Rodney Rocha and Columbia/]] * [[/The Ford Pinto Gas Tank Controversy/]] * [[/The Toyota Recalls of 2009-2010/]] * [[/Mark Lund and the FAA/]] * [[/The Explosion on ''Deepwater Horizon''/]] * [[/Roger Boisjoly, Morton Thiokol, and NASA/]] * [[/LaMia Flight 2933/]] * [[/The Loss of USS Thresher/]] * [[/Apollo 1/]] * [[/Apollo 13/]] * [[/Iridium 33 and Kosmos 2251/]] * [[/David Lappa and the Lawrence Livermore National Lab/]] * [[/Northeast Blackout of 2003/]] * [[/The Loss of Ocean Ranger/]] * [[/China Airlines Flight 611/]] * [[/Chesley Sullenberger and US Airways Flight 1549/]] * [[/Vince Weldon and the 787/]] * [[/Don Baker and Smart Meters/]] * [[/John Houbolt and Lunar Orbit Rendezvous/]] * [[/Takata Corporation and Airbags/]] * [[/Tom Williams and the Wings of the A380/]] * [[/TWA Flight 800/]] * [[/Larry Gibson and Mountaintop Removal/]] * [[/Poppy Northcutt, Apollo, and Women in Tech/]] * [[/William McNeilly and Trident/]] * [[/The Loss of Petrobras Platform 36/]] * [[/Richard Perkins and the NRC/]] * [[/Joseph Mangan and the A380/]] ;Systems and Information Engineering * [[/Salvador Castro and Air-Shields, Inc/]] * [[/The Aviation Safety Reporting System/]] * [[/Ladbroke Grove Rail Collision/]] * [[/The MGM Grand Hotel Fire/]] * [[/William Sanjour and the EPA/]] * [[/Fort Totten Metro Crash/]] </div><div style="width:49%;float:left;padding:0 0 0 2%"> ;Nuclear Engineering * [[/Rusi Taleyarkhan and Bubble Fusion/]] * [[/George Galatis and Millstone 1/]] * [[/Chernobyl Disaster/]] * [[/Walter Tamosaitis and the Hanford Site/]] ;Other Cases in Professional Ethics * [[/The Mysterious Death of Dr. Ramin Pourandarjani/]] * [[/Alexander Coward and the UC Berkeley Department of Mathematics/]] * [[/Archer Blood and the Blood Telegram/]] * [[/The U.N. and Cholera in Haiti/]] * [[/Ethics and ADHD Diagnosis/]] * [[/John Stumpf, Wells Fargo, and Salesmanship/]] * [[/A Matter of Honor: Lou Bloomfield and Academic Dishonesty/]] * [[/Ball Don't Lie: The Moral Code of the NBA/]] * [[/Cheating Scandal at Malmstrom Air Force Base/]] * [[/Rolling Stone & UVA: A Case on Professional Journalism/]] * [[/Amy Stroupe and BB&T/]] * [[/Badminton Scandal of the 2012 Olympics/]] * [[/Bernie Madoff's Ponzi Scheme/]] * [[/The Bogdanov Affair/]] * [[/BP's Response to the Deepwater Horizon Spill/]] * [[/Bradley Birkenfeld, the UBS Whistle-blower/]] * [[/Brett Crozier and the U.S. Navy/]] * [[/Chelsea Manning: Integrity Vs. Professionalism/]] * [[/British American Tobacco and the Promotion of Smoking/]] * [[/Canadian Caper/]] * [[/The Case of Bowe Bergdahl/]] * [[/The Case of Juan Williams, Vivian Schiller, and Ellen Weiss/]] * [[/Cynthia Cooper and Worldcom/]] * [[/Dan Graves and ITT Educational Services/]] * [[/Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers/]] * [[/David Lewis and EPA/]] * [[/Dr Jeffrey Young et al. and University of Virginia Health System/]] * [[/The Dismissal of President Teresa Sullivan/]] * [[/Electronic Sports Ethics: Professionalism in an Unestablished Industry/]] * [[/Frank Serpico and NYPD /]] * [[/FDA and the Emergency Use Authorization /]] * [[/Greenwashing/]] * [[/Greg Smith, Goldman Sachs and the New York Times/]] * [[/Hillsborough Disaster/]] * [[/Hugh Thompson, William Calley, and the My Lai Massacre/]] * [[/Huy Fong Foods, Sriracha, and the City of Irwindale/]] * [[/Jane Akre, Steve Wilson, and Posilac/]] * [[/Jeffrey Sterling and Operation Merlin/]] * [[/Joe Darby, Samuel Provance, and Abu Ghraib/]] * [[/Joe Paterno and the Penn State Board of Trustees/]] * [[/Joel Clement and the Department of the Interior/]] * [[/Jordan Belfort and Stratton Oakmont/]] * [[/Johnson & Johnson's Response to the 1982 Tylenol Poisonings/]] * [[/Julia Bluhm, SPARK, and Seventeen Magazine/]] * [[/Julia Davis and the Department of Homeland Security/]] * [[/Justin Hopson and the Lords of Discipline/]] * [[/Kennedy, Clinton, and Changing Norms of Journalism/]] * [[/Lance Armstrong, the Tour de France, and a Culture of Cheating/]] * [[/Lou van den Dries, George Orwell, and Mandatory Ethics Training/]] * [[/LinkedIn and Professional Self-Promotion/]] * [[/The Mann Gulch Fire/]] * [[/Marc Hauser and Research Fraud/]] * [[/Marsha Coleman-Adebayo and EPA/]] * [[/Michael de Guzman and the Bre-X Scandal/]] * [[/Michael Mann, Ken Cuccinelli, and the Hockey Stick/]] * [[/Michael Woodford and Olympus/]] * [[/Operation Red Wings and the Rules of Engagement/]] * [[/Oscar Pistorius and the Rise of the Iron Man Era/]] * [[/The Over Prosecution of Kurt Mix/]] * [[/The Swatting of Andrew Finch/]] * [[/The Work Climate at Google/]] * [[/Pamela Davis and Operation Board Games/]] * [[/Perry Fellwock and the NSA/]] * [[/Piper Alpha Oil Rig Disaster/]] * [[/Professionalism in Social Media /]] * [[/Professionalism in ''The Intern''/]] * [[/Ruth Marcus, Jeff Bezos, and The Washington Post/]] * [[/Sean Hoare and Andy Coulson/]] * [[/Sherron Watkins and Enron/]] * [[/Sign Stealing in Major League Baseball/]] * [[/Robert MacLean and Unsecured TSA Communication/]] * [[/The Sokal Affair/]] * [[/Southwest Airlines Flight Cancellations of December 2022/]] * [[/Stanford Research Scandal/]] * [[/Startup Deception/]] * [[/Susan Fowler, Uber, and Workplace Sexual Harassment/]] * [[/The Case of Wisheart, Dhasmana, and Roylance/]] * [[/The Durham Fish Oil Trials/]] * [[/The Pat Tillman case/]] * [[/Typhoid Mary/]] * [[/Jose Rodriguez and the CIA Interrogation Tapes/]] * [[/YouTube Censorship/]] * [[/Dr. Malachi Love-Robinson/]] * [[/Driving for Uber/]] * [[/Who Is an Engineer? Burton Siegal and the State of Illinois/]] * [[/Monsanto's Seed Patents/]] * [[/Conflict of Interest Wikipedia Editing: Sunshine Sachs and Jack Craver/]] * [[/The Case of Daphne Caruana Galizia/]] * [[/Anarchist Cookbook/]] * [[/The Sinking of the Titanic/]] * [[/Vtubers and the Ethics of Synthetic Media/]] * [[/Tim Bray, Maren Costa, Emily Cunningham, and Amazon/]] * [[/Fraud in U.S. Collegiate Athetics/]] * [[/The Hippocratic Oath for Technologists/]] * [[/The Johnson & Johnson Baby Powder Case/]] * [[/Avondale Mills, Norfolk Southern, and the E.P.A/]] ;Research Ethics * [[/Alexandra Elbakyan and Sci-Hub/]] * [[/Scott Reuben and Research Fraud/]] * [[/Shih Chi Liu and the NSF/]] * [[/Climategate/]] * [[/Albert Costa, Janet Geipel, Ethics, and Language/]] * [[/Sabotage In Academia/]] ;Thinkers, Ideas and Problems * [[/Ethics and Autonomous AI/]] * [[/Anita Sarkeesian, Women and Gaming/]] * [[/The Dilbert Principle/]] * [[/Office Ethics according to The Office/]] * [[/Office Ethics according to Office Space/]] * [[/E.F. Schumacher/]] * [[/Ted Kaczynski/]] * [[/Diffusion of Responsibility/]] * [[/Irving Janis and Groupthink/]] * [[/Bill Joy and Technological Risks/]] * [[/Marketing of Pharmaceuticals/]] * [[/Balancing Individual Rights vs Welfare of Society/]] * [[/Pekka Himanen and The Hacker Ethic/]] * [[/Hacktivism/]] * [[/Nimbyism/]] * [[/Valuing of Human Life in Risk Analysis/]] * [[/The Precautionary Principle/]] * [[/The IRS Whistleblowers Program/]] * [[/Human subjects in clinical research/]] * [[/Adderall in Academics/]] * [[/Using Animals in Research/]] * [[/James Shikwati and Aid to Africa/]] * [[/Diane Vaughan and the normalization of deviance/]] * [[/Defensive Medicine/]] * [[/Drinking Culture in China/]] * [[/Growth Hacking/]] * [[/Moonlighting/]] * [[/Corporate Psychopaths/]] * [[/Salami Slicing and the Least Publishable Unit/]] * [[/Stanford Prison Experiment/]] * [[/Environmental Racism/]] * [[/Restaurant Ethics according to Bob's Burgers/]] * [[/Workplace Harassment Training/]] * [[/Sexual Orientation Conversion Therapy/]] * [[/Ikigai at Work/]] * [[/The Right to Be Forgotten/]] * [[/Voluntourism/]] * [[/Thomas H. Murray/]] * [[/Market Influences on Clinical Trials/]] * [[/Norbert Wiener and the Expert’s Responsibility for Weapons/]] * [[/Marc Andreessen and Techno-Optimism/]] </div> <br style="clear:all" /> </div> {{Shelves|general engineering|Class projects|Business}} {{alphabetical|P}} {{status|100%}} 4qhli9fr7tqbaddaf0jy8og3ed51gjo 4681760 4681759 2026-11-12T00:23:00Z Vnw2ur 3574772 4681760 wikitext text/x-wiki {{DISPLAYTITLE:Cases and Ideas in Professional Ethics}} {{book search|prefix=Professionalism}} {{clear}} == Table of Contents == <!-- -When adding entries, please place them in this format: [[/MyPage/]]. Similarly, these entries' titles should start with "Professionalism/MyPage", not "MyPage". --> * [[Professionalism/Foreword|Foreword]] <div><div style="width:49%;float:left"> ;Biomedical Engineering * [[/HeLa Cells and Timeless Ethics/]] * [[/Cheryl Eckard and GlaxoSmithKline/]] * [[/Fishbein and the NIH/]] * [[/Matthias Rath and Cellular Medicine/]] * [[/Frances Oldham Kelsey and Thalidomide/]] * [[/The Guatemala Syphilis Experiment/]] * [[/Peter Buxtun and the Tuskegee Syphilis Study/]] * [[/Purdue Pharma and OxyContin/]] * [[/David Franklin, Parke-Davis, and Neurontin/]] * [[/Vioxx: Merck and the FDA/]] * [[/Love Canal, New York/]] * [[/Kenneth Kendrick and Peanuts/]] * [[/Peter Rost and Pfizer/]] * [[/Resistance to Polio Vaccination in Northern Nigeria/]] * [[/Kunal Saha and the World Bank/]] * [[/Hwang Woo-suk and Stem Cells/]] * [[/Eli Lilly and Zyprexa/]] * [[/Kit Foshee and Beef Product Incorporated/]] * [[/Andrew Wakefield and the MMR Vaccine/]] * [[/Medical Ghostwriting/]] * [[/Conrad Gorinsky, the Wapishana, and Biopiracy/]] * [[/Victoria Hampshire and Lester Crawford/]] * [[/Luk Van Parijs and Data Fabrication/]] * [[/Martin Shkreli, Turing Pharmaceuticals, and Daraprim/]] * [[/Metal-on-Metal Hip Implants/]] * [[/Tyler Shultz, Elizabeth Holmes, and Theranos/]] * [[/The FDA Nine/]] * [[/April Evans and NASA/]] * [[/Krebiozen/]] * [[/Jonathan Lundgren and USDA/]] * [[/Martin Keller, SmithKline Beecham, and Study 329/]] * [[/Fen-Phen and American Home Products/]] * [[/The Disneyland Measles Outbreak of 2014-2015/]] * [[/Rhona Applebaum, Coca-Cola, and Health Research/]] * [[/Yoshitaka Fujii and Medical Research Fraud/]] * [[/Shiv Chopra and Livestock/]] * [[/Medicine, AI, and Professional Discretion/]] * [[/Stanley Pons, Martin Fleischmann, and Cold Fusion/]] * [[/Dr Daniel Merenstein, Medical Screening, and Professional Discretion/]] * [[/Vicky Phelan, Grainne Flanelly, David Gibbons, and Cervical Check/]] * [[/PIP and Silopren/]] * [[/He Jiankui and Designer Babies/]] * [[/Insulin: The Deadly Price/]] * [[/Ethics in Organ Allocation/]] ;Chemical Engineering * [[/OSHA and the Pitkin, LA, Explosion/]] * [[/Union Carbide and Bhopal/]] * [[/Myron Mehlman and Mobil Corporation/]] * [[/Times Beach, Missouri/]] * [[/Frederic Whitehurst and the FBI/]] * [[/Jeffrey Wigand and Brown & Williamson/]] * [[/Deborah Rice and the American Chemistry Council/]] * [[/Mark Whitacre and Archer Daniels Midland/]] * [[/Manjunath Shanmughan and the Indian Oil Corporation/]] * [[/BP Texas City Refinery Explosion/]] * [[/Mectizan Donation Program/]] * [[/Freedom Industries and the Elk River/]] * [[/PEPCON Ammonium Perchlorate Plant Explosion/]] * [[/The Valero Refinery Fire/]] * [[/Gepp, Dee, and Lentz, and the leak at Aberdeen Proving Ground/]] * [[/The Case of Marlene Garcia-Esperat/]] * [[/Greenpeace, Donors Trust, and climate change research/]] * [[/Lenny Bernstein, Exxon, and Climate Change/]] * [[/Raymond Orbach, Charles Groat, and Fracking Research/]] * [[/Tianjin Chemical Storage Explosions/]] * [[/Arthur Galston and Agent Orange/]] * [[/Toxic Gas Releases at Honeywell’s Baton Rouge Refrigerant Plant/]] * [[/Mona Hanna-Attisha and Lead Exposure in Flint, Michigan/]] * [[/DuPont, C8, and Parkersburg, West Virginia/]] * [[/Thomas Midgely Jr. and the Rise and Fall of Tetraethyl Lead/]] * [[/Port of Beirut Chemical Explosion/]] ;Civil Engineering * [[Alan Reay, David Harding, and the CTV Building]] * [[Boston's Big Dig Project]] * [[/Bruce Boler and the EPA/]] * [[/Collapse of the Francis Scott Key Bridge/]] * [[/Collapse of the TV Antenna in Missouri City, Texas/]] * [[/Collapse of the “Swinging Bridge,” Heber Springs, Arkansas/]] * [[/Ed Turner and the City of Idaho Falls/]] * [[/Evan Vokes and TransCanada/]] * [[/The Flint Water Supply/]] * [[/Jack Gillum and the Hyatt Regency Skywalks/]] * [[/Manoj Kumar Gupta and Shiv Das/]] * [[/Satyendra Dubey and the National Highways Authority of India/]] * [[/URS and the I-35 Bridge/]] * [[/William LeMessurier and the CitiCorp Building/]] * [[/The GE Three/]] * [[/San Bruno Pipeline Explosion/]] * [[/FIU Pedestrian Bridge Collapse/]] * [[Professionalism/Collapse of the Morandi Bridge|Collapse of the Morandi Bridge]] ;Computer Science and Engineering * [[/Aaron Swartz and Information Freedom/]] * [[/Eric Raymond and Open Source Software/]] * [[/Shawn Carpenter and Sandia National Laboratories/]] * [[/Mark Klein and Room 641A/]] * [[/Therac-25/]] * [[/Kevin Mitnick/]] * [[/BitTorrent and BitCoin/]] * [[/Kim Dotcom and Megaupload/]] * [[/Suchir Balaji and OpenAI/]] * [[/Yasser Elabd and Microsoft/]] * [[/Sockpuppetry/]] * [[/Lulzsec/]] * [[/Corruption at the National Security Agency/]] * [[/ChatGPT and the New York City Department of Education/]] * [[/Edward Snowden and the NSA/]] * [[/Google Street View and Wi-Spy/]] * [[/The Death of Elaine Herzberg/]] * [[/Response to Sony Hack of 2014/]] * [[/Ariane 5 Flight 501/]] * [[/David Barksdale and Digital Privacy/]] * [[/Ellen Pao, Reddit, and the trolls/]] * [[/Phillip Rogaway, Computer Scientists, and Government Surveillance/]] * [[/Honest Shanghai/]] * [[/Thorlaug Agustsdottir: Free Speech and Abuse on Social Media/]] * [[/Apple, the FBI, Personal Data/]] * [[/Tor, CMU, and the FBI/]] * [[/Volkswagen's Emissions Scandal/]] * [[/Predictive Policing/]] * [[/Zenimax v. Oculus VR/]] * [[/Geofeedia, Social Media, and Law Enforcement/]] * [[/Margaret Goodearl, Ruth Ibarra, and Hughes Microelectronics/]] * [[/Apple Batteries: Transparency, Trust, and Technology/]] * [[/Vigilant Solutions, Law Enforcement, and Privacy/]] * [[/Justin Rosenstein and the Like Button/]] * [[/Tristan Harris, Time Well Spent, and Smartphones/]] * [[/The Equifax Data Leak/]] * [[/Chamath Palihapitiya and Facebook/]] * [[/Ashok Chandwaney, Sophie Zhang, and Facebook/]] * [[/Knightscope and Autonomous Data Machines/]] * [[/Cody Wilson and the Liberator/]] * [[/The Firing of James Damore/]] * [[/The Right to Repair/]] * [[/Apple, iPhone Software, and Planned Obsolescence/]] * [[/Amazon, Rekognition, and Law Enforcement/]] * [[/The 2015 Open Letter in Autonomous Weapons /]] * [[/Microsoft Employees, Project JEDI, and HoloLens/]] * [[/Mike Davidson, Rahul Vohra, and Superhuman/]] * [[/The Rise and Fall of the Advanced Technology External Advisory Council/]] * [[/Google Employees and Project Maven/]] * [[/Andy Rubin, Google, and Sexual Harassment in Tech/]] * [[/Data Ownership/]] * [[/Software Vulnerability Disclosure/]] * [[/Ian Bogost, Nadia Eghbal, and Software Engineers/]] * [[/Barry Lynn, New America Foundation, and Google/]] * [[/The Google Walkouts of 2018/]] * [[/Parler and the Capitol Insurrection of 2021/]] * [[/Timnit Gebru and Ethical AI at Google/]] * [[/Tom Yardic and Blue Cross Blue Shield of Minnesota/]] * [[/The GitHub Employee Dismissal of January 8, 2021/]] * [[/Suspension of @realDonaldTrump/]] * [[/Sexism, Riot Games, and a Class Action Lawsuit/]] * [[/Cher Scarlett and Tech Labor Advocacy/]] * [[/Rebekah Jones, Ron DeSantis, and the Florida Department of Health/]] * [[/Tang Mingfang, Foxconn, and Amazon/]] * [[/Facebook, Cambridge Analytica, and User Data/]] * [[/Frances Haugen and Facebook/]] * [[/Labor Organizing at Google/]] * [[/Thomas le Bonniec and Siri/]] * [[/Rudwin Ayala, the Exploding Hoverboard, and Abuse of AI by Lawyers/]] * [[/The US Tech Sector, the H-1B Visa, and Employment Abuse/]] * [[/Ifeoma Ozoma and Pinterest/]] * [[/OpenAI, Corporate Integrity, and the Firing of Sam Altman/]] * [[Professionalism/Mark Zuckerberg, Corporate Culture, and "Masculine Energy"|Mark Zuckerberg, Corporate Culture, and "Masculine Energy"]] * [[Professionalism/Mobley v. Workday and the Ethics of Algorithmic Hiring|Mobley v. Workday and the Ethics of Algorithmic Hiring]] * [[Professionalism/Kathryn Spiers, Laurence Berland, Google, and IRI Consultants|Kathryn Spiers, Laurence Berland, Google, and IRI Consultants]] ;Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering * [[/Mars Climate Orbiter/]] * [[/Air France Flight 447/]] * [[Professionalism/Air India Flight 171|Air India Flight 171]] * [[/Ernest Fitzgerald and the Lockheed C-5A/]] * [[/Rodney Rocha and Columbia/]] * [[/The Ford Pinto Gas Tank Controversy/]] * [[/The Toyota Recalls of 2009-2010/]] * [[/Mark Lund and the FAA/]] * [[/The Explosion on ''Deepwater Horizon''/]] * [[/Roger Boisjoly, Morton Thiokol, and NASA/]] * [[/LaMia Flight 2933/]] * [[/The Loss of USS Thresher/]] * [[/Apollo 1/]] * [[/Apollo 13/]] * [[/Iridium 33 and Kosmos 2251/]] * [[/David Lappa and the Lawrence Livermore National Lab/]] * [[/Northeast Blackout of 2003/]] * [[/The Loss of Ocean Ranger/]] * [[/China Airlines Flight 611/]] * [[/Chesley Sullenberger and US Airways Flight 1549/]] * [[/Vince Weldon and the 787/]] * [[/Don Baker and Smart Meters/]] * [[/John Houbolt and Lunar Orbit Rendezvous/]] * [[/Takata Corporation and Airbags/]] * [[/Tom Williams and the Wings of the A380/]] * [[/TWA Flight 800/]] * [[/Larry Gibson and Mountaintop Removal/]] * [[/Poppy Northcutt, Apollo, and Women in Tech/]] * [[/William McNeilly and Trident/]] * [[/The Loss of Petrobras Platform 36/]] * [[/Richard Perkins and the NRC/]] * [[/Joseph Mangan and the A380/]] ;Systems and Information Engineering * [[/Salvador Castro and Air-Shields, Inc/]] * [[/The Aviation Safety Reporting System/]] * [[/Ladbroke Grove Rail Collision/]] * [[/The MGM Grand Hotel Fire/]] * [[/William Sanjour and the EPA/]] * [[/Fort Totten Metro Crash/]] </div><div style="width:49%;float:left;padding:0 0 0 2%"> ;Nuclear Engineering * [[/Rusi Taleyarkhan and Bubble Fusion/]] * [[/George Galatis and Millstone 1/]] * [[/Chernobyl Disaster/]] * [[/Walter Tamosaitis and the Hanford Site/]] ;Other Cases in Professional Ethics * [[/The Mysterious Death of Dr. Ramin Pourandarjani/]] * [[/Alexander Coward and the UC Berkeley Department of Mathematics/]] * [[/Archer Blood and the Blood Telegram/]] * [[/The U.N. and Cholera in Haiti/]] * [[/Ethics and ADHD Diagnosis/]] * [[/John Stumpf, Wells Fargo, and Salesmanship/]] * [[/A Matter of Honor: Lou Bloomfield and Academic Dishonesty/]] * [[/Ball Don't Lie: The Moral Code of the NBA/]] * [[/Cheating Scandal at Malmstrom Air Force Base/]] * [[/Rolling Stone & UVA: A Case on Professional Journalism/]] * [[/Amy Stroupe and BB&T/]] * [[/Badminton Scandal of the 2012 Olympics/]] * [[/Bernie Madoff's Ponzi Scheme/]] * [[/The Bogdanov Affair/]] * [[/BP's Response to the Deepwater Horizon Spill/]] * [[/Bradley Birkenfeld, the UBS Whistle-blower/]] * [[/Brett Crozier and the U.S. Navy/]] * [[/Chelsea Manning: Integrity Vs. Professionalism/]] * [[/British American Tobacco and the Promotion of Smoking/]] * [[/Canadian Caper/]] * [[/The Case of Bowe Bergdahl/]] * [[/The Case of Juan Williams, Vivian Schiller, and Ellen Weiss/]] * [[/Cynthia Cooper and Worldcom/]] * [[/Dan Graves and ITT Educational Services/]] * [[/Daniel Ellsberg and the Pentagon Papers/]] * [[/David Lewis and EPA/]] * [[/Dr Jeffrey Young et al. and University of Virginia Health System/]] * [[/The Dismissal of President Teresa Sullivan/]] * [[/Electronic Sports Ethics: Professionalism in an Unestablished Industry/]] * [[/Frank Serpico and NYPD /]] * [[/FDA and the Emergency Use Authorization /]] * [[/Greenwashing/]] * [[/Greg Smith, Goldman Sachs and the New York Times/]] * [[/Hillsborough Disaster/]] * [[/Hugh Thompson, William Calley, and the My Lai Massacre/]] * [[/Huy Fong Foods, Sriracha, and the City of Irwindale/]] * [[/Jane Akre, Steve Wilson, and Posilac/]] * [[/Jeffrey Sterling and Operation Merlin/]] * [[/Joe Darby, Samuel Provance, and Abu Ghraib/]] * [[/Joe Paterno and the Penn State Board of Trustees/]] * [[/Joel Clement and the Department of the Interior/]] * [[/Jordan Belfort and Stratton Oakmont/]] * [[/Johnson & Johnson's Response to the 1982 Tylenol Poisonings/]] * [[/Julia Bluhm, SPARK, and Seventeen Magazine/]] * [[/Julia Davis and the Department of Homeland Security/]] * [[/Justin Hopson and the Lords of Discipline/]] * [[/Kennedy, Clinton, and Changing Norms of Journalism/]] * [[/Lance Armstrong, the Tour de France, and a Culture of Cheating/]] * [[/Lou van den Dries, George Orwell, and Mandatory Ethics Training/]] * [[/LinkedIn and Professional Self-Promotion/]] * [[/The Mann Gulch Fire/]] * [[/Marc Hauser and Research Fraud/]] * [[/Marsha Coleman-Adebayo and EPA/]] * [[/Michael de Guzman and the Bre-X Scandal/]] * [[/Michael Mann, Ken Cuccinelli, and the Hockey Stick/]] * [[/Michael Woodford and Olympus/]] * [[/Operation Red Wings and the Rules of Engagement/]] * [[/Oscar Pistorius and the Rise of the Iron Man Era/]] * [[/The Over Prosecution of Kurt Mix/]] * [[/The Swatting of Andrew Finch/]] * [[/The Work Climate at Google/]] * [[/Pamela Davis and Operation Board Games/]] * [[/Perry Fellwock and the NSA/]] * [[/Piper Alpha Oil Rig Disaster/]] * [[/Professionalism in Social Media /]] * [[/Professionalism in ''The Intern''/]] * [[/Ruth Marcus, Jeff Bezos, and The Washington Post/]] * [[/Sean Hoare and Andy Coulson/]] * [[/Sherron Watkins and Enron/]] * [[/Sign Stealing in Major League Baseball/]] * [[/Robert MacLean and Unsecured TSA Communication/]] * [[/The Sokal Affair/]] * [[/Southwest Airlines Flight Cancellations of December 2022/]] * [[/Stanford Research Scandal/]] * [[/Startup Deception/]] * [[/Susan Fowler, Uber, and Workplace Sexual Harassment/]] * [[/The Case of Wisheart, Dhasmana, and Roylance/]] * [[/The Durham Fish Oil Trials/]] * [[/The Pat Tillman case/]] * [[/Typhoid Mary/]] * [[/Jose Rodriguez and the CIA Interrogation Tapes/]] * [[/YouTube Censorship/]] * [[/Dr. Malachi Love-Robinson/]] * [[/Driving for Uber/]] * [[/Who Is an Engineer? Burton Siegal and the State of Illinois/]] * [[/Monsanto's Seed Patents/]] * [[/Conflict of Interest Wikipedia Editing: Sunshine Sachs and Jack Craver/]] * [[/The Case of Daphne Caruana Galizia/]] * [[/Anarchist Cookbook/]] * [[/The Sinking of the Titanic/]] * [[/Vtubers and the Ethics of Synthetic Media/]] * [[/Tim Bray, Maren Costa, Emily Cunningham, and Amazon/]] * [[/Fraud in U.S. Collegiate Athetics/]] * [[/The Hippocratic Oath for Technologists/]] * [[/The Johnson & Johnson Baby Powder Case/]] * [[/Avondale Mills, Norfolk Southern, and the E.P.A/]] ;Research Ethics * [[/Alexandra Elbakyan and Sci-Hub/]] * [[/Scott Reuben and Research Fraud/]] * [[/Shih Chi Liu and the NSF/]] * [[/Climategate/]] * [[/Albert Costa, Janet Geipel, Ethics, and Language/]] * [[/Sabotage In Academia/]] ;Thinkers, Ideas and Problems * [[/Ethics and Autonomous AI/]] * [[/Anita Sarkeesian, Women and Gaming/]] * [[/The Dilbert Principle/]] * [[/Office Ethics according to The Office/]] * [[/Office Ethics according to Office Space/]] * [[/E.F. Schumacher/]] * [[/Ted Kaczynski/]] * [[/Diffusion of Responsibility/]] * [[/Irving Janis and Groupthink/]] * [[/Bill Joy and Technological Risks/]] * [[/Marketing of Pharmaceuticals/]] * [[/Balancing Individual Rights vs Welfare of Society/]] * [[/Pekka Himanen and The Hacker Ethic/]] * [[/Hacktivism/]] * [[/Nimbyism/]] * [[/Valuing of Human Life in Risk Analysis/]] * [[/The Precautionary Principle/]] * [[/The IRS Whistleblowers Program/]] * [[/Human subjects in clinical research/]] * [[/Adderall in Academics/]] * [[/Using Animals in Research/]] * [[/James Shikwati and Aid to Africa/]] * [[/Diane Vaughan and the normalization of deviance/]] * [[/Defensive Medicine/]] * [[/Drinking Culture in China/]] * [[/Growth Hacking/]] * [[/Moonlighting/]] * [[/Corporate Psychopaths/]] * [[/Salami Slicing and the Least Publishable Unit/]] * [[/Stanford Prison Experiment/]] * [[/Environmental Racism/]] * [[/Restaurant Ethics according to Bob's Burgers/]] * [[/Workplace Harassment Training/]] * [[/Sexual Orientation Conversion Therapy/]] * [[/Ikigai at Work/]] * [[/The Right to Be Forgotten/]] * [[/Voluntourism/]] * [[/Thomas H. Murray/]] * [[/Market Influences on Clinical Trials/]] * [[/Norbert Wiener and the Expert’s Responsibility for Weapons/]] * [[/Marc Andreessen and Techno-Optimism/]] </div> <br style="clear:all" /> </div> {{Shelves|general engineering|Class projects|Business}} {{alphabetical|P}} {{status|100%}} 0kkryg3277nuct5ci6bv7j76trnspqt 0 262271 4681633 4428096 2026-11-11T15:37:24Z ~2026-59781-19 3631096 /* Cyber Terrorists */ 4681633 wikitext text/x-wiki ﻃﻃﻃﻃ==Cyber Criminals== There are criminals who commit cyber crimes for different reasons. Some of them steal from companies and private citizens for financial gain, while others steal secrets from not only companies, but governments and private citizens. Some of the perpetrators aim to disrupt the infrastructure of the government or company. Hackers test the limits of information systems for the challenge of doing so. Some believe that hackers perform a service by exposing security risks. "Crackers" break into networks and systems to deface websites, crash computers or networks, or spread harmful programs and/or hateful messages. Malicious insiders are employees or officers of a business, institution, or agency that carry out activities intended to cause harm to the organization. Malicious insiders are not always employees. They can be consultants and contractors that have special access to sensitive information. It is difficult to detect and/or stop malicious insiders. They are authorized to access the systems they abuse. Most systems are vulnerable to these malicious actors because they were designed to keep intruders out. Insiders know how the systems work and how to circumvent them. The organization may be able to take steps to reduce these attacks. Industrial spies steal trade secrets to gain competitive advantage. Hacktivists and cyber-terrorists attack systems in order to promote their ideologies and intimidate governments in order to achieve their goals. === '''Internet Stalkers''' === Whereas stalking was once an act requiring the physical tracking of an individual's movements, it has since transcended the boundaries of reality and entered into the virtual worlds we tend to think of as private. Internet stalkers are similar to real-world stalkers; in simplest terms, their behavior can be considered harassment. An online stalker's behavior can take on many forms, dependent on their motive to stalk their chosen victim. These behaviors can include impersonating another individual to gain information or build a relationship with their victims and bullying by posting content that the victim might consider embarrassing or private to express power. Internet stalkers tend to blackmail their victims by threatening to release personal or intimate content or information. This is especially true if the cyber stalkers' motive for targeting their victims is financial gain or simply generalized anger towards the victim. Behaviors can also include harassment on social media platforms and continuous messaging from anonymous accounts. Although internet stalkers target individual victims, companies and large organizations can be a byproduct of risk for a stalker attempting to gain information about the victim. Statistics show that a majority of cyberstalking victims actually know their stalkers and report being a stalker for over a year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-05 |title=The Most Surprising Cyber Stalking Statistics And Trends in 2023 • GITNUX |url=https://blog.gitnux.com/cyber-stalking-statistics/ |access-date=2023-04-25 |language=en-US}}</ref> What is most frightening, however, is that only 12% of cyberstalking incidents are reported to law enforcement, making it harder to accurately deduce the true extent of the issue. === '''Social Engineers''' === One of the best methods cybercriminals use is social engineering, which includes using psychological manipulation to trick individuals into revealing private information. Cybercriminals use social engineering methods since they are frequently simpler and more compelling than conventional hacking techniques. As opposed to attempting to find weaknesses in a computer system or organization, social engineering assaults focus on the human shortcomings of the people in question. Social engineering methods can sidestep even the most potent safety efforts, like firewalls or antivirus programming, by fooling clients into intentionally giving their sensitive information. Moreover, social engineering assaults can be sent off for an enormous scope, making it feasible for cybercriminals to focus on a considerable number. === '''Hacktivists''' === Hacktivism consists of a group using their computer hacking skills to create a political statement towards the government, power institutions, and other targets as a form of political activism<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Sorell |first=Tom |date=November 2015 |title=Human Rights and Hacktivism: The Cases of Wikileaks and Anonymous, Journal of Human Rights Practice |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jhuman/huv012 |journal=Journal of Human Rights Practice |volume=7 |issue=3}}</ref>. It's mainly done anonymously to ensure the safety of the activists and make it harder for the government and institutions to retaliate against the hacktivists<ref name=":0" />. Hacktivists are extremists who have a strong sense of justice. They transcend the line of peaceful protest and being seen. Hacktivism is a theatrical statement, making the groups go to extreme lengths. Hacktivists use many methods: data theft, distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks, spreading awareness via social media for doxing, website defacement, and more. Data theft and DDoS attacks are used as ransom to get the victim's attention to comply or do as the hacktivists state. Spreading awareness via social media can lead to helping people know the truth about the government or institution or dox the victims to expose them in hopes of change<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Hacktivism: An overview plus high-profile groups and examples |url=https://us.norton.com/blog/emerging-threats/hacktivism |access-date=2023-04-25 |website=us.norton.com |language=en}}</ref>. Lastly, website defacement brings a message about the importance of hacktivists' political activism by posting it in front of the site. The Cult of the Dead Cow (cDc), started in 1984, is also known as one of the oldest computer hacking organizations. They rose to fame for their hacktivist campaigns and for starting Hohocon, one of the first hacker conventions. The cDc was involved in various causes, such as targeting the Church of Scientology in the mid-1990s. Their goal was to promote human rights along with freedom of information to ensure not only could Chinese citizen but anyone who has been silenced and lack information due to censorship.<ref name=":1" /> Anonymous started in 2003 on the online message board 4chan doing their best to keep the internet transparent.<ref name=":1" /> They're well known for concealing their face with Guy Fawkes masks and using voice changers or text-to-speech programs. Anonymous has attacked multiple countries, most notably: the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, India, and many others. They seemed to have diminished from the public in 2018; however, they came back in 2020 to support the Black Lives Matter Movement.DkD[|| also started in 2003 like Anonymous; however, they are a Frech hacktivist known for website defacing. They are notorious for defacing the U.S. Navy site because they promote political views and specifically spread messages against U.S. military policies.<ref name=":1" /> Allegedly DkD[|| was a 17-year-old teen boy causing many to believe he was trying to show off his skills and less express political viewpoints.<ref name=":1" /> === '''Identity Thieves thufres''' === Identity theft is one of the oldest cyber crimes in history.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Who Are Cyber Criminals? |url=https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/resources/who-are-cyber-criminals |access-date=2023-04-25 |website=Norwich University Online |language=en}}</ref> Identity theft is when someone uses your personal or financial information without your permission.<ref name=":2" /> These identity thieves are a group of people or individuals who try to gain access to other people's personal information, such as names, addresses, phone numbers, emails, bank accounts, social security numbers, credit card information, and even bank information. Once identity thieves get ahold of the victim's personal information, they can access anything with your information. They can make new accounts under your name, make or commit fraudulent transactions, or cause damage to your bank account. With the latest technology and techniques today, many identity thieves can hack into corporations' databases and steal a high volume of personal information and identities. °°±Deep fake technology is the new technology that uses artificial intelligence (AI)  to create realistic pictures or videos of anything or anyone. Deep fakes have been well-known in the film industry to bring dead actors back to life or make actors look younger. Impersonating someone's face for entertainment purposes. Deep fakes are now being used to commit cybercrime - identity theft. With the improved technology, committing identity theft is easier for criminals now. Apps and software have been created so anyone can easily make deep fakes. They can impersonate another person's voice and face and use it for videos, pictures, or even voice messages. ==== '''Types of frauds:''' ==== * '''Ghost fraud:''' Criminals can use deep fake technology to steal the data of a deceased person and impersonate the person for their financial gain. They can access credit cards and loan accounts with their stolen identity. * '''New account fraud:''' This is also known as application fraud when criminals use stolen identities to open new bank accounts. Severe financial damage can happen because criminals will max out their credit cards and take out loans under your name without paying them back. * '''Synthetic identity fraud:''' Criminals mine information from multiple people and combine the information to make a fake person that doesn’t exist. They would create new credit card accounts and max out the accounts. * '''Hiring fraud: Also known as recruitment fraud, is when criminals offer a person a fake job with unsolicited emails, text messages, and recruitment website links. They will try to gain your personal information through these applications and possibly set you up for illegal jobs.''' ==== '''Signs of identity thieves:''' ==== * Suspicious transactions in bank statements * Mail stops coming to your house<hiero> there are two types of Hieroglyphs' </hiero> * Debt collection calls for accounts you didn’t open ==== '''How to prevent:''' ==== * Don’t answer phone calls, text messages, or emails from people or numbers you don’t recognize. * Do not share personal information like your Social Security number, bank account, or date of birth. * Review bank statements often and watch for suspicious transactions. * Store personal information in a safe place. === '''Cyber Terrorists''' === Cyberterrorists are terrorists who primarily have their acts of terrorism done through some form of cyberspace. Acts of cyberterrorism are politically inspired cyber attacks in which the cyber criminal attempts to steal data and/or corrupt corporate or government computer systems and networks, harming countries, businesses, organizations, and even individuals. Cyberterrorists have been a larger concern due to society's already developed fear of random, violent victimization, combined with the distrust, anxiety, and unfamiliarity of computer technology. This creates an amalgamation of two worries that concern the people and creates a larger unknown threat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Who Are Cyber Criminals? |url=https://online.norwich.edu/academic-programs/resources/who-are-cyber-criminals |access-date=2023-04-25 |website=Norwich University Online |language=en}}</ref> Cyberterrorists differentiate themselves from other cybercriminals as their actions are often politically motivated rather than seeking financial gain. This usually allows cyberterrorists to be in the public eye more than just cybercriminals, as cyberterrorists' actions are often used to disturb the peace and seek media attention to spread awareness of the politics, which goes against the cyberterrorists' beliefs/standpoint. Recent discussions have argued about what qualifies as "cyberspace" and what qualifies as "an act of terrorism." This has caused debate over different events if, in certain instances, an event qualifies as cyberterrorism. Dorothy Denning, a professor of computer science, made the adopted unambiguous definition of cyberterrorism. From her numerous articles on the subject and in her testimony before the House Armed Services Committee in May 2000, she defined cyberterrorism as: The convergence of cyberspace and terrorism. This refers to unlawful attacks and threats against computers, networks, and information belonging to such. These actions may be done to intimidate or coerce a government or its people in furtherance of political or social objectives. And in order to qualify as cyberterrorism, an attack should result in violence against persons or property, or at least cause enough harm to generate fear."<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Weimann |first=Gabriel |date=December 2004 |title=Cyberterrorism: How Real Is The Threat? |url=https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/sr119.pdf |journal=United States Institute of Peace}}</ref> By going off this definition, attacks that lead to death or bodily injury, explosions, or severe economic loss would be examples of cyberterrorist attacks. Serious attacks against critical infrastructures could also be acts of cyberterrorism, depending on their impact. However, attacks that disrupt nonessential services or are mainly a costly nuisance would not. Recently, there has been an enormous upward spike when it comes to terrorist groups committing acts of terrorism through cyberspace. This has been thanks to the growing dependence of our societies on information technology has created a new form of vulnerability, giving terrorists a chance to approach targets that would otherwise be unassailable. This includes national defense systems, air traffic control systems, government data centers, etc. This allows infrastructural damage to a business or society and has shown that the more technologically developed a country is, the more vulnerable it becomes to cyberattacks. Terrorist groups have also flocked towards cyberterrorism as many protective measures have not been put in place against cyberterrorism as of this moment (due to its more recent development), as well as the many benefits that the digital world brings for criminal activities. There have been five significant benefits for these terrorist groups to switch their activities from physical terrorism to cyberterrorism. These include price, anonymity, ease of access to targets, all the benefits of remote work, and the ability for the act of terrorism to be even bigger than planned.<ref name=":3" /> === Cyber Crime and the Healthcare System === In today’s “high-tech” world, both wireless and software-controlled technologies are commonplace throughout the medical world. From the bustling cities of Washington D.C. and Chicago, Illinois to the various small town “one-stoplight” places around this country, the advancement in medical technology has in some way shape or fashion affected all of us in many different ways. Even the normal “checkup” visit to the doctor brings us face-to-face with some form of software-controlled devices such as “surgical and anesthesia devices, ventilators, drug infusion pumps, patient monitors and external defibrillators” <ref name="Reuters">Pierson, R. and Finkle, J. (2013, June 13). “FDA urges protection of medical devices from cyber threats.” ''Reuters''. Retrieved June 18, 2013 from http:// www.reuters.com</ref>. Most devices used in hospitals today are controlled via software and are either connected to the Internet via a hospital Intranet or have the capability to be connected via wireless technology. Concentrated platelets and growth factors derived from your own blood And that is where one of the many problems arises——on the Internet. Most, if not everything, can be found, viewed, used, and exploited as long as it is connected to the Internet. As long as there is something of value out there in cyberspace, there will always be someone who tries to “hack” it, manipulate it or take it. Whether that is for the good of mankind or the selfishness of one, people will always try to use the internet to their advantage. The healthcare industry is no stranger to cyber-crime. For the last ten years or so, most cyber-crimes against the healthcare system were for monetary reasons whether that be through extortion or by stealing someone’s identity. Within the last few years there have been numerous security studies, conferences and demonstrations on the topic of cybersecurity vulnerabilities relating to “internet-connected implanted medical devices” <ref name="Forbes">Wadhwa, T. (2012, December 06). “Yes, You Can Hack A Pacemaker (And Other Medical Devices Too).” ''Forbes''. Retrieved June 18, 2013 from http://www.forbes.com</ref>, “hard-coded password vulnerabilities” <ref name="ICS-CERT">Alert (ICS-ALERT-13-164-01): Medical Devices Hard-Coded Passwords. (2013, June 13). In ''Industrial Control Systems Cyber Emergency Response Team''. Retrieved June 18, 2013 from https://ics-cert.us-cert.gov</ref> or “by the introduction of malware into the medical equipment or unauthorized access to configuration settings in medical devices and hospital networks.” <ref name="FDA Safety">''FDA Safety Communication'': Cybersecurity for Medical Devices and Hospital Networks. (2013, June 13). In U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved June 18, 2013 from http://www.fda.gov</ref> Implanted devices have been around for decades, but only in the last few years have these devices become virtually accessible. While they allow for doctors to collect valuable data, many of these devices were distributed without any type of encryption or defensive mechanisms in place. Unlike a regular electronic device that can be loaded with new firmware, medical devices are embedded inside the body and require surgery for “full” updates. One of the greatest constraints to adding additional security features is the very limited amount of battery power available.<ref name="Forbes" /> There have been some health-care security related events in the past few years. ===Anthem Blue Cross=== On February 4, 2015, Anthem, Inc. experienced a data breach where more than 37.5 million records were stolen by hackers. Anthem, Inc, is a US health insurance giant. In December of 2014, Anthem employees noticed suspicious database queries. At the end of January of 2015, investigators confirmed unauthorized data queries on the company’s servers. In total, almost 80 million Americans have had their personal information exposed to hackers. This information includes: full names, addresses, SSNs, birthdays, etc. The truth about the Anthem hack is that they failed to encrypt their files. <ref name ="Anthem">[https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/category/healthcare-information-security/healthcare-attack-statistics-and-case-studies/case-study-health-insurer-anthem/#gref Article in "Infosec Institute"], "InfoSec Institute"</ref> ===Advocate Health Care=== In July of 2013, there was a burglary from an office of Advocate Medical Group in Illinois which involved the theft of four unencrypted desktop computers. This burglary may have exposed information of about 4 million patients. <ref name ="Advocate">[https://www.databreachtoday.com/advocate-medical-breach-no-encryption-a-6021 Advocate Medical Breach: No Encryption?], "Data Breach Today"</ref> The information that may have been stolen on the Advocate computers involve names, addresses, date of births, SSN, etc. While the Advocate computers were password protected, they were not encrypted. ===Community Health Systems=== In July of 2014, Community Health Systems confirmed its computer network was the target of an external criminal cyber-attack in April and June 2014. The data taken includes names, addresses, birthdates, SSNs, etc. The intruder was able to bypass the company’s security measures and successfully copy and transfer some data existing on the company’s systems. <ref name ="CHS">[https://www.chs.net/media-notice/ Data Breach Notification], "Community Health Systems""</ref> ==References== <references> <ref name ="Anthem">[https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/category/healthcare-information-security/healthcare-attack-statistics-and-case-studies/case-study-health-insurer-anthem/#gref Article in "Infosec Institute"], "InfoSec Institute"</ref> <ref name ="Advocate">[https://www.databreachtoday.com/advocate-medical-breach-no-encryption-a-6021 Advocate Medical Breach: No Encryption?], "Data Breach Today"</ref> <ref name ="CHS">[https://www.chs.net/media-notice/ Data Breach Notification], "Community Health Systems""</ref> </references> {{Reflist}} {{BookCat}} ct1ocg4o36da7rnr4q47yljo5m6udex 0 308674 4681763 4670981 2026-11-12T01:50:34Z Duskhasfallen 3580272 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4670981|4670981]] by [[Special:Contributions/~2026-50426-34|~2026-50426-34]] ([[User talk:~2026-50426-34|discuss]]) 4681763 wikitext text/x-wiki In the wake of the mass devastation seen in the aftermath of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers. As they sought to reshape the postwar world, their former wartime alliance fell apart when their conflicting visions and approaches for securing peace and stability generated great tension, culminating in the Cold War. America and its western allies responded to these tensions through the policy of containment, in which they attempted to prevent the spread of communism through a variety of means. ==Origins of the Cold War== === Background === [[File:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg|thumb|The 'Big Three' at the Yalta Conference, February 1945, where deep disagreements over the postwar order foreshadowed the coming Cold War]] The alliance between the U.S. and USSR during the war against the Axis was an ephemeral halt in their poor relations of the past. Americans had viewed the Soviets as a threat to capitalistic countries since the Bolsheviks established a communist government in Russia in 1917; it even led to the Red Scare of 1919. It took until 1933 before America even recognized the Soviet Union as a country. Throughout the war, Stalin had accused the Americans and British of waiting until 1944 before opening a second front against Germany in France. This wait led to the Soviet Union bearing the brunt of fighting the Axis, with the Soviets suffering millions of deaths and having their country face extreme devastation in the bitter fighting. Negotiations between the U.S., UK, and USSR at Yalta and Potsdam in 1945 quickly revealed that there would be conflicts over Central and Eastern Europe after the war ended. When Franklin Roosevelt died, his vice president Harry S. Truman came to power, and quickly became suspicious of the Soviets. === Aftermath of World War II === [[File:Destoyed Buildings in Stalingrad, 1942 (6).jpg|thumb|The ruins of buildings in Stalingrad in 1942; the USSR was ravaged during World War II]]Despite both America and the Soviet Union emerging from World War II as superpowers, the outcomes were not even. Having borne the brunt of the fighting, the USSR was completely ravaged. Thousands of kilometers of railway track were now useless; thousands of factories in ruins; millions killed; and towns, villages, and farms were demolished and razed. Reconstruction was desperately needed.Conversely, America was the only power to come out of the war almost completely unscathed—having been separated from the conflict by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Much of the world now owed money to the United States due to debts accrued during the war, the dollar replaced the pound as the world's principal currency at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, and by the end of the war, it produced around fifty percent of the world's industrial goods. In addition to America's economic dominance, it held a monopoly on atomic bomb stockpiles. Both sides harbored dissimilar perspectives regarding the establishment and maintenance of postwar security. America viewed it with the idea that governments would resolve their issues peacefully through international organizations when they had U.S.-style governments and markets. Thus, they sought the establishment of free trade and the rebuilding of a capitalist Europe. By contrast, Soviet leaders understood the acquisition of space between itself and its rivals as the best way to secure peace for itself; this view influenced by its firsthand experience of the brutality of total war. Thus, they sought to prevent a similar war from happening by securing control of Poland, the Balkans, and crushing Germany's capacity to fight another war—creating a "buffer zone" between itself and the west using Eastern Europe. == President Harry S. Truman == [[File:TRUMAN 58-766-06 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|President Truman]] Harry S. Truman had been vice president for only 82 days when President Roosevelt died, on April 12, 1945. He told reporters, "I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me." He had had very little communication with Roosevelt about world affairs or domestic politics and was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb. Truman was much more difficult for the Secret Service to protect than the wheel chair–bound Roosevelt had been. Truman was an avid walker, regularly taking walks around Washington. Truman was President from April 12, 1945 to January 20, 1953. Deciding not to run again, he retired to his home town of Independence, Missouri. == Truman Doctrine == World War II changed the balance of power in the international community by reducing the influence of France and the United Kingdom, while increasing the influence of the United States and the Soviet Union, which became the world's superpowers. The initial sentiments of the US government towards the avowedly socialist Soviet Union were friendly. In the aftermath of the war, however, relations between the two powers quickly deteriorated. At the end of World War II, a number of entities were established by Allied nations to help maintain international order; the most notable of these was the [[w:United Nations|United Nations]]. Within the framework of the UN, the United States and Britain advocated for the creation of a regulatory entity for the world's monetary system which would help avoid another worldwide depression similar to that seen during the Great Depression before the war. Talks among Allied delegates were held in 1944 which resulted in the creation of the [[w:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]] and what would eventually become the [[w:World Bank|World Bank]], organizations established to make currency exchange easier and to regulate international debt. The Soviet government was highly suspicious of these entities—it viewed them as a tool for the western world to force capitalism on socialist member-states—and it refused to support them. The USSR's refusal to support the IMF and the World Bank set off a diplomatic chain reaction that would eventually grow into what became known as the Cold War. The Soviet Union believed that its control of Eastern Europe was vital to its security, and said that it was right for it to do so, for "we suffered at Stalingrad". As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the World War II Allies divided Germany into four zones, giving one zone each to the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's zone, known as East Germany, was later transformed into a Communist state, after an agreement on a unified Germany could not be reached. The other three zones, West Germany, were joined—at first economically through a currency reform—during the implementation of the Marshall Plan in 1948. The city of Berlin, which was surrounded by East Germany, was divided in two parts between East and West Germany. Critics correctly pointed out that the Soviet Union was little involved in the Greek Civil War, that the communists in Greece were more pro-Tito than pro-Stalin, and that the resistance movement had non-communists as well as communist members. Nor was The Soviet Union threatening turkey at the time. Others suggested that such aid should be channeled through the United Nations. In 1947, Greece became the focus of the Cold War. The Greek monarchy had been supported by Great Britain since 1945. Greek Communists threatened to overthrow this regime, which was corrupt and not representative of the people. In order to "shock" the American public into accepting American involvement in order to help other peoples resist the "communist threat" and secure the strategically and economically important Middle East for US influence, President Harry Truman issued the ''Truman Doctrine''. The Doctrine suggested that the US would aid nations threatened by revolutionary forces. Congress agreed and appropriated $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. By 1949, the Communists in Greece were defeated. In 1952, Greece and Turkey entered the NATO. == The Marshall Plan == [[File:MarshallDonkey.jpg|thumb|A photo of some Marshall Plan aid being delivered to Greek areas by donkey.]] The Marshall Plan was the first attempt to achieve the goals that America set in western Europe. The European nations were still unstable, both in politics and in economics, and so they did not have the money to purchase the good that they required from the U.S. The people and government of America were all extremely worried that if Europe's funds continued to be so unstable, this would trigger another great depression. With the memories of all the hardships and economic ruin of the Great Depression in the 1930s fresh in the American people's minds, the government decided they needed to do something. In order to make sure that there was not another worldwide depression, in 1948 the American government decided to launch a massive European recovery program called the Marshall Plan which sent 12.4 billion dollars to western Europe. A condition of this program was that Europe would spend this foreign-aid money on American products. This program ended in 1951. The Marshall Plan was a mixture of failure and success. In Europe, it assisted to further divide eastern and western Europe and it caused inflation which did nothing to solve the balance-of-payment problem. However, this program did succeed in spurring western European industrialization and investment. <ref>A People and A Nation Eighth Edition</ref> == Reconstruction of the New World == [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0527-0001-753, Krefeld, Hungerwinter, Demonstration.jpg|thumb|Hungry, and cold Germans protesting for bread and coal during the winter of 1947. The situation in Europe was dire following the war.]] The leadership in the United States by contrast, came out of war extremely confident about the immediate security of the country’s borders. Separated from the other world powers by two vast oceans, the American home base had been virtually immune from attack during the fighting—only the occasional shell from a submarine or a hostile balloon reached the shores of the continental United States American casualties were fewer than those of any other major combatants—hugely so in comparison with the Soviet Union. With its fixed capital intact, its resources more plentiful than ever, and in lone possession of the atomic bomb, the United States was the strongest power in the world at war’s ends. Yet this was no time for complacency, Washington officials reminded one another. Some other power—almost certainly the USSR—could take advantage of the political and economic instability in war-torn Europe and Asia, and eventually seize control of these areas, with dire implications for America’s physical and economic security. To prevent this eventuality, officials in Washington sought forward bases overseas, in order to keep a airborne enemy at bay. To further enhance U.S. security, American planners, in direct contrast to their Soviet counterparts, sought the quick reconstruction of nations—including the former enemies Germany and Japan—and a world economy based on free trade. Such a system, they reasoned, was essential to preserve America’s economic well being. The Soviets, on the other hand refused to join the new World Bank and International Monetary Fund, created at the July 1944 Bretton Woods Conference by forty-four nations to stabilize trade and finances. They held that the United States dominated both institutions and used them to promote private investment and open international commerce, which Moscow saw as capitalist tools of exploitation. With the United States as its largest donor, the World Bank opened its doors in 1945 and began to make loans to help members finance reconstruction projects; the IMF, also heavily backed by the united states, helped members meet their balance-of-payment problems through currency loans. == Reconstruction of Japan == [[File:Sto1001.jpg|thumb|Tokyo in 1946. The reconstruction of Japan eventually lead to a postwar economic boom.]] After Japan's surrender in 1945, the United States military was directed to reconstruct the nation. American General Douglas MacArthur headed the Reconstruction effort. However, he was aided at every stage by anthropologists and specialists on Japanese history and culture. This effort was not simply an attempt to make the defeated Japanese knuckle under, but a sensitive reconstruction of the whole society for both political modernization and cultural continuity with the pre-Dictatorship history. MacArthur was dealing with a society in physical and cultural shock. The Japanese Dictatorship had used the Emperor's position as the head of Shinto religion, and his people thought of him as a god. They heard his voice for the first time over the radio announcing their nation's capitulation. Bombing of Japanese infrastructure, and months of shortages, had ruined electrical, water, and sanitary systems. Before Fat Man and Little Boy, an American campaign of bombing Tokyo had killed, wounded, and dismayed civilians. The A-bombs had left areas of Hiroshima and Nagasaki radioactive. Those who had not been killed outright were dying of radiation poisoning and cancer. In 1947, a new Constitution for Japan was created. The Constitution entirely changed the role of the Emperor from an active leader to a passive symbol of the nation. The Diet, or legislature, was modeled on the British Parliament. The Constitution granted an enormous number of rights to Japanese citizens. Finally, the Constitution formally denounced all military conflict and prohibited Japan from keeping any armed forces. The Reconstruction of Japan made other sweeping changes. For example, the Reconstruction introduced labor unions and reduced the influence of monopolistic businesses. During the Cold War, America was determined to make an ally out of the Empire of Japan. The Reconstruction made an about-face, reversing its policy of reducing the power of large businesses. More regulations regarding the economy were made. In 1951, the US agreed to grant Japan full independence and autonomy. The treaty, however, did permit the US to maintain parts of its military in Japan. The treaty became effective in 1952. == The Rise of Communism in China == After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, China was in a state of confusion and unrest. The nation saw the worst nightmares as the people were without stable unified authority, fragmenting into a rudderless giant. Many land lords (ward lords, since the standing was imposed and established by force of arms) took advantage of the situation aiming to expand their influence and so fought against each other regardless of common statehood ideas or national purpose and gradually the situation became chaotic. This was the period of warlordism in China, it lasted from 1916 to 1927, a dark period in China’s history. Meanwhile the principles of communism began to spread in the country and those ideals attracted a majority of the people. The people who belonged to the lower strata were for these principles especially for the law of equality. The rise of Communism in China is mainly due to a man named Mao Zedong. The son of a farmer, Mao was highly intelligent. Zedong left home for school and had become a member of the Nationalist Army as the Revolution began around 1911. He was soon introduced to and became powerfully influenced by the philosophies of Marxism. After decades of civil war and invasion by Japan, the communists under Mao prevailed. The opposition nationalists fell and barely managed to retreat offshore to Taiwan. Communism came to power in 1949 under the power of Mao. Communism began as a movement that paved the way for the liberation of the proletariat. Proletariat is that class of society which lives entirely from the sale of its labor and does not draw profit from any kind of capital; whose weal and woe, whose life and death, whose sole existence depends on the demand for labor – hence, on the changing state of business, on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century. Anarchy was to some extend controlled by Mao but he faced failure many times. Mao’s initiatives did cause a kind of equality to emerge in China, but it was not one in which all the inhabitants of China benefited. Contrarily, many of them suffered extreme poverty and greatness was lost in the realms of academia, science, and technology which hindered China’s ability to become a modern nation capable of interacting on the global scale. == The Red Scare and McCarthyism == [[File:Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg|thumb|Joseph Welch and McCarthy. During McCarthy's investigation of Communists in the Army Welch asked McCarthy "At long last, have you left no sense of decency?"]] When China fell to Communism, suspicion of the ideology's influence in the American government became a pandemic. Many experts on China and the regions around it were fired as in some way causing the change. This became a problem during the Korean War. What became known as '''the Red Scare''' proved costly in American life. Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act in 1950, overriding President Truman's veto. The Act created a public body known as the ''Subversive Activities Control Board''; the Board was charged with monitoring and investigating Communist Activities. In Congress, meanwhile, Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy accused certain government officials of being Communists and disloyal. While a Communist conspiracy involving State Department employees was eventually uncovered, many of the accusations were baseless. The word ''McCarthyism'' refers to a vindictive persecution of the innocent. Documents from the Venona counterintelligence project suggest that a few targets of McCarthyism were indeed working with the Soviet Union. Historians continue to debate this topic. The House of Representatives had established a Committee on Un-American Activities in 1947. The Committee performed actions such as investigating actors, directors, and writers. As was the case with Red Summer, it was not mere membership in the Communist party which caused suspicion. Individuals were sometimes grilled for belonging to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People or the American Civil Liberties Union. It was not enough to confess innocence: you had in turn to accuse others of Communism. A few in the dragnet had actually been Communists, either because they had actually believed in its aims or as part of the polarization of American society in the era of the Spanish Civil War. However, the opponents of the Committee were not all Communist. Some accused it of violating the Constitutional rights against self-incrimination and for freedom of belief. The entertainment industry, fearful of an investigation, fired many people who had become shadowed by the hearings, or by a pamphlet called "Red Channels." Men and women lost their livelihood, in some cases fleeing to Europe and elsewhere, in others even committing suicide over their lost lives. Ten individuals refused to name names, including screenwriters Dalton Trumbo and Ring Lardner, Jr., and were all duly blacklisted as ''the Hollywood Ten''. Some local communities banned literature that they feared would encourage Communism. Public servants and teachers were forced to take a so-called "loyalty oath": those who refused, for whatever reason, were not hired. Others lost their jobs due to unfounded accusations of disloyalty. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, who had come to power in the wake of the first Communist scare, had Americans followed on suspicion of Communism. Scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had helped develop the atomic bomb, was fired from his high-security job because of his former associations with the Communist party. Yet the career of Joseph McCarthy was also derailed during the Red Scare: in 1954, the Senate formally censured him for abusing his powers and using unfair tactics in targeting innocent government officials. Even at the height of the McCarthyist furor in the early 1950s, the anti-Communist crusade was relatively mild. Many prosecutions faltered on appeal and only a few foreign-born radicals were actually deported. Only Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were put to death. Of the roughly 150 people who went to prison, most were released within a year or two. Yet the after effects lasted for decades. When the United States later fought a war in Vietnam, it was often in the dark because a number of regional experts had been lost to the Red Scare. == The Korean War == ===Background=== After World War II, the US attempted to curb Soviet influence on the Korean Peninsula by occupying southern part of that area. The area occupied by the US became South Korea, while the other part became North Korea. North Korea soon passed into the control of the Communist Party. ===North Korean Offensive=== [[File:South Korean refugees mid-1950.jpg|thumb|South Korean refugees flee the North Korean army.]] In May, 1949, fighting between North and South Korean troops broke out near the border between the two nations. In an attempt to add South Korea to the Communist World, North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. The People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union lent their support to North Korea, while the United States did the same to South Korea. On June 25, 1950 a large military force moved across the 38th parallel in the Republic of Korea. Since 1910, Korea had been divided into two by the powers of Japans victory in 1945. The Korean war was seen as an internal struggle, with the north heavily armed and backed by China and the Soviet Union invading the lightly armed south. The two parts moved along the temporary border while the anti-government fighting began to flare into the south. On June 27, 1950 the United Nations security Council first adopted a ceasefire resolution. When the United Nations Security Council voted to aid South Korea in stopping North Korean aggression, the United States agreed to send troops to the Korean Peninsula. General Douglas MacArthur was given the command of UN troops in Korea. The United States agreed to send troops over on June 30 along with increasing aid to the French fight against Communists rebels in Indochina. MacArthur was placed in command on July 8. At the beginning the U.S. troops were lacking training and were out of shape. In the first few weeks of fighting the U.S. troops were pushed back to a defensive perimeter at Pusan.<ref>"Don't Know Much About History" by Kenneth C. Davis</ref> ===Back and Fourth=== [[File:HA-SC-98-06983-Crew of M24 along Naktong River front-Korean war-17 Aug 1950.JPEG|thumb|American troops in Korea]] By the autumn of 1950, North Korean troops were forced out of South Korea. In October, General MacArthur ordered troops to cross into North Korea. In the third week of that month, the US took the capital of North Korea, Pyongyang. [[File:Max Desfor - Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea.jpg|thumb|Refugees flee Pyongyang on a destroyed bridge.]] However, just six days after the United Nations forces took Pyongyang, the People's Republic of China sent a quarter million men on a series of counterattacks. In December, Chinese "volunteers" took over Pyongyang and by January 1951 they had taken the South Korean capital, Seoul. The US intended to do whatever it took to win the Korean War. It even planned on using the atomic bomb. However, President Truman did not trust General MacArthur to follow orders when using the atomic bomb. Therefore, he asked for MacArthur's resignation; MacArthur complied. ===Stalemate=== In 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower became President of the US. Having promised during the election campaign to end the Korean War, he fulfilled this promise by continuing negotiations with the North and South Koreans, Chinese, and the Soviet Union and using "brinkmanship" to reach an agreement acceptable to all countries involved except for South Korea, which tried to induce the US to help unite Korea. ==Weapons of the Cold War== ===Nuclear Weapons=== [[File:Ivy Mike (Eniwetok-Atoll - 31. Oktober 1952).jpg|thumb|''Ivy Mike'', the first Hydrogen Bomb, was tested November 1st, 1952. The testing site, [[w: Elugelab|Elugelab island]], became an underwater crater following the test. It's yield of 10.4 ''mega''tons of TNT dwarfed that of Fat Man, which only had a yield of 20 ''kilo''tons.]] The nuclear arms race was central to the Cold War. Many feared where the Cold War was going with the belief that the more nuclear weapons you had, the more powerful you were. Both America and The Soviet Union massively built up their stockpiles of nuclear weapons. The world greatly changed when USA exploded the H-bomb in 1952. This one bomb was smaller in size than the Hiroshima atomic bomb but 2500 times more powerful. The Soviets produced an H-bomb in 1953 and the world became a much more dangerous place. ===Nuclear Triad=== [[File:Boeing B-47B rocket-assisted take off on April 15, 1954 061024-F-1234S-011.jpg|thumb|Innovations in weapon delivery platforms played a major role in the Cold War]] The Cold War also saw innovation in delivery platforms. By using land based, sea based, and air based weapons platforms, a [[w:Nuclear triad|Nuclear triad]] could be established. This made it difficult to ensure all of a nations nuclear weaponry could be destroyed in a surprise first strike. ===Deterrence=== By April of 1950 the US Department of State had concluded that the Soviet Union was a significant hostile threat, and through it's NSC-68 report advocated that deterrence through an arms build up would be the best way to counter that threat.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/NSC68 |website=history.state.gov |access-date=23 October 2021}}</ref> By building up a number of weapons, it was hoped that the Soviet Union would be detered from waging a nuclear war. USA produced a bomber—the B52—that could fly 6,000 miles and deliver a nuclear pay-load. Such a development required massive financial backing from the government—something which America could afford to do and which The Soviet Union could not. The Soviet Union concentrated on producing bigger bombs—a far more cost effective procedure. In October 1957, the world was introduced to the fear of a missile attack when the Soviet Satellite Sputnik was launched. This was to lead to ICBM’s : Inter-continental ballistic missiles. As a result, America built the [[w:Distant Early Warning Line|DEW line]] around the Arctic—Distant Early Warning system. At the end of the 1950’s, American Intelligence estimated that in a Soviet missile attack, 20 million Americans would die and 22 million would be injured. During the 1960’s, the Soviet's put their money into producing larger missiles, Eventually creating Tsar Bomba, the biggest Nuclear Weapon ever created. America built fewer but technologically superior missiles—the Atlas could go 5,000 miles at a speed of 16,000 mph. By 1961, there were enough bombs to destroy the world. Despite this, great emphasis was put on new weapon systems—mobile missile launchers were built, missiles were housed underground in silos and in 1960 the first Polaris submarine was launched carrying 16 nuclear missiles. Each missile carried four warheads which could targeted on different cities; hence one submarine effectively carried 64 nuclear warheads. During the 1960’s the theory of MAD developed—Mutually Assured Destruction. This meant that if The Soviet Union attacked the west, the west would make sure that they would suitably retaliate i.e. there would be no winners. [[File:MX MIRV reentry vehicles.jpg|thumb|A MIRV test in 1984.]] By 1981, the United States had 8,000 ICBMs and 4,000 planes capable of delivering nuclear bombs; the USSR had 7,000 ICBMs and 5,000 planes. U.S. defense spending ballooned from $178 billion in 1981 to $367 billion by 1986. That same year, it is estimated that there were 40,000 nuclear warheads—the equivalent of one million Hiroshima bombs—throughout the world. British Intelligence estimated that just one medium sized H-bomb on London would essentially destroy anything living up to 30 miles away. Confronted by such awesome statistics, world leaders had to move to a position where they trusted each other more. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's "detente" had been used to ease bad relations between the superpowers. This was to culminate in the Reykjavik meeting between presidents Reagan and Gorbachev that started real progress in the cut in nuclear weaponry in future meetings (if little was actually gained at the meeting in Reykjavik). ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{chapnav|World War II and Rise of Atomic Age|Eisenhower Civil Rights Fifties}} {{status|100%}} {{BookCat}} l3hf9yfk9ctaabln6djkd20lif7m25u 4681764 4681763 2026-11-12T02:02:54Z Duskhasfallen 3580272 /* Aftermath of World War II */ Missing space. 4681764 wikitext text/x-wiki In the wake of the mass devastation seen in the aftermath of World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as rival superpowers. As they sought to reshape the postwar world, their former wartime alliance fell apart when their conflicting visions and approaches for securing peace and stability generated great tension, culminating in the Cold War. America and its western allies responded to these tensions through the policy of containment, in which they attempted to prevent the spread of communism through a variety of means. ==Origins of the Cold War== === Background === [[File:Yalta summit 1945 with Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin.jpg|thumb|The 'Big Three' at the Yalta Conference, February 1945, where deep disagreements over the postwar order foreshadowed the coming Cold War]] The alliance between the U.S. and USSR during the war against the Axis was an ephemeral halt in their poor relations of the past. Americans had viewed the Soviets as a threat to capitalistic countries since the Bolsheviks established a communist government in Russia in 1917; it even led to the Red Scare of 1919. It took until 1933 before America even recognized the Soviet Union as a country. Throughout the war, Stalin had accused the Americans and British of waiting until 1944 before opening a second front against Germany in France. This wait led to the Soviet Union bearing the brunt of fighting the Axis, with the Soviets suffering millions of deaths and having their country face extreme devastation in the bitter fighting. Negotiations between the U.S., UK, and USSR at Yalta and Potsdam in 1945 quickly revealed that there would be conflicts over Central and Eastern Europe after the war ended. When Franklin Roosevelt died, his vice president Harry S. Truman came to power, and quickly became suspicious of the Soviets. === Aftermath of World War II === [[File:Destoyed Buildings in Stalingrad, 1942 (6).jpg|thumb|The ruins of buildings in Stalingrad in 1942; the USSR was ravaged during World War II]]Despite both America and the Soviet Union emerging from World War II as superpowers, the outcomes were not even. Having borne the brunt of the fighting, the USSR was completely ravaged. Thousands of kilometers of railway track were now useless; thousands of factories in ruins; millions killed; and towns, villages, and farms were demolished and razed. Reconstruction was desperately needed. Conversely, America was the only power to come out of the war almost completely unscathed—having been separated from the conflict by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Much of the world now owed money to the United States due to debts accrued during the war, the dollar replaced the pound as the world's principal currency at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, and by the end of the war, it produced around fifty percent of the world's industrial goods. In addition to America's economic dominance, it held a monopoly on atomic bomb stockpiles. Both sides harbored dissimilar perspectives regarding the establishment and maintenance of postwar security. America viewed it with the idea that governments would resolve their issues peacefully through international organizations when they had U.S.-style governments and markets. Thus, they sought the establishment of free trade and the rebuilding of a capitalist Europe. By contrast, Soviet leaders understood the acquisition of space between itself and its rivals as the best way to secure peace for itself; this view influenced by its firsthand experience of the brutality of total war. Thus, they sought to prevent a similar war from happening by securing control of Poland, the Balkans, and crushing Germany's capacity to fight another war—creating a "buffer zone" between itself and the west using Eastern Europe. == President Harry S. Truman == [[File:TRUMAN 58-766-06 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|President Truman]] Harry S. Truman had been vice president for only 82 days when President Roosevelt died, on April 12, 1945. He told reporters, "I felt like the moon, the stars, and all the planets had fallen on me." He had had very little communication with Roosevelt about world affairs or domestic politics and was uninformed about major initiatives relating to the war and the top secret Manhattan Project, which was about to test the world's first atomic bomb. Truman was much more difficult for the Secret Service to protect than the wheel chair–bound Roosevelt had been. Truman was an avid walker, regularly taking walks around Washington. Truman was President from April 12, 1945 to January 20, 1953. Deciding not to run again, he retired to his home town of Independence, Missouri. == Truman Doctrine == World War II changed the balance of power in the international community by reducing the influence of France and the United Kingdom, while increasing the influence of the United States and the Soviet Union, which became the world's superpowers. The initial sentiments of the US government towards the avowedly socialist Soviet Union were friendly. In the aftermath of the war, however, relations between the two powers quickly deteriorated. At the end of World War II, a number of entities were established by Allied nations to help maintain international order; the most notable of these was the [[w:United Nations|United Nations]]. Within the framework of the UN, the United States and Britain advocated for the creation of a regulatory entity for the world's monetary system which would help avoid another worldwide depression similar to that seen during the Great Depression before the war. Talks among Allied delegates were held in 1944 which resulted in the creation of the [[w:International Monetary Fund|International Monetary Fund]] and what would eventually become the [[w:World Bank|World Bank]], organizations established to make currency exchange easier and to regulate international debt. The Soviet government was highly suspicious of these entities—it viewed them as a tool for the western world to force capitalism on socialist member-states—and it refused to support them. The USSR's refusal to support the IMF and the World Bank set off a diplomatic chain reaction that would eventually grow into what became known as the Cold War. The Soviet Union believed that its control of Eastern Europe was vital to its security, and said that it was right for it to do so, for "we suffered at Stalingrad". As agreed at the Yalta Conference, the World War II Allies divided Germany into four zones, giving one zone each to the United Kingdom, France, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's zone, known as East Germany, was later transformed into a Communist state, after an agreement on a unified Germany could not be reached. The other three zones, West Germany, were joined—at first economically through a currency reform—during the implementation of the Marshall Plan in 1948. The city of Berlin, which was surrounded by East Germany, was divided in two parts between East and West Germany. Critics correctly pointed out that the Soviet Union was little involved in the Greek Civil War, that the communists in Greece were more pro-Tito than pro-Stalin, and that the resistance movement had non-communists as well as communist members. Nor was The Soviet Union threatening turkey at the time. Others suggested that such aid should be channeled through the United Nations. In 1947, Greece became the focus of the Cold War. The Greek monarchy had been supported by Great Britain since 1945. Greek Communists threatened to overthrow this regime, which was corrupt and not representative of the people. In order to "shock" the American public into accepting American involvement in order to help other peoples resist the "communist threat" and secure the strategically and economically important Middle East for US influence, President Harry Truman issued the ''Truman Doctrine''. The Doctrine suggested that the US would aid nations threatened by revolutionary forces. Congress agreed and appropriated $400 million in aid for Greece and Turkey. By 1949, the Communists in Greece were defeated. In 1952, Greece and Turkey entered the NATO. == The Marshall Plan == [[File:MarshallDonkey.jpg|thumb|A photo of some Marshall Plan aid being delivered to Greek areas by donkey.]] The Marshall Plan was the first attempt to achieve the goals that America set in western Europe. The European nations were still unstable, both in politics and in economics, and so they did not have the money to purchase the good that they required from the U.S. The people and government of America were all extremely worried that if Europe's funds continued to be so unstable, this would trigger another great depression. With the memories of all the hardships and economic ruin of the Great Depression in the 1930s fresh in the American people's minds, the government decided they needed to do something. In order to make sure that there was not another worldwide depression, in 1948 the American government decided to launch a massive European recovery program called the Marshall Plan which sent 12.4 billion dollars to western Europe. A condition of this program was that Europe would spend this foreign-aid money on American products. This program ended in 1951. The Marshall Plan was a mixture of failure and success. In Europe, it assisted to further divide eastern and western Europe and it caused inflation which did nothing to solve the balance-of-payment problem. However, this program did succeed in spurring western European industrialization and investment. <ref>A People and A Nation Eighth Edition</ref> == Reconstruction of the New World == [[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0527-0001-753, Krefeld, Hungerwinter, Demonstration.jpg|thumb|Hungry, and cold Germans protesting for bread and coal during the winter of 1947. The situation in Europe was dire following the war.]] The leadership in the United States by contrast, came out of war extremely confident about the immediate security of the country’s borders. Separated from the other world powers by two vast oceans, the American home base had been virtually immune from attack during the fighting—only the occasional shell from a submarine or a hostile balloon reached the shores of the continental United States American casualties were fewer than those of any other major combatants—hugely so in comparison with the Soviet Union. With its fixed capital intact, its resources more plentiful than ever, and in lone possession of the atomic bomb, the United States was the strongest power in the world at war’s ends. Yet this was no time for complacency, Washington officials reminded one another. Some other power—almost certainly the USSR—could take advantage of the political and economic instability in war-torn Europe and Asia, and eventually seize control of these areas, with dire implications for America’s physical and economic security. To prevent this eventuality, officials in Washington sought forward bases overseas, in order to keep a airborne enemy at bay. To further enhance U.S. security, American planners, in direct contrast to their Soviet counterparts, sought the quick reconstruction of nations—including the former enemies Germany and Japan—and a world economy based on free trade. Such a system, they reasoned, was essential to preserve America’s economic well being. The Soviets, on the other hand refused to join the new World Bank and International Monetary Fund, created at the July 1944 Bretton Woods Conference by forty-four nations to stabilize trade and finances. They held that the United States dominated both institutions and used them to promote private investment and open international commerce, which Moscow saw as capitalist tools of exploitation. With the United States as its largest donor, the World Bank opened its doors in 1945 and began to make loans to help members finance reconstruction projects; the IMF, also heavily backed by the united states, helped members meet their balance-of-payment problems through currency loans. == Reconstruction of Japan == [[File:Sto1001.jpg|thumb|Tokyo in 1946. The reconstruction of Japan eventually lead to a postwar economic boom.]] After Japan's surrender in 1945, the United States military was directed to reconstruct the nation. American General Douglas MacArthur headed the Reconstruction effort. However, he was aided at every stage by anthropologists and specialists on Japanese history and culture. This effort was not simply an attempt to make the defeated Japanese knuckle under, but a sensitive reconstruction of the whole society for both political modernization and cultural continuity with the pre-Dictatorship history. MacArthur was dealing with a society in physical and cultural shock. The Japanese Dictatorship had used the Emperor's position as the head of Shinto religion, and his people thought of him as a god. They heard his voice for the first time over the radio announcing their nation's capitulation. Bombing of Japanese infrastructure, and months of shortages, had ruined electrical, water, and sanitary systems. Before Fat Man and Little Boy, an American campaign of bombing Tokyo had killed, wounded, and dismayed civilians. The A-bombs had left areas of Hiroshima and Nagasaki radioactive. Those who had not been killed outright were dying of radiation poisoning and cancer. In 1947, a new Constitution for Japan was created. The Constitution entirely changed the role of the Emperor from an active leader to a passive symbol of the nation. The Diet, or legislature, was modeled on the British Parliament. The Constitution granted an enormous number of rights to Japanese citizens. Finally, the Constitution formally denounced all military conflict and prohibited Japan from keeping any armed forces. The Reconstruction of Japan made other sweeping changes. For example, the Reconstruction introduced labor unions and reduced the influence of monopolistic businesses. During the Cold War, America was determined to make an ally out of the Empire of Japan. The Reconstruction made an about-face, reversing its policy of reducing the power of large businesses. More regulations regarding the economy were made. In 1951, the US agreed to grant Japan full independence and autonomy. The treaty, however, did permit the US to maintain parts of its military in Japan. The treaty became effective in 1952. == The Rise of Communism in China == After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, China was in a state of confusion and unrest. The nation saw the worst nightmares as the people were without stable unified authority, fragmenting into a rudderless giant. Many land lords (ward lords, since the standing was imposed and established by force of arms) took advantage of the situation aiming to expand their influence and so fought against each other regardless of common statehood ideas or national purpose and gradually the situation became chaotic. This was the period of warlordism in China, it lasted from 1916 to 1927, a dark period in China’s history. Meanwhile the principles of communism began to spread in the country and those ideals attracted a majority of the people. The people who belonged to the lower strata were for these principles especially for the law of equality. The rise of Communism in China is mainly due to a man named Mao Zedong. The son of a farmer, Mao was highly intelligent. Zedong left home for school and had become a member of the Nationalist Army as the Revolution began around 1911. He was soon introduced to and became powerfully influenced by the philosophies of Marxism. After decades of civil war and invasion by Japan, the communists under Mao prevailed. The opposition nationalists fell and barely managed to retreat offshore to Taiwan. Communism came to power in 1949 under the power of Mao. Communism began as a movement that paved the way for the liberation of the proletariat. Proletariat is that class of society which lives entirely from the sale of its labor and does not draw profit from any kind of capital; whose weal and woe, whose life and death, whose sole existence depends on the demand for labor – hence, on the changing state of business, on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century. Anarchy was to some extend controlled by Mao but he faced failure many times. Mao’s initiatives did cause a kind of equality to emerge in China, but it was not one in which all the inhabitants of China benefited. Contrarily, many of them suffered extreme poverty and greatness was lost in the realms of academia, science, and technology which hindered China’s ability to become a modern nation capable of interacting on the global scale. == The Red Scare and McCarthyism == [[File:Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg|thumb|Joseph Welch and McCarthy. During McCarthy's investigation of Communists in the Army Welch asked McCarthy "At long last, have you left no sense of decency?"]] When China fell to Communism, suspicion of the ideology's influence in the American government became a pandemic. Many experts on China and the regions around it were fired as in some way causing the change. This became a problem during the Korean War. What became known as '''the Red Scare''' proved costly in American life. Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act in 1950, overriding President Truman's veto. The Act created a public body known as the ''Subversive Activities Control Board''; the Board was charged with monitoring and investigating Communist Activities. In Congress, meanwhile, Wisconsin Senator Joseph McCarthy accused certain government officials of being Communists and disloyal. While a Communist conspiracy involving State Department employees was eventually uncovered, many of the accusations were baseless. The word ''McCarthyism'' refers to a vindictive persecution of the innocent. Documents from the Venona counterintelligence project suggest that a few targets of McCarthyism were indeed working with the Soviet Union. Historians continue to debate this topic. The House of Representatives had established a Committee on Un-American Activities in 1947. The Committee performed actions such as investigating actors, directors, and writers. As was the case with Red Summer, it was not mere membership in the Communist party which caused suspicion. Individuals were sometimes grilled for belonging to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People or the American Civil Liberties Union. It was not enough to confess innocence: you had in turn to accuse others of Communism. A few in the dragnet had actually been Communists, either because they had actually believed in its aims or as part of the polarization of American society in the era of the Spanish Civil War. However, the opponents of the Committee were not all Communist. Some accused it of violating the Constitutional rights against self-incrimination and for freedom of belief. The entertainment industry, fearful of an investigation, fired many people who had become shadowed by the hearings, or by a pamphlet called "Red Channels." Men and women lost their livelihood, in some cases fleeing to Europe and elsewhere, in others even committing suicide over their lost lives. Ten individuals refused to name names, including screenwriters Dalton Trumbo and Ring Lardner, Jr., and were all duly blacklisted as ''the Hollywood Ten''. Some local communities banned literature that they feared would encourage Communism. Public servants and teachers were forced to take a so-called "loyalty oath": those who refused, for whatever reason, were not hired. Others lost their jobs due to unfounded accusations of disloyalty. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover, who had come to power in the wake of the first Communist scare, had Americans followed on suspicion of Communism. Scientist J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had helped develop the atomic bomb, was fired from his high-security job because of his former associations with the Communist party. Yet the career of Joseph McCarthy was also derailed during the Red Scare: in 1954, the Senate formally censured him for abusing his powers and using unfair tactics in targeting innocent government officials. Even at the height of the McCarthyist furor in the early 1950s, the anti-Communist crusade was relatively mild. Many prosecutions faltered on appeal and only a few foreign-born radicals were actually deported. Only Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were put to death. Of the roughly 150 people who went to prison, most were released within a year or two. Yet the after effects lasted for decades. When the United States later fought a war in Vietnam, it was often in the dark because a number of regional experts had been lost to the Red Scare. == The Korean War == ===Background=== After World War II, the US attempted to curb Soviet influence on the Korean Peninsula by occupying southern part of that area. The area occupied by the US became South Korea, while the other part became North Korea. North Korea soon passed into the control of the Communist Party. ===North Korean Offensive=== [[File:South Korean refugees mid-1950.jpg|thumb|South Korean refugees flee the North Korean army.]] In May, 1949, fighting between North and South Korean troops broke out near the border between the two nations. In an attempt to add South Korea to the Communist World, North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950. The People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union lent their support to North Korea, while the United States did the same to South Korea. On June 25, 1950 a large military force moved across the 38th parallel in the Republic of Korea. Since 1910, Korea had been divided into two by the powers of Japans victory in 1945. The Korean war was seen as an internal struggle, with the north heavily armed and backed by China and the Soviet Union invading the lightly armed south. The two parts moved along the temporary border while the anti-government fighting began to flare into the south. On June 27, 1950 the United Nations security Council first adopted a ceasefire resolution. When the United Nations Security Council voted to aid South Korea in stopping North Korean aggression, the United States agreed to send troops to the Korean Peninsula. General Douglas MacArthur was given the command of UN troops in Korea. The United States agreed to send troops over on June 30 along with increasing aid to the French fight against Communists rebels in Indochina. MacArthur was placed in command on July 8. At the beginning the U.S. troops were lacking training and were out of shape. In the first few weeks of fighting the U.S. troops were pushed back to a defensive perimeter at Pusan.<ref>"Don't Know Much About History" by Kenneth C. Davis</ref> ===Back and Fourth=== [[File:HA-SC-98-06983-Crew of M24 along Naktong River front-Korean war-17 Aug 1950.JPEG|thumb|American troops in Korea]] By the autumn of 1950, North Korean troops were forced out of South Korea. In October, General MacArthur ordered troops to cross into North Korea. In the third week of that month, the US took the capital of North Korea, Pyongyang. [[File:Max Desfor - Flight of Refugees Across Wrecked Bridge in Korea.jpg|thumb|Refugees flee Pyongyang on a destroyed bridge.]] However, just six days after the United Nations forces took Pyongyang, the People's Republic of China sent a quarter million men on a series of counterattacks. In December, Chinese "volunteers" took over Pyongyang and by January 1951 they had taken the South Korean capital, Seoul. The US intended to do whatever it took to win the Korean War. It even planned on using the atomic bomb. However, President Truman did not trust General MacArthur to follow orders when using the atomic bomb. Therefore, he asked for MacArthur's resignation; MacArthur complied. ===Stalemate=== In 1953, Dwight D. Eisenhower became President of the US. Having promised during the election campaign to end the Korean War, he fulfilled this promise by continuing negotiations with the North and South Koreans, Chinese, and the Soviet Union and using "brinkmanship" to reach an agreement acceptable to all countries involved except for South Korea, which tried to induce the US to help unite Korea. ==Weapons of the Cold War== ===Nuclear Weapons=== [[File:Ivy Mike (Eniwetok-Atoll - 31. Oktober 1952).jpg|thumb|''Ivy Mike'', the first Hydrogen Bomb, was tested November 1st, 1952. The testing site, [[w: Elugelab|Elugelab island]], became an underwater crater following the test. It's yield of 10.4 ''mega''tons of TNT dwarfed that of Fat Man, which only had a yield of 20 ''kilo''tons.]] The nuclear arms race was central to the Cold War. Many feared where the Cold War was going with the belief that the more nuclear weapons you had, the more powerful you were. Both America and The Soviet Union massively built up their stockpiles of nuclear weapons. The world greatly changed when USA exploded the H-bomb in 1952. This one bomb was smaller in size than the Hiroshima atomic bomb but 2500 times more powerful. The Soviets produced an H-bomb in 1953 and the world became a much more dangerous place. ===Nuclear Triad=== [[File:Boeing B-47B rocket-assisted take off on April 15, 1954 061024-F-1234S-011.jpg|thumb|Innovations in weapon delivery platforms played a major role in the Cold War]] The Cold War also saw innovation in delivery platforms. By using land based, sea based, and air based weapons platforms, a [[w:Nuclear triad|Nuclear triad]] could be established. This made it difficult to ensure all of a nations nuclear weaponry could be destroyed in a surprise first strike. ===Deterrence=== By April of 1950 the US Department of State had concluded that the Soviet Union was a significant hostile threat, and through it's NSC-68 report advocated that deterrence through an arms build up would be the best way to counter that threat.<ref>{{cite web |title=Milestones: 1945–1952 - Office of the Historian |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/NSC68 |website=history.state.gov |access-date=23 October 2021}}</ref> By building up a number of weapons, it was hoped that the Soviet Union would be detered from waging a nuclear war. USA produced a bomber—the B52—that could fly 6,000 miles and deliver a nuclear pay-load. Such a development required massive financial backing from the government—something which America could afford to do and which The Soviet Union could not. The Soviet Union concentrated on producing bigger bombs—a far more cost effective procedure. In October 1957, the world was introduced to the fear of a missile attack when the Soviet Satellite Sputnik was launched. This was to lead to ICBM’s : Inter-continental ballistic missiles. As a result, America built the [[w:Distant Early Warning Line|DEW line]] around the Arctic—Distant Early Warning system. At the end of the 1950’s, American Intelligence estimated that in a Soviet missile attack, 20 million Americans would die and 22 million would be injured. During the 1960’s, the Soviet's put their money into producing larger missiles, Eventually creating Tsar Bomba, the biggest Nuclear Weapon ever created. America built fewer but technologically superior missiles—the Atlas could go 5,000 miles at a speed of 16,000 mph. By 1961, there were enough bombs to destroy the world. Despite this, great emphasis was put on new weapon systems—mobile missile launchers were built, missiles were housed underground in silos and in 1960 the first Polaris submarine was launched carrying 16 nuclear missiles. Each missile carried four warheads which could targeted on different cities; hence one submarine effectively carried 64 nuclear warheads. During the 1960’s the theory of MAD developed—Mutually Assured Destruction. This meant that if The Soviet Union attacked the west, the west would make sure that they would suitably retaliate i.e. there would be no winners. [[File:MX MIRV reentry vehicles.jpg|thumb|A MIRV test in 1984.]] By 1981, the United States had 8,000 ICBMs and 4,000 planes capable of delivering nuclear bombs; the USSR had 7,000 ICBMs and 5,000 planes. U.S. defense spending ballooned from $178 billion in 1981 to $367 billion by 1986. That same year, it is estimated that there were 40,000 nuclear warheads—the equivalent of one million Hiroshima bombs—throughout the world. British Intelligence estimated that just one medium sized H-bomb on London would essentially destroy anything living up to 30 miles away. Confronted by such awesome statistics, world leaders had to move to a position where they trusted each other more. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's "detente" had been used to ease bad relations between the superpowers. This was to culminate in the Reykjavik meeting between presidents Reagan and Gorbachev that started real progress in the cut in nuclear weaponry in future meetings (if little was actually gained at the meeting in Reykjavik). ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{chapnav|World War II and Rise of Atomic Age|Eisenhower Civil Rights Fifties}} {{status|100%}} {{BookCat}} 13vnx20xtuee0bn4sk6iags6seh16g4 0 362048 4681591 4681504 2026-11-11T12:26:51Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681591 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__ ''Scriptapedia'' is an introduction to group model building that uses structured small group exercises called scripts. ''Scriptapedia'' is intended to be an easily edited freely distributed book to support the creation of new scripts, discussion of what works and what doesn't, and internationalization of group model building practice. * [[/Acknowledgements/]] * [[/Preface/]] * [[/Creating and Contributing a Script to ''Scriptapedia''/|Creating and contributing a script to ''Scriptapedia'']] * [[/Versions (different languages)/]] == Introduction to System Dynamics and related concepts == * [[/System Dynamics/|Defining System Dynamics and related concepts]] * [[/ScriptsMap and Design Logic/]] * [[/Group Facilitation/]] * [[/Roles in Group Model Building/]] * [[/Glossary of terms/]] == Scripts == === Offline Scripts === ==== A. Preceding Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project|Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project]] #[[Scriptapedia/Logistics and Room Set Up|Logistics and Room Set Up]] #[[Scriptapedia/Process Mapping|Process Mapping]] #[[Scriptapedia/Scheduling the Day|Scheduling the Day]] ==== B. Follow-up Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Debriefing|Debriefing]] === '''Scripts for Using in Group Model Building Workshops''' === ==== '''A. Established Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation | 1. [[Scriptapedia/Concept Model|Concept Model]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Key Take-Away|Key Take-Away]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Modeling Project Community Presentation|Modeling Project Community Presentation]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Presenting the Reference Mode|Presenting the Reference Mode]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Water Glass Demonstration|Water Glass Demonstration]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Action Ideas|Action Ideas]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping with Seed Structure|Causal Mapping with Seed Structure]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time|Graphs Over Time]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Hopes and Fears|Hopes and Fears]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Initial Policy Options|Initial Policy Options]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Variable Elicitation|Variable Elicitation]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Initiating and Elaborating a Causal Loop Diagram|Initiating and Elaborating a "Causal Loop Diagram" or "Stock and Flow" Model]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Model Review|Model Review]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Next Steps and Closing|Next Steps and Closing]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Nominal Group Technique|Nominal Group Technique]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Ratio Exercise|Ratio Exercise]] 7. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback|Reflector Feedback]] 8. [[Scriptapedia/Structure Elicitation|Structure Elicitation]] 9. [[Scriptapedia/Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another|Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Dots|Dots]] |} ==== '''B. Promising Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Cookie Exercise|Cookie Exercise]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Chickens and Eggs|Chickens and Eggs]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Elephant|Elephant Parable]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Connection Circle|Connection Circle]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Small Groups|Causal Mapping in Small Groups]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Places To Intervene|Places To Intervene]] 4. [[Elicitation of Needs/Resources]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building|Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Trends Over Time|Trends over Time]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Building a CLD with Paper|Building a CLD with Paper]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Large Group|Causal Mapping in Large Group]] |- |iv. Evaluation | |} ==== '''C. Scripts Under Development''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Introducing Stock and Flow]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Graphs over time of identified Needs/Resources]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)|Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)]] 2. [[Negotiating a Reference Mode]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Prioritization of Needs/Resources]] 2. [[User:Bbuskens/sandbox|The Tweet]] |- |v. Gaming |1. [[Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] 2. [[Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] |} ==Workshop Design Samples == * [[/Template for Workshop Facilitation Manual/]] * [[/Detailed Agenda Templates/|Templates for Agendas]] * [[/90-minute workshop sample/]] * [[/120-minute workshop sample/]] *[[/180-minute workshop sample/]] ==Advanced Topics== * [[/Boundary Objects and Failure Modes in GMB/]] * [[/Empirically Testing Scripts/]] == Supplemental Materials == * [[/Documenting GMB process/]] * [[/Validity of models/]] * [[/Uses, Misuses and Misunderstanding of GMB Scripts/]] * [[/Memo on Variation of Scripts/]] * [[/Readings in System Dynamics/]] * [[/System Dynamics Modeling Software and Online Resources/]] == Appendix == * [[/Editing Wikibooks Scriptapedia Pages/|Editing Wikibooks ''Scriptapedia'' Pages]] * [[Scriptapedia/Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources|Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources]] * [[/License/]] * [[/Style Guide/]] {{shelves|Education}} {{Status|75%}} jqsyc587c38co9oh6xpyrmc81zp6ifz 4681595 4681591 2026-11-11T12:35:35Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681595 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__ ''Scriptapedia'' is an introduction to group model building that uses structured small group exercises called scripts. ''Scriptapedia'' is intended to be an easily edited freely distributed book to support the creation of new scripts, discussion of what works and what doesn't, and internationalization of group model building practice. * [[/Acknowledgements/]] * [[/Preface/]] * [[/Creating and Contributing a Script to ''Scriptapedia''/|Creating and contributing a script to ''Scriptapedia'']] * [[/Versions (different languages)/]] == Introduction to System Dynamics and related concepts == * [[/System Dynamics/|Defining System Dynamics and related concepts]] * [[/ScriptsMap and Design Logic/]] * [[/Group Facilitation/]] * [[/Roles in Group Model Building/]] * [[/Glossary of terms/]] == Scripts == === Offline Scripts === ==== A. Preceding Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project|Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project]] #[[Scriptapedia/Logistics and Room Set Up|Logistics and Room Set Up]] #[[Scriptapedia/Process Mapping|Process Mapping]] #[[Scriptapedia/Scheduling the Day|Scheduling the Day]] ==== B. Follow-up Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Debriefing|Debriefing]] === '''Scripts for Using in Group Model Building Workshops''' === ==== '''A. Established Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation | 1. [[Scriptapedia/Concept Model|Concept Model]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Key Take-Away|Key Take-Away]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Modeling Project Community Presentation|Modeling Project Community Presentation]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Presenting the Reference Mode|Presenting the Reference Mode]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Water Glass Demonstration|Water Glass Demonstration]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Action Ideas|Action Ideas]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping with Seed Structure|Causal Mapping with Seed Structure]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time|Graphs Over Time]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Hopes and Fears|Hopes and Fears]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Initial Policy Options|Initial Policy Options]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Variable Elicitation|Variable Elicitation]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Initiating and Elaborating a Causal Loop Diagram|Initiating and Elaborating a "Causal Loop Diagram" or "Stock and Flow" Model]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Model Review|Model Review]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Next Steps and Closing|Next Steps and Closing]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Nominal Group Technique|Nominal Group Technique]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Ratio Exercise|Ratio Exercise]] 7. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback|Reflector Feedback]] 8. [[Scriptapedia/Structure Elicitation|Structure Elicitation]] 9. [[Scriptapedia/Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another|Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Dots|Dots]] |} ==== '''B. Promising Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Cookie Exercise|Cookie Exercise]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Chickens and Eggs|Chickens and Eggs]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Elephant|Elephant Parable]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Connection Circle|Connection Circle]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Small Groups|Causal Mapping in Small Groups]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Places To Intervene|Places To Intervene]] 4. [[Elicitation of Needs/Resources]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building|Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Trends Over Time|Trends over Time]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Building a CLD with Paper|Building a CLD with Paper]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Large Group|Causal Mapping in Large Group]] |- |iv. Evaluation | |} ==== '''C. Scripts Under Development''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Introducing Stock and Flow]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Graphs over time of identified Needs/Resources]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)|Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)]] 2. [[Negotiating a Reference Mode]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Prioritization of Needs/Resources]] 2. [[User:Bbuskens/sandbox|The Tweet]] |- |v. Gaming |1. [[Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] 2. [[Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] 3. [[Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] |} ==Workshop Design Samples == * [[/Template for Workshop Facilitation Manual/]] * [[/Detailed Agenda Templates/|Templates for Agendas]] * [[/90-minute workshop sample/]] * [[/120-minute workshop sample/]] *[[/180-minute workshop sample/]] ==Advanced Topics== * [[/Boundary Objects and Failure Modes in GMB/]] * [[/Empirically Testing Scripts/]] == Supplemental Materials == * [[/Documenting GMB process/]] * [[/Validity of models/]] * [[/Uses, Misuses and Misunderstanding of GMB Scripts/]] * [[/Memo on Variation of Scripts/]] * [[/Readings in System Dynamics/]] * [[/System Dynamics Modeling Software and Online Resources/]] == Appendix == * [[/Editing Wikibooks Scriptapedia Pages/|Editing Wikibooks ''Scriptapedia'' Pages]] * [[Scriptapedia/Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources|Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources]] * [[/License/]] * [[/Style Guide/]] {{shelves|Education}} {{Status|75%}} ssoatk83b8yaz1a450rbetnj5wx83ls 4681597 4681595 2026-11-11T12:37:24Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681597 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__ ''Scriptapedia'' is an introduction to group model building that uses structured small group exercises called scripts. ''Scriptapedia'' is intended to be an easily edited freely distributed book to support the creation of new scripts, discussion of what works and what doesn't, and internationalization of group model building practice. * [[/Acknowledgements/]] * [[/Preface/]] * [[/Creating and Contributing a Script to ''Scriptapedia''/|Creating and contributing a script to ''Scriptapedia'']] * [[/Versions (different languages)/]] == Introduction to System Dynamics and related concepts == * [[/System Dynamics/|Defining System Dynamics and related concepts]] * [[/ScriptsMap and Design Logic/]] * [[/Group Facilitation/]] * [[/Roles in Group Model Building/]] * [[/Glossary of terms/]] == Scripts == === Offline Scripts === ==== A. Preceding Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project|Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project]] #[[Scriptapedia/Logistics and Room Set Up|Logistics and Room Set Up]] #[[Scriptapedia/Process Mapping|Process Mapping]] #[[Scriptapedia/Scheduling the Day|Scheduling the Day]] ==== B. Follow-up Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Debriefing|Debriefing]] === '''Scripts for Using in Group Model Building Workshops''' === ==== '''A. Established Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation | 1. [[Scriptapedia/Concept Model|Concept Model]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Key Take-Away|Key Take-Away]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Modeling Project Community Presentation|Modeling Project Community Presentation]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Presenting the Reference Mode|Presenting the Reference Mode]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Water Glass Demonstration|Water Glass Demonstration]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Action Ideas|Action Ideas]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping with Seed Structure|Causal Mapping with Seed Structure]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time|Graphs Over Time]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Hopes and Fears|Hopes and Fears]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Initial Policy Options|Initial Policy Options]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Variable Elicitation|Variable Elicitation]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Initiating and Elaborating a Causal Loop Diagram|Initiating and Elaborating a "Causal Loop Diagram" or "Stock and Flow" Model]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Model Review|Model Review]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Next Steps and Closing|Next Steps and Closing]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Nominal Group Technique|Nominal Group Technique]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Ratio Exercise|Ratio Exercise]] 7. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback|Reflector Feedback]] 8. [[Scriptapedia/Structure Elicitation|Structure Elicitation]] 9. [[Scriptapedia/Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another|Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Dots|Dots]] |} ==== '''B. Promising Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Cookie Exercise|Cookie Exercise]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Chickens and Eggs|Chickens and Eggs]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Elephant|Elephant Parable]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Connection Circle|Connection Circle]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Small Groups|Causal Mapping in Small Groups]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Places To Intervene|Places To Intervene]] 4. [[Elicitation of Needs/Resources]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building|Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Trends Over Time|Trends over Time]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Building a CLD with Paper|Building a CLD with Paper]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Large Group|Causal Mapping in Large Group]] |- |iv. Evaluation | |} ==== '''C. Scripts Under Development''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Introducing Stock and Flow]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Graphs over time of identified Needs/Resources]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)|Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)]] 2. [[Negotiating a Reference Mode]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Prioritization of Needs/Resources]] 2. [[User:Bbuskens/sandbox|The Tweet]] |- |v. Gaming |1. [[Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] 2. [[Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] 3. [[Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] |} ==Workshop Design Samples == * [[/Template for Workshop Facilitation Manual/]] * [[/Detailed Agenda Templates/|Templates for Agendas]] * [[/90-minute workshop sample/]] * [[/120-minute workshop sample/]] *[[/180-minute workshop sample/]] ==Advanced Topics== * [[/Boundary Objects and Failure Modes in GMB/]] * [[/Empirically Testing Scripts/]] == Supplemental Materials == * [[/Documenting GMB process/]] * [[/Validity of models/]] * [[/Uses, Misuses and Misunderstanding of GMB Scripts/]] * [[/Memo on Variation of Scripts/]] * [[/Readings in System Dynamics/]] * [[/System Dynamics Modeling Software and Online Resources/]] == Appendix == * [[/Editing Wikibooks Scriptapedia Pages/|Editing Wikibooks ''Scriptapedia'' Pages]] * [[Scriptapedia/Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources|Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources]] * [[/License/]] * [[/Style Guide/]] {{shelves|Education}} {{Status|75%}} ldzbo4si3l9igb6nqxjf5zfg9vrr1zm 4681611 4681597 2026-11-11T13:38:51Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681611 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC____NOEDITSECTION__ ''Scriptapedia'' is an introduction to group model building that uses structured small group exercises called scripts. ''Scriptapedia'' is intended to be an easily edited freely distributed book to support the creation of new scripts, discussion of what works and what doesn't, and internationalization of group model building practice. * [[/Acknowledgements/]] * [[/Preface/]] * [[/Creating and Contributing a Script to ''Scriptapedia''/|Creating and contributing a script to ''Scriptapedia'']] * [[/Versions (different languages)/]] == Introduction to System Dynamics and related concepts == * [[/System Dynamics/|Defining System Dynamics and related concepts]] * [[/ScriptsMap and Design Logic/]] * [[/Group Facilitation/]] * [[/Roles in Group Model Building/]] * [[/Glossary of terms/]] == Scripts == === Offline Scripts === ==== A. Preceding Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project|Creating a Shared Vision of Modeling Project]] #[[Scriptapedia/Logistics and Room Set Up|Logistics and Room Set Up]] #[[Scriptapedia/Process Mapping|Process Mapping]] #[[Scriptapedia/Scheduling the Day|Scheduling the Day]] ==== B. Follow-up Scripts ==== #[[Scriptapedia/Debriefing|Debriefing]] === '''Scripts for Using in Group Model Building Workshops''' === ==== '''A. Established Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation | 1. [[Scriptapedia/Concept Model|Concept Model]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Key Take-Away|Key Take-Away]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Modeling Project Community Presentation|Modeling Project Community Presentation]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Presenting the Reference Mode|Presenting the Reference Mode]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Water Glass Demonstration|Water Glass Demonstration]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Action Ideas|Action Ideas]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping with Seed Structure|Causal Mapping with Seed Structure]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time|Graphs Over Time]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Hopes and Fears|Hopes and Fears]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Initial Policy Options|Initial Policy Options]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Variable Elicitation|Variable Elicitation]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Connection Circles]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Initiating and Elaborating a Causal Loop Diagram|Initiating and Elaborating a "Causal Loop Diagram" or "Stock and Flow" Model]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Model Review|Model Review]] 4. [[Scriptapedia/Next Steps and Closing|Next Steps and Closing]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Nominal Group Technique|Nominal Group Technique]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Ratio Exercise|Ratio Exercise]] 7. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback|Reflector Feedback]] 8. [[Scriptapedia/Structure Elicitation|Structure Elicitation]] 9. [[Scriptapedia/Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another|Transferring Group Ownership from One Image to Another]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Dots|Dots]] |} ==== '''B. Promising Scripts''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Scriptapedia/Cookie Exercise|Cookie Exercise]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Chickens and Eggs|Chickens and Eggs]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Elephant|Elephant Parable]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Connection Circle|Connection Circle]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Small Groups|Causal Mapping in Small Groups]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Places To Intervene|Places To Intervene]] 4. [[Elicitation of Needs/Resources]] 5. [[Scriptapedia/Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building|Graphs over Time with Offline Structure Building]] 6. [[Scriptapedia/Trends Over Time|Trends over Time]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Building a CLD with Paper|Building a CLD with Paper]] 2. [[Scriptapedia/Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List|Creating Causal Loop Diagram from Variable List]] 3. [[Scriptapedia/Causal Mapping in Large Group|Causal Mapping in Large Group]] |- |iv. Evaluation | |} ==== '''C. Scripts Under Development''' ==== {| class="wikitable" |Primary Nature of Task |Scripts |- |i. Presentation |1. [[Introducing Stock and Flow]] |- |ii. Divergent |1. [[Graphs over time of identified Needs/Resources]] |- |iii. Convergent |1. [[Scriptapedia/Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)|Reflector Feedback (Hovmand)]] 2. [[Negotiating a Reference Mode]] |- |iv. Evaluation |1. [[Prioritization of Needs/Resources]] 2. [[User:Bbuskens/sandbox|The Tweet]] |- |v. [[Scripts for gaming in system dynamics|Gaming]] |1. [[Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] 2. [[Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] 3. [[Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] |} ==Workshop Design Samples == * [[/Template for Workshop Facilitation Manual/]] * [[/Detailed Agenda Templates/|Templates for Agendas]] * [[/90-minute workshop sample/]] * [[/120-minute workshop sample/]] *[[/180-minute workshop sample/]] ==Advanced Topics== * [[/Boundary Objects and Failure Modes in GMB/]] * [[/Empirically Testing Scripts/]] == Supplemental Materials == * [[/Documenting GMB process/]] * [[/Validity of models/]] * [[/Uses, Misuses and Misunderstanding of GMB Scripts/]] * [[/Memo on Variation of Scripts/]] * [[/Readings in System Dynamics/]] * [[/System Dynamics Modeling Software and Online Resources/]] == Appendix == * [[/Editing Wikibooks Scriptapedia Pages/|Editing Wikibooks ''Scriptapedia'' Pages]] * [[Scriptapedia/Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources|Using Wikibooks Tools and Resources]] * [[/License/]] * [[/Style Guide/]] {{shelves|Education}} {{Status|75%}} 7razwjhhmqwc5oc7nldubd0w6nl1o0n 4 396216 4681653 4681100 2026-11-11T16:52:43Z Nishanth0707 3630380 /* {{subst:currentuser}}{{subst:^|DO NOT EDIT THIS LINE}} */ new section 4681653 wikitext text/x-wiki __NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d |algo = old(75d) |counter = 5 |maxarchivesize = 150K |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 3 }} == ~2026-49041-81 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-49041-81|~2026-49041-81]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-49041-81|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-49041-81|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-49041-81|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Danish]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Tried to add this link to my-danish-tutor.com This one has a ton of free resources and interactive materials for learning Danish. Reading, listening, conversations, grammar, word lists, flashcards and much more. ;Date and time : 17:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : It says I added a "large amount of content" to this page. Even though I did copy paste the Introduction, the rest was me typing. ;Date and time : 08:49, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : ''Note: This page is not published yet. '' I tried to make this page normally, but the [[Wikibooks:edit filter|edit filter]] told that there has been a '''large amount of content''' added. I did it again but copy-pasted sentence by sentence because I didn't want to type the whole thing again. It still says the same warning. ;Date and time : 09:02, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Benson Benjamin. M == ;Username : [[:b:User:Benson Benjamin. M|Benson Benjamin. M]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Benson Benjamin. M|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Benson Benjamin. M|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Benson Benjamin. M|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Benson+Benjamin.+M}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 13:19, 28 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|notdone}} – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-56325-65 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-56325-65|~2026-56325-65]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-56325-65|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-56325-65|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-56325-65|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Funding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : i was told to divide my page into chapters which I did and after that i wanted to delete the actual material from the Table of Contents page but the system thought I was deleting a lot of material. ;Date and time : 10:01, 21 October 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|fixed}} by myself. {{ping|~2026-56325-65}} Feel free to retry your edit(s) again. I included an exemption for the filter. – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == Ruby Rupshikha == Hello, I was trying to submit a request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox). My request was a genuine appeal asking for clarification regarding the deletion and acknowledging the concerns about AI-generated content. However, an automated edit filter prevented me from publishing the request. Could someone please review this edit and help me understand why it was blocked? I am trying to follow Wikibooks' policies and participate constructively in the community. Thank you for your assistance. == Ruby Rupshikha Meher == ;Username : [[:b:User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|Ruby Rupshikha Meher]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[I am trying to make and submit a genuine request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox).]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.&wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : My request politely acknowledges that I used ChatGPT to generate most of the original Li-Fi blog content. I am asking for clarification about the deletion and reconsideration, not attempting to republish the deleted material. But when I click Publish changes on the Requests for undeletion page, I receive the message: "An automated filter has identified this edit as potentially unconstructive, so it has been disallowed." I have not received any filter number or additional explanation. Could an administrator please help me understand why this edit was blocked? Thank you. ;Date and time : 18:42, 6 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == SandeepLPU == == Educational contribution blocked in my Sandbox == Hello Wikibooks administrators, I am trying to create a short educational article in my Sandbox: Page: User:SandeepLPU/sandbox Topic: Impulsive Noise (ఆకస్మిక శబ్దం) My edit keeps getting blocked by the automated Edit Filter, even after removing all external URLs, reducing the article length, and retaining only educational content. The contribution includes a short Telugu explanation, an illustrative graph, Python source code and academic references. I believe this may be a false positive. Could an administrator please check the filter log and help identify which rule is preventing my edit? Thank you for your assistance. == Rishi030 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Rishi030|Rishi030]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Rishi030|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Rishi030|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Rishi030|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Rishi030}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Rishi030}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Rishi030}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 08:19, 9 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Nishanth0707 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Nishanth0707|Nishanth0707]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Nishanth0707|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Nishanth0707|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Nishanth0707|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Nishanth0707}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Nishanth0707}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Nishanth0707}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 16:52, 11 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> cm78hkdd2cor8fklkwr95wym90yrn2m 4681657 4681653 2026-11-11T16:56:04Z Nishanth0707 3630380 /* {{subst:currentuser}}{{subst:^|DO NOT EDIT THIS LINE}} */ new section 4681657 wikitext text/x-wiki __NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d |algo = old(75d) |counter = 5 |maxarchivesize = 150K |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 3 }} == ~2026-49041-81 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-49041-81|~2026-49041-81]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-49041-81|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-49041-81|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-49041-81|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Danish]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Tried to add this link to my-danish-tutor.com This one has a ton of free resources and interactive materials for learning Danish. Reading, listening, conversations, grammar, word lists, flashcards and much more. ;Date and time : 17:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : It says I added a "large amount of content" to this page. Even though I did copy paste the Introduction, the rest was me typing. ;Date and time : 08:49, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : ''Note: This page is not published yet. '' I tried to make this page normally, but the [[Wikibooks:edit filter|edit filter]] told that there has been a '''large amount of content''' added. I did it again but copy-pasted sentence by sentence because I didn't want to type the whole thing again. It still says the same warning. ;Date and time : 09:02, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Benson Benjamin. M == ;Username : [[:b:User:Benson Benjamin. M|Benson Benjamin. M]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Benson Benjamin. M|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Benson Benjamin. M|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Benson Benjamin. M|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Benson+Benjamin.+M}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 13:19, 28 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|notdone}} – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-56325-65 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-56325-65|~2026-56325-65]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-56325-65|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-56325-65|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-56325-65|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Funding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : i was told to divide my page into chapters which I did and after that i wanted to delete the actual material from the Table of Contents page but the system thought I was deleting a lot of material. ;Date and time : 10:01, 21 October 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|fixed}} by myself. {{ping|~2026-56325-65}} Feel free to retry your edit(s) again. I included an exemption for the filter. – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == Ruby Rupshikha == Hello, I was trying to submit a request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox). My request was a genuine appeal asking for clarification regarding the deletion and acknowledging the concerns about AI-generated content. However, an automated edit filter prevented me from publishing the request. Could someone please review this edit and help me understand why it was blocked? I am trying to follow Wikibooks' policies and participate constructively in the community. Thank you for your assistance. == Ruby Rupshikha Meher == ;Username : [[:b:User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|Ruby Rupshikha Meher]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[I am trying to make and submit a genuine request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox).]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.&wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : My request politely acknowledges that I used ChatGPT to generate most of the original Li-Fi blog content. I am asking for clarification about the deletion and reconsideration, not attempting to republish the deleted material. But when I click Publish changes on the Requests for undeletion page, I receive the message: "An automated filter has identified this edit as potentially unconstructive, so it has been disallowed." I have not received any filter number or additional explanation. Could an administrator please help me understand why this edit was blocked? Thank you. ;Date and time : 18:42, 6 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == SandeepLPU == == Educational contribution blocked in my Sandbox == Hello Wikibooks administrators, I am trying to create a short educational article in my Sandbox: Page: User:SandeepLPU/sandbox Topic: Impulsive Noise (ఆకస్మిక శబ్దం) My edit keeps getting blocked by the automated Edit Filter, even after removing all external URLs, reducing the article length, and retaining only educational content. The contribution includes a short Telugu explanation, an illustrative graph, Python source code and academic references. I believe this may be a false positive. Could an administrator please check the filter log and help identify which rule is preventing my edit? Thank you for your assistance. == Rishi030 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Rishi030|Rishi030]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Rishi030|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Rishi030|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Rishi030|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Rishi030}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Rishi030}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Rishi030}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 08:19, 9 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Nishanth0707 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Nishanth0707|Nishanth0707]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Nishanth0707|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Nishanth0707|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Nishanth0707|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Nishanth0707}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Nishanth0707}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Nishanth0707}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 16:52, 11 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Nishanth0707 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Nishanth0707|Nishanth0707]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Nishanth0707|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Nishanth0707|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Nishanth0707|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Nishanth0707}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Nishanth0707}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Nishanth0707}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 16:56, 11 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> Hello Wikibooks administrators, I am trying to create an educational textbook titled "Future Technologies and Intelligent Engineering" in my own user sandbox: User:Nishanth0707/sandbox My edits are repeatedly being rejected by the automated Edit Filter. Initially, I received an external-link warning. However, I removed all external URLs and tested again with a very short edit containing only an introduction and a few basic headings. The same Edit Filter error still appeared. My intention is to contribute original educational material about artificial intelligence, robotics, automation, embedded systems, and emerging engineering technologies. Could an administrator please check the AbuseFilter log and identify which filter is preventing my edits? I would appreciate a review if this is a false positive. Thank you. mpdsjdecv96sgrpobv82t2zp0yi9unv 4681668 4681657 2026-11-11T17:59:01Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 /* ~2026-56325-65 */ Reply 4681668 wikitext text/x-wiki __NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d |algo = old(75d) |counter = 5 |maxarchivesize = 150K |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 3 }} == ~2026-49041-81 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-49041-81|~2026-49041-81]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-49041-81|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-49041-81|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-49041-81|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Danish]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Tried to add this link to my-danish-tutor.com This one has a ton of free resources and interactive materials for learning Danish. Reading, listening, conversations, grammar, word lists, flashcards and much more. ;Date and time : 17:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : It says I added a "large amount of content" to this page. Even though I did copy paste the Introduction, the rest was me typing. ;Date and time : 08:49, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : ''Note: This page is not published yet. '' I tried to make this page normally, but the [[Wikibooks:edit filter|edit filter]] told that there has been a '''large amount of content''' added. I did it again but copy-pasted sentence by sentence because I didn't want to type the whole thing again. It still says the same warning. ;Date and time : 09:02, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Benson Benjamin. M == ;Username : [[:b:User:Benson Benjamin. M|Benson Benjamin. M]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Benson Benjamin. M|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Benson Benjamin. M|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Benson Benjamin. M|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Benson+Benjamin.+M}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 13:19, 28 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|notdone}} – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-56325-65 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-56325-65|~2026-56325-65]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-56325-65|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-56325-65|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-56325-65|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Funding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : i was told to divide my page into chapters which I did and after that i wanted to delete the actual material from the Table of Contents page but the system thought I was deleting a lot of material. ;Date and time : 10:01, 21 October 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|fixed}} by myself. {{ping|~2026-56325-65}} Feel free to retry your edit(s) again. I included an exemption for the filter. – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) :Still cant delete them, filter does not allow me to do so. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-56325-65|~2026-56325-65]] ([[User talk:~2026-56325-65|talk]]) 17:59, 11 November 2026 (UTC) == Ruby Rupshikha == Hello, I was trying to submit a request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox). My request was a genuine appeal asking for clarification regarding the deletion and acknowledging the concerns about AI-generated content. However, an automated edit filter prevented me from publishing the request. Could someone please review this edit and help me understand why it was blocked? I am trying to follow Wikibooks' policies and participate constructively in the community. Thank you for your assistance. == Ruby Rupshikha Meher == ;Username : [[:b:User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|Ruby Rupshikha Meher]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[I am trying to make and submit a genuine request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox).]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.&wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : My request politely acknowledges that I used ChatGPT to generate most of the original Li-Fi blog content. I am asking for clarification about the deletion and reconsideration, not attempting to republish the deleted material. But when I click Publish changes on the Requests for undeletion page, I receive the message: "An automated filter has identified this edit as potentially unconstructive, so it has been disallowed." I have not received any filter number or additional explanation. Could an administrator please help me understand why this edit was blocked? Thank you. ;Date and time : 18:42, 6 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == SandeepLPU == == Educational contribution blocked in my Sandbox == Hello Wikibooks administrators, I am trying to create a short educational article in my Sandbox: Page: User:SandeepLPU/sandbox Topic: Impulsive Noise (ఆకస్మిక శబ్దం) My edit keeps getting blocked by the automated Edit Filter, even after removing all external URLs, reducing the article length, and retaining only educational content. The contribution includes a short Telugu explanation, an illustrative graph, Python source code and academic references. I believe this may be a false positive. Could an administrator please check the filter log and help identify which rule is preventing my edit? Thank you for your assistance. == Rishi030 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Rishi030|Rishi030]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Rishi030|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Rishi030|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Rishi030|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Rishi030}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Rishi030}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Rishi030}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 08:19, 9 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Nishanth0707 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Nishanth0707|Nishanth0707]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Nishanth0707|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Nishanth0707|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Nishanth0707|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Nishanth0707}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Nishanth0707}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Nishanth0707}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 16:52, 11 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Nishanth0707 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Nishanth0707|Nishanth0707]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Nishanth0707|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Nishanth0707|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Nishanth0707|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Nishanth0707}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Nishanth0707}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Nishanth0707}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 16:56, 11 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> Hello Wikibooks administrators, I am trying to create an educational textbook titled "Future Technologies and Intelligent Engineering" in my own user sandbox: User:Nishanth0707/sandbox My edits are repeatedly being rejected by the automated Edit Filter. Initially, I received an external-link warning. However, I removed all external URLs and tested again with a very short edit containing only an introduction and a few basic headings. The same Edit Filter error still appeared. My intention is to contribute original educational material about artificial intelligence, robotics, automation, embedded systems, and emerging engineering technologies. Could an administrator please check the AbuseFilter log and identify which filter is preventing my edits? I would appreciate a review if this is a false positive. Thank you. 3d17tthz5z0wjfa3wom2qpb9e3grz7o 4681830 4681668 2026-11-12T10:07:42Z Johnanth 298662 /* {{subst:currentuser}}{{subst:^|DO NOT EDIT THIS LINE}} */ new section 4681830 wikitext text/x-wiki __NONEWSECTIONLINK__ __NOINDEX__ {{Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Header}} {{shortcut|WB:EFFP}} {{User:MiszaBot/config |archive = Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives/Archive %(counter)d |algo = old(75d) |counter = 5 |maxarchivesize = 150K |minthreadstoarchive = 1 |minthreadsleft = 3 }} == ~2026-49041-81 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-49041-81|~2026-49041-81]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-49041-81|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-49041-81|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-49041-81|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-49041-81}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Danish]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Danish&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-49041-81}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Tried to add this link to my-danish-tutor.com This one has a ton of free resources and interactive materials for learning Danish. Reading, listening, conversations, grammar, word lists, flashcards and much more. ;Date and time : 17:50, 10 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : It says I added a "large amount of content" to this page. Even though I did copy paste the Introduction, the rest was me typing. ;Date and time : 08:49, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == ActStuffOGWiki == ;Username : [[:b:User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/ActStuffOGWiki|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:ActStuffOGWiki}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Indian Railways/History]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Indian+Railways%2FHistory&wpSearchUser=ActStuffOGWiki}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : ''Note: This page is not published yet. '' I tried to make this page normally, but the [[Wikibooks:edit filter|edit filter]] told that there has been a '''large amount of content''' added. I did it again but copy-pasted sentence by sentence because I didn't want to type the whole thing again. It still says the same warning. ;Date and time : 09:02, 18 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Benson Benjamin. M == ;Username : [[:b:User:Benson Benjamin. M|Benson Benjamin. M]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Benson Benjamin. M|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Benson Benjamin. M|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Benson Benjamin. M|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Benson Benjamin. M}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Benson+Benjamin.+M}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 13:19, 28 September 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|notdone}} – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-56325-65 == ;Username : [[:b:User:~2026-56325-65|~2026-56325-65]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:~2026-56325-65|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/~2026-56325-65|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/~2026-56325-65|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:~2026-56325-65}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Funding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FFunding_and_Finance_of_Transportation_Projects_in_the_United_States_of_America&wpSearchUser=%7E2026-56325-65}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : i was told to divide my page into chapters which I did and after that i wanted to delete the actual material from the Table of Contents page but the system thought I was deleting a lot of material. ;Date and time : 10:01, 21 October 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> : {{EFFP|fixed}} by myself. {{ping|~2026-56325-65}} Feel free to retry your edit(s) again. I included an exemption for the filter. – [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:12, 21 October 2026 (UTC) :Still cant delete them, filter does not allow me to do so. [[Special:Contributions/~2026-56325-65|~2026-56325-65]] ([[User talk:~2026-56325-65|talk]]) 17:59, 11 November 2026 (UTC) == Ruby Rupshikha == Hello, I was trying to submit a request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox). My request was a genuine appeal asking for clarification regarding the deletion and acknowledging the concerns about AI-generated content. However, an automated edit filter prevented me from publishing the request. Could someone please review this edit and help me understand why it was blocked? I am trying to follow Wikibooks' policies and participate constructively in the community. Thank you for your assistance. == Ruby Rupshikha Meher == ;Username : [[:b:User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|Ruby Rupshikha Meher]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Ruby Rupshikha Meher|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Ruby Rupshikha Meher|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Ruby Rupshikha Meher}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[I am trying to make and submit a genuine request for undeletion of my deleted sandbox page (User:Ruby Rupshikha Meher/sandbox).]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=I+am+trying+to+make+and+submit+a+genuine+request+for+undeletion+of+my+deleted+sandbox+page+%28User%3ARuby+Rupshikha+Meher%2Fsandbox%29.&wpSearchUser=Ruby+Rupshikha+Meher}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : My request politely acknowledges that I used ChatGPT to generate most of the original Li-Fi blog content. I am asking for clarification about the deletion and reconsideration, not attempting to republish the deleted material. But when I click Publish changes on the Requests for undeletion page, I receive the message: "An automated filter has identified this edit as potentially unconstructive, so it has been disallowed." I have not received any filter number or additional explanation. Could an administrator please help me understand why this edit was blocked? Thank you. ;Date and time : 18:42, 6 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == SandeepLPU == == Educational contribution blocked in my Sandbox == Hello Wikibooks administrators, I am trying to create a short educational article in my Sandbox: Page: User:SandeepLPU/sandbox Topic: Impulsive Noise (ఆకస్మిక శబ్దం) My edit keeps getting blocked by the automated Edit Filter, even after removing all external URLs, reducing the article length, and retaining only educational content. The contribution includes a short Telugu explanation, an illustrative graph, Python source code and academic references. I believe this may be a false positive. Could an administrator please check the filter log and help identify which rule is preventing my edit? Thank you for your assistance. == Rishi030 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Rishi030|Rishi030]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Rishi030|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Rishi030|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Rishi030|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Rishi030}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Rishi030}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Rishi030}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 08:19, 9 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Nishanth0707 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Nishanth0707|Nishanth0707]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Nishanth0707|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Nishanth0707|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Nishanth0707|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Nishanth0707}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Nishanth0707}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Nishanth0707}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 16:52, 11 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> == Nishanth0707 == ;Username : [[:b:User:Nishanth0707|Nishanth0707]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Nishanth0707|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Nishanth0707|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Nishanth0707|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Nishanth0707}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Nishanth0707}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Nishanth0707}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : Page not specified ;Description : ;Date and time : 16:56, 11 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> Hello Wikibooks administrators, I am trying to create an educational textbook titled "Future Technologies and Intelligent Engineering" in my own user sandbox: User:Nishanth0707/sandbox My edits are repeatedly being rejected by the automated Edit Filter. Initially, I received an external-link warning. However, I removed all external URLs and tested again with a very short edit containing only an introduction and a few basic headings. The same Edit Filter error still appeared. My intention is to contribute original educational material about artificial intelligence, robotics, automation, embedded systems, and emerging engineering technologies. Could an administrator please check the AbuseFilter log and identify which filter is preventing my edits? I would appreciate a review if this is a false positive. Thank you. == Johnanth == ;Username : [[:b:User:Johnanth|Johnanth]]<span class="noprint"> {{toolbar|separator=dot |[[:b:User talk:Johnanth|discuss]] |[[:b:Special:Emailuser/Johnanth|email]] |[[:b:Special:Contributions/Johnanth|contribs]] |[{{fullurl:b:Special:Log|user={{urlencode:Johnanth}}}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">logs</span>] |[//tools.wmflabs.org/xtools/pcount/index.php?lang{{=}}en&wiki{{=}}wikibooks&name{{=}}{{urlencode:Johnanth}} <span style{{=}}"color:#002bb8">count</span>] }}</span> (<span class="plainlinks">[{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchUser=Johnanth}} filter log]</span>) ;Page you were editing : [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...c6/2. d4/2...d5/3. Bd3/3...dxe4/4. Bxe4/4...Nf6/5. Bf3/5...Bf5/6. g4]] <span class="plainlinks">([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...c6%2F2.+d4%2F2...d5%2F3.+Bd3%2F3...dxe4%2F4.+Bxe4%2F4...Nf6%2F5.+Bf3%2F5...Bf5%2F6.+g4}} filter log]) ([{{fullurl:Special:AbuseLog|wpSearchTitle=Chess+Opening+Theory%2F1.+e4%2F1...c6%2F2.+d4%2F2...d5%2F3.+Bd3%2F3...dxe4%2F4.+Bxe4%2F4...Nf6%2F5.+Bf3%2F5...Bf5%2F6.+g4&wpSearchUser=Johnanth}} user filter log])</span> ;Description : Removing the request for deletion. This is because the page was moved by another user so it no longer features the neological name which was the core of my objection. The analysis of the line is sound and can stay. ;Date and time : 10:07, 12 November 2026 (UTC) ;Comments <!-- Please leave this area blank for now, but be prepared to answer questions left by reviewing editors. Thanks! --> nfsmwyhf5hbejqwrztxrkova6zidxqp 0 417869 4681734 4673642 2026-11-11T20:18:40Z Skafbgjsabfvds 3631118 4681734 wikitext text/x-wiki {{wikipedia|Character encodings}}{{reading level|professional}} '''''Character Encodings''''' encompasses the patterns that are used to represent various characters particularly in computer storage. ''If you wish to participate in the writing or editing of '''''Character Encodings''''', or if you have an idea as to how this book can be improved, please see [[/To do|the "to-do" list]]. You may also add your name to [[/Contributors|the list of contributors]].''gds213456789 {{clear}} ==Chapters== <!-- [[Image:ToBeConfirmed.jpg|400px|right]] --> {{book search}} {{Print version}} {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Preface/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Overview/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Designation/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Conversion Tools/]] ==Appendices== # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Code Tables/]] #* {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Code Tables/EBCDIC/|EBCDIC]] #* [[/Code Tables/MS-DOS/|MS-DOS]] #* [[/Code Tables/Windows/|Windows]] #* [[/Code Tables/ISO/|ISO]] #* [[/Code Tables/HP/|HP]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Glossary/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Contributors/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Author guidelines/]] ==Read more== Wikibooks has a book on [[Unicode]]. {{Shelves|Computing}} {{alphabetical|C}} {{status|0%}} p8g00uzchrxr0d738q45vv8ditsam9i 4681743 4681734 2026-11-11T20:20:32Z NDG 3510220 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Skafbgjsabfvds|Skafbgjsabfvds]] ([[User talk:Skafbgjsabfvds|talk]]) to last version by Codename Noreste 4673642 wikitext text/x-wiki {{wikipedia|Character encodings}}{{reading level|professional}} '''''Character Encodings''''' encompasses the patterns that are used to represent various characters particularly in computer storage. ''If you wish to participate in the writing or editing of '''''Character Encodings''''', or if you have an idea as to how this book can be improved, please see [[/To do|the "to-do" list]]. You may also add your name to [[/Contributors|the list of contributors]].'' {{clear}} ==Chapters== <!-- [[Image:ToBeConfirmed.jpg|400px|right]] --> {{book search}} {{Print version}} {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Preface/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Overview/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Designation/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Conversion Tools/]] ==Appendices== # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Code Tables/]] #* {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Code Tables/EBCDIC/|EBCDIC]] #* [[/Code Tables/MS-DOS/|MS-DOS]] #* [[/Code Tables/Windows/|Windows]] #* [[/Code Tables/ISO/|ISO]] #* [[/Code Tables/HP/|HP]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Glossary/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Contributors/]] # {{stage short|0%|4 August 2020}}[[/Author guidelines/]] ==Read more== Wikibooks has a book on [[Unicode]]. {{Shelves|Computing}} {{alphabetical|C}} {{status|0%}} cacer2qqzrr8b0n8dbbmoql3ofns3fq 0 463810 4681600 4354349 2026-11-11T12:50:52Z 一隻北極熊 3609960 Formatted 4681600 wikitext text/x-wiki If Uno means One, then Dos means Two. Welcome to the sequel for Uno, which is Dos. Dos was launched by Mattel in early 2018 and it’s a pretty interesting card game in itself. Although there is some slight similarity between Uno and Dos, you will quickly find out that both are very different card games. Let’s take an in-depth look at Dos. 2-4 players can play Dos which is far less than for Uno. Dos has 108 cards, which consists of 96 numbered color cards (Red/Blue/Green/Yellow) and 12 Wild Dos cards. Each color has three cards of the numbers 1, 3, 4, 5, and two cards of the numbers 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10. There are also two Wild # cards for each of the four colors. Notice that there is no number 2 card for each color, but instead, the 2s have been replaced by Wild Dos cards as we will see below. ==Objective== The primary objective of Dos is to discard all cards in one’s hand before anyone else does (and earn points from the cards still left in other player’s hands). Like Uno, you have to discard your cards by matching the cards in the center, but here in Dos, you can only match them by number. The numbers need to be matched first, then only the color is noted. Colors only earn a bonus called a Color Match Bonus. The first player to reach a score of 200 points (or any number the players agree on) is the game winner. ==Special Wild Cards== Besides the numbered cards, Dos has special Wild cards, but these are different from the ones in Uno. The Wild cards are the colored Wild # cards (which can represent any number), and the Wild Dos cards (which are “2” cards that can represent any color). Wild Dos card – The number 2 cards in Dos are represented by these Wild cards, which can take up any color as the player (whose current turn it is to play) sees fit. If a Wild Dos card is turned up from the Draw pile, the player whose turn it is to play can decide what color it should be. Wild # card – The Wild # card can represent any number for its own particular color. This can be used to make up any number from 1-10, as the player (whose current turn it is to play) sees fit. If a Wild # card is turned up from the Draw pile, the player whose turn it is to play can decide what number it should be. ==Gameplay== Appoint a dealer to deal out 7 cards to everyone. A simple way to pick a dealer is by everyone drawing a card from the deck and the person who draws the highest face number shall be the dealer (put back any Wild cards). After dealing 7 cards to everyone, place the main deck in the center to form the Draw pile/deck, and turn up two cards to be the Center Row, while leaving space for a Discard pile. Remember there must always be a minimum of 2 cards face up in the Center Row. The person to the left of the dealer can now begin play in a clockwise direction. ==How do you match cards?== Cards are matched by number. Cards can be matched by Single matches and Double matches for the two cards in the Center Row. For each card in the Center Row, you are only allowed a maximum of TWO cards to match (e.g., 3 with 3, or 1+3). If there are 4 cards in the Center Row, you can match cards to ALL four of them as long as you have matching cards in your hand, but only a maximum of two per Center Row card. Once the cards are matched, remove them and stack them into a Discard pile next to the Draw pile/deck. Turn up a new card from the Draw pile to replace the cards that just got matched in the Center Row. Here are the types of matches in Dos: Single Match – Match cards by number, although the color would be different. Example: Match a Red 3 with a Green 3. Double Match – Match cards by placing two cards that add up to the number of the Center Row card, although the color would be different. Example: Match a Red 5 with a Green 1 and Blue 4. Single Color Match – Match cards by number AND color. This earns you a Color Match Bonus, which entitles you to discard one card from your hand by placing it in the Center Row at the end of your turn. Example: Match a Red 3 with a Red 3 from your hand. Another example would be matching a Red 3 with a Wild Red # card that can take up any number. If you get two or more Single Color Matches on two Center Rows, you can discard cards from your hand by placing them in the Center Row for all of them. Double Color Match – Match cards by placing two cards that add up to the number of the Center Row card, AND are the same in color. Example: Match a Red 5 with a Red 1 and a Red 4. Another example would be matching a Red 3 with a Red 1 and a Wild Dos card which has the number 2 and can take up any color you want. Getting a Double Color Match entitles you to discard one card from your hand by placing it in the Center Row AND compels all other players to DRAW a card from the Draw pile. If you get two or more Double Color Matches on two or more Center Rows, you can discard cards from your hand by placing them in the Center Row for all the cards AND everyone else needs to draw two or more cards from the Draw pile depending on how many Double Color Matches you get. Note: For any cards that you are entitled to discard from your hand onto the Center Row (as a result of getting a Color Match Bonus or simply because you have nothing to match, put them out last, after any cards that should be refilled from the Draw pile are turned up there. In Dos, it is quite important to take note of the order of your actions (for each turn), so as to avoid potential confusion. ==Ending your Turn== If you can have no cards to match, you must draw a card from the Draw pile. If you can match it, you can choose to do so. However, even if you cannot match it, you must still discard a card from your hand by placing it in the Center Row. This rule makes Dos a faster paced game compared to Uno as everyone will always be discarding at least a card on their turn even if they need to draw. Take the matched cards in the Center Row and put them all into the Discard pile. If there are fewer than two cards in the Center Row, you must refill them with cards from the Draw pile. Note: You are not allowed to match any of the new cards once they are refilled even if there are new matches available, as you have already done all your matches earlier. ==Winning the Game== The first player who discards all his/her cards is the winner of the round. If the player earned any Double Color Match Bonuses during his/her turn, then all the other players should draw cards as well, before tallying up the points. The winner of the round gets to score points from all the cards in other player’s hands and become the dealer for the next round. Scoring All number cards – Face value Wild Dos cards – 20 points each Wild # cards – 40 points each The official rules state that the first player to reach 200 points is the winner of the game. But this number is not set in stone, and you can certainly increase or decrease the required points needed to win the game – as long as everyone agrees. ==Strategy for Dos== In Dos, the strategy is mainly on preventing your opponents from going out too soon, while discarding as many cards as possible per turn. One strategy is to lay down cards with small numbers at the beginning when your opponent has many cards, as these are less likely to be matched with two cards. For example, a card with 1 can only be matched by another 1 or a Wild # card. A 10 can be matched more easily, for example with a 1+9, or a 5+5, or a Wild Dos (representing 2)+8, or a 3+# (representing a 7). Your opponent might even earn a Double Color Match bonus by playing two cards with the same color. So this is something you would try to prevent, or at least to reduce the odds. However when your opponent has few cards, it may be a better strategy to play big number cards like 9 or 10 if possible, since he/she might not have enough cards to combine and match with that big number card. ==How does Dos compare to Uno?== Dos is certainly faster paced than Uno, and a little bit more complicated in its rules. This is reflected in the maximum number of allowed players, which is only 4 players. A lucky streak of matching cards can quickly end the round before the other players even manage to warm up. Hence, keeping a tally of the points earned after a round ends becomes even more important in Dos; one round surely won’t be enough! Dos has its own appeal, and it’s something that every true Uno fan should check out at least once. It might take a while to get used to its gameplay, but overall, Dos earns a solid recommendation from us. {{bookcat}} d9vm3esie57namr414m8ltzrpzbfa11 0 465006 4681659 4375137 2026-11-11T17:02:53Z ~2026-59818-93 3631105 4681659 wikitext text/x-wiki This variation is a variation of the Sicilian tradition of the dragon. White wants to make a great defence in kingside. {{bookcat}} be2 classical variation qsjwu31okpjvxcqzsbgio9nvoskl8bu 0 472393 4681669 4679437 2026-11-11T17:59:36Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681669 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] == Funding and Finance at the Federal Levelortation projects are financed and executed in the modern era, with each presenting unique challenges and opportunities for policymakers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> == === Funding Programs for Capital Investment === ==== Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) ==== The most significant recent legislation for federal capital investment funding is the IIJA, signed into law in 2021. This bipartisan legislation seeks to enhance U.S. infrastructure and generate employment. With an investment exceeding $1 trillion, it designates funds for key sectors including transportation, broadband, water, and energy. The initiative is anticipated to create millions of jobs and will be implemented in phases over several years. The IIJA authorized spending on federal highway and public transportation programs until September 30, 2026. It included a substantial $118 billion in general fund transfers to the HTF, securing its solvency throughout the act's duration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act |url=https://www.ey.com/en_us/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.ey.com |language=en-US}}</ref> However, projections from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) foresee a shortfall of $149.7 billion over the five fiscal years following the IIJA's expiration, prompting discussions on how to address this potential deficit. This issue is chronic and not yet directly addressed by the Congress beyond increasing the amounts transferred from the general fund. The IIJA introduced changes to the funding structure by providing additional non-trust fund sums through advance multiyear supplemental appropriations. It included advance appropriations totaling $47 billion for highways and $21 billion for public transportation over FY2022-FY2026, ensuring a guaranteed funding source.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - Funding {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/funding.cfm |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The IIJA's reliance on large general fund amounts, in addition to HTF monies, may  a focal point during its reauthorization debate in FY2025-FY2026. Potential considerations include exploring options such as raising motor fuel taxes, adopting a vehicle miles traveled (VMT) charge, implementing a carbon tax, or an electric vehicle fee. Alternatives involve continuing the use of Treasury general fund transfers, potentially requiring budget offsets, or evaluating a combination of authorized trust-funded budget authority and multiyear appropriations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-13 |title=Running on Empty: The Highway Trust Fund |url=https://enotrans.org/article/running-on-empty-the-highway-trust-fund/ |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=The Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref> ==== Multimodal Project Discretionary Grants (MPDG) ==== Several programs will be highlighted in the coming pages, collectively supporting a wide range of transportation projects aligned with the Department of Transportation's strategic goals. MPDG represents a collection of grant programs aimed at funding these initiatives. This includes categories such as MEGA Grants, INFRA Grants, and Rural Grants, each designed to address specific transportation needs. MEGA Grants: These grants provide substantial funding for large-scale transportation projects that have significant regional or national impacts. Examples of such projects include the construction of major highways, bridges, and transit systems that enhance connectivity and economic growth. Mega Grants are crucial for undertaking ambitious infrastructure projects that require extensive resources and long-term commitment. INFRA Grants: The Infrastructure for Rebuilding America (INFRA) grants are aimed at addressing critical transportation challenges that impede the efficient movement of goods and people. These grants focus on projects that improve freight mobility, reduce congestion, enhance safety, and boost the reliability of transportation networks. INFRA grants support initiatives that are vital for maintaining the competitiveness of the U.S. economy by ensuring that critical infrastructure is modernized and well-maintained. Rural Grants: Recognizing the unique transportation needs of rural areas, Rural Grants provide targeted funding to support infrastructure projects in these regions. These grants help address the disparities in transportation infrastructure between urban and rural areas, ensuring that rural communities have access to safe and reliable transportation options. Projects funded by Rural Grants often include road improvements, bridge repairs, and enhancements to public transit systems, which are crucial for the economic and social well-being of rural populations. ==== Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) Program<ref>{{Cite web |title=RAISE Discretionary Grants |url=https://www.transportation.gov/RAISEgrants |access-date=04/01/2024}}</ref> ==== The Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) program, formerly known as BUILD (Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development) and TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery), is a discretionary grant initiative managed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. The RAISE program aims to invest in a wide range of infrastructure projects, including road, rail, transit, and port projects. It supports state and local project sponsors and focuses on projects that are multimodal and multi-jurisdictional in nature. A key feature of the RAISE program is its investment in a diverse array of infrastructure projects. The program allocates funds to a wide range of initiatives aimed at improving transportation networks across various modes, including highways, rail systems, public transit, and port facilities. This broad approach ensures a comprehensive strategy for infrastructure development, contributing to a more resilient and robust transportation system. Another important aspect of the RAISE program is its support for multimodal projects. By funding initiatives that integrate multiple transportation modes, the program seeks to foster a more efficient and interconnected transportation network. This multimodal strategy aims to reduce congestion, decrease emissions, and enhance overall transportation efficiency. For example, a project might upgrade both rail and road infrastructure, creating smoother connections between different transportation modes and improving the movement of goods and people. The RAISE program emphasizes equity and sustainability in its approach. It is designed to ensure that infrastructure investments benefit all communities, especially those that have been historically underserved. Projects funded through RAISE are intended to advance environmental sustainability by supporting green infrastructure and reducing transportation-related carbon emissions. Additionally, these projects aim to promote economic growth and social equity, contributing to the overall well-being of diverse populations. The program's focus on these values aims to support a more inclusive and sustainable future for transportation infrastructure in the United States. === '''Financial Programs for Capital Investments''' === Modern infrastructure financing has evolved to include a range of mechanisms beyond traditional “pay as you go” excise taxes aimed at improving the efficiency of public funds, accelerating project delivery, and stimulating economic growth through the use of private capital and the distribution of financial risk. The Federal government plays a crucial role in this process, with agencies such as the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Department of the Treasury being central to the support and facilitation of these financing approaches. A notable development in this area is the establishment of the Build America Bureau. This initiative, part of a broader government effort to enhance infrastructure investment, was designed to actively involve private sector investors, foster collaboration, and expand opportunities for public-private partnerships (P3s). The Bureau supports this objective through key programs such as the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) and the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) credit programs.   This section will examine these financial programs and other federal initiatives that play a role in capital investments, providing an overview of their impact and function in the current infrastructure financing landscape. ==== Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation (TIFIA) Program ==== TIFIA, established in 1998, is a federal initiative aimed at enhancing the impact of limited Federal resources and attracting significant capital market investment in transportation infrastructure. It provides credit assistance through mechanisms such as direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit, focusing on projects of national or regional importance. The program's objectives include facilitating projects with substantial public benefits, exploring innovative revenue streams, encouraging private sector involvement, and addressing gaps in capital markets. TIFIA operates under a framework that includes requirements for project cost determinations, credit assistance limits, investment-grade ratings, and compliance with federal regulations. The application process for TIFIA is rolling and allows various entities, including state governments and transportation improvement districts, to submit project proposals. Eligible projects range widely, from highways and bridges to transit facilities and airports. To qualify, projects must demonstrate creditworthiness, obtain investment-grade ratings, and show readiness to proceed. Legislative changes have significantly influenced TIFIA. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century (MAP-21) Act of 2012 greatly expanded TIFIA's credit authority and introduced a "first-come, first-served" application process. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 reduced the program’s credit authority and clarified refinancing rules. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021 further enhanced TIFIA by extending commitment periods, increasing project rating thresholds, and broadening eligible project types, while streamlining the application process for projects ready to start within 90 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: Selected Changes Impacting Public-Private Partnerships {{!}} Bracewell LLP |url=https://bracewell.com/insights/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-selected-changes-impacting-public-private |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=bracewell.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1" /> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0" /> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 7fbjz64y6yanws524i15ttfym2lfnva 4681670 4681669 2026-11-11T17:59:55Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681670 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== Multimodal Project Discretionary Grants (MPDG) ==== Several programs will be highlighted in the coming pages, collectively supporting a wide range of transportation projects aligned with the Department of Transportation's strategic goals. MPDG represents a collection of grant programs aimed at funding these initiatives. This includes categories such as MEGA Grants, INFRA Grants, and Rural Grants, each designed to address specific transportation needs. MEGA Grants: These grants provide substantial funding for large-scale transportation projects that have significant regional or national impacts. Examples of such projects include the construction of major highways, bridges, and transit systems that enhance connectivity and economic growth. Mega Grants are crucial for undertaking ambitious infrastructure projects that require extensive resources and long-term commitment. INFRA Grants: The Infrastructure for Rebuilding America (INFRA) grants are aimed at addressing critical transportation challenges that impede the efficient movement of goods and people. These grants focus on projects that improve freight mobility, reduce congestion, enhance safety, and boost the reliability of transportation networks. INFRA grants support initiatives that are vital for maintaining the competitiveness of the U.S. economy by ensuring that critical infrastructure is modernized and well-maintained. Rural Grants: Recognizing the unique transportation needs of rural areas, Rural Grants provide targeted funding to support infrastructure projects in these regions. These grants help address the disparities in transportation infrastructure between urban and rural areas, ensuring that rural communities have access to safe and reliable transportation options. Projects funded by Rural Grants often include road improvements, bridge repairs, and enhancements to public transit systems, which are crucial for the economic and social well-being of rural populations. ==== Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) Program<ref>{{Cite web |title=RAISE Discretionary Grants |url=https://www.transportation.gov/RAISEgrants |access-date=04/01/2024}}</ref> ==== The Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) program, formerly known as BUILD (Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development) and TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery), is a discretionary grant initiative managed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. The RAISE program aims to invest in a wide range of infrastructure projects, including road, rail, transit, and port projects. It supports state and local project sponsors and focuses on projects that are multimodal and multi-jurisdictional in nature. A key feature of the RAISE program is its investment in a diverse array of infrastructure projects. The program allocates funds to a wide range of initiatives aimed at improving transportation networks across various modes, including highways, rail systems, public transit, and port facilities. This broad approach ensures a comprehensive strategy for infrastructure development, contributing to a more resilient and robust transportation system. Another important aspect of the RAISE program is its support for multimodal projects. By funding initiatives that integrate multiple transportation modes, the program seeks to foster a more efficient and interconnected transportation network. This multimodal strategy aims to reduce congestion, decrease emissions, and enhance overall transportation efficiency. For example, a project might upgrade both rail and road infrastructure, creating smoother connections between different transportation modes and improving the movement of goods and people. The RAISE program emphasizes equity and sustainability in its approach. It is designed to ensure that infrastructure investments benefit all communities, especially those that have been historically underserved. Projects funded through RAISE are intended to advance environmental sustainability by supporting green infrastructure and reducing transportation-related carbon emissions. Additionally, these projects aim to promote economic growth and social equity, contributing to the overall well-being of diverse populations. The program's focus on these values aims to support a more inclusive and sustainable future for transportation infrastructure in the United States. === '''Financial Programs for Capital Investments''' === Modern infrastructure financing has evolved to include a range of mechanisms beyond traditional “pay as you go” excise taxes aimed at improving the efficiency of public funds, accelerating project delivery, and stimulating economic growth through the use of private capital and the distribution of financial risk. The Federal government plays a crucial role in this process, with agencies such as the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Department of the Treasury being central to the support and facilitation of these financing approaches. A notable development in this area is the establishment of the Build America Bureau. This initiative, part of a broader government effort to enhance infrastructure investment, was designed to actively involve private sector investors, foster collaboration, and expand opportunities for public-private partnerships (P3s). The Bureau supports this objective through key programs such as the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) and the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) credit programs.   This section will examine these financial programs and other federal initiatives that play a role in capital investments, providing an overview of their impact and function in the current infrastructure financing landscape. ==== Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation (TIFIA) Program ==== TIFIA, established in 1998, is a federal initiative aimed at enhancing the impact of limited Federal resources and attracting significant capital market investment in transportation infrastructure. It provides credit assistance through mechanisms such as direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit, focusing on projects of national or regional importance. The program's objectives include facilitating projects with substantial public benefits, exploring innovative revenue streams, encouraging private sector involvement, and addressing gaps in capital markets. TIFIA operates under a framework that includes requirements for project cost determinations, credit assistance limits, investment-grade ratings, and compliance with federal regulations. The application process for TIFIA is rolling and allows various entities, including state governments and transportation improvement districts, to submit project proposals. Eligible projects range widely, from highways and bridges to transit facilities and airports. To qualify, projects must demonstrate creditworthiness, obtain investment-grade ratings, and show readiness to proceed. Legislative changes have significantly influenced TIFIA. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century (MAP-21) Act of 2012 greatly expanded TIFIA's credit authority and introduced a "first-come, first-served" application process. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 reduced the program’s credit authority and clarified refinancing rules. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021 further enhanced TIFIA by extending commitment periods, increasing project rating thresholds, and broadening eligible project types, while streamlining the application process for projects ready to start within 90 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: Selected Changes Impacting Public-Private Partnerships {{!}} Bracewell LLP |url=https://bracewell.com/insights/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-selected-changes-impacting-public-private |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=bracewell.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1" /> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0" /> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 4u2mz2v7ercdrxc03gmys2l92777h0g 4681671 4681670 2026-11-11T18:00:08Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681671 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] === '''Financial Programs for Capital Investments''' === Modern infrastructure financing has evolved to include a range of mechanisms beyond traditional “pay as you go” excise taxes aimed at improving the efficiency of public funds, accelerating project delivery, and stimulating economic growth through the use of private capital and the distribution of financial risk. The Federal government plays a crucial role in this process, with agencies such as the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Department of the Treasury being central to the support and facilitation of these financing approaches. A notable development in this area is the establishment of the Build America Bureau. This initiative, part of a broader government effort to enhance infrastructure investment, was designed to actively involve private sector investors, foster collaboration, and expand opportunities for public-private partnerships (P3s). The Bureau supports this objective through key programs such as the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) and the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) credit programs.   This section will examine these financial programs and other federal initiatives that play a role in capital investments, providing an overview of their impact and function in the current infrastructure financing landscape. ==== Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation (TIFIA) Program ==== TIFIA, established in 1998, is a federal initiative aimed at enhancing the impact of limited Federal resources and attracting significant capital market investment in transportation infrastructure. It provides credit assistance through mechanisms such as direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit, focusing on projects of national or regional importance. The program's objectives include facilitating projects with substantial public benefits, exploring innovative revenue streams, encouraging private sector involvement, and addressing gaps in capital markets. TIFIA operates under a framework that includes requirements for project cost determinations, credit assistance limits, investment-grade ratings, and compliance with federal regulations. The application process for TIFIA is rolling and allows various entities, including state governments and transportation improvement districts, to submit project proposals. Eligible projects range widely, from highways and bridges to transit facilities and airports. To qualify, projects must demonstrate creditworthiness, obtain investment-grade ratings, and show readiness to proceed. Legislative changes have significantly influenced TIFIA. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century (MAP-21) Act of 2012 greatly expanded TIFIA's credit authority and introduced a "first-come, first-served" application process. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 reduced the program’s credit authority and clarified refinancing rules. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021 further enhanced TIFIA by extending commitment periods, increasing project rating thresholds, and broadening eligible project types, while streamlining the application process for projects ready to start within 90 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: Selected Changes Impacting Public-Private Partnerships {{!}} Bracewell LLP |url=https://bracewell.com/insights/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-selected-changes-impacting-public-private |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=bracewell.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1" /> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0" /> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} ocdhab1jcbbam2l7lec3n2zyp81pw8v 4681672 4681671 2026-11-11T18:00:37Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681672 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation (TIFIA) Program ==== TIFIA, established in 1998, is a federal initiative aimed at enhancing the impact of limited Federal resources and attracting significant capital market investment in transportation infrastructure. It provides credit assistance through mechanisms such as direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit, focusing on projects of national or regional importance. The program's objectives include facilitating projects with substantial public benefits, exploring innovative revenue streams, encouraging private sector involvement, and addressing gaps in capital markets. TIFIA operates under a framework that includes requirements for project cost determinations, credit assistance limits, investment-grade ratings, and compliance with federal regulations. The application process for TIFIA is rolling and allows various entities, including state governments and transportation improvement districts, to submit project proposals. Eligible projects range widely, from highways and bridges to transit facilities and airports. To qualify, projects must demonstrate creditworthiness, obtain investment-grade ratings, and show readiness to proceed. Legislative changes have significantly influenced TIFIA. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century (MAP-21) Act of 2012 greatly expanded TIFIA's credit authority and introduced a "first-come, first-served" application process. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 reduced the program’s credit authority and clarified refinancing rules. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021 further enhanced TIFIA by extending commitment periods, increasing project rating thresholds, and broadening eligible project types, while streamlining the application process for projects ready to start within 90 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: Selected Changes Impacting Public-Private Partnerships {{!}} Bracewell LLP |url=https://bracewell.com/insights/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-selected-changes-impacting-public-private |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=bracewell.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1" /> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0" /> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} nmnq1fktjhevpo84iwlipg5qd46niwj 4681673 4681672 2026-11-11T18:00:49Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681673 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1" /> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0" /> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} tjfy1wq9dbgbfryajj3xnaep5mm8oyc 4681674 4681673 2026-11-11T18:01:03Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681674 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1" /> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} ebervgw9ce15ztvxw98zj2jm5qqyn6h 4681675 4681674 2026-11-11T18:01:43Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681675 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} jt6ra03ur2fg0u4xot1f7wm279f27g5 4681677 4681675 2026-11-11T18:02:07Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681677 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. BAR CHART BAR CHART '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 1kej5zm2ho1a9847flusyidc6898s3p 4681678 4681677 2026-11-11T18:02:17Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681678 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8" /> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} kciv62xlozc3rtyi7zi3d0ts4zsx8md 4681679 4681678 2026-11-11T18:02:29Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681679 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] == Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level == In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-05-23 |title=About MPOs - AMPO |url=https://ampo.org/about-us/about-mpos/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022.<ref>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policy/24cpr/pdf/Chapter2.pdf</ref> This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} q8qnkat44vx1b2ilpb47a3ff9dfwbtm 4681680 4681679 2026-11-11T18:02:43Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681680 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== '''State Fuel Taxes and Fees''' ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> '''Table 2 - ADD TITLE''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <ref>{{Cite web |title=Gasoline Tax |url=https://www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/motor-fuel-taxes/gasoline-tax |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.api.org |language=en}}</ref><small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State Gasoline Taxes: Built to Fail, But Fixable |url=https://itep.org/state-gasoline-taxes-built-to-fail-but-fixable-2/?gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAjwm_SzBhAsEiwAXE2Cv8iihm9ss1eF2vdusPVgc33BbEG1jtiNuA-pTUx6Gqhxi2O_WkD0DBoCuTkQAvD_BwE |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=ITEP |language=en-US}}</ref> Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' <ref>https://www.ncsl.org/transportation/variable-rate-gas-taxes</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} rrfchvkw01vhk0jbpmoljbr9sd5q8au 4681681 4681680 2026-11-11T18:03:18Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681681 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} llgfrg6k4onz0lz8rowgrjladx98wpb 4681682 4681681 2026-11-11T18:03:35Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681682 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} dv0ahwj5fkc4jizyupcdj9k0p4scrru 4681683 4681682 2026-11-11T18:03:54Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681683 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 7vw76m69rmtf7zzaym0m9n3h71m7q36 4681684 4681683 2026-11-11T18:04:15Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681684 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 2opna6f6pl1rjoosf3kp7sr1f9tbe1s 4681685 4681684 2026-11-11T18:04:34Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681685 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 8ih6127mqlyd2c3pxw2a2ho5ei7yx3u 4681686 4681685 2026-11-11T18:05:07Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681686 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3" /> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2" /> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5" /> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} penwpe7px185feqaikrecro48kghthj 4681687 4681686 2026-11-11T18:05:33Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681687 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} tbpeaf23x5vm3jrhbqkj48xu063f7ne 4681688 4681687 2026-11-11T18:05:45Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681688 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6" /> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} mbu0rkc72bp0x9v83mqp68g09fy9ko3 4681689 4681688 2026-11-11T18:05:56Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681689 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} elxoj02wwl2xjr3bowduf1xs9bf77i8 4681690 4681689 2026-11-11T18:06:06Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681690 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 1k7eemopyncwet61lfdcyrjiojadi56 4681691 4681690 2026-11-11T18:06:14Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681691 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} m5nv8c91y86lv27fu1lo6idj65isko5 4681693 4681691 2026-11-11T18:06:24Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681693 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} ply48dl9sotfvthujhkyulxy3x8i1ny 4681694 4681693 2026-11-11T18:06:36Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681694 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} mq4x216epz6dhs3lamz0up8wdc0b76w 4681695 4681694 2026-11-11T18:06:48Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681695 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} l9og1j8821on5vs3zvjtbwbgyu0hkdz 4681697 4681695 2026-11-11T18:07:00Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681697 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} mzyi26h79wt5f9iwzytbmi7z0izpwyo 4681698 4681697 2026-11-11T18:07:22Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681698 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} sm2w1869m2mnd9o5xz9d038b8n0h27f 4681699 4681698 2026-11-11T18:07:31Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681699 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} k4wv5msslgmahlkmh58ns4cm6nxqomz 4681700 4681699 2026-11-11T18:07:38Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681700 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |District of Columbia |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |Suburban Maryland |Maryland Department of Transportation   * State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA)   * Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) * Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |Northern Virginia |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |Regional |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12" /> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} irm2m54p5rezdf7y5j2z8aq2bazmvoj 4681701 4681700 2026-11-11T18:07:55Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681701 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":12" /> '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":11" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11" /> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} my33vsanmitvwkjij1n6ghggwswwc84 4681702 4681701 2026-11-11T18:08:05Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681702 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} dvnst1ijimphpiooudc9uncubx6f5p1 4681703 4681702 2026-11-11T18:08:18Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681703 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} dq7py8lvrb4o0zi5w3mgqu40uzn8yy7 4681704 4681703 2026-11-11T18:08:35Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681704 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref>, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":11" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} lbo31lnvilocw1nhc12m2z6p7z3lx94 4681705 4681704 2026-11-11T18:08:45Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681705 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":11" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":11" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} md50m0ak4qwcaq3u9gtfvosxoer5mns 4681706 4681705 2026-11-11T18:08:53Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681706 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} naozriy5ztb00xwekq71e8vltja8lvv 4681707 4681706 2026-11-11T18:09:06Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681707 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} 3pb9gll02nk4crip4gxao1xreqyefox 4681708 4681707 2026-11-11T18:09:15Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 4681708 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] == Reading List == === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} qk8321kyqc65xvnxe5l0ivs2guo1zp5 4681709 4681708 2026-11-11T18:09:37Z ~2026-56325-65 3628936 Replaced content with "__notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]]" 4681709 wikitext text/x-wiki __notoc__ {{New book}}{{Split}} == Table of Contents == # [[/Attribution/]] # [[/Introduction/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the Federal Level/]] # [[/Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level/]] # [[/Case Studies/]] # [[/Reading List/]] cqupkoa4pk5z0mfsm5ftmi1e2bhhh84 0 472736 4681712 4677508 2026-11-11T18:21:45Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681712 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} The funding and finance of U.S. transportation projects are a testament to the country’s intricate and decentralized governance structure. In the United States, a vast network of federal, state, and local governments, along with a multitude of agencies, collectively shape the nation's transportation landscape. This complex arrangement is not a mere quirk of the system, but a deliberate feature designed to accommodate the varied needs of a diverse country. The seemingly bewildering array of institutions involved in delivering transportation services underscores the unique flexibility and responsiveness embedded within the American governmental framework.   To fully grasp the financial underpinnings of U.S. transportation, one must navigate the complex interplay of policies, funding streams, and institutional dynamics that have evolved over the decades, each layer adding depth to the nation's approach to building and maintaining its critical infrastructure. Central to this understanding is the distinction between funding and finance, two complementary but distinct concepts that are often interwoven in transportation projects. Funding refers to the allocation of money that does not require repayment, typically sourced from tax revenues or government appropriations. Finance, in contrast, involves borrowing or leveraging private investments to fund projects, with the expectation that these funds will be repaid, often with interest. While funding provides the necessary resources upfront, finance helps to bridge gaps or enable large-scale projects that would otherwise be unfeasible through funding alone. Both mechanisms are essential in the development and maintenance of transportation infrastructure. This Wikibooks page will guide readers through these intricate arrangements by exploring key concepts such as the distinction between funding and finance, capital expenditures and operations/maintenance, and the role of federalism in the highway and transit sectors. This report will predominantly concentrate on highway transportation, with a secondary examination of transit assets. Detailed analysis of other transportation modalities, such as aviation and maritime, will not be included at this time.   To bring the crucial funding and finance concepts to life, the paper will also feature two detailed case studies, illustrating how these arrangements and governance structures play out in real-world scenarios. These case studies will not only provide practical insights but also highlight the broader implications of the funding mechanisms that shape the U.S. transportation system. One approach to understanding funding and finance in the United States is to divide the subject into two categories: Capital Funding and Finance, which refers to the funding and financing of assets or investments that provide long-term benefits such as infrastructure, equipment, and property, and Operational Funding and Finance, which involves funding and financing the day-to-day operations of an organization, covering expenses like salaries, utilities, and maintenance. This paper applies this methodology to analyze highway funding at the federal government level, starting with a brief overview of its historical and contemporary context. It then explores capital and operational funding and financing at the federal level before turning to the funding mechanisms at the state and local levels. At these lower levels of government, the distinction between capital and operational investments can be somewhat arbitrary compared to the federal level, so this paper does not separate them in these sections. == Background on History of Highway Funding == In the early 20th century, the development of roadways in the United States was a dynamic but inconsistent  process, with responsibilities not only divided between local and state governments but approached in very different ways. Local governments primarily oversaw the construction and maintenance of smaller, local roads, while state governments to differing degrees gradually assumed a larger role in the development of major highways and arterial routes. This shift in influence was driven by individual states' growing financial resources, which were bolstered by the collection of annual registration fees and motor fuel taxes. As the number of cars on the road increased and vehicle miles traveled expanded, state highway department budgets grew significantly, enabling them to play a more dominant role in determining freeway routes within urban areas. By 1921, the federal government began playing a greater role in highway funding. However, this increased federal involvement was met with considerable debate and controversy regarding the appropriate level of federal oversight. Despite this increased federal involvement, states continued to take the lead in planning, designing, constructing, and maintaining the nation's primary roadways. Activities receiving federal funds were conducted in accordance with federal standards and required federal approval. Consequently, by the 1930s, a rudimentary national highway network had already been established, ensuring that the majority of Americans lived within close proximity to a numbered U.S. highway, exemplified by the iconic U.S. Route 66. The pivotal moment in the history of federal highway funding in the U.S. occurred during President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration. In the 1950s, Congress devised a financial strategy to support the ambitious vision of an interstate highway system that had been contemplated for several decades. This effort culminated in the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, which reinforced the evolving relationship between federal, state, and local governments. However, the groundwork for this division of roles was largely influenced by strategies deployed by the executive branch, particularly by key figures like Thomas MacDonald and others in the Office of Road Inquiry and the Bureau of Public Roads—predecessors to the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA). Their efforts were instrumental in shaping expectations and building a framework for how roadway financing and responsibilities would be divided among local, state, and federal governments. This dynamic had a profound impact on the design and execution of road network improvements, influencing the development and connectivity of both intercity and urban areas throughout the 20th century.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=Brian D. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197601518.001.0001 |title=The Drive for Dollars |last2=Morris |first2=Eric A. |last3=Brown |first3=Jeffrey R. |date=2023-02-21 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |isbn=0-19-760151-0}}</ref> == Background on Modern of Highway Funding Revenues and Expenses == Revenues and expenditures across various levels of government continue to be intricately linked. Funds are generated through a combination of fees and taxes imposed on highway users and other sources at the federal, state, and local levels. These revenues are allocated to cover the costs associated with constructing, replacing, rehabilitating, maintaining, and making other capital investments in highways and bridges. In 2021 the total revenue generated for highways and bridges by all government tiers amounted to $270.6 billion, while expenditures reached $301.1 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transportation Economic Trends: Government Transportation Revenue vs Expenditure |url=https://data.bts.gov/stories/s/Transportation-Economic-Trends-Government-Transpor/w4cf-2j4p |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=data.bts.gov |language=en}}</ref> When revenues fall short of expenditures, as was the case in 2021. When revenues fall short of expenditures, as was the case in 2018, the shortfall is covered by drawing from highway reserve accounts at each governmental level.<ref name=":7" /> {| class="wikitable" |+Table 1 - Government Highway Revenues by Source, 2008-2018 !Revenue Source !Federal !State !Local !Total !Federal Share of Total !State Share of Total |- |Motor Fuel Taxes |$29.9 |$35.7 |$1.2 |$66.9 |44.7% |53.4% |- |Motor Vehicle Taxes |$5.9 |$28.1 |$2.8 |$36.8 |16.0% |76.3% |- |Tolls |$0.0 |$14.6 |$3.1 |$17.6 |0.0% |82.6% |- !Subtotal: User Fees !$35.8 !$78.4 !$7.1 !$121.3 !29.5% !64.6% |- |Property Taxes and Assessments | | |$11.6 |$11.6 | | |- |General Fund Appropriations |$4.5 |$8.1 |$26.9 |$39.4 |11.4% |20.5% |- |Other Taxes and Fees |$0.0 |$12.7 |$9.0 |$21.8 |0.0% |58.2% |- |Investment Income and Other Receipts |$0.7 |$12.9 |$8.4 |$22.0 |3.0% |58.6% |- |Bond Issue Proceeds |$0.0 |$14.7 |$7.0 |$21.7 |0.0% |67.6% |- !Total Revenues !$40.9 !$126.7 !$70.1 !$237.8 !17.2% !53.3% |} Notes: Dollar value are in billions. Motor fuel taxes, motor vehicle taxes and fees, and tolls refers to the portion of user charges that are used to fund highway spending, which excludes user fees used for mass transit and other non-highway purposes. Gross receipts generated by user charges totaled $160.5 billion in 2018, of which $121.3 billion was used for highways. The $4 billion General Fund Appropriation shown for Federal includes expenditures by the FHWA and other Federal agencies that were not paid for from the Highway Trust Fund. Sources: Highway Statistics 2018, Table HF-10, and FHWA estimates.<ref name=":7" /> From 2008 to 2018, total revenue experienced an annual growth rate of 2.1 percent. User charges, which encompass motor fuel taxes, motor vehicle taxes and fees, and tolls, collectively generated $121.3 billion. The most significant increase in revenue came from tolls, which surged from $9.1 billion to $17.6 billion, reflecting an average annual growth rate of 6.8 percent. User charges comprised approximately half of the total revenue, with motor fuel and motor vehicle taxes contributing 44 percent and tolls accounting for 7 percent. The remaining $116.5 billion was derived from diverse sources, including property taxes and assessments, General Fund appropriations, additional taxes and fees, investment income, and debt financing<ref name=":7" />. [[File:Highway_Statistics_Pie_Chart.png|center|thumb|Highway Statistics Pie Chart]] '''Figure 1 - Highway Expenditures by Type in 2018<ref name=":7" />''' Between 2008 and 2018, total expenditures experienced an annual growth rate of 2.6 percent. In 2018, the distribution of funding sources for these expenditures was as follows: the federal government contributed 20.4 percent, state governments provided 50.7 percent, and local governments accounted for 28.9 percent. Capital outlay constituted nearly half (48 percent) of the total expenditure, with maintenance and traffic services following at 24 percent. Administrative costs, highway patrol and safety, bond retirement, and debt interest each represented between 6 and 9 percent of the total highway expenditures for the year. During the same period, capital outlay increased at an average annual rate of 2.6 percent. Federal funding grew by 2.3 percent, while State and local spending rose by 2.9 percent. In 2018, the Federal government was responsible for 40.1 percent of capital outlay but only 20.4 percent of overall highway expenditures. Notably, about two-thirds (66.1 percent) of capital outlay was allocated to system rehabilitation, encompassing $61.2 billion for highways and $16.2 billion for bridges. Additionally, 19.8 percent of capital outlay was dedicated to system expansion, primarily involving highway extensions. A later section of this report will provide an in-depth analysis of these revenue and expenditure sources, with a particular emphasis on the funding and financial mechanisms available at the federal level. === References === 211vn8za1rfjx5akwx5cnlnr47nvcew 0 474386 4681731 4490232 2026-11-11T20:13:39Z Skafbgjsabfvds 3631118 4681731 wikitext text/x-wiki SkafbgjsabfvdsSkafbgjsabfvdsSkafbgjsabfvdsSkafbgjsabfvdsSkafbgjsabfvdsThe case of the NYC Department of Education (NYC DOE) and ChatGPT serves as a rich exploration of ethical tensions at the intersection of education, technology, and institutional responsibility. This chapter outlines how public officials, educators, students, and OpenAI have navigated the implementation of this new and powerful tool in the classroom thus far.  == A Very Short Lived Ban == === '''Introduction''' === [[File:NYC SCHOOLS CHANCELLOR ANNOUNCES NYC READS (52892386350) (cropped).jpg|thumb|200x200px|David Banks, NYC Schools Chancellor]] In late 2022, the artificial intelligence chatbot ChatGPT burst onto the scene, raising excitement and alarm in education. By early January 2023, the New York City Department of Education, the nation’s largest school district, blocked access to ChatGPT on school devices and networks, citing "negative impacts on student learning" and concerns about the "safety and accuracy of content."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Elsen-Rooney |first=Michael |year=January 3, 2023 |orig-date= |title=NYC blocks access to ChatGPT on school networks as cheating fears swirl |url=https://www.chalkbeat.org/newyork/2023/1/3/23537987/nyc-schools-ban-chatgpt-writing-artificial-intelligence/#:~:text=New%20York%20City%20students%20and,networks,%20agency%20officials%20confirmed%20Tuesday |access-date= |website=Chalkbeat |language=en}}</ref> Officials feared that AI might enable cheating and provide quick answers without building real skills​.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yang |first=Maya |date= |year=January 6, 2023 |title=New York City schools ban AI chatbot that writes essays and answers prompts |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jan/06/new-york-city-schools-ban-ai-chatbot-chatgpt#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20city%E2%80%99s%20education,safety%20and%20accuracy%20of%20contents%E2%80%9D |access-date=2025-05-04 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> This decision marked a temporary ban on the use of ChatGPT in NYC public schools and quickly became a national bellwether. Just a few months later, however, the NYC DOE reversed the ban, with the School's Chancellor David Banks calling the initial move a "knee-jerk" reaction made out of fear​.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Banks |first=David C. |last2= |last3= |first3= |date= |year=May 18, 2023 |title=ChatGPT caught NYC schools off guard. Now, we’re determined to embrace its potential. |url=https://www.chalkbeat.org/newyork/2023/5/18/23727942/chatgpt-nyc-schools-david-banks/ |access-date= |website=Chalkbeat |language=en}}</ref> === '''Implementing the Ban''' === On January 3, 2023, NYC education officials confirmed that ChatGPT had been blocked on all education department networks and devices.<ref name=":0" /> Banks and his team made this decision swiftly, less than two months after ChatGPT’s public release. The ban meant that students and teachers could not use ChatGPT on school WiFi or school-issued iPads and laptops, though individual schools could request access if they planned to study the technology itself.<ref name=":0" /> The block placed ChatGPT alongside platforms like YouTube and Roblox on the district’s restricted websites list​.<ref name=":1" /> The DOE’s rationale for the ban revolved around academic integrity and the quality of learning. The district – like many educators elsewhere – worried that students might use the AI to cheat on essays and assignments, undermining their own learning​.<ref name=":0" /> As one official put it, an over reliance on AI may cause students to "lack the necessary skills to evaluate information" critically​.<ref name=":2" /> Teachers reported instances of ChatGPT generating polished essays in seconds, raising alarms that traditional take-home writing tasks could become obsolete​.<ref name=":0" /> Concerns about misinformation and inappropriate content also arose: ChatGPT can sometimes produce incorrect or fictional information or even offensive language, which could harm students​.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Toulas |first=Bill |year=January 5, 2023 |title=ChatGPT banned in NYC schools over learning impact concerns |url=https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/technology/chatgpt-banned-in-nyc-schools-over-learning-impact-concerns/#:~:text=NYC%20Dept,necessary%20skills%20to%20evaluate%20information |access-date= |website=BleepingComputer |language=en-us}}</ref> Despite the ban, NYC DOE acknowledged it could not block access entirely. Students could still reach ChatGPT on personal devices or on home internet, beyond the school’s firewall.<ref name=":0" /> This meant the policy was more a strong statement than an all-encompassing solution; a fact not lost on observers who noted tech-savvy students would find workarounds. "If they’re not using it in their classes, they can use it at home," one education technology expert pointed out, emphasizing that blocking a website at school has limited effect.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Jimenez |first=Kayla |year=January 30, 2023 |title='This shouldn’t be a surprise' The education community shares mixed reactions to ChatGPT |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2023/01/30/chatgpt-going-banned-teachers-sound-alarm-new-ai-tech/11069593002/#:~:text=New%20York%20City's%C2%A0Department%20of%20Education%C2%A0blocked%C2%A0ChatGPT,can%20be%20difficult%20to%20detect |access-date= |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> Still, NYC’s stance carried significant weight. As the first major U.S. school district to announce such a ban, New York City’s decision set the tone for others. Officials noted that the move by the nation’s largest school system "could have ripple effects as districts and schools across the country grapple with how to respond" to this new technology.<ref name=":0" /> Within weeks, a few other big districts took similar steps: for example, Seattle Public Schools also moved to restrict the site, specifically noting the difficulty of detecting AI-written work.<ref name=":3" /> "That decision… spurred other districts to follow suit," one education publication later observed of NYC’s leadership​.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Klein |first=Alyson |date= |year=October 5, 2023 |title=180 Degree Turn: NYC District Goes From Banning ChatGPT to Exploring AI's Potential |language=en |work=Education Week |url=https://www.edweek.org/technology/180-degree-turn-nyc-schools-goes-from-banning-chatgpt-to-exploring-ais-potential/2023/10#:~:text=That%20development%E2%80%94announced%20Oct,other%20districts%20to%20follow%20suit |access-date= |issn=0277-4232}}</ref> === '''Reconsideration and Reversal''' === [[File:ChatGPT logo.svg|thumb|150x150px|OpenAI's ChatGPT reenters NYC classrooms]] In the months after the ban, NYC educators and officials engaged in intensive discussions about ChatGPT’s place in schools. The issue was clearly not going away; teachers were buzzing about it in staff rooms and online forums. By February 2023, Banks hinted that the policy might evolve. Speaking on local media, Banks suggested the department would soon issue new guidance on ChatGPT and even allow its use "with guardrails" in place.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Gould |first=Jessica |last2= |date= |year=February 2, 2023 |title=NYC teachers debate utility of ChatGPT as schools chancellor mulls policy |url=https://gothamist.com/news/nyc-teachers-debate-utility-of-chatgpt-as-schools-chancellor-mulls-policy#:~:text=Many%20educators%20who%20spoke%20to,the%20internet%20%E2%80%93%20were%20unsuccessful |access-date= |website=Gothamist |language=en}}</ref> This was a notable softening of tone. The United Federation of Teachers (UFT), NYC’s powerful teachers’ union, had also convened a working group to study ChatGPT’s impact on homework and learning​.<ref name=":5" /> Union representatives reported "mixed" reactions among educators: "some people…have been terrified" of the cheating threat and wanted the AI gone, while others were eager "to explore" its potential.<ref name=":5" /> This internal pressure to find a more nuanced approach set the stage for a policy reversal. On May 18, 2023, the NYC Department of Education officially reversed the ban on ChatGPT​.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Varanasi |first=Lakshmi |year=May 19, 2023 |title=New York City's public schools reverse their ban on ChatGPT — admitting it had been 'knee-jerk fear' |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nyc-public-schools-reverse-ban-on-chatgpt-in-the-classroom-2023-5#:~:text=an%20Insider%20%20and%20start,Have%20an%20account?%20Log%20in |access-date= |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> In a Chalkbeat op-ed and in public statements, Banks admitted that the initial ban was put in place due to fear of the unknown​.<ref name=":1" /> He justified the decision by explaining that the ban had given the school system “time to understand” the technology’s implications.<ref name=":1" /> In hindsight, he wrote, the caution was justified as a temporary measure, but it was now time to move forward. Banks explained that over the spring his team had consulted with technology industry leaders and “our most trusted experts — citywide educators” to craft a better strategy​.<ref name=":6" /> Through these conversations, the district came to recognize that ChatGPT could be an asset in the classroom if used responsibly, and that schools must teach students about AI rather than shun it. With the reversal, NYC DOE launched a new, more permissive policy with an emphasis on guidance. Banks announced that “New York City Public Schools will encourage and support our educators and students as they learn about and explore this game-changing technology." Instead of a blanket ban, the district would provide teachers with training and resources on how to incorporate AI. The chancellor promised a "toolkit of resources" and real-life examples for educators, along with a shared repository where teachers and students could share their findings and best practices using ChatGPT in lessons​.<ref name=":1" /> The goal was to harness ChatGPT’s advantages for learning while mitigating its risks. This reversal marked a profound change in the district’s approach, acknowledging that generative AI is here to stay and that schools have a role in teaching AI literacy and ethics rather than ignoring the technology. == Participants and Ethical Considerations == Initially, NYC DOE officials and educators were concerned about ChatGPT's potential to disrupt existing educational practices and hamstring students' learning. Deputy Press Secretary Jenna Lyle claimed that ChatGPT does not “help build critical-thinking and problem-solving skills.”<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rosenzweig-Ziff |first=Dan |date=2023-01-05 |title=New York City blocks use of the ChatGPT bot in its schools |language=en-US |work=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/01/05/nyc-schools-ban-chatgpt/ |access-date=2025-05-06 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Chancellor David Banks aimed to maintain a “high academic bar” while protecting students from AI's hazards. The initial ban was a result of the leaders' ethical responsibility to protect student safety and learning while maintaining core educational pillars of diligence, originality, and critical thinking. However, resulting ethical complications occurred: students with home internet access and personal devices could reap the short-term benefits of ChatGPT outside of school networks, while those without had no access. Moreover, blocking the use of ChatGPT would prevent students from building AI literacy, leaving them susceptible to its hazards. As a result, the ban was lifted. The ban's lifting reflected the ethical responsibility of educational leaders to enable long-term success of its students. Banks, who conceded that early fear “overlooked the potential”<ref>{{Cite web |last=May 18 |first=David C. Banks {{!}} |last2=2023 |last3=UTC |first3=10:00am |date=2023-05-18 |title=ChatGPT caught NYC schools off guard. Now, we’re determined to embrace its potential. |url=https://www.chalkbeat.org/newyork/2023/5/18/23727942/chatgpt-nyc-schools-david-banks/ |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=Chalkbeat |language=en}}</ref> of AI, now acknowledged the inevitability of students working in an AI-integrated world. The shift would enable necessary training to equip students with skills and ethical fluency in emerging technologies. Yet, opportunity without a structured approach creates new ethical risks. With the ban lifted, the burden of responsible AI use shifted—from district policymakers to individual teachers, parents, and students, many of whom received no clear guidance. Teachers remain divided as some express concern that AI "is a way to outsource their thinking"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saric |first=Ivana |date=2025-03-30 |title=Teachers warn AI is impacting students' critical thinking |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/03/30/teachers-ai-students-critical-thinking |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=Axios |language=en}}</ref> and "flat-out cheat."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saric |first=Ivana |date=2025-03-30 |title=Teachers warn AI is impacting students' critical thinking |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/03/30/teachers-ai-students-critical-thinking |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=Axios |language=en}}</ref> Their worry is rooted in a vision of learning that privileges authentic struggle over expediency. Conversely, students face a different ethical terrain—shaped by tool abundance and institutional ambiguity. For them, the real integrity test is not whether they use AI, but how. Devin Berkowitz, a student in NYC, states "Rather than framing ChatGPT as a way to cheat, teachers can show their students how to use it to their advantage, while still keeping their own original ideas. In today's world, technology is quickly becoming more intelligent, but I don't think we have to fear it."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Network |first=The Learning |date=2023-02-02 |title=What Students Are Saying About ChatGPT |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/02/learning/students-chatgpt.html |access-date=2025-05-06 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He argues that honest, strategic use can coexist with student originality, challenging the binary of integrity versus assistance. These contrasting viewpoints echo a wider debate across education—how to balance integrity and innovation, a question schools worldwide are still grappling with as AI evolves. OpenAI’s role introduces another ethical layer. While the company did not directly intervene in the classroom, its technology did. Without clear educational guidance at launch, ChatGPT became a powerful but unmoderated influence. OpenAI’s decision to release ChatGPT without tailored guardrails for classrooms raises the question: Should companies anticipate downstream educational impacts before deployment? This forces a key ethical question: Do creators of powerful tools bear responsibility for shaping how people utilize them? Or is it solely up to public institutions to adapt? This challenge raises a deeper moral question: can innovation ever be separated from the obligations of its consequences? When creators unleash tools with the power to reshape foundational human systems like education, neutrality is no longer an option. Responsibility becomes distributed, yet no less real. Ultimately, the ethical dilemma is captured through allegory: Do students and teachers use AI dishonestly when unseen, or do they explore its potential with thoughtful intent? The conflict is not merely procedural—it is existential. Students must learn not only how to use AI, but why, when, and whether to use it at all. Ethical agency becomes the most critical skill in a world where intelligence is no longer uniquely human. The future of AI in education hinges not on banning or embracing the tool wholesale, but on the collective effort to shape how it is wielded. === '''Moving Forward''' === By the fall of 2023, the NYC DOE announced the creation of an Artificial Intelligence Policy Lab to develop long-term strategies for using AI in teaching and learning​.<ref name=":4" /> "Technology is constantly evolving and New York City Public Schools aims to remain at the forefront," a NYC DOE spokeswoman said, underscoring the city’s new proactive approach​.<ref name=":4" /> This lab, partnering with experts and other districts, would focus on "human-centered AI implementation, equity, safety, ethics, effectiveness, and transparency."<ref name=":4" /> As AI continues to be incorporated, ethical questions will require actionable decisions. Educators agree that student learning and academic integrity must be with supported in all cases. Adam Stevens, a NYC history teacher, highlights that "we've trained a whole generation of kids to pursue rubric points and not knowledge, and of course, if what matters is the point at the end of the semester, that ChatGPT is a threat."<ref name=":0" /> Evaluations of student performance may need to adapt to changing technology to ensure educational outcomes are met. How do we best prepare students for the future? How do we ensure equal access to education? How do we protect the safety and privacy of our students? These difficult questions, and others, remain unanswered. It is up to educational providers and community activists to shape the landscape of public education to ensure a bright future for all. === '''Was There any Foul Play?''' === Available documentation shows no evidence that OpenAI formally lobbied or directly influenced the NYC DOE’s reversal of its ChatGPT ban. Chancellor Banks reported that, following the ban, the system held broad discussions with technology leaders about AI’s educational potential, without specifically naming OpenAI.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Rosenblatt |first=Kalhan |date= |year=May 18, 2023 |title=New York City public schools remove ChatGPT ban |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/chatgpt-ban-dropped-new-york-city-public-schools-rcna85089 |access-date= |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Musto |first=Julia |date= |year=May 19, 2023 |title=New York City Public Schools chancellor reverses ChatGPT restrictions: report |url=https://www.foxnews.com/tech/new-york-city-public-schools-chancellor-reverses-chatgpt-restrictions-report |access-date= |website=Fox News |language=en-US}}</ref> Although OpenAI did announce tools to help educators detect AI‑generated text and expressed a desire to help teachers and students benefit from AI shortly after the initial ban, these efforts aren’t cited as driving the policy change.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiggers |first=Kyle |date= |year=January 5, 2023 |title=As NYC public schools block ChatGPT, OpenAI says it's working on 'mitigations' to help spot ChatGPT-generated text |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/01/05/as-nyc-public-schools-block-chatgpt-openai-says-its-working-on-mitigations-to-help-spot-chatgpt-generated-text/ |access-date= |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> Instead, the decision appears to have resulted primarily from internal reflection and consultations with educators and independent AI experts.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ward |first=Micah |date= |year=May 19, 2023 |title=Why New York City Public Schools reversed its ban on ChatGPT |url=https://districtadministration.com/briefing/why-new-york-city-public-schools-reversed-its-ban-on-chatgpt/ |access-date= |website=District Administration |language=en-US}}</ref> {{BookCat}} tttzd92vh0nhgkf0t3jqjqvtex1q1ss 4681740 4681731 2026-11-11T20:20:31Z NDG 3510220 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Skafbgjsabfvds|Skafbgjsabfvds]] ([[User talk:Skafbgjsabfvds|talk]]) to last version by MauricioLopDLC 4490232 wikitext text/x-wiki The case of the NYC Department of Education (NYC DOE) and ChatGPT serves as a rich exploration of ethical tensions at the intersection of education, technology, and institutional responsibility. This chapter outlines how public officials, educators, students, and OpenAI have navigated the implementation of this new and powerful tool in the classroom thus far.  == A Very Short Lived Ban == === '''Introduction''' === [[File:NYC SCHOOLS CHANCELLOR ANNOUNCES NYC READS (52892386350) (cropped).jpg|thumb|200x200px|David Banks, NYC Schools Chancellor]] In late 2022, the artificial intelligence chatbot ChatGPT burst onto the scene, raising excitement and alarm in education. By early January 2023, the New York City Department of Education, the nation’s largest school district, blocked access to ChatGPT on school devices and networks, citing "negative impacts on student learning" and concerns about the "safety and accuracy of content."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Elsen-Rooney |first=Michael |year=January 3, 2023 |orig-date= |title=NYC blocks access to ChatGPT on school networks as cheating fears swirl |url=https://www.chalkbeat.org/newyork/2023/1/3/23537987/nyc-schools-ban-chatgpt-writing-artificial-intelligence/#:~:text=New%20York%20City%20students%20and,networks,%20agency%20officials%20confirmed%20Tuesday |access-date= |website=Chalkbeat |language=en}}</ref> Officials feared that AI might enable cheating and provide quick answers without building real skills​.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Yang |first=Maya |date= |year=January 6, 2023 |title=New York City schools ban AI chatbot that writes essays and answers prompts |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/jan/06/new-york-city-schools-ban-ai-chatbot-chatgpt#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20city%E2%80%99s%20education,safety%20and%20accuracy%20of%20contents%E2%80%9D |access-date=2025-05-04 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> This decision marked a temporary ban on the use of ChatGPT in NYC public schools and quickly became a national bellwether. Just a few months later, however, the NYC DOE reversed the ban, with the School's Chancellor David Banks calling the initial move a "knee-jerk" reaction made out of fear​.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Banks |first=David C. |last2= |last3= |first3= |date= |year=May 18, 2023 |title=ChatGPT caught NYC schools off guard. Now, we’re determined to embrace its potential. |url=https://www.chalkbeat.org/newyork/2023/5/18/23727942/chatgpt-nyc-schools-david-banks/ |access-date= |website=Chalkbeat |language=en}}</ref> === '''Implementing the Ban''' === On January 3, 2023, NYC education officials confirmed that ChatGPT had been blocked on all education department networks and devices.<ref name=":0" /> Banks and his team made this decision swiftly, less than two months after ChatGPT’s public release. The ban meant that students and teachers could not use ChatGPT on school WiFi or school-issued iPads and laptops, though individual schools could request access if they planned to study the technology itself.<ref name=":0" /> The block placed ChatGPT alongside platforms like YouTube and Roblox on the district’s restricted websites list​.<ref name=":1" /> The DOE’s rationale for the ban revolved around academic integrity and the quality of learning. The district – like many educators elsewhere – worried that students might use the AI to cheat on essays and assignments, undermining their own learning​.<ref name=":0" /> As one official put it, an over reliance on AI may cause students to "lack the necessary skills to evaluate information" critically​.<ref name=":2" /> Teachers reported instances of ChatGPT generating polished essays in seconds, raising alarms that traditional take-home writing tasks could become obsolete​.<ref name=":0" /> Concerns about misinformation and inappropriate content also arose: ChatGPT can sometimes produce incorrect or fictional information or even offensive language, which could harm students​.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Toulas |first=Bill |year=January 5, 2023 |title=ChatGPT banned in NYC schools over learning impact concerns |url=https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/technology/chatgpt-banned-in-nyc-schools-over-learning-impact-concerns/#:~:text=NYC%20Dept,necessary%20skills%20to%20evaluate%20information |access-date= |website=BleepingComputer |language=en-us}}</ref> Despite the ban, NYC DOE acknowledged it could not block access entirely. Students could still reach ChatGPT on personal devices or on home internet, beyond the school’s firewall.<ref name=":0" /> This meant the policy was more a strong statement than an all-encompassing solution; a fact not lost on observers who noted tech-savvy students would find workarounds. "If they’re not using it in their classes, they can use it at home," one education technology expert pointed out, emphasizing that blocking a website at school has limited effect.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Jimenez |first=Kayla |year=January 30, 2023 |title='This shouldn’t be a surprise' The education community shares mixed reactions to ChatGPT |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2023/01/30/chatgpt-going-banned-teachers-sound-alarm-new-ai-tech/11069593002/#:~:text=New%20York%20City's%C2%A0Department%20of%20Education%C2%A0blocked%C2%A0ChatGPT,can%20be%20difficult%20to%20detect |access-date= |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref> Still, NYC’s stance carried significant weight. As the first major U.S. school district to announce such a ban, New York City’s decision set the tone for others. Officials noted that the move by the nation’s largest school system "could have ripple effects as districts and schools across the country grapple with how to respond" to this new technology.<ref name=":0" /> Within weeks, a few other big districts took similar steps: for example, Seattle Public Schools also moved to restrict the site, specifically noting the difficulty of detecting AI-written work.<ref name=":3" /> "That decision… spurred other districts to follow suit," one education publication later observed of NYC’s leadership​.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news |last=Klein |first=Alyson |date= |year=October 5, 2023 |title=180 Degree Turn: NYC District Goes From Banning ChatGPT to Exploring AI's Potential |language=en |work=Education Week |url=https://www.edweek.org/technology/180-degree-turn-nyc-schools-goes-from-banning-chatgpt-to-exploring-ais-potential/2023/10#:~:text=That%20development%E2%80%94announced%20Oct,other%20districts%20to%20follow%20suit |access-date= |issn=0277-4232}}</ref> === '''Reconsideration and Reversal''' === [[File:ChatGPT logo.svg|thumb|150x150px|OpenAI's ChatGPT reenters NYC classrooms]] In the months after the ban, NYC educators and officials engaged in intensive discussions about ChatGPT’s place in schools. The issue was clearly not going away; teachers were buzzing about it in staff rooms and online forums. By February 2023, Banks hinted that the policy might evolve. Speaking on local media, Banks suggested the department would soon issue new guidance on ChatGPT and even allow its use "with guardrails" in place.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Gould |first=Jessica |last2= |date= |year=February 2, 2023 |title=NYC teachers debate utility of ChatGPT as schools chancellor mulls policy |url=https://gothamist.com/news/nyc-teachers-debate-utility-of-chatgpt-as-schools-chancellor-mulls-policy#:~:text=Many%20educators%20who%20spoke%20to,the%20internet%20%E2%80%93%20were%20unsuccessful |access-date= |website=Gothamist |language=en}}</ref> This was a notable softening of tone. The United Federation of Teachers (UFT), NYC’s powerful teachers’ union, had also convened a working group to study ChatGPT’s impact on homework and learning​.<ref name=":5" /> Union representatives reported "mixed" reactions among educators: "some people…have been terrified" of the cheating threat and wanted the AI gone, while others were eager "to explore" its potential.<ref name=":5" /> This internal pressure to find a more nuanced approach set the stage for a policy reversal. On May 18, 2023, the NYC Department of Education officially reversed the ban on ChatGPT​.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |last=Varanasi |first=Lakshmi |year=May 19, 2023 |title=New York City's public schools reverse their ban on ChatGPT — admitting it had been 'knee-jerk fear' |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/nyc-public-schools-reverse-ban-on-chatgpt-in-the-classroom-2023-5#:~:text=an%20Insider%20%20and%20start,Have%20an%20account?%20Log%20in |access-date= |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> In a Chalkbeat op-ed and in public statements, Banks admitted that the initial ban was put in place due to fear of the unknown​.<ref name=":1" /> He justified the decision by explaining that the ban had given the school system “time to understand” the technology’s implications.<ref name=":1" /> In hindsight, he wrote, the caution was justified as a temporary measure, but it was now time to move forward. Banks explained that over the spring his team had consulted with technology industry leaders and “our most trusted experts — citywide educators” to craft a better strategy​.<ref name=":6" /> Through these conversations, the district came to recognize that ChatGPT could be an asset in the classroom if used responsibly, and that schools must teach students about AI rather than shun it. With the reversal, NYC DOE launched a new, more permissive policy with an emphasis on guidance. Banks announced that “New York City Public Schools will encourage and support our educators and students as they learn about and explore this game-changing technology." Instead of a blanket ban, the district would provide teachers with training and resources on how to incorporate AI. The chancellor promised a "toolkit of resources" and real-life examples for educators, along with a shared repository where teachers and students could share their findings and best practices using ChatGPT in lessons​.<ref name=":1" /> The goal was to harness ChatGPT’s advantages for learning while mitigating its risks. This reversal marked a profound change in the district’s approach, acknowledging that generative AI is here to stay and that schools have a role in teaching AI literacy and ethics rather than ignoring the technology. == Participants and Ethical Considerations == Initially, NYC DOE officials and educators were concerned about ChatGPT's potential to disrupt existing educational practices and hamstring students' learning. Deputy Press Secretary Jenna Lyle claimed that ChatGPT does not “help build critical-thinking and problem-solving skills.”<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rosenzweig-Ziff |first=Dan |date=2023-01-05 |title=New York City blocks use of the ChatGPT bot in its schools |language=en-US |work=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/2023/01/05/nyc-schools-ban-chatgpt/ |access-date=2025-05-06 |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Chancellor David Banks aimed to maintain a “high academic bar” while protecting students from AI's hazards. The initial ban was a result of the leaders' ethical responsibility to protect student safety and learning while maintaining core educational pillars of diligence, originality, and critical thinking. However, resulting ethical complications occurred: students with home internet access and personal devices could reap the short-term benefits of ChatGPT outside of school networks, while those without had no access. Moreover, blocking the use of ChatGPT would prevent students from building AI literacy, leaving them susceptible to its hazards. As a result, the ban was lifted. The ban's lifting reflected the ethical responsibility of educational leaders to enable long-term success of its students. Banks, who conceded that early fear “overlooked the potential”<ref>{{Cite web |last=May 18 |first=David C. Banks {{!}} |last2=2023 |last3=UTC |first3=10:00am |date=2023-05-18 |title=ChatGPT caught NYC schools off guard. Now, we’re determined to embrace its potential. |url=https://www.chalkbeat.org/newyork/2023/5/18/23727942/chatgpt-nyc-schools-david-banks/ |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=Chalkbeat |language=en}}</ref> of AI, now acknowledged the inevitability of students working in an AI-integrated world. The shift would enable necessary training to equip students with skills and ethical fluency in emerging technologies. Yet, opportunity without a structured approach creates new ethical risks. With the ban lifted, the burden of responsible AI use shifted—from district policymakers to individual teachers, parents, and students, many of whom received no clear guidance. Teachers remain divided as some express concern that AI "is a way to outsource their thinking"<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saric |first=Ivana |date=2025-03-30 |title=Teachers warn AI is impacting students' critical thinking |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/03/30/teachers-ai-students-critical-thinking |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=Axios |language=en}}</ref> and "flat-out cheat."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Saric |first=Ivana |date=2025-03-30 |title=Teachers warn AI is impacting students' critical thinking |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/03/30/teachers-ai-students-critical-thinking |access-date=2025-05-06 |website=Axios |language=en}}</ref> Their worry is rooted in a vision of learning that privileges authentic struggle over expediency. Conversely, students face a different ethical terrain—shaped by tool abundance and institutional ambiguity. For them, the real integrity test is not whether they use AI, but how. Devin Berkowitz, a student in NYC, states "Rather than framing ChatGPT as a way to cheat, teachers can show their students how to use it to their advantage, while still keeping their own original ideas. In today's world, technology is quickly becoming more intelligent, but I don't think we have to fear it."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Network |first=The Learning |date=2023-02-02 |title=What Students Are Saying About ChatGPT |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/02/learning/students-chatgpt.html |access-date=2025-05-06 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> He argues that honest, strategic use can coexist with student originality, challenging the binary of integrity versus assistance. These contrasting viewpoints echo a wider debate across education—how to balance integrity and innovation, a question schools worldwide are still grappling with as AI evolves. OpenAI’s role introduces another ethical layer. While the company did not directly intervene in the classroom, its technology did. Without clear educational guidance at launch, ChatGPT became a powerful but unmoderated influence. OpenAI’s decision to release ChatGPT without tailored guardrails for classrooms raises the question: Should companies anticipate downstream educational impacts before deployment? This forces a key ethical question: Do creators of powerful tools bear responsibility for shaping how people utilize them? Or is it solely up to public institutions to adapt? This challenge raises a deeper moral question: can innovation ever be separated from the obligations of its consequences? When creators unleash tools with the power to reshape foundational human systems like education, neutrality is no longer an option. Responsibility becomes distributed, yet no less real. Ultimately, the ethical dilemma is captured through allegory: Do students and teachers use AI dishonestly when unseen, or do they explore its potential with thoughtful intent? The conflict is not merely procedural—it is existential. Students must learn not only how to use AI, but why, when, and whether to use it at all. Ethical agency becomes the most critical skill in a world where intelligence is no longer uniquely human. The future of AI in education hinges not on banning or embracing the tool wholesale, but on the collective effort to shape how it is wielded. === '''Moving Forward''' === By the fall of 2023, the NYC DOE announced the creation of an Artificial Intelligence Policy Lab to develop long-term strategies for using AI in teaching and learning​.<ref name=":4" /> "Technology is constantly evolving and New York City Public Schools aims to remain at the forefront," a NYC DOE spokeswoman said, underscoring the city’s new proactive approach​.<ref name=":4" /> This lab, partnering with experts and other districts, would focus on "human-centered AI implementation, equity, safety, ethics, effectiveness, and transparency."<ref name=":4" /> As AI continues to be incorporated, ethical questions will require actionable decisions. Educators agree that student learning and academic integrity must be with supported in all cases. Adam Stevens, a NYC history teacher, highlights that "we've trained a whole generation of kids to pursue rubric points and not knowledge, and of course, if what matters is the point at the end of the semester, that ChatGPT is a threat."<ref name=":0" /> Evaluations of student performance may need to adapt to changing technology to ensure educational outcomes are met. How do we best prepare students for the future? How do we ensure equal access to education? How do we protect the safety and privacy of our students? These difficult questions, and others, remain unanswered. It is up to educational providers and community activists to shape the landscape of public education to ensure a bright future for all. === '''Was There any Foul Play?''' === Available documentation shows no evidence that OpenAI formally lobbied or directly influenced the NYC DOE’s reversal of its ChatGPT ban. Chancellor Banks reported that, following the ban, the system held broad discussions with technology leaders about AI’s educational potential, without specifically naming OpenAI.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Rosenblatt |first=Kalhan |date= |year=May 18, 2023 |title=New York City public schools remove ChatGPT ban |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/chatgpt-ban-dropped-new-york-city-public-schools-rcna85089 |access-date= |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Musto |first=Julia |date= |year=May 19, 2023 |title=New York City Public Schools chancellor reverses ChatGPT restrictions: report |url=https://www.foxnews.com/tech/new-york-city-public-schools-chancellor-reverses-chatgpt-restrictions-report |access-date= |website=Fox News |language=en-US}}</ref> Although OpenAI did announce tools to help educators detect AI‑generated text and expressed a desire to help teachers and students benefit from AI shortly after the initial ban, these efforts aren’t cited as driving the policy change.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wiggers |first=Kyle |date= |year=January 5, 2023 |title=As NYC public schools block ChatGPT, OpenAI says it's working on 'mitigations' to help spot ChatGPT-generated text |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/01/05/as-nyc-public-schools-block-chatgpt-openai-says-its-working-on-mitigations-to-help-spot-chatgpt-generated-text/ |access-date= |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> Instead, the decision appears to have resulted primarily from internal reflection and consultations with educators and independent AI experts.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ward |first=Micah |date= |year=May 19, 2023 |title=Why New York City Public Schools reversed its ban on ChatGPT |url=https://districtadministration.com/briefing/why-new-york-city-public-schools-reversed-its-ban-on-chatgpt/ |access-date= |website=District Administration |language=en-US}}</ref> {{BookCat}} kfis12o76vnzp232w9wdirxcw6dh3jw 0 476447 4681733 4635344 2026-11-11T20:17:28Z Skafbgjsabfvds 3631118 A Caroline? A 390HP Squirrel! 4681733 wikitext text/x-wiki <big><div align="center">'''gdfgCaroline Winter, Alan Colín-Arce, JT Kern, Randa El Khatib, Alyssa Arbuckle, Vitor Yano, Anna Honcharova, Graham Jensen, Maggie Sardino, Britt Amell, Ray Siemens, with the ETCL and INKE Research Groups'''</div></big> <div align="center">Introduction by Caroline Winter, with Britt Amell</div> ==Table of Contents== [[File:OSP_Knowledge_Mobilization_Scan_cover.jpg|frameless|250px|right]] {{Book Search}} ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction|Introduction]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction#KMb, An Overview|KMb, An Overview]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction#This Bibliography, A Summary|This Bibliography, A Summary]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction#Works Cited|Works Cited]] ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Definitions and Foundations|Definitions and Foundations]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Definitions and Foundations#Why Knowledge Mobilization?|Why Knowledge Mobilization?]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Definitions and Foundations#Understanding and Measuring Impact|Understanding and Measuring Impact]] ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice|Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Community-Engaged Research|Community-Engaged Research]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums) and Cultural Heritage|GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums) and Cultural Heritage]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Industry Partnerships|Industry Partnerships]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#New Media Engagements|New Media Engagements]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Pedagogy|Pedagogy]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Podcasting|Podcasting]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Social Knowledge Creation|Social Knowledge Creation]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Social Media|Social Media]] ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides|Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides#Humanities Specific Resources|Humanities Specific Resources]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides#General Resources|General Resources]] {{shelves|Humanities}} f2t8qoyyz9nhysxk58usg7bnstn3vja 4681738 4681733 2026-11-11T20:20:31Z NDG 3510220 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Skafbgjsabfvds|Skafbgjsabfvds]] ([[User talk:Skafbgjsabfvds|talk]]) to last version by LodestarChariot2 4635344 wikitext text/x-wiki <big><div align="center">'''Caroline Winter, Alan Colín-Arce, JT Kern, Randa El Khatib, Alyssa Arbuckle, Vitor Yano, Anna Honcharova, Graham Jensen, Maggie Sardino, Britt Amell, Ray Siemens, with the ETCL and INKE Research Groups'''</div></big> <div align="center">Introduction by Caroline Winter, with Britt Amell</div> ==Table of Contents== [[File:OSP_Knowledge_Mobilization_Scan_cover.jpg|frameless|250px|right]] {{Book Search}} ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction|Introduction]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction#KMb, An Overview|KMb, An Overview]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction#This Bibliography, A Summary|This Bibliography, A Summary]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Introduction#Works Cited|Works Cited]] ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Definitions and Foundations|Definitions and Foundations]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Definitions and Foundations#Why Knowledge Mobilization?|Why Knowledge Mobilization?]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Definitions and Foundations#Understanding and Measuring Impact|Understanding and Measuring Impact]] ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice|Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Community-Engaged Research|Community-Engaged Research]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums) and Cultural Heritage|GLAM (Galleries, Libraries, Archives, and Museums) and Cultural Heritage]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Industry Partnerships|Industry Partnerships]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#New Media Engagements|New Media Engagements]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Pedagogy|Pedagogy]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Podcasting|Podcasting]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Social Knowledge Creation|Social Knowledge Creation]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities in Practice#Social Media|Social Media]] ===[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides|Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides]]=== *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides#Humanities Specific Resources|Humanities Specific Resources]] *[[Knowledge Mobilization in the Humanities/Knowledge Mobilization Resources, Tools, and Guides#General Resources|General Resources]] {{shelves|Humanities}} 0cntsaqxko68ufj04yjulygbj9z6645 102 483471 4681808 4637035 2026-11-12T09:10:05Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681808 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 tablespoons palm oil * 2 onions * 2 tomatoes * 2 garlic cloves * 1 lemon * Salt and pepper * Cassava (yuca) * Sweet potatoes * Plantains ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] f0uqaqqemglyd54dpry64ux7pj8d26i 4681809 4681808 2026-11-12T09:11:59Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 4681809 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoons]] palm oil * 2 onions * 2 tomatoes * 2 garlic cloves * 1 lemon * Salt and pepper * Cassava (yuca) * Sweet potatoes * Plantains ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] n7cdmk4iib5kkm76ts3mv4xloeqlpln 4681810 4681809 2026-11-12T09:12:51Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681810 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * 2 onions * 2 tomatoes * 2 garlic cloves * 1 lemon * Salt and pepper * Cassava (yuca) * Sweet potatoes * Plantains ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] 2kyhzp9plmzfbr3jf0b2vnen2mnypu6 4681811 4681810 2026-11-12T09:14:48Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681811 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Onion|onions]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] * 2 garlic cloves * 1 lemon * Salt and pepper * Cassava (yuca) * Sweet potatoes * Plantains ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] krajhtchu7ghjqxftvhjzasddvqnmox 4681812 4681811 2026-11-12T09:16:18Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681812 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Onion|onions]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]] [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] * 1 lemon * Salt and pepper * Cassava (yuca) * Sweet potatoes * Plantains ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] nvuz197dclmcxhwl9qr4il7ojrz575n 4681813 4681812 2026-11-12T09:18:23Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681813 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Onion|onions]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]] [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] * 1 [[Cookbook: Lemon|lemon]] * [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] and [[Cookbook: Pepper|pepper]] * Cassava (yuca) * Sweet potatoes * Plantains ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] b2egnf3vd6mtxfnhlh63kf03lb58pzl 4681814 4681813 2026-11-12T09:20:40Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681814 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Onion|onions]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]] [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] * 1 [[Cookbook: Lemon|lemon]] * [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] and [[Cookbook: Pepper|pepper]] * [[Cookbook: Cassava|Cassava]] (yuca) * [[Cookbook: Sweet Potato|Sweet potatoes]] * Plantains ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] 24dgglvf3ay3xebtq625oldn6gac95l 4681815 4681814 2026-11-12T09:21:28Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681815 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing header template, missing appropriate linking, doesn't match recipe template; missing/incorrect categories}}{{Recipe summary | Category = Grilled fish dish | Difficulty = 4 }} '''Mufete''' is a traditional dish from Angola. It is made with grilled [[Cookbook:Fish|fish]] served with [[Cookbook:Cassava|cassava]], sweet potatoes, [[Cookbook:Plantain|plantains]], [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] cooked in [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]], and onion tomato sauce. == Ingredients== * 2 whole fish (tilapia, mackerel, or snapper) * 2 [[Cookbook:Cup|cups]] cooked [[Cookbook:Bean|beans]] * 3 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoons]] [[Cookbook:Palm Oil|palm oil]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Onion|onions]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] * 2 [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]] [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] * 1 [[Cookbook: Lemon|lemon]] * [[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]] and [[Cookbook: Pepper|pepper]] * [[Cookbook: Cassava|Cassava]] (yuca) * [[Cookbook: Sweet Potato|Sweet potatoes]] * [[Cookbook: Plantain|Plantains]] ==Procedure== *Clean the fish and season with salt, pepper, garlic, and lemon juice. Leave it for 20 minutes. *Grill the fish or bake it until it is well cooked and golden brown. *Heat palm oil in a pot. Add chopped onions, tomatoes, and garlic. Stir for a few minutes. *Add the cooked beans and allow it to simmer for 10 minutes. *Peel and boil the cassava and sweet potatoes until soft. *Boil or fry the plantains. *Prepare onion sauce by mixing chopped onions, tomatoes, little oil, lemon juice, and salt. Serve the grilled fish with cassava, sweet potatoes, plantains, beans, and onion sauce together on a tray. [[Category:Kenyan recipes]] iytot0109i4bt9p1vabrbwhsb7ri8ef 110 483516 4681736 4638109 2026-11-11T20:19:29Z Skafbgjsabfvds 3631118 4681736 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center; margin: 0px auto 0px auto;">'''Wikijunior Animal Alphabet (NatureRules1 Version)'''</div> <noinclude> <div style="font-size: large; text-align: center; margin: 0px auto 0px auto;">-- [[/A/]] [[/B/]] [[/C/]] [[/D/]] [[/E/]] [[/F/]] [[/G/]] [[/H/]] [[/I/]] [[/J/]] [[/K/]] [[/L/]] [[/M/]] [[/N/]] [[/O/]] [[/P/]] [[/Q/]] [[/R/]] [[/S/]] [[/T/]] [[/U/]] [[/V/]] [[/W/]] [[/X/]] [[/Y/]] [[/Z/]] -- '''A''' - anteater '''B''' - bear '''C''' - camel '''D''' - dinosaur '''E''' - elephant '''F''' - flamingo '''G''' - giraffe '''H''' - hippopotamus '''I''' - iguana '''J''' - jaguar '''K''' - kangaroo '''L''' - lion '''M''' - mammoth '''N''' - narwhal '''O''' - ostrich '''P''' - panda '''Q''' - quail '''R''' - rhinoceros '''S''' - shark '''T''' - tiger '''U''' - umbrellabird '''V''' - vulture '''W''' - water buffalo '''X''' - ox '''Y''' - yak '''Z''' - zebu </div> </noinclude> {{Shelves|Wikijunior pre-reader books}}{{Status|100%}} <noinclude> {{reading level|Pre-reader}} </noinclude> {{Print version|Wikijunior:Animal_Alphabet_(NatureRules1_Version)/All pages}} QWERTYUIOPASDFGHJKLZXCVBNM 8piauqmgl54jws2lz6ipjci2axdtulf 4681739 4681736 2026-11-11T20:20:31Z NDG 3510220 [[WB:REVERT|Reverted]] edit by [[Special:Contributions/Skafbgjsabfvds|Skafbgjsabfvds]] ([[User talk:Skafbgjsabfvds|talk]]) to last version by ~2026-32200-97 4638109 wikitext text/x-wiki <div style="font-size: xx-large; text-align: center; margin: 0px auto 0px auto;">'''Wikijunior Animal Alphabet (NatureRules1 Version)'''</div> <noinclude> <div style="font-size: large; text-align: center; margin: 0px auto 0px auto;">-- [[/A/]] [[/B/]] [[/C/]] [[/D/]] [[/E/]] [[/F/]] [[/G/]] [[/H/]] [[/I/]] [[/J/]] [[/K/]] [[/L/]] [[/M/]] [[/N/]] [[/O/]] [[/P/]] [[/Q/]] [[/R/]] [[/S/]] [[/T/]] [[/U/]] [[/V/]] [[/W/]] [[/X/]] [[/Y/]] [[/Z/]] -- '''A''' - anteater '''B''' - bear '''C''' - camel '''D''' - dinosaur '''E''' - elephant '''F''' - flamingo '''G''' - giraffe '''H''' - hippopotamus '''I''' - iguana '''J''' - jaguar '''K''' - kangaroo '''L''' - lion '''M''' - mammoth '''N''' - narwhal '''O''' - ostrich '''P''' - panda '''Q''' - quail '''R''' - rhinoceros '''S''' - shark '''T''' - tiger '''U''' - umbrellabird '''V''' - vulture '''W''' - water buffalo '''X''' - ox '''Y''' - yak '''Z''' - zebu </div> </noinclude> {{Shelves|Wikijunior pre-reader books}}{{Status|100%}} <noinclude> {{reading level|Pre-reader}} </noinclude> {{Print version|Wikijunior:Animal_Alphabet_(NatureRules1_Version)/All pages}} hk19s5mzmz96emd81ww3ssznuon228f 102 483764 4681831 4638941 2026-11-12T10:09:17Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681831 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOtOC__ {{recipesummary | Category = Traditional Kenyan mashed vegetable dish | Servings = 6 | Time = 60 minutes | Rating = <!--| Energy = --> | Difficulty = 3 | Image = image = [[File:Mukimo & Beef Stew.jpg|300px]] }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, needs to be condensed}} {{recipe}} '''Mukimo''' is a traditional Kenyan dish made by mashing boiled [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]] with [[Cookbook:vegetable|green vegetables]] and [[Cookbook:legumes|legumes]] such as [[Cookbook:peas|peas]], [[Cookbook:maize|maize]], or [[Cookbook:beans|beans]]. It is especially associated with the Kikuyu people of central Kenya and is commonly served as an accompaniment to [[Cookbook:stews|stews]] and [[Cookbook:meat|grilled meat]]. == Ingredients == * 1 kg [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]], peeled and chopped * 2 cups [[Cookbook:maize|maize]] kernels (fresh or frozen) * 1 [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] green [[Cookbook:Pea|peas]] * 2 cups pumpkin leaves, spinach, or kale, chopped * 1 teaspoon salt * Water, as needed == Procedure == # Place the potatoes, maize, and peas in a large pot and cover with water. # Bring to a boil and cook until the potatoes are tender. # Add the chopped vegetables and continue cooking for 5–10 minutes. # Drain excess water if necessary. # Mash all the ingredients together until well combined. # Season with salt to taste. # Serve hot with beef stew, chicken stew, or grilled meat. == Notes == * Mukimo is a staple dish in Kenya, particularly in the central highlands. * Different regions use different leafy greens depending on local availability. * Some versions include beans instead of peas. == Variations == * Mukimo with beans * Mukimo with pumpkin leaves * Mukimo with cabbage * Mukimo with spinach and sweet potatoes == See also == * Irio * [[Cookbook:Sukuma Wiki (East African Greens)]] * [[Cookbook:Ugali]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Vegan recipes]] [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using potato]] [[Category:Deep fried recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using mint]] [[Category:Recipes using chile]] [[Category:Recipes using cilantro]] [[Category:Recipes using all-purpose flour]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] cncejcpakugu3s5ikyol9y27hye2a74 4681833 4681831 2026-11-12T10:11:23Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681833 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOtOC__ {{recipesummary | Category = Traditional Kenyan mashed vegetable dish | Servings = 6 | Time = 60 minutes | Rating = <!--| Energy = --> | Difficulty = 3 | Image = image = [[File:Mukimo & Beef Stew.jpg|300px]] }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, needs to be condensed}} {{recipe}} '''Mukimo''' is a traditional Kenyan dish made by mashing boiled [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]] with [[Cookbook:vegetable|green vegetables]] and [[Cookbook:legumes|legumes]] such as [[Cookbook:peas|peas]], [[Cookbook:maize|maize]], or [[Cookbook:beans|beans]]. It is especially associated with the Kikuyu people of central Kenya and is commonly served as an accompaniment to [[Cookbook:stews|stews]] and [[Cookbook:meat|grilled meat]]. == Ingredients == * 1 kg [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]], peeled and chopped * 2 cups [[Cookbook:maize|maize]] kernels (fresh or frozen) * 1 [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] green [[Cookbook:Pea|peas]] * 2 cups [[Cookbook: Pumpkin|pumpkin]] leaves, [[Cookbook: Spinach|spinach]], or [[Cookbook:Kale|kale]], chopped * 1 teaspoon salt * Water, as needed == Procedure == # Place the potatoes, maize, and peas in a large pot and cover with water. # Bring to a boil and cook until the potatoes are tender. # Add the chopped vegetables and continue cooking for 5–10 minutes. # Drain excess water if necessary. # Mash all the ingredients together until well combined. # Season with salt to taste. # Serve hot with beef stew, chicken stew, or grilled meat. == Notes == * Mukimo is a staple dish in Kenya, particularly in the central highlands. * Different regions use different leafy greens depending on local availability. * Some versions include beans instead of peas. == Variations == * Mukimo with beans * Mukimo with pumpkin leaves * Mukimo with cabbage * Mukimo with spinach and sweet potatoes == See also == * Irio * [[Cookbook:Sukuma Wiki (East African Greens)]] * [[Cookbook:Ugali]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Vegan recipes]] [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using potato]] [[Category:Deep fried recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using mint]] [[Category:Recipes using chile]] [[Category:Recipes using cilantro]] [[Category:Recipes using all-purpose flour]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] 0r96lm85gtthx7n5h0og1t5nrd2ii4w 4681835 4681833 2026-11-12T10:13:28Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681835 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOtOC__ {{recipesummary | Category = Traditional Kenyan mashed vegetable dish | Servings = 6 | Time = 60 minutes | Rating = <!--| Energy = --> | Difficulty = 3 | Image = image = [[File:Mukimo & Beef Stew.jpg|300px]] }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, needs to be condensed}} {{recipe}} '''Mukimo''' is a traditional Kenyan dish made by mashing boiled [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]] with [[Cookbook:vegetable|green vegetables]] and [[Cookbook:legumes|legumes]] such as [[Cookbook:peas|peas]], [[Cookbook:maize|maize]], or [[Cookbook:beans|beans]]. It is especially associated with the Kikuyu people of central Kenya and is commonly served as an accompaniment to [[Cookbook:stews|stews]] and [[Cookbook:meat|grilled meat]]. == Ingredients == * 1 kg [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]], peeled and chopped * 2 cups [[Cookbook:maize|maize]] kernels (fresh or frozen) * 1 [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] green [[Cookbook:Pea|peas]] * 2 cups [[Cookbook: Pumpkin|pumpkin]] leaves, [[Cookbook: Spinach|spinach]], or [[Cookbook:Kale|kale]], chopped * 1 [[Cookbook: Teaspoon|teaspoon]] [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * Water, as needed == Procedure == # Place the potatoes, maize, and peas in a large pot and cover with water. # Bring to a boil and cook until the potatoes are tender. # Add the chopped vegetables and continue cooking for 5–10 minutes. # Drain excess water if necessary. # Mash all the ingredients together until well combined. # Season with salt to taste. # Serve hot with beef stew, chicken stew, or grilled meat. == Notes == * Mukimo is a staple dish in Kenya, particularly in the central highlands. * Different regions use different leafy greens depending on local availability. * Some versions include beans instead of peas. == Variations == * Mukimo with beans * Mukimo with pumpkin leaves * Mukimo with cabbage * Mukimo with spinach and sweet potatoes == See also == * Irio * [[Cookbook:Sukuma Wiki (East African Greens)]] * [[Cookbook:Ugali]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Vegan recipes]] [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using potato]] [[Category:Deep fried recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using mint]] [[Category:Recipes using chile]] [[Category:Recipes using cilantro]] [[Category:Recipes using all-purpose flour]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] fvllt3bfa9437chxg8bd6yben5b7smq 4681837 4681835 2026-11-12T10:14:49Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681837 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOtOC__ {{recipesummary | Category = Traditional Kenyan mashed vegetable dish | Servings = 6 | Time = 60 minutes | Rating = <!--| Energy = --> | Difficulty = 3 | Image = image = [[File:Mukimo & Beef Stew.jpg|300px]] }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing/incorrect categories, missing appropriate linking, needs to be condensed}} {{recipe}} '''Mukimo''' is a traditional Kenyan dish made by mashing boiled [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]] with [[Cookbook:vegetable|green vegetables]] and [[Cookbook:legumes|legumes]] such as [[Cookbook:peas|peas]], [[Cookbook:maize|maize]], or [[Cookbook:beans|beans]]. It is especially associated with the Kikuyu people of central Kenya and is commonly served as an accompaniment to [[Cookbook:stews|stews]] and [[Cookbook:meat|grilled meat]]. == Ingredients == * 1 kg [[Cookbook:potatoes|potatoes]], peeled and chopped * 2 cups [[Cookbook:maize|maize]] kernels (fresh or frozen) * 1 [[Cookbook:Cup|cup]] green [[Cookbook:Pea|peas]] * 2 cups [[Cookbook: Pumpkin|pumpkin]] leaves, [[Cookbook: Spinach|spinach]], or [[Cookbook:Kale|kale]], chopped * 1 [[Cookbook: Teaspoon|teaspoon]] [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * [[Cookbook: Water|Water]], as needed == Procedure == # Place the potatoes, maize, and peas in a large pot and cover with water. # Bring to a boil and cook until the potatoes are tender. # Add the chopped vegetables and continue cooking for 5–10 minutes. # Drain excess water if necessary. # Mash all the ingredients together until well combined. # Season with salt to taste. # Serve hot with beef stew, chicken stew, or grilled meat. == Notes == * Mukimo is a staple dish in Kenya, particularly in the central highlands. * Different regions use different leafy greens depending on local availability. * Some versions include beans instead of peas. == Variations == * Mukimo with beans * Mukimo with pumpkin leaves * Mukimo with cabbage * Mukimo with spinach and sweet potatoes == See also == * Irio * [[Cookbook:Sukuma Wiki (East African Greens)]] * [[Cookbook:Ugali]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Vegan recipes]] [[Category:Indian recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using potato]] [[Category:Deep fried recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using mint]] [[Category:Recipes using chile]] [[Category:Recipes using cilantro]] [[Category:Recipes using all-purpose flour]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] emq09azh02vav1jkfc3cwk8dz44tnsg 102 483798 4681817 4638976 2026-11-12T09:29:38Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681817 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm water * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * Meat stews * Lentil dishes * Vegetable sauces * Grilled meats * Tea or other beverages == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] p9mhi0eqn4cdjjnvslxifuoeuycik20 4681820 4681817 2026-11-12T09:36:31Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Ingredients */ 4681820 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm [[Cookbook: Water|water]] * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * Meat stews * Lentil dishes * Vegetable sauces * Grilled meats * Tea or other beverages == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] 4mb7wknx9newcy56iquo9824t8yl9rs 4681821 4681820 2026-11-12T09:42:20Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Serving */ 4681821 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm [[Cookbook: Water|water]] * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * [[Cookbook:Beef Stew I |Meat stews]] * Lentil dishes * Vegetable sauces * Grilled meats * Tea or other beverages == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] 0ztn6rzkzt64vdt5o1eljnggenignjn 4681822 4681821 2026-11-12T09:43:04Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Serving */ 4681822 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm [[Cookbook: Water|water]] * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * [[Cookbook:Beef Stew I |Meat stews]] * [[Cookbook: Lentil Dish|Lentil dishes]] * Vegetable sauces * Grilled meats * Tea or other beverages == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] 32ssyuhma53dmep2zmde54oki4bzqew 4681823 4681822 2026-11-12T09:45:14Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Serving */ 4681823 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm [[Cookbook: Water|water]] * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * [[Cookbook:Beef Stew I |Meat stews]] * Lentil dishes * [[Cookbook: Vegetable Sauce|Vegetable sauces]] * Grilled meats * Tea or other beverages == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] b7f66cfpgfhgc32ntubhu7nozpsjj6g 4681824 4681823 2026-11-12T09:46:13Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Serving */ 4681824 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm [[Cookbook: Water|water]] * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * [[Cookbook:Beef Stew I |Meat stews]] * Lentil dishes * Vegetable sauces * Grilled [[Cookbook:Meat|meats]] * Tea or other beverages == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] 4y7qobdgk9pqw6zo5a7r1dk2xayr8gv 4681826 4681824 2026-11-12T09:49:58Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Serving */ 4681826 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm [[Cookbook: Water|water]] * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * [[Cookbook:Beef Stew I |Meat stews]] * Lentil dishes * Vegetable sauces * Grilled [[Cookbook:Meat|meats]] * [[Cookbook:Tea|Tea]] or other [[Cookbook: Beverage|beverages]] == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] tf8mgqj1cksmespvclzohmnwyl7jfzk 4681829 4681826 2026-11-12T09:57:29Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Serving */ 4681829 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Recipe summary | Category = Djiboutian cuisine | Difficulty = 2 }}{{Incomplete recipe|reason=missing appropriate linking, procedure needs correct formatting, text needs to be condensed, missing/incorrect categories}} {{Recipe}} '''Mukhbaza''' is a traditional flatbread associated with the [[Cookbook:Cuisines|cuisine]] of Sudan and neighboring regions of Northeast Africa. It is made from [[Cookbook:Wheat Flour|wheat flour]], water, [[Cookbook:yeast|yeast]], and [[Cookbook:salt|salt]], producing a soft [[Cookbook:bread|bread]] that is commonly served alongside [[Cookbook:stews|stews]], [[Cookbook:meat|meat]] dishes, and [[Cookbook:vegetable|vegetable]]-based meals. Mukhbaza is an important staple food and is often prepared in homes and bakeries throughout Sudan. == Ingredients == * 500 g wheat [[Cookbook:flour|flour]] * 1 tsp [[Cookbook: Salt|salt]] * 1 tsp active dry [[Cookbook: Yeast|yeast]] * 300 ml warm [[Cookbook: Water|water]] * 1 tbsp [[Cookbook:Vegetable Oil|vegetable oil]] == Procedure == In a large bowl, combine the flour, salt, and yeast. Gradually add the warm water while mixing to form a soft dough. Knead the dough for 8–10 minutes until smooth and elastic. Cover the dough and allow it to rise in a warm place for about 1 hour, or until doubled in size. Divide the dough into small portions and shape each into a flat round. Heat a griddle or heavy frying pan over medium heat. Lightly brush the surface with oil. Cook each flatbread for 2–3 minutes on each side until lightly browned and cooked through. Remove from heat and keep warm until serving. == Serving == Mukhbaza is commonly served with: * [[Cookbook:Beef Stew I |Meat stews]] * Lentil dishes * Vegetable sauces * Grilled [[Cookbook:Meat|meats]] * [[Cookbook:Tea|Tea]] or other beverage == Variations == * Whole wheat flour may be used for a denser texture. * Some versions include sesame seeds. * The bread may be baked instead of cooked on a griddle. == Notes == * The dough should remain soft for the best texture. * Cooking times may vary depending on the thickness of the bread. * Mukhbaza is best served fresh and warm. == See also == * [[Cookbook:Flatbread]] * Pita Bread * [[Cookbook:Injera]] [[Category:Cookbook]] [[Category:Halal recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using meat]] [[Category:Inexpensive recipes]] [[Category:Recipes_with_metric_units]] [[Category:Main course recipes]] [[Category:Side dish recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using vegetable oil]] [[Category:African recipes]] [[Category:Recipes]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes for soup]] [[Category:Recipes using dryfish]] [[Category:Recipes using pepper]] [[Category:Recipes using thyme]] [[Category:Recipes using onion]] [[Category:Recipes using ginger]] [[Category:Recipes using tomato]] [[Category:Recipes using hot sauce]] [[Category:Recipes using flour]] [[Category:Recipes using salt]] [[Category:Recipes using bread flour]] [[Category:Recipes using bread]] [[Category:Recipes using yeast]] iix0hijco1c10r77te1lkdh9wxckj8p 0 484104 4681596 4681567 2026-11-11T12:35:57Z Ltypestar2 3524220 adding status 4681596 wikitext text/x-wiki {{status|50%}} == 4...Nxe4?! · Mirrored Halloween (informal) == {{Chess Opening Theory/Position|name=Mirrored Halloween (informal)|eco=[[Chess/ECOC|C47]]|parent=[[../|Halloween Gambit]]}} Black unusually declines the gambit and tries to mirror the [[Chess/Halloween Attack|'''Halloween Attack''']]'s sacrifice ('''4. Nxe5''') to counter the Halloween Attack. Although this recovers the pawn, it ignores the hanging knight and gives White back a drawish position, with higher winning chances for White. Worse, it unnecessarily keeps the position symmetrical, which means White still has a first move advantage. This line has no established name, but it is informally called "'''Mirrored Halloween'''" here, because this is Black's mirroring response to the Halloween Attack's main move ('''4. Nxe5'''). There are usually 2 main moves White will most commonly try: '''5. Nxc6''', taking the black c6 knight and ignoring the hanging black e4 knight, and '''5. Nxe4''', taking the hanging black e4 knight, ignoring the hanging white knight on e5. === 5. Nxc6 === White takes the knight on c6, attacking the queen. Because Black has a hanging knight on e4, his only move is to counterattack by playing '''5...Nxc3!''' (Because if he takes the white knight with '''5...bxc6??''' or '''5...dxc6??''', White can simply win a knight after '''6. Nxe4!.''' If Black plays '''5...Qe7??''', White can take the black queen, every other queen move loses a knight (The white knight on c6 can retreat back, making Black lose a knight). Every other move loses a queen due to ignoring the hanging queen. For example, '''5...Nxf2??''' is refuted by '''6. Qe2+!''', a check that sidesteps the attack entirely, and Black cannot stop '''7. Nxd8''', or '''7. Nxe7'''.), counterattacking the white queen. If White wishes to deal with this, either '''6. dxc3''', or '''6. bxc3''', removing Black’s attacking knight on c3, after which Black removes White’s attacking knight on c6 by playing either '''6...dxc6''', or '''6...bxc6'''; or '''6. Nxd8,''' trading queens; will be good options according to Stockfish. If White plays '''6. Nxd8''', Black will respond with '''6...Nxd1''', recovering material. Notably, Paul Keiser, author of the article in issue 8 of the Unorthodox Openings Newsletter, only analysed line continues '''6. dxc3''' after '''5...Nxc3''', which he assesses as equal.<ref name=":1" /> {{Chess/board | moves = 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 5. Nxc6 Nxc3 6. Nxd8 Nxd1 | caption = Position after Black's move of '''6...Nxd1'''. }} === 5. Nxe4 === White takes the knight on e4. Black will likely follow up with '''5...Nxe5''', recovering material. '''6. d4''' is a good centre attacking move for White that also gains tempo by kicking the black knight. The position is very drawish, with White being slightly better by having a better centre. {{Chess/board | moves = 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 5. Nxe4 Nxe5 6. d4 | caption = Position after White's move of '''6. d4'''. }} === 5. Qh5 === This is an uncommon move and also White's most aggressive option, directly threatening '''6. Qxf7#''', forcing Black into defence of their f7-square. Black can make a lot of mistakes from here. ==== 5...Nxe5?? ==== Black plays the common blunder '''5...Nxe5??''', hoping to remove an attacker of the f7-square and trade pieces, White can take the knight with check ('''6. Qxe5+!'''), forcing the black king to cover, and now there is no way to save the e4 knight, there are simply too many attackers. If Black plays '''6...Qe7''' (Black's best try, since the queen x-ray defends the knight and counterattacks the queen), then White can play '''7. Qxe7+!''', then take the black knight on e4. ==== 5...g6? ==== If Black instead plays the also common mistake '''5...g6?''', mimicking the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Qh5/2...Nc6/3. Bc4/3...g6|'''Wayward Queen Attack'''<nowiki/>'s most common defence]], Black loses a pawn after this sequence: '''6. Nxc6!''' (counterattacking the black queen) '''gxh5 7. Nxd8 Nxc3 8. Nxf7''' (White desperado sacrifices the white knight for a pawn, knowing the knight is doomed anyway, and Black cannot sacrifice his knight for any compensation, and if Black retreats, White can just escape with the free pawn.) '''Kxf7 9. dxc3'''. ==== 5...Nd6 ==== This is Black's fairly rare but best try, retreating the black knight to defend f7. But White can lunge forward with '''6. Nd5''', playing aggressively. White has very good winning chances here in this position. Black has to play precisely to survive in this position. {{Chess/board | moves = 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 5. Qh5 Nd6 6. Nd5 | caption = Position after White's move of '''6. Nd5'''. }} ==== 5...Qf6?! ==== This is a better move than the blunders described on this page, but it is a small inaccuracy, since it allows White to win a pawn, make Black lose castling rights, and gain development. The best move for White is '''6. Qxf7+''', starting the trade that will win them a pawn and make Black lose castling rights. Then Black will regain material with '''6...Qxf7''', then White will regain material with '''7. Nxf7'''. The black king will then take on f7 with '''7...Kxf7''', losing castling rights. Now it seems like Black is ahead on material here, but the e4 knight is hanging, so White can win back the material and, in the end, they will have won a pawn. The best move for White now is not to take the black knight on e4 immediately but play an intermediate move (zwischenzug) by playing '''8. Bc4+''', forcing the king to move or block with the only legal block '''8...d5??'''. There is no legal move that defends the knight and deals with the check at the same time except '''8...d5??''' which seems like it defends the black knight and blocks the check, but this blunders a pawn via '''9. Bxd5+''' and fails to defend the knight anyway since the pawn is the only defender of the knight. Black now must move the king, two good moves are the natural '''8...Ke8''', or the unnatural but best move by the engine (Stockfish 19 NNUE) '''8...Ke7'''. Then, White takes the knight with '''9. Nxe4,''' ending this tactical sequence with a bishop developed, a knight centralised, a black king that lost castling rights, and a pawn gained. {{Chess/board | moves = 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 5. Qh5 Qf6 6. Qxf7+ Qxf7 7. Nxf7 Kxf7 8. Bc4+ Ke7 9. Nxe4 | caption = Position after White's move of '''9. Nxe4''' if Black played '''8...Ke7'''. }} == History == === General === This line is very rare; however, it is documented. In issue 8 of the Unorthodox Openings Newsletter (February 2003), Paul Keiser lists '''4...Nxe4''' under "The gambit declined" and marks it !?. He observes that Black does not have to accept the piece but seldom declines it, and he assesses only one continuation, that being '''5. Nxc6 Nxc3 6. dxc3 bxc6 7. Bd3 Be7''', as equal. The one game he cites for the line was played online in 1997, when the chess engine Brause (White) beat a 2410-rated opponent named scorpiocy (Black) in 29 moves. The article gives the line no name and covers no other White fifth move.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Keiser |first=Paul |date=February 2003 |title=Critical lines in the Halloween gambit |url=https://unorthodoxchessopenings.com/UON/UON-08.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613224427/https://www.unorthodoxchessopenings.com/UON/UON-08.pdf |archive-date=2024-06-13 |access-date=2026-11-08 |website=Unorthodox Openings Newsletter |editor=Davide Rozzoni}}</ref> {{Chess/board | moves = 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 5. Nxc6 Nxc3 6. dxc3 bxc6 7. Bd3 Be7 | caption = Position after Black's move of '''7...Be7'''. }} More recently, Lichess database statistics show that its popularity has increased over time. Between January 2017 and April 2026, the share of Lichess games reaching this position rose from roughly 0.0002% to about 0.0005-0.0007%, peaking at around 0.0007%, though with considerable fluctuation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Four Knights Game: Halloween Gambit |url=https://lichess.org/opening/Four_Knights_Game_Halloween_Gambit/e4_e5_Nf3_Nc6_Nc3_Nf6_Nxe5_Nxe4 |access-date=2026-10-17 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> For the history of the gambit itself, see the [[Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Nf3/2...Nc6/3. Nc3/3...Nf6/4. Nxe5|Halloween Gambit]] page. Also, as of 9 November 2026, the Lichess masters database, which Lichess describes as containing over-the-board games by players rated 2200 FIDE or higher<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lichess |date=2017-03-07 |title=Lichess announcement describing the Masters Database |url=https://x.com/lichess/status/839124038798700544 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://megalodon.jp/2026-1109-1712-25/https://x.com:443/lichess/status/839124038798700544 |archive-date=2026-11-09 |access-date=2026-11-09 |website=X (formerly Twitter) |language=en}}</ref>, contains no games reaching this position.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lichess analysis board, Masters database, position after 4...Nxe4. |url=https://lichess.org/analysis/pgn/e4_e5_Nf3_Nc6_Nc3_Nf6_Nxe5_Nxe4 |url-access=registration |access-date=2026-11-09 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> This means virtually no master-level OTB FIDE games have been played as of now that reached this position. For context, as of now, out of 16 Lichess Master games that reached the '''Halloween Gambit''', all 16 games played '''4...Nxe5'''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lichess analysis board, Masters database, position after 4. Nxe5. |url=https://lichess.org/analysis/pgn/e4_e5_Nf3_Nc6_Nc3_Nf6_Nxe5 |access-date=2026-11-09 |website=lichess.org |language=en-US}}</ref> === The chess game === The chess game mentioned above was only cited with the first 7 moves in Keiser's article ('''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 5. Nxc6 Nxc3 6. dxc3 bxc6 7. Bd3 Be7''').<ref name=":1" /> The full game record, preserved in a PGN file, continues '''8. Qh5 d5 9. Bf4 Bd6 10. Bxd6 Qxd6 11. O-O Be6 12. c4 O-O-O 13. cxd5 cxd5 14. Qg5 f6 15. Qxg7 Rhg8 16. Qh6 Rg5 17. f4 Rg4 18. Rae1 Rdg8 19. g3 Bd7 20. Qxh7 d4 21. Bf5 Bxf5 22. Qxf5+ Kb8 23. Re6 Qb4 24. Rfe1 d3 25. Re8+ Kb7 26. Qc8+ Kb6 27. R1e6+ Qd6 28. Rxd6+ cxd6 29. Rxg8''', ending the game as a win for White.<ref>{{Cite web |title=halloween4.pgn |url=https://www.shakki.net/liitot/skl/peliosasto/projects/halloween4.pgn |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241024085455/https://www.shakki.net/liitot/skl/peliosasto/projects/halloween4.pgn |archive-date=2024-10-24 |archive-format=PGN |access-date=2026-11-08 |website=shakki.net |format=PGN}}</ref> The PGN also gives us some additional info about the game. The final position is not checkmate, and yet White still won. This means that presumably, either Black resigned, abandoned the game, lost on time, or other non-mating results. {{Chess/board | moves = 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 5. Nxc6 Nxc3 6. dxc3 bxc6 7. Bd3 Be7 8. Qh5 d5 9. Bf4 Bd6 10. Bxd6 Qxd6 11. O-O Be6 12. c4 O-O-O 13. cxd5 cxd5 14. Qg5 f6 15. Qxg7 Rhg8 16. Qh6 Rg5 17. f4 Rg4 18. Rae1 Rdg8 19. g3 Bd7 20. Qxh7 d4 21. Bf5 Bxf5 22. Qxf5+ Kb8 23. Re6 Qb4 24. Rfe1 d3 25. Re8+ Kb7 26. Qc8+ Kb6 27. R1e6+ Qd6 28. Rxd6+ cxd6 29. Rxg8 | caption = Position after White's 29th move, '''29. Rxg8''', the last move of the game. }} == Theory table == {{ChessTable}} {{Chess/theory table |preceding=1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. Nxe5 Nxe4 |line1=5. Nxc6 Nxc3 6. dxc3 dxc6 |eval1= = |line2=5. Nxc6 Nxc3 6. Nxd8 Nxd1 |eval2= = |line3=5. Nxe4 Nxe5 6. d4 |eval3= +/= |line4=5. Qh5 Nxe5?? 6. Qxe5+ Qe7 7. Qxe7+ |eval4= +- |line5=5. Qh5 g6? 6. Nxc6! gxh5 7. Nxd8 Nxc3 8. Nxf7 Kxf7 9. dxc3 |eval5= +/- |line6=5. Qh5 Nd6 6. Nd5 |eval6= +/- |line7=5. Qh5 Qf6?! 6. Qxf7+ Qxf7 7. Nxf7 Kxf7 8. Bc4+ Ke7 9. Nxe4 |eval7= +/= |line8=5. Qh5 Qf6?! 6. Qxf7+ Qxf7 7. Nxf7 Kxf7 8. Bc4+ d5?? 9. Bxd5+ |eval8= +- }} {{ChessMid}} == References == {{reflist}} == See also == {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} gsfbzhyj9g3ul0p40omkmnsuwl9xwuw 0 484817 4681710 4680538 2026-11-11T18:19:52Z LoveElectronicLiterature 3414389 /* List of associated issues */ Huang cited 4681710 wikitext text/x-wiki {{new book}} [[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] (HME) is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (MHE), Hereditary Multiple Osteochondromas (HMO), and Multiple Osteochondromas (MO). == Bone Issues == The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database for an overview of the reported variants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}</ref> In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include: * Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}</ref> Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025) * Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)   * Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis * Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017) * Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) * Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023) * Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025) == List of associated issues == '''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Pacifici |first=Maurizio |date=2018-10 |title=The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6015767/ |journal=Matrix Biology: Journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology |volume=71-72 |pages=28–39 |doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011 |issn=1569-1802 |pmc=6015767 |pmid=29277722}}</ref>).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:''' * Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) * Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004). * Sleep disorders (Clark 2022, Chen 2023) * Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) * Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) * Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}</ref>, Rueda et al. 2025) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007) * Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A</nowiki>. * Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013) * Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012) * Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021) * Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007]) * Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015) * Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016) * Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024) * Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018) * Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007) * Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020). * Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022) * Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999) * Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021) == Children's Corner == === Teach your child to live with MHE === You just got a diagnosis for your child and you are terrified for their life. Yeah, MHE sucks. And it is a life-long, untreatable disease. Sure you can have surgery, sure, physical therapy helps. But the underlying condition will be there every day for the rest of your life. So. How can you prepare your child to live successfully with MHE? * '''Believe their pain.''' MHE can have some strange symptoms. Even the bones can subluxate (go in and out) within seconds, so the kid who could not walk two minutes ago is running now. Believe your child. Do not let the doctors gaslight you or your child into pretending that nothing is wrong. * '''Let your child master their pain.''' Give your child as much control and autonomy as possible. Provide a "pain corner" with comfy pillows, their favorite toys, quiet activities, warmies or coolies. Let your child go to that pain area whenever they feel the need--when they are tired or in pain. This lets them regulate their own pain and functions. * '''Teach your child to brainstorm and plan around problems.''' Pain and limited mobility may limit certain options, but life still goes on. So when your child can not do something, brainstorm with them. Use your imaginations. You can not climb these steps. Ok, how can you get into the room? Can you slide on your butt? Should we get a giraffe from next door to help out? (Throw in silly suggestions because that expands their imagination and puts a bit of humor into the situation.) === Advocate for your child with HME in schools === It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include: * '''Limited mobility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications. * '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Pérez |first=Christine |last2=Sawmiller |first2=Darrell |last3=Tan |first3=Jun |date=2016-04-18 |title=The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |journal=Neural Development |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |issn=1749-8104 |pmc=4836088 |pmid=27089953}}</ref> so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}</ref> Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan. * '''Frequent pain and fatigue<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}</ref>'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school. * '''Writing difficulties'''.<ref name=":1" /> My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking or Otter AI. * '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method. * '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. * '''Hall passes.''' Give my child access to the nurse and bathroom as they determine that they need to go. My child may have bathroom urgencies or need to get pain medication quickly. My child may also have a limb that has "gone out" or stopped working for a few seconds to a few days and will need to attend to that medical urgency. === Advocation Laws and Directives === In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. = How to Respond to Doctors = There are suggested treatment protocols for MHE (see Rueda et al., 2025). However, MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Advocate for yourself! 1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms. '''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Nencini |first=Sara |last2=Ivanusic |first2=Jason J. |date=2016-04-26 |title=The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157/full |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157 |issn=1664-042X |pmc=4844598 |pmid=27199772}}</ref> for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005. 3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME. '''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}</ref> 5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants? === Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously === '''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed''' '''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well. '''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. '''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?''' What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record! '''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized''' '''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you. '''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. • '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). '''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation''' '''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything. • '''Can we go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. '''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes. '''Scripts for Asking for Clarification''' • “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.) • “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma) • “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.) = See also (MHE sites and resources) = === Institutions and Foundations === MHE Learning System<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home - MHE Learning System |url=https://mhels.org/ |access-date=2026-09-30 |website=mhels.org |language=en}}</ref> a site for MHE patients to learn about the disease and to cope. MHE Research Foundation<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.mherf.org/ |access-date=2026-09-30 |website=website |language=en}}</ref> a site to share MHE research. === Patient's voices === YouTube - * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YdUFvXH1Kw Voices of MHE: Christine - YouTube] * Deena Larsen therapy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qVV4Lhmg4ao&list=PLUs4fzSTQEnXyCt3dWeqNxI0kbYSIHBhR * Deena Larsen, ''Embodying My Mother's Bones''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bodies of Knowledge |url=http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs/ |access-date=2026-11-06 |website=www.deenalarsen.net}}</ref> * Anne Feit, ''When It All Fades Away: A Memoir of Healing and Hope'' * Irv Rosenfeld, ''My Medicine.'' <ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosenfeld |first=Irvin |title=My Medicine: How I Convinced the Federal Government to Provide my Marijuana and Helped Launch a National Movement |date=2010 |publisher=Open Archive Press |isbn=978-0-9636380-9-0}}</ref> = Research and medical studies = Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. == HME Specific studies == === Summary studies === '''Rueda-de-Eusebio, A., Gomez-Pena, S., Moreno-Casado, M.J. et al. Hereditary multiple exostoses: an educational review. Insights Imaging 16, 46 (2025). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-025-01899-6</nowiki>''' ''  This review summarises current knowledge on the clinical presentation, pathogenesis, imaging characteristics, complications, and treatment of HME.'' === Autism and neurological issues === '''Yamaguchi, Yu. Research on rare bone disorder reveals new insights into autism. <nowiki>https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/857331</nowiki> March 2012,''' ''Sanford-Burnham researchers discover the molecular basis of autistic symptoms in children with a rare bone disorder -- findings that also provide new insights for the general autistic population.Researchers at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute (Sanford-Burnham) used a mouse model of MHE to investigate cognitive function. They found that mice with a genetic defect that models human MHE show symptoms that meet the three defining characteristics of autism: social impairment, language deficits, and repetitive behavior.'' See associated video presentations: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SmRRG03zxo Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. - Consequences of Genetic Deficiency] 'Heparan Sulfate, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses, and Autism: Insight from a Rare Disease for a Common Disease" at the Third Annual Rare Disease Day Symposium at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute. The symposium took place at Sanford-Burnham's La Jolla campus on February 24, 2012 and the focus was Glycosylation-Based Disorders: Discovery, Patients, and Progress Toward Treatments.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sanford Burnham Prebys |title=Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. |date=2012-03-05 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A |access-date=2026-09-10}}</ref> Heparan Sulfate and Human Diseases, March 5, 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. |url=https://www.google.com/search?hl=en-US&hl=en&client=mobilesearchapp&sca_esv=16067ccfc9d0a6cf&channel=iss&rlz=1MDAPLA_enUS667US667&v=437.4.973319807&q=yu+yamaguchi+video&docid=8EyS2A5A5MmJHM&ibp=video&shem=epsd1,ivsple,rimspwouoe&shndl=41&shmd=H4sIAAAAAAAA_42Rz24TMRDGVeDUN4DTqAcqoc0mjUC0kSqUNG0DYkubRKjtbeqdjU3W9uIZN9kbD8UD8Cw8Aw-AFwTiABInW_Pnm983s_vt0e7jmwg3aHEVlTYZFPk0z-BSp-fJWos0POr3yanQNkJlT-7cIF-xoBiVK2_7JnUSv_p4nDKj8UV5dK6u3hWzKb-_qm6ro_nJ4banr882L9qLw_CB2nYwtJNC3Rer2Uu3vOXx9eYpHx8Mnn19-E-QDHwFC3SVD2VvEoPTaKGg0iisYU5MGJSG147FSBSCJqSYEwZtGATrdQZ7-zNqMKCDRawrFMpgRiFJCIYWiliLaWqC061n8UycAboSxlEM21EnbVZaoAreAsIcA8HUpLlMkKBS6MRb692v4B6ggGiCpTYhyTgXO9I_26bYwqK1jWcTbVf-__7yJEvAv5vF-zU0NSr6i84-w1uEN76uERTaJjIkzjO6C7FzPnyewXBwMPxhtyOuvEolG2Q4r1vlua3Tqb3rTRJ02dEnbQo86r7K31No05FSSbfvn0u7DH6VDsCw9BtM7peBUGyXz7dfHnza-bzzHdtbemZ3AgAA&shmds=v1_ARwrE22JjgnjP0eJT9xgIFMVGTFJDAswWntiJI2oXY3-HEfR1A&source=sh/x/vid/m1/5&kgs=82929becb69767fb&utm_source=epsd1,ivsple,rimspwouoe,sh/x/vid/m1/5#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:911b02e3,vid:6-EXRt_YL6A,st:0 |access-date=2026-09-10 |website=www.google.com}}</ref> === Pain, disability, and fatigue === '''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''<ref name=":1" /> ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.'' '''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' <ref name=":0" /> ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.'' '''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME). Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.'' '''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., & Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406</nowiki>.'''<ref name=":9" /> ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.'' '''Tremosini, M., Morri, M., Forni, C., Pedrini, E., Mordenti, M., Gnoli, M., Di Cecco, A., Moroni, A., & Sangiorgi, L. (2025). Pain in patients with multiple inherited osteochondromas: Incidence and potential prognostic factors. Journal of Bone Oncology, 52, 100672.''' ''Purpose: the purpose of this study was to describe the baseline characteristics, presenting phenotype and treatment interventions for patients diagnosed with multiple osteochondromas who presented with severe pain'' ''symptoms. .Conclusion: from the early stages of multiple osteochondromas diagnosis, pain symptoms must be carefully assessed. An increase in age is associated with a worsening of pain; IOR classification of the multiple osteo-chondromas phenotype does not currently allow an association between the various classes and pain. A re-evaluation of the classification in this light could be an important new element for clinical practice.'' === Bone growth complications === '''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}</ref>'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.'' '''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. <nowiki>https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129</nowiki> '''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}</ref> ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' '''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}</ref> ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.'' '''Phan, A. Q., Pacifici, M., & Esko, J. D. (2017). Advances in the pathogenesis and possible treatments for multiple hereditary exostoses from the 2016 international MHE conference. Connective Tissue Research, 59(1), 85–98. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=www.tandfonline.com |doi=10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295 |pmc=7604901 |pmid=29099240}}</ref>''  MHE, also known as hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) or multiple osteochondromas (MO), is characterized by cartilage-capped outgrowths called osteochondromas that develop adjacent to the growth plates of skeletal elements in young patients. These benign tumors can affect growth plate function, leading to skeletal growth retardation, or deformations, and can encroach on nerves, tendons, muscles, and other surrounding tissues and cause motion impairment, chronic pain, and early onset osteoarthritis. In about 2–5% of patients, the osteochondromas can become malignant and life threatening.'' '''Stiever, JR., and J.P. Dormans (2005). Manifestations of hereditary multiple exostoses. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 13: 110-120'''''.'' '''<nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15850368/</nowiki>''' ''Hereditary multiple exostosis is an autosomal dominant disorder manifested by the presence of multiple osteochondromas. Linkage analysis has implicated mutations in the EXT gene family, resulting in an error in the regulation of normal chondrocyte proliferation and maturation that leads to abnormal bone growth. Although exostoses are benign lesions, they are often associated with characteristic progressive skeletal deformities and may cause clinical symptoms. Patients with hereditary multiple exostosis have a slight risk of sarcomatous transformation of the cartilaginous portion of the exostosis.'' === '''Screening and treatment''' === '''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}</ref>''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).'' '''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}</ref> ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.'' '''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}</ref>''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.''' '''Troxel, J., Fleury, I. G., & Buckwalter V, J. A. (2025). Revisiting Sex Differences in Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (MHE): A Comprehensive Retrospective Analysis of Patient Characteristics and Surgical Patterns. ''Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics'', ''46''(3), 180–185.''' ''We examined 103 MHE-diagnosed patients treated at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics from June 2008 to March 2023.'' ''Our findings deviate from the commonly accepted male predominance in MHE, revealing an even male-female distribution.'' '''Van der Woude HJ, Flipsen M, Welsink C, Van der Zwan AL, Ham SJ, 2025. Is total-body MRI useful as a screening tool to rule out malignant progression in patients with multiple osteochondromas? Results in a single-center cohort of 319 adult patients. By''''':''  '''Skeletal radiology, 1432-2161, 2024 Jan, Vol. 53, Issue 1.'''''To evaluate the results of total-body (TB) MRI used as a screening tool for assessment or exclusion of malignant transformation in patients with hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO). Conclusion: TB-MRI can identify malignant transformation of osteochondromas in HMO patients. All peripheral chondrosarcomas occurred in flat bones (ribs, scapula, pelvis) in our study. TB-MRI might assist in triage between higher risk patients with a high burden of OC, including the location of OC in main flat bones vs lower risk patients without OC of the flat bones.'' '''Teeth''' '''Wiweger, Malgorzata I. Wiweger, Zhe Zhao, Richard J. P. van Merkesteyn, Henry H. Roehl, and Pancras C. W. Hogendoorn, 2012. HSPG-Deficient Zebrafish Uncovers Dental Aspect of Multiple Osteochondromas. PLOS 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029734</nowiki>'''''.'' ''Here we analyse dental defects present in ext2−/− fish. Histological analysis reveals that ext2−/− fish have very severe defects associated with the formation and the morphology of teeth. Our findings from zebrafish model were validated in a dental survey that was conducted with assistance of the MHE Research Foundation. The presence of the malformed and/or displaced teeth with abnormal enamel was declared by half of the respondents indicating that MO might indeed be also associated with dental problems.'' == Genetic studies (EXT genes) == As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies: '''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}</ref> . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.'' '''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). "The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions". Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.'' '''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}</ref> ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' '''Nozawa S, Inubushi T, Irie F, et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass. JCI Insight. 2018;3(3):e89624. Published 2018 Feb 8. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.89624.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nozawa |first=Satoshi |last2=Inubushi |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Irie |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Takigami |first4=Iori |last5=Matsumoto |first5=Kazu |last6=Shimizu |first6=Katsuji |last7=Akiyama |first7=Haruhiko |last8=Yamaguchi |first8=Yu |date=2018-02-08 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass |url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/89624 |journal=JCI Insight |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.89624 |issn=2379-3708 |pmc=5821205 |pmid=29415886}}</ref> ''To determine the role of HS in bone homeostasis, we conditionally ablated Ext1, which encodes an essential glycosyltransferase for HS biosynthesis, in osteoblasts. Resultant conditional mutant mice developed severe osteopenia. Surprisingly, this phenotype is not due to impairment in bone formation but to enhancement of bone resorption. We also show that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses, a genetic bone disorder caused by heterozygous mutations of Ext1, suggesting that the mechanism revealed in this study may be relevant to low bone mass conditions in humans.'' '''Pacifici M. The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses. Matrix Biol. 2018 Oct;71-72:28-39. doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011. Epub 2017 Dec 24. PMID: 29277722; PMCID: PMC6015767'''''.''<ref name=":7" /> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential component of cell surface and matrix proteoglycans (HS-PGs) that include syndecans and perlecan. Because of their unique structural features, the HS chains are able to specifically interact with signaling proteins–including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-via their HS-binding domain, regulating protein availability, distribution and action on target cells. Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) is a rare pediatric disorder linked to germline heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in EXT1 or EXT2 that encode Golgi-resident glycosyltransferases responsible for HS synthesis, resulting in a systemic HS deficiency. HME is characterized by cartilaginous/bony tumors-called osteochondromas or exostoses- that form within perichondrium in long bones, ribs and other elements. This review examines most recent studies in HME, framing them in the context of classic studies. New findings show that the spectrum of EXT mutations is larger than previously realized and the clinical complications of HME extend beyond the skeleton.'' '''Sefcik R, Earl D. Hereditary Multiple Osteochondromas. 2000 Aug 3 [Updated 2026 Jan 29]. In: Adam MP, Bick S, Mirzaa GM, et al., editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2026. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1235</nowiki>.''' ''Each child of an individual with HMO has a 50% chance of inheriting an HMO-causing pathogenic variant.'' '''Zak, B.M., B.E. Crawford, and J.D. Esko, 2002. Hereditary multiple exostoses and heparan sulfate polymerization Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) Volume 1573, Issue 3, 19 December 2002, Pages 346–355 <nowiki>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304416502004026</nowiki>''' ''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HME, OMIM 133700, 133701) results from mutations in EXT1 and EXT2, genes encoding the copolymerase responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) biosynthesis. Here, we provide an overview of HME, the EXT family of proteins, and possible models for the relationship of altered HS biosynthesis to the ectopic bone growth characteristic of the disease.'' == HSPG-Related studies == While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes. '''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}</ref> ''"The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed."'' '''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. & Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758</nowiki>.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}</ref> ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' '''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.'' '''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' <ref>{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}</ref>'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.'' '''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation & Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}</ref> Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG. '''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. & Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' '''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''<ref name=":3" />'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …'' '''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}</ref> ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.'' '''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}</ref>'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' '''Chen, Ming and Xiao, Xiao and Rui, Yimin and Jin, Yu,''' '''2023. Relationship of Sleep Disorder with Neurodegenerative and Psychiatric Diseases: An Updated Review. Available at SSRN:''' <nowiki>https://ssrn.com/abstract=4484640</nowiki> or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4484640. "''Another key factor in the circadian timing of Aβ42 phagocytosis is the presence of cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), which highlights a potential causative factor for increased Aβ42 accumulation in patients with clock/sleep disorders due to the apparent circadian rhythmicity of HSPGs levels and the inhibitory role of HSPGs in the phagocytosis of Aβ42(Clark et al., 2022)."'' '''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. <nowiki>http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}</ref> ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' '''Clark, GT, Yu Y, Urban C et al. 2023. Circadian control of heparan sulfate levels times phagocytosis of amyloid beta aggregates. February 10, 202. PLOS Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009994<nowiki/>.''' ''PGs like heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are involved in the clearance of Aβ42, associate with Aβ42 to foster the formation of plaques, and reduce Aβ plaque load upon the knockout of a key enzyme in the HSPG biosynthesis pathway... our findings suggest the disruption of the circadian timing of macrophage/microglia phagocytosis may be a vital component in Aβ42 metabolism, highlighting a potential causative factor in the increase in accumulation of Aβ42 in patients with clock/sleep disturbances [8,13,20,22,25,94,97].'' '''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}</ref> ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.'' '''Condomitti, G., & de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}</ref> ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.'' '''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). "Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas" Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}</ref> ''<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165</nowiki> Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].'' '''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}</ref> ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.'' '''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' '''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. <nowiki>https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561</nowiki>.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}</ref> ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' '''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''<ref name=":4" /> '''<nowiki>http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short</nowiki>''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.'' '''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.'' '''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''<nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/</nowiki>'''''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}</ref> ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.'' '''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}</ref> ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.'' '''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.<nowiki>https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext</nowiki>''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}</ref>''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' '''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}</ref> ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' '''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. <nowiki>https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109</nowiki>.''' <ref name=":5" />''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.'' '''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}</ref>''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' '''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., & Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957</nowiki>.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.'' '''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 <nowiki>https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.'' '''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031</nowiki>''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.] ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.'' '''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}</ref> ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' '''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}</ref> ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.'' '''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death & Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}</ref> ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' '''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}</ref> ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.'' '''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). "Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins". Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. <nowiki>PMID 26289657</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}</ref>''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.''' '''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. <nowiki>https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446</nowiki>''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}</ref> ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.'' '''Nackaerts, K. et al. 1997. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Expression In Human Lung-Cancer Cells. Int. J. Cancer (Pred. Oncol.): 74, 335–345 (1997) r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurits_Demedts/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells/links/5600565108aeafc8ac8c7374.pdf</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nackaerts |first=Kris |last2=Verbeken |first2=Erik |last3=Deneffe |first3=Georges |last4=Vanderschueren |first4=Bernadette |last5=Demedts |first5=Maurits |last6=David |first6=Guido |date=1997-07-01 |title=Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in human lung-cancer cells |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells |journal=International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer |volume=74 |pages=335–45 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970620)74:33.3.CO;2-4}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) functions as a co-factor in several signal-transduction systems that affect cellular growth, differentiation, adhesion and motility. HS, therefore, may also play a role in the malignant transformation of cells, tumor growth, cell invasiveness and the formation of tumor metastases. Our results suggest that poorly differentiated lung tumors have markedly altered patterns of HSPG expression, which may contribute to their invasive phenotype. Int. J. Cancer 74:335– 345, 1997.'' '''Nencini Sara , Ivanusic Jason J. The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? Frontiers in Physiology. Volume 7 - 2016.''' '''<nowiki>https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157</nowiki>. DOI=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157. ISSN=1664-042X'''<ref name=":6" /> ''Pain is associated with most bony pathologies. Clinical and experimental observations suggest that bone pain can be derived from noxious stimulation of the periosteum or bone marrow Whilst these provide some clues as to the way information about bone pain is centrally coded, they need to be expanded to further our understanding of other central territories involved.'' '''Otsu, K.; Kato, S.; Ohtake, K.; Akamatsu, N. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1992, 294, 544–549. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration - PubMed (nih.gov)'''''. Heparan sulfates (HS) are probably the major GAGs present on the surface of hepatocytes under normal conditions. Nevertheless, HSPGs expression increases during liver regeneration. Using [35S] sulfuric acid incorporation, Otsu et al. showed that, in the hepatic regeneration phase after hepatectomy, the synthesis of heparin sulfate proteoglycans, and to a lesser extent, of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate proteoglycans, increases up to 3–5 days and is temporally shifted compared to the stage of maximum mitosis that occurs 1–2 days following the surgical procedure [94].'' '''Otsuka, T., Phan, A.Q., Laurencin, C.T. et al. Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration. Regen. Eng. Transl. Med. 6, 7–17 (2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3</nowiki> <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Otsuka |first=T. |last2=Phan |first2=A. Q. |last3=Laurencin |first3=C. T. |last4=Esko |first4=J. D. |last5=Bryant |first5=S. V. |last6=Gardiner |first6=D. M. |date=2020-03 |title=Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |journal=Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |issn=2364-4133 |pmc=7971174 |pmid=33748405}}</ref> ''. We hypothesized that there are cells in the axolotl that synthesize specific HSPGs that control growth factor signaling in time and space. Given their high level of HSPG expression, their stellate morphology, and their distribution throughout the loose connective tissues, we refer to these as the positional information GRID (Groups that are Regenerative, Interspersed and Dendritic) cells.'' '''Parish, C., 2005. Heparan sulfate and inflammation. Nature Immunology 6(9):861-2 ·  October. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parish |first=Christopher |date=2005-10-01 |title=Heparan sulfate and inflammation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation |journal=Nature immunology |volume=6 |pages=861–2 |doi=10.1038/ni0905-861}}</ref> ''Entry of leukocytes into tissues is a key feature of inflammation. New data suggest the polysaccharide heparan sulfate is required for several stages of this entry process.'' '''Park, P.J, and D. Shukla. Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases, Experimental Eye Research, Volume 110, 2013, Pages 1-9, ISSN 0014-4835, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Paul J. |last2=Shukla |first2=Deepak |date=2013-05-01 |title=Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014483513000274 |journal=Experimental Eye Research |volume=110 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015 |issn=0014-4835 |pmc=3638857 |pmid=23410824}}</ref> ''Abstract: Heparan sulfate (HS), a ubiquitous and structurally diverse cell surface polysaccharide and extracellular matrix component, is a factor common to several major eye pathologies. Its multitude of functions and variable distribution among the different ocular tissues makes it an important contributor to a variety of disease states. Although HS facilitates the pathogenesis of many disorders, its role in each varies. Unique functions of HS have been particularly noted in viral and bacterial keratitis and age-related macular degeneration.'' '''Pérez, C., Sawmiller, D. & Tan, J. The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation. Neural Dev 11, 11 (2016). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x</nowiki>''' <ref name=":8" /> ''Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are the second most common developmental cause of disability in the United States. The brains of ASD patients have marked structural abnormalities, in the form of increased dendritic spines and decreased long distance connections. These structural differences may be due to deficiencies in Heparin Sulfate (HS), a proteoglycan involved in a variety of neurodevelopmental processes. Through interference with this pathway, HS deficiency can lead to excess spine formation.'' '''Poli, Maura, Michela Asperti, Paola Ruzzenenti, Annamaria Naggi, and Paolo Arosio. 2017. "Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia" Molecules 22, no. 4: 598. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22040598</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poli |first=Maura |last2=Asperti |first2=Michela |last3=Ruzzenenti |first3=Paola |last4=Naggi |first4=Annamaria |last5=Arosio |first5=Paolo |date=2017-04-08 |title=Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/22/4/598 |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=598 |doi=10.3390/molecules22040598 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=6154463 |pmid=28397746}}</ref> ''This review summarizes recent findings on the anti-hepcidin activity of heparins and their possible use for the treatment of anemia caused by hepcidin excess, including the anemia of chronic diseases.'' '''Russel A.L. and M.F.McCarty, 2000 Glucosamine for migraine prophylaxis?  Medical Hypotheses. Volume 55, Issue 3, September 2000, Pages 195-198. <nowiki>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306987799910125</nowiki>''' ''We postulate that supplemental glucosamine can boost mast cell heparin synthesis – perhaps correcting a functional heparin deficiency – thereby preventing or ameliorating the neurogenic inflammation that mediates pain in vascular headache. Whether or not this idea has validity, a controlled study of glucosamine for migraine prophylaxis appears to be warranted.'' '''Stringer, S.E. and Gallagher. 1997. Molecules in focus. Heparan sulphate. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, Volume 29, Issue 5, 1997.''' ''Heparan sulphates, the N-sulphated polysaccharides components of proteoglycans, are common constituents of cell surfaces and the extracellular matrix. The diverse functions of heparan sulphate, which range from the control of blood coagulation to the regulation of cell growth and adhesion, depend on the capacity of the chains to activate protein ligands, such as antithrombin III and members of the fibroblast growth factor family. These properties are currently being exploited in the development of synthetic heparan sulphates as anticoagulants and promoters of wound healing. Conversely organic mimics of growth factor activating saccharides could possibly be designed to suppress tumour growth and prevent restenosis after coronary vessel angioplasty.'' '''Theoharides TC et al.  1999. Stress-induced rat intestinal mast cell intragranular activation and inhibitory effect of sulfated proteoglycans.  Digestive Diseases and Sciences [1999, 44 (8 Suppl):87S-93S]. Pages 709-714. <nowiki>http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/10490045</nowiki>''' ''Cyclic vomiting syndrome is characterized by sudden episodes of vomiting and abdominal pain. It occurs primarily in children, is exacerbated by stress, and is often considered a migraine equivalent. Migraines have been linked to mast cells, which are often found close to neurons where they are activated by neuropeptides. We investigated the ultrastructural appearance of rat ileal brush border and mast cells following acute stress by immobilization.These results suggest the possible usefulness of chondroitin sulfate in conditions such as cyclic vomiting syndrome.'' '''Thompson, W.R. 2011. Perlecan modulates the function of the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular system. University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2011. 3443246.''' ''In this study, along with my colleagues, I examined osteocyte lacunocanalicular morphology in mice deficient in the large heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) PLN in this tissue. . . Ultrastructural measurements using electron micrograph images of PLN deficient mice demonstrate a significant decrease in osteocyte canalicular pericellular area, resulting from a reduction in the total canalicular area, when compared to controls. Additionally, PLN deficient mice show significantly diminished canalicular density and a significant reduction in the number of transverse tethering elements per canaliculus.'' '''van den Born J, van den Heuvel LP, Bakker MA, Veerkamp JH, Assmann KJ, Weening JJ, Berden JH., 1993. ''Distribution of GBM heparan sulfate proteoglycan core protein and side chains in human glomerular diseases.'' Kidney Int. 1993 Feb;43(2):454-63. <nowiki>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8441243</nowiki>''' ''Using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) recognizing either the core protein or the heparan sulfate (HS) side chain of human GBM heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG), we investigated their glomerular distribution on cryostat sections of human kidney tissues. In conclusion, major alterations were observed in the glomerular distribution of HS and HSPG-core in various human glomerulopathies. The mAbs can be useful to further delineate the significance of HSPG and HS for glomerular diseases.'' '''Vicente, Carolina Meloni, da Silva, Daiana Aparecida, Sartorio, Priscila Veronica, Silva, Tiago Donizetti, Saad, Sarhan Sydney, Nader, Helena Bonciani, Forones, Nora Manoukian, Toma, Leny, Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Human Colorectal Cancer, Analytical Cellular Pathology, 2018, 8389595, 10 pages, 2018.''' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8389595</nowiki>'''  <nowiki>https://www.hindawi.com/journals/acp/2018/8389595/</nowiki>''' ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are complex molecules present in the cell membrane and extracellular matrix, which play vital roles in cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and signaling pathways. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are candidate molecules to clarify colorectal cancer tumorigenesis, as well as important targets to therapy and diagnosis.'' '''Vlodavestky, I. et al. 2007. Heparanase: Structure, Biological Functions, and Inhibition by Heparin-Derived Mimetics of Heparan Sulfate. Current Pharmaceutical Design, Volume 13, Number 20, July 2007, pp. 2057-2073(17). <nowiki>http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cpd/2007/00000013/00000020/art00004</nowiki>''' ''Heparanase is an endoglycosidase which cleaves heparan sulfate (HS) and hence participates in degradation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Heparanase is preferentially expressed in human tumors and its over-expression in tumor cells confers an invasive phenotype in experimental animals. These observations and the unexpected identification of a single functional heparanase, suggest that the enzyme is a promising target for anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory drug development.'' '''Weihua T. et al. 2002. Heparanase: A Key Enzyme in Invasion and Metastasis of Gastric Carcinoma.Mod Pathol 2002;15(6):593–59. <nowiki>http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v15/n6/abs/3880571a.html</nowiki>''' ''Previous reports have shown that the biochemical activity of heparanase is significantly correlated with the invasion and metastasis of malignant cells in vitro.'' ''It was concluded that heparanase might play an important role in the development of invasion and metastasis of the gastric cancer. It was indicated that patients with heparanase-positive gastric carcinoma would have a greater chance of metastasis with a poor prognosis.'' '''Whitelock John M. and Renato V. Iozzo, 2005. H''eparan Sulfate:  A Complex Polymer Charged with Biological Activity''. Chem. Rev., 2005, 105 (7), pp 2745–2764. <nowiki>http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/cr0102</nowiki>''' ''  “HS is a complex and highly active biopolymer…” one section is on heparan sulfate therapies,'' '''Yan Yin, Adam Wang, Li Feng, Yu Wang, Hong Zhang, Ivy Zhang, Brent M Bany, Liang Ma, Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Sulfation Regulates Uterine Differentiation and Signaling During Embryo Implantation, Endocrinology, Volume 159, Issue 6, June 2018, Pages 2459–2472, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2018-00105</nowiki>''' ''One important modulator of these signaling pathways is the cell surface and extracellular matrix macromolecules, heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). HSPGs play crucial roles in signal transduction by regulating morphogen transport and ligand binding. In this study, we examine the role of HSPG sulfation in regulating uterine receptivity…'' '''Zhongjun Zhou et al. 2004.  Impaired Angiogenesis, Delayed Wound Healing and Retarded Tumor Growth in Perlecan Heparan Sulfate-Deficient Mice. DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-0810 Published July 2004. <nowiki>http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/64/14/4699</nowiki>.''' ''Perlecan, a modular proteoglycan carrying primary heparan sulfate (HS) side chains, is a major component of blood vessel basement membranes.Perlecan HS-deficient (Hspg2Δ3/Δ3) mice survived embryonic development and were apparently healthy as adults. However, mutant mice exhibited significantly delayed wound healing, retarded FGF-2-induced tumor growth, and defective angiogenesis.'' '''Zhu W, Li J, Liang G. How does cellular heparan sulfate function in viral pathogenicity? Biomed Environ Sci. 2011 Feb;24(1):81-7. doi: 10.3967/0895-3988.2011.01.011. PMID: 2144084'''4. ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is ubiquitously expressed on the surfaces and in the extracellular matrix of virtually all cell types, making it an ideal receptor for viral infection. Understanding how heparan sulfate functions during virus infection in vivo may prove critical for elucidating the molecular mechanism of viral pathogenesis, and may contribute to the development of therapeutics targeting HS''. == Case studies == '''Ahn, YS., Kim, S., Kim, WJ. et al. Characteristics of hip impingement syndrome in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 22, 153 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahn |first=Yeong-Seub |last2=Kim |first2=Sungmin |last3=Kim |first3=Woo-Jong |last4=Lim |first4=Jun-Hyuk |last5=Jung |first5=Sung-Taek |date=2021-02-06 |title=Characteristics of hip impingement syndrome in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1 |journal=BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=153 |doi=10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1 |issn=1471-2474 |pmc=7868013 |pmid=33549073}}</ref> ''Between 2001 and 2019, total 51 patients (102 hips) were evaluated in this study. Patients with MHE were classified to femoro-acetabular impingement (FAI) symptom group, ischio-femoral impingement (IFI) symptom group and non-impingement symptom group by comparing the symptoms, clinical signs and imaging studies.'' '''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}</ref> ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.'' '''Anel-Quimpo, Joselynna, Mark Anthony Santiago Sandoval, Frances Lina Lantion-Ang, 2011. Hypercalcaemia from genitourinary tuberculosis in a female with multiple exostoses. BMJ Journals. <nowiki>https://casereports.bmj.com/content/2011/bcr.12.2010.3651</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anel-Quimpo |first=Joselynna |last2=Sandoval |first2=Mark Anthony Santiago |last3=Lantion-Ang |first3=Frances Lina |date=2011-05-17 |title=Hypercalcaemia from genitourinary tuberculosis in a female with multiple exostoses |url=https://casereports.bmj.com/content/2011/bcr.12.2010.3651 |journal=BMJ Case Reports |language=en |volume=2011 |pages=bcr1220103651 |doi=10.1136/bcr.12.2010.3651 |issn=1757-790X}}</ref> ''The authors present a puzzling case of nephrolithiasis, hypercalcaemia, amenorrhoea, short stature and gross skeletal deformities in a 30-year-old female. Multiple pituitary hormone deficiency and metabolic bone disease were initially considered but were eventually excluded. The final diagnosis is genitourinary tuberculosis (TB) which caused the hypercalcaemia, nephrolithiasis and amenorrhoea, and also found to have the syndrome of multiple exostoses which explained the gross skeletal deformities and the short stature. After treatment with anti-TB therapy, there was resolution of hypercalcaemia and return of regular menstruation. The short stature and gross skeletal deformities remain as part of the congenital syndrome.'' '''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''<ref name=":2" />''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.'' '''Caino, Silvia, Marisa Angelica Cubilla, Romina Alba, María Gabriela Obregón, Virginia Fano, Abel Gómez, Lorena Zecchini, Pablo Lapunzina, Miriam Aza-Carmona, Karen E. Heath, and et al. 2022. "Clinical and Genetic Analysis of Multiple Osteochondromas in a Cohort of Argentine Patients" Genes 13, no. 11: 2063.''' '''<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13112063</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caino |first=Silvia |last2=Cubilla |first2=Marisa Angelica |last3=Alba |first3=Romina |last4=Obregón |first4=María Gabriela |last5=Fano |first5=Virginia |last6=Gómez |first6=Abel |last7=Zecchini |first7=Lorena |last8=Lapunzina |first8=Pablo |last9=Aza-Carmona |first9=Miriam |last10=Heath |first10=Karen E. |last11=Asteggiano |first11=Carla Gabriela |date=2022-11-07 |title=Clinical and Genetic Analysis of Multiple Osteochondromas in a Cohort of Argentine Patients |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4425/13/11/2063 |journal=Genes |language=en |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=2063 |doi=10.3390/genes13112063 |issn=2073-4425 |pmc=9690389 |pmid=36360300}}</ref> ''Multiple Osteochondromatosis (MO, MIM 133700 & 133701), an autosomal dominant O-glycosylation disorder (EXT1/EXT2-CDG), can be associated with a reduction in skeletal growth, bony deformity, restricted joint motion, shortened stature and pathogenic variants in two tumor suppressor genes, EXT1 and EXT2. In this work, we report a cross-sectional study including 35 index patients and 20 affected family members. Clinical phenotyping of all 55 affected cases was obtained, but genetic studies were performed only in 35 indexes.'' '''Hariri O, Al Laham O, Ibrahim Basha Z, Ghannam E, Ghannam M, Mohammad A. Multiple Hereditary Exostoses instigating a popliteal pseudoaneurysm in a young Middle Eastern male: A case report and literature review. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2024 Apr 12;118:109633. doi: 10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 38626641; PMCID: PMC11035074.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hariri |first=Omar |last2=Al Laham |first2=Omar |last3=Ibrahim Basha |first3=Zein |last4=Ghannam |first4=Eman |last5=Ghannam |first5=Mohammad |last6=Mohammad |first6=Ammar |date=2024-05 |title=Multiple Hereditary Exostoses instigating a popliteal pseudoaneurysm in a young Middle Eastern male: A case report and literature review |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633 |journal=International Journal of Surgery Case Reports |language=en |volume=118 |issue=C |doi=10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633 |issn=2210-2612 |pmc=11035074 |pmid=38626641}}</ref> ''We present the case of a 37-year-old Middle Eastern male with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses who experienced sudden-onset left lower limb pain persisting for a month prior to admission. It was associated with coldness and paresthesia of the ipsilateral lower limb. The presurgical radiological workup uncovered a popliteal pseudoaneurysm subsequent to Multiple Hereditary Exostoses.'' '''Kambouris, M., Fadda A, Al-Arraj, Y, et al., 2016. Putative Relation Between Autism Spectrum Disease & Hereditary Multiple Exostosis Investigated by Whole Genome Sequencing & Comparative Genome Analyses in a Family with ASD and HME with EXT-1 Mutations''' ''A family with two male children affected with ASD and HME as well as an unaffected female child, was studied to identify the Genetic basis of ASD in the family and the possible relation between ASD & HME. The HME unaffected parent [mother] contributed heterozygous variants in the Heparan Sulfate biosynthesis pathway that in synergy with the EXT-1 mutation could be the genetic causes of ASD in the family.'' '''Kim, Min Jeong, Yunjin Lee, Sang Ook Nam, Young Mi Kim, 2021. An 8q24.11q24.13 Microdeletion Encompassing EXT1 in a Boy with Autistic Spectrum Disorder, Intellectual Disability, and Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. Annals of Child Neurology. Letter to the Editor, 11/9/2021.''' ''Here, we describe the case of a boy with a microdeletion (8q24.11q24.13 [118,625,768-124,169,620]×1), who presented with autism, intellectual disability, and MHE. the parents signed informed consent and approved the anonymous use of clinical and molecular data for the present diagnostic study'''''.''' '''Küçükesmen, Çiḡdem DDS, PhD, Buḡra Özen, DDS, PhD,b and Mustafa Akçam, DDS, PhDc, 1997. Multiple Hereditary Osteochondromatosis: A Case Report. Eur J Dent. 2007 Jul; 1(3): 183–187.<nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih</nowiki>.''' ''Common carious lesions owing to vomiting are not widespread in children. In this case, we aimed to report an 11-years-old male patient with common carious lesions due to repeated vomitings, chewing and eating difficulty and retarded growth with Multiple Hereditary Osteochondromatosis (MHO).'' '''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. <nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}</ref>''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' '''Malagón, V., 2001.  Development of Hip Dysplasia in Hereditary Multiple Exostosis. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 21(2): 205-211.  <nowiki>https://journals.lww.com/pedorthopaedics/Abstract/2001/03000/Development_of_Hip_Dysplasia_in_Hereditary.14.aspx</nowiki>''.'''''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development of Hip Dysplasia in Hereditary... : Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/pedorthopaedics/fulltext/01241398-200103000-00014~development-of-hip-dysplasia-in-hereditary-multiple |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en}}</ref> ''In approximately 25% of patients with hereditary multiple exostosis, there is an abnormal osteochondral formation localized in the femoral proximal metaphysis. Although this entity is rather frequent and quite severe, it is rarely found in the medical literature. The author describes six private cases, taken from a total of 24,000 patients (0.25/1000) as examples of this entity, and provides a review of the literature.'' '''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., & Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436<nowiki/>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}</ref> ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' '''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}</ref> ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death. This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.'' '''Narvid, J., M. L. Gorno-Tempini, A. Slavotinek, S. J. DeArmond, Y. H. Cha, B. L. Miller & K. Rankin, 2009. Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A. Neurocase Vol. 15, Iss. 3, 2009.''' '''<nowiki>http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13554790802632967</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narvid |first=J. |last2=Gorno-Tempini |first2=M. L. |last3=Slavotinek |first3=A. |last4=DeArmond |first4=S. J. |last5=Cha |first5=Y. H. |last6=Miller |first6=B. L. |last7=Rankin |first7=K. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790802632967 |journal=Neurocase |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1080/13554790802632967 |issn=1355-4794 |pmc=2997763 |pmid=20183548}}</ref>''. Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a clinical syndrome characterized by progressive decline in social conduct and a focal pattern of frontal and temporal lobe damage. Its biological basis is still poorly understood but the focality of the brain degeneration provides a powerful model to study the cognitive and anatomical basis of social cognition. Here, we present Dr. A, a patient with a rare hereditary bone disease (hereditary multiple exostoses) and FTD (pathologically characterized as Pick's disease), This case provides new evidence regarding the neural basis of social cognition and suggests a possible genetic link between bone disease and FTD.'' '''Puiu1, Maria , Iulia Simina-Jurca, Simona Dumitriu, Smaranda Arghirescu,  Adela Chirita-Emandi,  2012. . Multiple Hereditary Exostoses - Clinical Features and Management.''' ''We report two cases of skeletally immature patients who presented with multiple exostoses, bone deformation without bone pain; and growth and pubertal retardation. The cases need adequate counseling, long-term follow-up, and measures to improve the quality of life of patients with multiple hereditary exostoses.'' '''Stitzman Wengrowicz, M.L., J  Pretell-Mazzini,  J.P. Dormans, R.S. Davidson, 2011.. Regression of a Sessile Osteochondroma: A Case Study and Review of the Literature.''' ''<nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267426996_Regression_of_a_Sessile_Osteochondroma_A_Case_Study_and_Review_of_the_Literature</nowiki> . The most common benign bone tumor is osteochondroma.  Its natural history is poorly understood as a consequence of its benign symptomatology in most cases. It typically grows in childhood and growth during adulthood can be a sign of malignant  degeneration. We present  a case of  spontaneous regression of  a solitary osteochondroma.  A review of the  current  literature which  reveals 21  other cases of  spontaneous regression  of solitary  osteochondromas is also discussed. We believe that the possibility of regression of solitary osteochondromas should be taken into account when considering surgical excision.'' '''Viala P, Vanel D, Larbi A, Cyteval C, Laredo JD. Bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses. Skeletal Radiol. 2012;41:1637–40. [PubMed] <nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22865159/</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Viala |first=Pierre |last2=Vanel |first2=Daniel |last3=Larbi |first3=Ahmed |last4=Cyteval |first4=Catherine |last5=Laredo |first5=Jean-Denis |date=2012-12 |title=Bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22865159 |journal=Skeletal Radiology |volume=41 |issue=12 |pages=1637–1640 |doi=10.1007/s00256-012-1488-0 |issn=1432-2161 |pmid=22865159}}</ref> ''We report a case of bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses. The association of exostoses and femoral metaphyseal widening resulted in the narrowing of the ischiofemoral spaces.'' '''Wang YZ, Park KW, Oh CS, Ahn YS, Kang QL, Jung ST, Song HR. Developmental pattern of the hip in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2015;16:54'''''.'' '''https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4429362/<nowiki/>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ya-Zhou |last2=Park |first2=Kwang-Won |last3=Oh |first3=Chang-Seon |last4=Ahn |first4=Yeong-Seub |last5=Kang |first5=Qing-Lin |last6=Jung |first6=Sung-Taek |last7=Song |first7=Hae-Ryong |date=2015-03-15 |title=Developmental pattern of the hip in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4429362/ |journal=BMC musculoskeletal disorders |volume=16 |pages=54 |doi=10.1186/s12891-015-0514-5 |issn=1471-2474 |pmc=4429362 |pmid=25888017}}</ref> '''C'''''oxa valga is a common clinical feature of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME). The current study aimed to determine the unique developmental pattern of the hip in patients with HME and evaluate the factors that influence its progression.'' '''Wiater JM, Farley FA. Popliteal pseudoaneurysm caused by an adjacent osteochondroma: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ). 1999 Jul;28(7):412-6. PMID: 10426440.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiater |first=J. M. |last2=Farley |first2=F. A. |date=1999-07 |title=Popliteal pseudoaneurysm caused by an adjacent osteochondroma: a case report and review of the literature |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10426440 |journal=American Journal of Orthopedics |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=412–416 |issn=1078-4519 |pmid=10426440}}</ref> ''A male 17-year-old with multiple hereditary exostoses presented with a mass in the distal left thigh several days after lifting weights. An arteriogram showed a popliteal artery pseudoaneurysm adjacent to a femoral osteochondroma. The osteochondroma was excised and the artery was repaired with a saphenous vein interposition graft. A review of the literature identified 23 similar reports. The average age of the patients was 21.3 years. Seventy-eight percent were men and half of the patients had multiple hereditary exostoses. Ten patients were initially misdiagnosed. The clinician should consider the diagnosis of pseudoaneurysm in a young patient with an osteochondroma and a mass about the knee.'' '''Zaijun L, Xinhai Y, Zhipeng W, Wending H, Quan H, Zhenhua Z, Dapeng F, Jisheng Z, Wei Z, Jianru X. 2013. Outcome and prognosis of myelopathy and radiculopathy from osteochondroma in the mobile spine: a report on 14 patients. J Spinal Disord Tech 26:194–199.''' ''Fourteen symptomatic spinal osteochondroma (OC)  cases, including 2 hereditary multiple exostoses, were treated surgically from 2001 to 2010.'' = People and books with HME: = [[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> = Spanish Translation = Problemas de deficiencia de proteoglicano de sulfato de heparán (HSPG). La MHE es el resultado de una mutación en los genes EXT1 y EXT2. Los pacientes con MHE tienen una biosíntesis de HSPG defectuosa: sus cuerpos no producen HSPG (cf Cueller et al. 2013 y Jones et al. 2014). Los HSPG son parte de cada superficie celular y regulan los procesos biológicos (cf Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). Desempeñan un papel vital en la adhesión, migración, crecimiento y comunicación celular (Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock e Iozzo (2005) han identificado varias enfermedades relacionadas con la ausencia de HSPG (es decir, si un proceso corporal requiere HSPG y no hay suficiente HSPG para completar esa función, entonces podrían ocurrir estos problemas). Los pacientes con MHE han reportado síntomas como: * Baja masa ósea (Nozawa et al. 2018 y Matsumoto et al. 2020) * Deficiencias neurológicas: Trastorno del espectro autista (Li et al, 2002, Fumitoshi et al. 2012, Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); y problemas cognitivos (Farhan et al. 2015) * Demencia frontotemporal (Narvid et al. 2009) y TDAH (Mooney et al. 2016), función cerebral (Condomitti y Wit 2018). Vea también el vídeo de ratones MHE en <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A</nowiki>. * Enfermedades oculares (Park y Shukla, 2013) * Defectos dentales (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 y Wiweger et al. 2012) * Prediabetes (Heibert 2021)Diabetes y dificultad para controlar la glucosa (Matsuzawa 2021) * Reacciones medicamentosas inusuales (muchos medicamentos actúan sobre el dominio de unión del heparán [Boer y Gaillard 2007]) * Fatiga severa y continua (Berg et al. 1999) * Problemas gástricos graves, incluidas úlceras no causadas por H. pylori (Ascencio et al. 1993 y Chmiela et al. 1995), cáncer gástrico (Weihua et al. 2002) y síndrome de vómitos cíclicos (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 y Theoharides et al. 1999) * Cálculos renales y otros problemas (véase Van den Born et al. 1993 y Farhan et al. 2015) * Vértigo e hiperacusia (Lundberg et al., 2014) y migrañas * Problemas pulmonares (Nackerts et al. 1997 y Haeger et al. 2016) * Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), coágulos sanguíneos y coagulación (Stringer y Gallagher 1997 y Ho et al. 1997), pseudoaneurismas (Wiater y Farley 1996 y Harari et al. 2024) * Problemas menstruales y de embarazo extremadamente dolorosos (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018) * Inflamación (Parroquia 2005); cicatrización lenta de heridas (Zhongjun et al. 2004); cicatrices y queloides (Hosalkar et al. 2007, y problemas del tejido conectivo (Forsberg y Kjellen, 2001 y Otsuka et al. 2020). * Funciones hepáticas (Arnold et al. 2020 y Dituri et al. 2022) * Funciones del colesterol y los lípidos (Kolsett y Salmverta 1999) y Síntesis de vitamina D (Cooper 2021) '''Problemas de crecimiento óseo.''' En la MHE, la falta de HSPG hace que los pacientes desarrollen exostosis, que son tumores benignos en múltiples ubicaciones en todo el cuerpo (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011 y Mansouri et al. 2017). La gravedad (número y tamaño de los tumores y otras complicaciones) de la MHE varía de un paciente a otro. Las exostosis en sí mismas pueden causar numerosos problemas, incluidos: irritación de tendones y músculos que produce dolor y pérdida de movimiento, deformidad esquelética, baja estatura, discrepancia en la longitud de las extremidades, subluxaciones y deformidad angular. Los problemas directamente asociados con estas exostosis incluyen: * Dolor crónico y problemas con la calidad de vida (Goud et al. 2012) * Inflamación, respuestas inmunitarias (Callaghan et al. 2018 y Collins y Troeberg 2019) * Formación de bursa y bursitis resultante, así como artritis de aparición temprana. * Problemas respiratorios y pulmonares al estar sobre costillas que sobresalen hacia la cavidad torácica (Mazza et al. 2017) * Irritación de un nervio cercano (dolor, debilidad, entumecimiento, hormigueo) * Aneurisma de vasos sanguíneos por exostosis que presionan los vasos sanguíneos u otros problemas vasculares (Albokhari et al. 2023) * Problemas de compresión de la médula espinal: incontinencia, daño nerv'''Résumé de la MEM pour les médecins et les écoles''' == References == tjz8z3p8c4ar6a2wqnjovpf1fhttho4 4681711 4681710 2026-11-11T18:20:29Z LoveElectronicLiterature 3414389 /* List of associated issues */ added Ruedo 4681711 wikitext text/x-wiki {{new book}} [[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] (HME) is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (MHE), Hereditary Multiple Osteochondromas (HMO), and Multiple Osteochondromas (MO). == Bone Issues == The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database for an overview of the reported variants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}</ref> In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include: * Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}</ref> Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025) * Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)   * Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis * Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017) * Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) * Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023) * Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025) == List of associated issues == '''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Pacifici |first=Maurizio |date=2018-10 |title=The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6015767/ |journal=Matrix Biology: Journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology |volume=71-72 |pages=28–39 |doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011 |issn=1569-1802 |pmc=6015767 |pmid=29277722}}</ref>).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:''' * Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) * Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004). * Sleep disorders (Clark 2022, Chen 2023) * Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) * Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) * Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}</ref>, Rueda et al. 2025<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rueda-de-Eusebio |first=Alvaro |last2=Gomez-Pena |first2=Sara |last3=Moreno-Casado |first3=María José |last4=Marquina |first4=Gloria |last5=Arrazola |first5=Juan |last6=Crespo-Rodríguez |first6=Ana María |date=2025-02-21 |title=Hereditary multiple exostoses: an educational review |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-025-01899-6 |journal=Insights into Imaging |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=46 |doi=10.1186/s13244-025-01899-6 |issn=1869-4101 |pmc=11845651 |pmid=39982564}}</ref>) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993 and Chmiela et al. 1995), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007) * Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A</nowiki>. * Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013) * Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012) * Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021) * Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007]) * Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015) * Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016) * Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024) * Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018) * Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007) * Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020). * Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022) * Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999) * Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021) == Children's Corner == === Teach your child to live with MHE === You just got a diagnosis for your child and you are terrified for their life. Yeah, MHE sucks. And it is a life-long, untreatable disease. Sure you can have surgery, sure, physical therapy helps. But the underlying condition will be there every day for the rest of your life. So. How can you prepare your child to live successfully with MHE? * '''Believe their pain.''' MHE can have some strange symptoms. Even the bones can subluxate (go in and out) within seconds, so the kid who could not walk two minutes ago is running now. Believe your child. Do not let the doctors gaslight you or your child into pretending that nothing is wrong. * '''Let your child master their pain.''' Give your child as much control and autonomy as possible. Provide a "pain corner" with comfy pillows, their favorite toys, quiet activities, warmies or coolies. Let your child go to that pain area whenever they feel the need--when they are tired or in pain. This lets them regulate their own pain and functions. * '''Teach your child to brainstorm and plan around problems.''' Pain and limited mobility may limit certain options, but life still goes on. So when your child can not do something, brainstorm with them. Use your imaginations. You can not climb these steps. Ok, how can you get into the room? Can you slide on your butt? Should we get a giraffe from next door to help out? (Throw in silly suggestions because that expands their imagination and puts a bit of humor into the situation.) === Advocate for your child with HME in schools === It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include: * '''Limited mobility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications. * '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Pérez |first=Christine |last2=Sawmiller |first2=Darrell |last3=Tan |first3=Jun |date=2016-04-18 |title=The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |journal=Neural Development |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |issn=1749-8104 |pmc=4836088 |pmid=27089953}}</ref> so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}</ref> Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan. * '''Frequent pain and fatigue<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}</ref>'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school. * '''Writing difficulties'''.<ref name=":1" /> My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking or Otter AI. * '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method. * '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. * '''Hall passes.''' Give my child access to the nurse and bathroom as they determine that they need to go. My child may have bathroom urgencies or need to get pain medication quickly. My child may also have a limb that has "gone out" or stopped working for a few seconds to a few days and will need to attend to that medical urgency. === Advocation Laws and Directives === In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. = How to Respond to Doctors = There are suggested treatment protocols for MHE (see Rueda et al., 2025). However, MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Advocate for yourself! 1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms. '''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Nencini |first=Sara |last2=Ivanusic |first2=Jason J. |date=2016-04-26 |title=The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157/full |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157 |issn=1664-042X |pmc=4844598 |pmid=27199772}}</ref> for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005. 3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME. '''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}</ref> 5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants? === Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously === '''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed''' '''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well. '''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. '''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?''' What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record! '''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized''' '''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you. '''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. • '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). '''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation''' '''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything. • '''Can we go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. '''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes. '''Scripts for Asking for Clarification''' • “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.) • “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma) • “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.) = See also (MHE sites and resources) = === Institutions and Foundations === MHE Learning System<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home - MHE Learning System |url=https://mhels.org/ |access-date=2026-09-30 |website=mhels.org |language=en}}</ref> a site for MHE patients to learn about the disease and to cope. MHE Research Foundation<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.mherf.org/ |access-date=2026-09-30 |website=website |language=en}}</ref> a site to share MHE research. === Patient's voices === YouTube - * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YdUFvXH1Kw Voices of MHE: Christine - YouTube] * Deena Larsen therapy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qVV4Lhmg4ao&list=PLUs4fzSTQEnXyCt3dWeqNxI0kbYSIHBhR * Deena Larsen, ''Embodying My Mother's Bones''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bodies of Knowledge |url=http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs/ |access-date=2026-11-06 |website=www.deenalarsen.net}}</ref> * Anne Feit, ''When It All Fades Away: A Memoir of Healing and Hope'' * Irv Rosenfeld, ''My Medicine.'' <ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosenfeld |first=Irvin |title=My Medicine: How I Convinced the Federal Government to Provide my Marijuana and Helped Launch a National Movement |date=2010 |publisher=Open Archive Press |isbn=978-0-9636380-9-0}}</ref> = Research and medical studies = Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. == HME Specific studies == === Summary studies === '''Rueda-de-Eusebio, A., Gomez-Pena, S., Moreno-Casado, M.J. et al. Hereditary multiple exostoses: an educational review. Insights Imaging 16, 46 (2025). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-025-01899-6</nowiki>''' ''  This review summarises current knowledge on the clinical presentation, pathogenesis, imaging characteristics, complications, and treatment of HME.'' === Autism and neurological issues === '''Yamaguchi, Yu. Research on rare bone disorder reveals new insights into autism. <nowiki>https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/857331</nowiki> March 2012,''' ''Sanford-Burnham researchers discover the molecular basis of autistic symptoms in children with a rare bone disorder -- findings that also provide new insights for the general autistic population.Researchers at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute (Sanford-Burnham) used a mouse model of MHE to investigate cognitive function. They found that mice with a genetic defect that models human MHE show symptoms that meet the three defining characteristics of autism: social impairment, language deficits, and repetitive behavior.'' See associated video presentations: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SmRRG03zxo Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. - Consequences of Genetic Deficiency] 'Heparan Sulfate, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses, and Autism: Insight from a Rare Disease for a Common Disease" at the Third Annual Rare Disease Day Symposium at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute. The symposium took place at Sanford-Burnham's La Jolla campus on February 24, 2012 and the focus was Glycosylation-Based Disorders: Discovery, Patients, and Progress Toward Treatments.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sanford Burnham Prebys |title=Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. |date=2012-03-05 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A |access-date=2026-09-10}}</ref> Heparan Sulfate and Human Diseases, March 5, 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. |url=https://www.google.com/search?hl=en-US&hl=en&client=mobilesearchapp&sca_esv=16067ccfc9d0a6cf&channel=iss&rlz=1MDAPLA_enUS667US667&v=437.4.973319807&q=yu+yamaguchi+video&docid=8EyS2A5A5MmJHM&ibp=video&shem=epsd1,ivsple,rimspwouoe&shndl=41&shmd=H4sIAAAAAAAA_42Rz24TMRDGVeDUN4DTqAcqoc0mjUC0kSqUNG0DYkubRKjtbeqdjU3W9uIZN9kbD8UD8Cw8Aw-AFwTiABInW_Pnm983s_vt0e7jmwg3aHEVlTYZFPk0z-BSp-fJWos0POr3yanQNkJlT-7cIF-xoBiVK2_7JnUSv_p4nDKj8UV5dK6u3hWzKb-_qm6ro_nJ4banr882L9qLw_CB2nYwtJNC3Rer2Uu3vOXx9eYpHx8Mnn19-E-QDHwFC3SVD2VvEoPTaKGg0iisYU5MGJSG147FSBSCJqSYEwZtGATrdQZ7-zNqMKCDRawrFMpgRiFJCIYWiliLaWqC061n8UycAboSxlEM21EnbVZaoAreAsIcA8HUpLlMkKBS6MRb692v4B6ggGiCpTYhyTgXO9I_26bYwqK1jWcTbVf-__7yJEvAv5vF-zU0NSr6i84-w1uEN76uERTaJjIkzjO6C7FzPnyewXBwMPxhtyOuvEolG2Q4r1vlua3Tqb3rTRJ02dEnbQo86r7K31No05FSSbfvn0u7DH6VDsCw9BtM7peBUGyXz7dfHnza-bzzHdtbemZ3AgAA&shmds=v1_ARwrE22JjgnjP0eJT9xgIFMVGTFJDAswWntiJI2oXY3-HEfR1A&source=sh/x/vid/m1/5&kgs=82929becb69767fb&utm_source=epsd1,ivsple,rimspwouoe,sh/x/vid/m1/5#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:911b02e3,vid:6-EXRt_YL6A,st:0 |access-date=2026-09-10 |website=www.google.com}}</ref> === Pain, disability, and fatigue === '''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''<ref name=":1" /> ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.'' '''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' <ref name=":0" /> ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.'' '''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME). Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.'' '''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., & Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406</nowiki>.'''<ref name=":9" /> ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.'' '''Tremosini, M., Morri, M., Forni, C., Pedrini, E., Mordenti, M., Gnoli, M., Di Cecco, A., Moroni, A., & Sangiorgi, L. (2025). Pain in patients with multiple inherited osteochondromas: Incidence and potential prognostic factors. Journal of Bone Oncology, 52, 100672.''' ''Purpose: the purpose of this study was to describe the baseline characteristics, presenting phenotype and treatment interventions for patients diagnosed with multiple osteochondromas who presented with severe pain'' ''symptoms. .Conclusion: from the early stages of multiple osteochondromas diagnosis, pain symptoms must be carefully assessed. An increase in age is associated with a worsening of pain; IOR classification of the multiple osteo-chondromas phenotype does not currently allow an association between the various classes and pain. A re-evaluation of the classification in this light could be an important new element for clinical practice.'' === Bone growth complications === '''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}</ref>'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.'' '''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. <nowiki>https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129</nowiki> '''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}</ref> ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' '''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}</ref> ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.'' '''Phan, A. Q., Pacifici, M., & Esko, J. D. (2017). Advances in the pathogenesis and possible treatments for multiple hereditary exostoses from the 2016 international MHE conference. Connective Tissue Research, 59(1), 85–98. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=www.tandfonline.com |doi=10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295 |pmc=7604901 |pmid=29099240}}</ref>''  MHE, also known as hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) or multiple osteochondromas (MO), is characterized by cartilage-capped outgrowths called osteochondromas that develop adjacent to the growth plates of skeletal elements in young patients. These benign tumors can affect growth plate function, leading to skeletal growth retardation, or deformations, and can encroach on nerves, tendons, muscles, and other surrounding tissues and cause motion impairment, chronic pain, and early onset osteoarthritis. In about 2–5% of patients, the osteochondromas can become malignant and life threatening.'' '''Stiever, JR., and J.P. Dormans (2005). Manifestations of hereditary multiple exostoses. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 13: 110-120'''''.'' '''<nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15850368/</nowiki>''' ''Hereditary multiple exostosis is an autosomal dominant disorder manifested by the presence of multiple osteochondromas. Linkage analysis has implicated mutations in the EXT gene family, resulting in an error in the regulation of normal chondrocyte proliferation and maturation that leads to abnormal bone growth. Although exostoses are benign lesions, they are often associated with characteristic progressive skeletal deformities and may cause clinical symptoms. Patients with hereditary multiple exostosis have a slight risk of sarcomatous transformation of the cartilaginous portion of the exostosis.'' === '''Screening and treatment''' === '''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}</ref>''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).'' '''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}</ref> ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.'' '''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}</ref>''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.''' '''Troxel, J., Fleury, I. G., & Buckwalter V, J. A. (2025). Revisiting Sex Differences in Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (MHE): A Comprehensive Retrospective Analysis of Patient Characteristics and Surgical Patterns. ''Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics'', ''46''(3), 180–185.''' ''We examined 103 MHE-diagnosed patients treated at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics from June 2008 to March 2023.'' ''Our findings deviate from the commonly accepted male predominance in MHE, revealing an even male-female distribution.'' '''Van der Woude HJ, Flipsen M, Welsink C, Van der Zwan AL, Ham SJ, 2025. Is total-body MRI useful as a screening tool to rule out malignant progression in patients with multiple osteochondromas? Results in a single-center cohort of 319 adult patients. By''''':''  '''Skeletal radiology, 1432-2161, 2024 Jan, Vol. 53, Issue 1.'''''To evaluate the results of total-body (TB) MRI used as a screening tool for assessment or exclusion of malignant transformation in patients with hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO). Conclusion: TB-MRI can identify malignant transformation of osteochondromas in HMO patients. All peripheral chondrosarcomas occurred in flat bones (ribs, scapula, pelvis) in our study. TB-MRI might assist in triage between higher risk patients with a high burden of OC, including the location of OC in main flat bones vs lower risk patients without OC of the flat bones.'' '''Teeth''' '''Wiweger, Malgorzata I. Wiweger, Zhe Zhao, Richard J. P. van Merkesteyn, Henry H. Roehl, and Pancras C. W. Hogendoorn, 2012. HSPG-Deficient Zebrafish Uncovers Dental Aspect of Multiple Osteochondromas. PLOS 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029734</nowiki>'''''.'' ''Here we analyse dental defects present in ext2−/− fish. Histological analysis reveals that ext2−/− fish have very severe defects associated with the formation and the morphology of teeth. Our findings from zebrafish model were validated in a dental survey that was conducted with assistance of the MHE Research Foundation. The presence of the malformed and/or displaced teeth with abnormal enamel was declared by half of the respondents indicating that MO might indeed be also associated with dental problems.'' == Genetic studies (EXT genes) == As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies: '''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}</ref> . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.'' '''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). "The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions". Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.'' '''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}</ref> ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' '''Nozawa S, Inubushi T, Irie F, et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass. JCI Insight. 2018;3(3):e89624. Published 2018 Feb 8. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.89624.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nozawa |first=Satoshi |last2=Inubushi |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Irie |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Takigami |first4=Iori |last5=Matsumoto |first5=Kazu |last6=Shimizu |first6=Katsuji |last7=Akiyama |first7=Haruhiko |last8=Yamaguchi |first8=Yu |date=2018-02-08 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass |url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/89624 |journal=JCI Insight |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.89624 |issn=2379-3708 |pmc=5821205 |pmid=29415886}}</ref> ''To determine the role of HS in bone homeostasis, we conditionally ablated Ext1, which encodes an essential glycosyltransferase for HS biosynthesis, in osteoblasts. Resultant conditional mutant mice developed severe osteopenia. Surprisingly, this phenotype is not due to impairment in bone formation but to enhancement of bone resorption. We also show that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses, a genetic bone disorder caused by heterozygous mutations of Ext1, suggesting that the mechanism revealed in this study may be relevant to low bone mass conditions in humans.'' '''Pacifici M. The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses. Matrix Biol. 2018 Oct;71-72:28-39. doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011. Epub 2017 Dec 24. PMID: 29277722; PMCID: PMC6015767'''''.''<ref name=":7" /> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential component of cell surface and matrix proteoglycans (HS-PGs) that include syndecans and perlecan. Because of their unique structural features, the HS chains are able to specifically interact with signaling proteins–including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-via their HS-binding domain, regulating protein availability, distribution and action on target cells. Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) is a rare pediatric disorder linked to germline heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in EXT1 or EXT2 that encode Golgi-resident glycosyltransferases responsible for HS synthesis, resulting in a systemic HS deficiency. HME is characterized by cartilaginous/bony tumors-called osteochondromas or exostoses- that form within perichondrium in long bones, ribs and other elements. This review examines most recent studies in HME, framing them in the context of classic studies. New findings show that the spectrum of EXT mutations is larger than previously realized and the clinical complications of HME extend beyond the skeleton.'' '''Sefcik R, Earl D. Hereditary Multiple Osteochondromas. 2000 Aug 3 [Updated 2026 Jan 29]. In: Adam MP, Bick S, Mirzaa GM, et al., editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2026. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1235</nowiki>.''' ''Each child of an individual with HMO has a 50% chance of inheriting an HMO-causing pathogenic variant.'' '''Zak, B.M., B.E. Crawford, and J.D. Esko, 2002. Hereditary multiple exostoses and heparan sulfate polymerization Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) Volume 1573, Issue 3, 19 December 2002, Pages 346–355 <nowiki>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304416502004026</nowiki>''' ''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HME, OMIM 133700, 133701) results from mutations in EXT1 and EXT2, genes encoding the copolymerase responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) biosynthesis. Here, we provide an overview of HME, the EXT family of proteins, and possible models for the relationship of altered HS biosynthesis to the ectopic bone growth characteristic of the disease.'' == HSPG-Related studies == While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes. '''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}</ref> ''"The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed."'' '''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. & Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758</nowiki>.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}</ref> ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' '''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.'' '''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' <ref>{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}</ref>'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.'' '''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation & Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}</ref> Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG. '''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. & Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' '''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''<ref name=":3" />'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …'' '''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}</ref> ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.'' '''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}</ref>'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' '''Chen, Ming and Xiao, Xiao and Rui, Yimin and Jin, Yu,''' '''2023. Relationship of Sleep Disorder with Neurodegenerative and Psychiatric Diseases: An Updated Review. Available at SSRN:''' <nowiki>https://ssrn.com/abstract=4484640</nowiki> or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4484640. "''Another key factor in the circadian timing of Aβ42 phagocytosis is the presence of cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), which highlights a potential causative factor for increased Aβ42 accumulation in patients with clock/sleep disorders due to the apparent circadian rhythmicity of HSPGs levels and the inhibitory role of HSPGs in the phagocytosis of Aβ42(Clark et al., 2022)."'' '''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. <nowiki>http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}</ref> ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' '''Clark, GT, Yu Y, Urban C et al. 2023. Circadian control of heparan sulfate levels times phagocytosis of amyloid beta aggregates. February 10, 202. PLOS Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009994<nowiki/>.''' ''PGs like heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are involved in the clearance of Aβ42, associate with Aβ42 to foster the formation of plaques, and reduce Aβ plaque load upon the knockout of a key enzyme in the HSPG biosynthesis pathway... our findings suggest the disruption of the circadian timing of macrophage/microglia phagocytosis may be a vital component in Aβ42 metabolism, highlighting a potential causative factor in the increase in accumulation of Aβ42 in patients with clock/sleep disturbances [8,13,20,22,25,94,97].'' '''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}</ref> ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.'' '''Condomitti, G., & de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}</ref> ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.'' '''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). "Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas" Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}</ref> ''<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165</nowiki> Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].'' '''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}</ref> ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.'' '''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' '''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. <nowiki>https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561</nowiki>.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}</ref> ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' '''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''<ref name=":4" /> '''<nowiki>http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short</nowiki>''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.'' '''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.'' '''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''<nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/</nowiki>'''''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}</ref> ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.'' '''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}</ref> ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.'' '''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.<nowiki>https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext</nowiki>''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}</ref>''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' '''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}</ref> ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' '''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. <nowiki>https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109</nowiki>.''' <ref name=":5" />''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.'' '''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}</ref>''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' '''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., & Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957</nowiki>.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.'' '''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 <nowiki>https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.'' '''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031</nowiki>''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.] ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.'' '''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}</ref> ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' '''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}</ref> ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.'' '''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death & Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}</ref> ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' '''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}</ref> ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.'' '''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). "Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins". Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. <nowiki>PMID 26289657</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}</ref>''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.''' '''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. <nowiki>https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446</nowiki>''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}</ref> ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.'' '''Nackaerts, K. et al. 1997. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Expression In Human Lung-Cancer Cells. Int. J. Cancer (Pred. Oncol.): 74, 335–345 (1997) r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurits_Demedts/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells/links/5600565108aeafc8ac8c7374.pdf</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nackaerts |first=Kris |last2=Verbeken |first2=Erik |last3=Deneffe |first3=Georges |last4=Vanderschueren |first4=Bernadette |last5=Demedts |first5=Maurits |last6=David |first6=Guido |date=1997-07-01 |title=Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in human lung-cancer cells |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells |journal=International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer |volume=74 |pages=335–45 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970620)74:33.3.CO;2-4}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) functions as a co-factor in several signal-transduction systems that affect cellular growth, differentiation, adhesion and motility. HS, therefore, may also play a role in the malignant transformation of cells, tumor growth, cell invasiveness and the formation of tumor metastases. Our results suggest that poorly differentiated lung tumors have markedly altered patterns of HSPG expression, which may contribute to their invasive phenotype. Int. J. Cancer 74:335– 345, 1997.'' '''Nencini Sara , Ivanusic Jason J. The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? Frontiers in Physiology. Volume 7 - 2016.''' '''<nowiki>https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157</nowiki>. DOI=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157. ISSN=1664-042X'''<ref name=":6" /> ''Pain is associated with most bony pathologies. Clinical and experimental observations suggest that bone pain can be derived from noxious stimulation of the periosteum or bone marrow Whilst these provide some clues as to the way information about bone pain is centrally coded, they need to be expanded to further our understanding of other central territories involved.'' '''Otsu, K.; Kato, S.; Ohtake, K.; Akamatsu, N. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1992, 294, 544–549. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration - PubMed (nih.gov)'''''. Heparan sulfates (HS) are probably the major GAGs present on the surface of hepatocytes under normal conditions. Nevertheless, HSPGs expression increases during liver regeneration. Using [35S] sulfuric acid incorporation, Otsu et al. showed that, in the hepatic regeneration phase after hepatectomy, the synthesis of heparin sulfate proteoglycans, and to a lesser extent, of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate proteoglycans, increases up to 3–5 days and is temporally shifted compared to the stage of maximum mitosis that occurs 1–2 days following the surgical procedure [94].'' '''Otsuka, T., Phan, A.Q., Laurencin, C.T. et al. Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration. Regen. Eng. Transl. Med. 6, 7–17 (2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3</nowiki> <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Otsuka |first=T. |last2=Phan |first2=A. Q. |last3=Laurencin |first3=C. T. |last4=Esko |first4=J. D. |last5=Bryant |first5=S. V. |last6=Gardiner |first6=D. M. |date=2020-03 |title=Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |journal=Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |issn=2364-4133 |pmc=7971174 |pmid=33748405}}</ref> ''. We hypothesized that there are cells in the axolotl that synthesize specific HSPGs that control growth factor signaling in time and space. Given their high level of HSPG expression, their stellate morphology, and their distribution throughout the loose connective tissues, we refer to these as the positional information GRID (Groups that are Regenerative, Interspersed and Dendritic) cells.'' '''Parish, C., 2005. Heparan sulfate and inflammation. Nature Immunology 6(9):861-2 ·  October. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parish |first=Christopher |date=2005-10-01 |title=Heparan sulfate and inflammation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation |journal=Nature immunology |volume=6 |pages=861–2 |doi=10.1038/ni0905-861}}</ref> ''Entry of leukocytes into tissues is a key feature of inflammation. New data suggest the polysaccharide heparan sulfate is required for several stages of this entry process.'' '''Park, P.J, and D. Shukla. Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases, Experimental Eye Research, Volume 110, 2013, Pages 1-9, ISSN 0014-4835, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Paul J. |last2=Shukla |first2=Deepak |date=2013-05-01 |title=Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014483513000274 |journal=Experimental Eye Research |volume=110 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015 |issn=0014-4835 |pmc=3638857 |pmid=23410824}}</ref> ''Abstract: Heparan sulfate (HS), a ubiquitous and structurally diverse cell surface polysaccharide and extracellular matrix component, is a factor common to several major eye pathologies. Its multitude of functions and variable distribution among the different ocular tissues makes it an important contributor to a variety of disease states. Although HS facilitates the pathogenesis of many disorders, its role in each varies. Unique functions of HS have been particularly noted in viral and bacterial keratitis and age-related macular degeneration.'' '''Pérez, C., Sawmiller, D. & Tan, J. The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation. Neural Dev 11, 11 (2016). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x</nowiki>''' <ref name=":8" /> ''Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are the second most common developmental cause of disability in the United States. The brains of ASD patients have marked structural abnormalities, in the form of increased dendritic spines and decreased long distance connections. These structural differences may be due to deficiencies in Heparin Sulfate (HS), a proteoglycan involved in a variety of neurodevelopmental processes. Through interference with this pathway, HS deficiency can lead to excess spine formation.'' '''Poli, Maura, Michela Asperti, Paola Ruzzenenti, Annamaria Naggi, and Paolo Arosio. 2017. "Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia" Molecules 22, no. 4: 598. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22040598</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poli |first=Maura |last2=Asperti |first2=Michela |last3=Ruzzenenti |first3=Paola |last4=Naggi |first4=Annamaria |last5=Arosio |first5=Paolo |date=2017-04-08 |title=Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/22/4/598 |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=598 |doi=10.3390/molecules22040598 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=6154463 |pmid=28397746}}</ref> ''This review summarizes recent findings on the anti-hepcidin activity of heparins and their possible use for the treatment of anemia caused by hepcidin excess, including the anemia of chronic diseases.'' '''Russel A.L. and M.F.McCarty, 2000 Glucosamine for migraine prophylaxis?  Medical Hypotheses. Volume 55, Issue 3, September 2000, Pages 195-198. <nowiki>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306987799910125</nowiki>''' ''We postulate that supplemental glucosamine can boost mast cell heparin synthesis – perhaps correcting a functional heparin deficiency – thereby preventing or ameliorating the neurogenic inflammation that mediates pain in vascular headache. Whether or not this idea has validity, a controlled study of glucosamine for migraine prophylaxis appears to be warranted.'' '''Stringer, S.E. and Gallagher. 1997. Molecules in focus. Heparan sulphate. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, Volume 29, Issue 5, 1997.''' ''Heparan sulphates, the N-sulphated polysaccharides components of proteoglycans, are common constituents of cell surfaces and the extracellular matrix. The diverse functions of heparan sulphate, which range from the control of blood coagulation to the regulation of cell growth and adhesion, depend on the capacity of the chains to activate protein ligands, such as antithrombin III and members of the fibroblast growth factor family. These properties are currently being exploited in the development of synthetic heparan sulphates as anticoagulants and promoters of wound healing. Conversely organic mimics of growth factor activating saccharides could possibly be designed to suppress tumour growth and prevent restenosis after coronary vessel angioplasty.'' '''Theoharides TC et al.  1999. Stress-induced rat intestinal mast cell intragranular activation and inhibitory effect of sulfated proteoglycans.  Digestive Diseases and Sciences [1999, 44 (8 Suppl):87S-93S]. Pages 709-714. <nowiki>http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/10490045</nowiki>''' ''Cyclic vomiting syndrome is characterized by sudden episodes of vomiting and abdominal pain. It occurs primarily in children, is exacerbated by stress, and is often considered a migraine equivalent. Migraines have been linked to mast cells, which are often found close to neurons where they are activated by neuropeptides. We investigated the ultrastructural appearance of rat ileal brush border and mast cells following acute stress by immobilization.These results suggest the possible usefulness of chondroitin sulfate in conditions such as cyclic vomiting syndrome.'' '''Thompson, W.R. 2011. Perlecan modulates the function of the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular system. University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2011. 3443246.''' ''In this study, along with my colleagues, I examined osteocyte lacunocanalicular morphology in mice deficient in the large heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) PLN in this tissue. . . Ultrastructural measurements using electron micrograph images of PLN deficient mice demonstrate a significant decrease in osteocyte canalicular pericellular area, resulting from a reduction in the total canalicular area, when compared to controls. Additionally, PLN deficient mice show significantly diminished canalicular density and a significant reduction in the number of transverse tethering elements per canaliculus.'' '''van den Born J, van den Heuvel LP, Bakker MA, Veerkamp JH, Assmann KJ, Weening JJ, Berden JH., 1993. ''Distribution of GBM heparan sulfate proteoglycan core protein and side chains in human glomerular diseases.'' Kidney Int. 1993 Feb;43(2):454-63. <nowiki>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8441243</nowiki>''' ''Using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) recognizing either the core protein or the heparan sulfate (HS) side chain of human GBM heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG), we investigated their glomerular distribution on cryostat sections of human kidney tissues. In conclusion, major alterations were observed in the glomerular distribution of HS and HSPG-core in various human glomerulopathies. The mAbs can be useful to further delineate the significance of HSPG and HS for glomerular diseases.'' '''Vicente, Carolina Meloni, da Silva, Daiana Aparecida, Sartorio, Priscila Veronica, Silva, Tiago Donizetti, Saad, Sarhan Sydney, Nader, Helena Bonciani, Forones, Nora Manoukian, Toma, Leny, Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Human Colorectal Cancer, Analytical Cellular Pathology, 2018, 8389595, 10 pages, 2018.''' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8389595</nowiki>'''  <nowiki>https://www.hindawi.com/journals/acp/2018/8389595/</nowiki>''' ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are complex molecules present in the cell membrane and extracellular matrix, which play vital roles in cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and signaling pathways. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are candidate molecules to clarify colorectal cancer tumorigenesis, as well as important targets to therapy and diagnosis.'' '''Vlodavestky, I. et al. 2007. Heparanase: Structure, Biological Functions, and Inhibition by Heparin-Derived Mimetics of Heparan Sulfate. Current Pharmaceutical Design, Volume 13, Number 20, July 2007, pp. 2057-2073(17). <nowiki>http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cpd/2007/00000013/00000020/art00004</nowiki>''' ''Heparanase is an endoglycosidase which cleaves heparan sulfate (HS) and hence participates in degradation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Heparanase is preferentially expressed in human tumors and its over-expression in tumor cells confers an invasive phenotype in experimental animals. These observations and the unexpected identification of a single functional heparanase, suggest that the enzyme is a promising target for anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory drug development.'' '''Weihua T. et al. 2002. Heparanase: A Key Enzyme in Invasion and Metastasis of Gastric Carcinoma.Mod Pathol 2002;15(6):593–59. <nowiki>http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v15/n6/abs/3880571a.html</nowiki>''' ''Previous reports have shown that the biochemical activity of heparanase is significantly correlated with the invasion and metastasis of malignant cells in vitro.'' ''It was concluded that heparanase might play an important role in the development of invasion and metastasis of the gastric cancer. It was indicated that patients with heparanase-positive gastric carcinoma would have a greater chance of metastasis with a poor prognosis.'' '''Whitelock John M. and Renato V. Iozzo, 2005. H''eparan Sulfate:  A Complex Polymer Charged with Biological Activity''. Chem. Rev., 2005, 105 (7), pp 2745–2764. <nowiki>http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/cr0102</nowiki>''' ''  “HS is a complex and highly active biopolymer…” one section is on heparan sulfate therapies,'' '''Yan Yin, Adam Wang, Li Feng, Yu Wang, Hong Zhang, Ivy Zhang, Brent M Bany, Liang Ma, Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Sulfation Regulates Uterine Differentiation and Signaling During Embryo Implantation, Endocrinology, Volume 159, Issue 6, June 2018, Pages 2459–2472, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2018-00105</nowiki>''' ''One important modulator of these signaling pathways is the cell surface and extracellular matrix macromolecules, heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). HSPGs play crucial roles in signal transduction by regulating morphogen transport and ligand binding. In this study, we examine the role of HSPG sulfation in regulating uterine receptivity…'' '''Zhongjun Zhou et al. 2004.  Impaired Angiogenesis, Delayed Wound Healing and Retarded Tumor Growth in Perlecan Heparan Sulfate-Deficient Mice. DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-0810 Published July 2004. <nowiki>http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/64/14/4699</nowiki>.''' ''Perlecan, a modular proteoglycan carrying primary heparan sulfate (HS) side chains, is a major component of blood vessel basement membranes.Perlecan HS-deficient (Hspg2Δ3/Δ3) mice survived embryonic development and were apparently healthy as adults. However, mutant mice exhibited significantly delayed wound healing, retarded FGF-2-induced tumor growth, and defective angiogenesis.'' '''Zhu W, Li J, Liang G. How does cellular heparan sulfate function in viral pathogenicity? Biomed Environ Sci. 2011 Feb;24(1):81-7. doi: 10.3967/0895-3988.2011.01.011. PMID: 2144084'''4. ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is ubiquitously expressed on the surfaces and in the extracellular matrix of virtually all cell types, making it an ideal receptor for viral infection. Understanding how heparan sulfate functions during virus infection in vivo may prove critical for elucidating the molecular mechanism of viral pathogenesis, and may contribute to the development of therapeutics targeting HS''. == Case studies == '''Ahn, YS., Kim, S., Kim, WJ. et al. Characteristics of hip impingement syndrome in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 22, 153 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahn |first=Yeong-Seub |last2=Kim |first2=Sungmin |last3=Kim |first3=Woo-Jong |last4=Lim |first4=Jun-Hyuk |last5=Jung |first5=Sung-Taek |date=2021-02-06 |title=Characteristics of hip impingement syndrome in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1 |journal=BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=153 |doi=10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1 |issn=1471-2474 |pmc=7868013 |pmid=33549073}}</ref> ''Between 2001 and 2019, total 51 patients (102 hips) were evaluated in this study. Patients with MHE were classified to femoro-acetabular impingement (FAI) symptom group, ischio-femoral impingement (IFI) symptom group and non-impingement symptom group by comparing the symptoms, clinical signs and imaging studies.'' '''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}</ref> ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.'' '''Anel-Quimpo, Joselynna, Mark Anthony Santiago Sandoval, Frances Lina Lantion-Ang, 2011. Hypercalcaemia from genitourinary tuberculosis in a female with multiple exostoses. BMJ Journals. <nowiki>https://casereports.bmj.com/content/2011/bcr.12.2010.3651</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anel-Quimpo |first=Joselynna |last2=Sandoval |first2=Mark Anthony Santiago |last3=Lantion-Ang |first3=Frances Lina |date=2011-05-17 |title=Hypercalcaemia from genitourinary tuberculosis in a female with multiple exostoses |url=https://casereports.bmj.com/content/2011/bcr.12.2010.3651 |journal=BMJ Case Reports |language=en |volume=2011 |pages=bcr1220103651 |doi=10.1136/bcr.12.2010.3651 |issn=1757-790X}}</ref> ''The authors present a puzzling case of nephrolithiasis, hypercalcaemia, amenorrhoea, short stature and gross skeletal deformities in a 30-year-old female. Multiple pituitary hormone deficiency and metabolic bone disease were initially considered but were eventually excluded. The final diagnosis is genitourinary tuberculosis (TB) which caused the hypercalcaemia, nephrolithiasis and amenorrhoea, and also found to have the syndrome of multiple exostoses which explained the gross skeletal deformities and the short stature. After treatment with anti-TB therapy, there was resolution of hypercalcaemia and return of regular menstruation. The short stature and gross skeletal deformities remain as part of the congenital syndrome.'' '''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''<ref name=":2" />''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.'' '''Caino, Silvia, Marisa Angelica Cubilla, Romina Alba, María Gabriela Obregón, Virginia Fano, Abel Gómez, Lorena Zecchini, Pablo Lapunzina, Miriam Aza-Carmona, Karen E. Heath, and et al. 2022. "Clinical and Genetic Analysis of Multiple Osteochondromas in a Cohort of Argentine Patients" Genes 13, no. 11: 2063.''' '''<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13112063</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caino |first=Silvia |last2=Cubilla |first2=Marisa Angelica |last3=Alba |first3=Romina |last4=Obregón |first4=María Gabriela |last5=Fano |first5=Virginia |last6=Gómez |first6=Abel |last7=Zecchini |first7=Lorena |last8=Lapunzina |first8=Pablo |last9=Aza-Carmona |first9=Miriam |last10=Heath |first10=Karen E. |last11=Asteggiano |first11=Carla Gabriela |date=2022-11-07 |title=Clinical and Genetic Analysis of Multiple Osteochondromas in a Cohort of Argentine Patients |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4425/13/11/2063 |journal=Genes |language=en |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=2063 |doi=10.3390/genes13112063 |issn=2073-4425 |pmc=9690389 |pmid=36360300}}</ref> ''Multiple Osteochondromatosis (MO, MIM 133700 & 133701), an autosomal dominant O-glycosylation disorder (EXT1/EXT2-CDG), can be associated with a reduction in skeletal growth, bony deformity, restricted joint motion, shortened stature and pathogenic variants in two tumor suppressor genes, EXT1 and EXT2. In this work, we report a cross-sectional study including 35 index patients and 20 affected family members. Clinical phenotyping of all 55 affected cases was obtained, but genetic studies were performed only in 35 indexes.'' '''Hariri O, Al Laham O, Ibrahim Basha Z, Ghannam E, Ghannam M, Mohammad A. Multiple Hereditary Exostoses instigating a popliteal pseudoaneurysm in a young Middle Eastern male: A case report and literature review. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2024 Apr 12;118:109633. doi: 10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 38626641; PMCID: PMC11035074.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hariri |first=Omar |last2=Al Laham |first2=Omar |last3=Ibrahim Basha |first3=Zein |last4=Ghannam |first4=Eman |last5=Ghannam |first5=Mohammad |last6=Mohammad |first6=Ammar |date=2024-05 |title=Multiple Hereditary Exostoses instigating a popliteal pseudoaneurysm in a young Middle Eastern male: A case report and literature review |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633 |journal=International Journal of Surgery Case Reports |language=en |volume=118 |issue=C |doi=10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633 |issn=2210-2612 |pmc=11035074 |pmid=38626641}}</ref> ''We present the case of a 37-year-old Middle Eastern male with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses who experienced sudden-onset left lower limb pain persisting for a month prior to admission. It was associated with coldness and paresthesia of the ipsilateral lower limb. The presurgical radiological workup uncovered a popliteal pseudoaneurysm subsequent to Multiple Hereditary Exostoses.'' '''Kambouris, M., Fadda A, Al-Arraj, Y, et al., 2016. Putative Relation Between Autism Spectrum Disease & Hereditary Multiple Exostosis Investigated by Whole Genome Sequencing & Comparative Genome Analyses in a Family with ASD and HME with EXT-1 Mutations''' ''A family with two male children affected with ASD and HME as well as an unaffected female child, was studied to identify the Genetic basis of ASD in the family and the possible relation between ASD & HME. The HME unaffected parent [mother] contributed heterozygous variants in the Heparan Sulfate biosynthesis pathway that in synergy with the EXT-1 mutation could be the genetic causes of ASD in the family.'' '''Kim, Min Jeong, Yunjin Lee, Sang Ook Nam, Young Mi Kim, 2021. An 8q24.11q24.13 Microdeletion Encompassing EXT1 in a Boy with Autistic Spectrum Disorder, Intellectual Disability, and Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. Annals of Child Neurology. Letter to the Editor, 11/9/2021.''' ''Here, we describe the case of a boy with a microdeletion (8q24.11q24.13 [118,625,768-124,169,620]×1), who presented with autism, intellectual disability, and MHE. the parents signed informed consent and approved the anonymous use of clinical and molecular data for the present diagnostic study'''''.''' '''Küçükesmen, Çiḡdem DDS, PhD, Buḡra Özen, DDS, PhD,b and Mustafa Akçam, DDS, PhDc, 1997. Multiple Hereditary Osteochondromatosis: A Case Report. Eur J Dent. 2007 Jul; 1(3): 183–187.<nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih</nowiki>.''' ''Common carious lesions owing to vomiting are not widespread in children. In this case, we aimed to report an 11-years-old male patient with common carious lesions due to repeated vomitings, chewing and eating difficulty and retarded growth with Multiple Hereditary Osteochondromatosis (MHO).'' '''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. <nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}</ref>''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' '''Malagón, V., 2001.  Development of Hip Dysplasia in Hereditary Multiple Exostosis. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 21(2): 205-211.  <nowiki>https://journals.lww.com/pedorthopaedics/Abstract/2001/03000/Development_of_Hip_Dysplasia_in_Hereditary.14.aspx</nowiki>''.'''''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development of Hip Dysplasia in Hereditary... : Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/pedorthopaedics/fulltext/01241398-200103000-00014~development-of-hip-dysplasia-in-hereditary-multiple |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en}}</ref> ''In approximately 25% of patients with hereditary multiple exostosis, there is an abnormal osteochondral formation localized in the femoral proximal metaphysis. Although this entity is rather frequent and quite severe, it is rarely found in the medical literature. The author describes six private cases, taken from a total of 24,000 patients (0.25/1000) as examples of this entity, and provides a review of the literature.'' '''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., & Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436<nowiki/>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}</ref> ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' '''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}</ref> ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death. This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.'' '''Narvid, J., M. L. Gorno-Tempini, A. Slavotinek, S. J. DeArmond, Y. H. Cha, B. L. Miller & K. Rankin, 2009. Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A. Neurocase Vol. 15, Iss. 3, 2009.''' '''<nowiki>http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13554790802632967</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narvid |first=J. |last2=Gorno-Tempini |first2=M. L. |last3=Slavotinek |first3=A. |last4=DeArmond |first4=S. J. |last5=Cha |first5=Y. H. |last6=Miller |first6=B. L. |last7=Rankin |first7=K. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790802632967 |journal=Neurocase |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1080/13554790802632967 |issn=1355-4794 |pmc=2997763 |pmid=20183548}}</ref>''. Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a clinical syndrome characterized by progressive decline in social conduct and a focal pattern of frontal and temporal lobe damage. Its biological basis is still poorly understood but the focality of the brain degeneration provides a powerful model to study the cognitive and anatomical basis of social cognition. Here, we present Dr. A, a patient with a rare hereditary bone disease (hereditary multiple exostoses) and FTD (pathologically characterized as Pick's disease), This case provides new evidence regarding the neural basis of social cognition and suggests a possible genetic link between bone disease and FTD.'' '''Puiu1, Maria , Iulia Simina-Jurca, Simona Dumitriu, Smaranda Arghirescu,  Adela Chirita-Emandi,  2012. . Multiple Hereditary Exostoses - Clinical Features and Management.''' ''We report two cases of skeletally immature patients who presented with multiple exostoses, bone deformation without bone pain; and growth and pubertal retardation. The cases need adequate counseling, long-term follow-up, and measures to improve the quality of life of patients with multiple hereditary exostoses.'' '''Stitzman Wengrowicz, M.L., J  Pretell-Mazzini,  J.P. Dormans, R.S. Davidson, 2011.. Regression of a Sessile Osteochondroma: A Case Study and Review of the Literature.''' ''<nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267426996_Regression_of_a_Sessile_Osteochondroma_A_Case_Study_and_Review_of_the_Literature</nowiki> . The most common benign bone tumor is osteochondroma.  Its natural history is poorly understood as a consequence of its benign symptomatology in most cases. It typically grows in childhood and growth during adulthood can be a sign of malignant  degeneration. We present  a case of  spontaneous regression of  a solitary osteochondroma.  A review of the  current  literature which  reveals 21  other cases of  spontaneous regression  of solitary  osteochondromas is also discussed. We believe that the possibility of regression of solitary osteochondromas should be taken into account when considering surgical excision.'' '''Viala P, Vanel D, Larbi A, Cyteval C, Laredo JD. Bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses. Skeletal Radiol. 2012;41:1637–40. [PubMed] <nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22865159/</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Viala |first=Pierre |last2=Vanel |first2=Daniel |last3=Larbi |first3=Ahmed |last4=Cyteval |first4=Catherine |last5=Laredo |first5=Jean-Denis |date=2012-12 |title=Bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22865159 |journal=Skeletal Radiology |volume=41 |issue=12 |pages=1637–1640 |doi=10.1007/s00256-012-1488-0 |issn=1432-2161 |pmid=22865159}}</ref> ''We report a case of bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses. The association of exostoses and femoral metaphyseal widening resulted in the narrowing of the ischiofemoral spaces.'' '''Wang YZ, Park KW, Oh CS, Ahn YS, Kang QL, Jung ST, Song HR. Developmental pattern of the hip in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2015;16:54'''''.'' '''https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4429362/<nowiki/>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ya-Zhou |last2=Park |first2=Kwang-Won |last3=Oh |first3=Chang-Seon |last4=Ahn |first4=Yeong-Seub |last5=Kang |first5=Qing-Lin |last6=Jung |first6=Sung-Taek |last7=Song |first7=Hae-Ryong |date=2015-03-15 |title=Developmental pattern of the hip in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4429362/ |journal=BMC musculoskeletal disorders |volume=16 |pages=54 |doi=10.1186/s12891-015-0514-5 |issn=1471-2474 |pmc=4429362 |pmid=25888017}}</ref> '''C'''''oxa valga is a common clinical feature of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME). The current study aimed to determine the unique developmental pattern of the hip in patients with HME and evaluate the factors that influence its progression.'' '''Wiater JM, Farley FA. Popliteal pseudoaneurysm caused by an adjacent osteochondroma: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ). 1999 Jul;28(7):412-6. PMID: 10426440.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiater |first=J. M. |last2=Farley |first2=F. A. |date=1999-07 |title=Popliteal pseudoaneurysm caused by an adjacent osteochondroma: a case report and review of the literature |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10426440 |journal=American Journal of Orthopedics |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=412–416 |issn=1078-4519 |pmid=10426440}}</ref> ''A male 17-year-old with multiple hereditary exostoses presented with a mass in the distal left thigh several days after lifting weights. An arteriogram showed a popliteal artery pseudoaneurysm adjacent to a femoral osteochondroma. The osteochondroma was excised and the artery was repaired with a saphenous vein interposition graft. A review of the literature identified 23 similar reports. The average age of the patients was 21.3 years. Seventy-eight percent were men and half of the patients had multiple hereditary exostoses. Ten patients were initially misdiagnosed. The clinician should consider the diagnosis of pseudoaneurysm in a young patient with an osteochondroma and a mass about the knee.'' '''Zaijun L, Xinhai Y, Zhipeng W, Wending H, Quan H, Zhenhua Z, Dapeng F, Jisheng Z, Wei Z, Jianru X. 2013. Outcome and prognosis of myelopathy and radiculopathy from osteochondroma in the mobile spine: a report on 14 patients. J Spinal Disord Tech 26:194–199.''' ''Fourteen symptomatic spinal osteochondroma (OC)  cases, including 2 hereditary multiple exostoses, were treated surgically from 2001 to 2010.'' = People and books with HME: = [[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> = Spanish Translation = Problemas de deficiencia de proteoglicano de sulfato de heparán (HSPG). La MHE es el resultado de una mutación en los genes EXT1 y EXT2. Los pacientes con MHE tienen una biosíntesis de HSPG defectuosa: sus cuerpos no producen HSPG (cf Cueller et al. 2013 y Jones et al. 2014). Los HSPG son parte de cada superficie celular y regulan los procesos biológicos (cf Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). Desempeñan un papel vital en la adhesión, migración, crecimiento y comunicación celular (Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock e Iozzo (2005) han identificado varias enfermedades relacionadas con la ausencia de HSPG (es decir, si un proceso corporal requiere HSPG y no hay suficiente HSPG para completar esa función, entonces podrían ocurrir estos problemas). Los pacientes con MHE han reportado síntomas como: * Baja masa ósea (Nozawa et al. 2018 y Matsumoto et al. 2020) * Deficiencias neurológicas: Trastorno del espectro autista (Li et al, 2002, Fumitoshi et al. 2012, Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); y problemas cognitivos (Farhan et al. 2015) * Demencia frontotemporal (Narvid et al. 2009) y TDAH (Mooney et al. 2016), función cerebral (Condomitti y Wit 2018). Vea también el vídeo de ratones MHE en <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A</nowiki>. * Enfermedades oculares (Park y Shukla, 2013) * Defectos dentales (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 y Wiweger et al. 2012) * Prediabetes (Heibert 2021)Diabetes y dificultad para controlar la glucosa (Matsuzawa 2021) * Reacciones medicamentosas inusuales (muchos medicamentos actúan sobre el dominio de unión del heparán [Boer y Gaillard 2007]) * Fatiga severa y continua (Berg et al. 1999) * Problemas gástricos graves, incluidas úlceras no causadas por H. pylori (Ascencio et al. 1993 y Chmiela et al. 1995), cáncer gástrico (Weihua et al. 2002) y síndrome de vómitos cíclicos (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 y Theoharides et al. 1999) * Cálculos renales y otros problemas (véase Van den Born et al. 1993 y Farhan et al. 2015) * Vértigo e hiperacusia (Lundberg et al., 2014) y migrañas * Problemas pulmonares (Nackerts et al. 1997 y Haeger et al. 2016) * Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), coágulos sanguíneos y coagulación (Stringer y Gallagher 1997 y Ho et al. 1997), pseudoaneurismas (Wiater y Farley 1996 y Harari et al. 2024) * Problemas menstruales y de embarazo extremadamente dolorosos (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018) * Inflamación (Parroquia 2005); cicatrización lenta de heridas (Zhongjun et al. 2004); cicatrices y queloides (Hosalkar et al. 2007, y problemas del tejido conectivo (Forsberg y Kjellen, 2001 y Otsuka et al. 2020). * Funciones hepáticas (Arnold et al. 2020 y Dituri et al. 2022) * Funciones del colesterol y los lípidos (Kolsett y Salmverta 1999) y Síntesis de vitamina D (Cooper 2021) '''Problemas de crecimiento óseo.''' En la MHE, la falta de HSPG hace que los pacientes desarrollen exostosis, que son tumores benignos en múltiples ubicaciones en todo el cuerpo (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011 y Mansouri et al. 2017). La gravedad (número y tamaño de los tumores y otras complicaciones) de la MHE varía de un paciente a otro. Las exostosis en sí mismas pueden causar numerosos problemas, incluidos: irritación de tendones y músculos que produce dolor y pérdida de movimiento, deformidad esquelética, baja estatura, discrepancia en la longitud de las extremidades, subluxaciones y deformidad angular. Los problemas directamente asociados con estas exostosis incluyen: * Dolor crónico y problemas con la calidad de vida (Goud et al. 2012) * Inflamación, respuestas inmunitarias (Callaghan et al. 2018 y Collins y Troeberg 2019) * Formación de bursa y bursitis resultante, así como artritis de aparición temprana. * Problemas respiratorios y pulmonares al estar sobre costillas que sobresalen hacia la cavidad torácica (Mazza et al. 2017) * Irritación de un nervio cercano (dolor, debilidad, entumecimiento, hormigueo) * Aneurisma de vasos sanguíneos por exostosis que presionan los vasos sanguíneos u otros problemas vasculares (Albokhari et al. 2023) * Problemas de compresión de la médula espinal: incontinencia, daño nerv'''Résumé de la MEM pour les médecins et les écoles''' == References == mbmfki7cbep7guifx1g9kqguchdyqt8 4681714 4681711 2026-11-11T18:25:39Z LoveElectronicLiterature 3414389 /* List of associated issues */ 4681714 wikitext text/x-wiki {{new book}} [[W: Hereditary Multiple Exostoses|Hereditary Multiple Exostoses]] (HME) is a rare disease. It is also referred to as Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (MHE), Hereditary Multiple Osteochondromas (HMO), and Multiple Osteochondromas (MO). == Bone Issues == The first sign of HME is usually multiple bone tumors. See the online Multiple Osteochondromas Mutation Database for an overview of the reported variants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123 |issn=1098-1004}}</ref> In MHE, the lack of HSPG causes patients to develop exostoses, which are benign tumors in multiple locations throughout the body (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011, and Mansouri et al. 2017). The severity (number and size of tumors and other complications) for MHE varies from patient to patient. Exostoses themselves can cause numerous problems including: irritation of tendons and muscles resulting in pain and loss of motion, skeletal deformity, short stature, limb length discrepancy, subluxations, and angular deformity, with a chance for chondrosarcoma (Fei et al. 2018). Problems directly associated with these exostoses include: * Chronic pain and issues with quality of life (Goud et al. 2012,<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |title=Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and... : Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/jbjsjournal/fulltext/10.2106/jbjs.k.00406~pain-physical-and-social-functioning-and-quality-of-life-in |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en |doi=10.2106/JBJS.K.00406}}</ref> Bathen et al. 2019, Tremorsini 2025) * Inflammation, immune responses (Callaghan et al. 2018, Collins and Troeberg 2019)   * Bursa formation (Rueda et al. 2025) and resulting bursitis as well as early onset arthritis * Breathing and lung issues when on ribs protruding into the thoracic cavity (Mazza et al. 2017) * Irritation of a nearby nerve (pain, weakness, numbness, tingling) * Blood vessel aneurysm from exostoses pressing on blood vessels or other vascular problems (Albokhari et al. 2023) * Spinal cord compression issues: incontinence, nerve damage and nerve problems associated with spinal tumors (Bari et al. 2012, Burki et al. 2011, Zaijun et al. 2013, Montgomery et al. 2019, and Monroig-Rivera et al. 2025) == List of associated issues == '''Heparan Sulfate ProteoGlycan (HSPG) Deficiency Issues.''' MHE results from a mutation in the EXT1 and EXT2 genes.  MHE patients have defective HSPG biosynthesis--their bodies do not produce HSPG ('''cf''' Cueller et al. 2013, Jones et al,. 2014, and Pacifici et al. 2019<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Pacifici |first=Maurizio |date=2018-10 |title=The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6015767/ |journal=Matrix Biology: Journal of the International Society for Matrix Biology |volume=71-72 |pages=28–39 |doi=10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011 |issn=1569-1802 |pmc=6015767 |pmid=29277722}}</ref>).  HSPGs are part of every cell surface and regulate biological processes ( '''cf''' Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). HSPGs  play a vital role in cell adhesion, migration, growth, and communication (Bishop et al. 20017, Kempf et al 2017, Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock and Iozzo (2005) have identified '''various diseases related to HSPG's absence''' (i.e., i'''f a body process requires HSPG and there is not enough HSPG to complete that function, then these issues could occur).  MHErs reported symptoms such as:''' * Severe and continuing fatigue (Berg et al. 1999, Bathen 2019) * Neurological deficiencies: Autism Spectrum Disorder (Fumitoshi et al. 2012,  Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); cognitive issues (Farhan et al. 2015); tremors (Aldunate et al. 2004). * Sleep disorders (Clark 2022, Chen 2023) * Vertigo and hyperacusis (Lundberg et al., 2014) * Low bone mass (Nozawa et al. 2018 and Matsumoto et al. 2020) * Severe gastric issues  (Huang et al. 2018<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}</ref>, Rueda et al. 2025<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rueda-de-Eusebio |first=Alvaro |last2=Gomez-Pena |first2=Sara |last3=Moreno-Casado |first3=María José |last4=Marquina |first4=Gloria |last5=Arrazola |first5=Juan |last6=Crespo-Rodríguez |first6=Ana María |date=2025-02-21 |title=Hereditary multiple exostoses: an educational review |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-025-01899-6 |journal=Insights into Imaging |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=46 |doi=10.1186/s13244-025-01899-6 |issn=1869-4101 |pmc=11845651 |pmid=39982564}}</ref>) , including non ''H. Pylori'' ulcers (Ascencio et al. 1993<ref name=":10">'''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' '''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.''</ref> and Chmiela et al. 1995<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995-01-01 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}</ref>), gastric cancer (Weihua et al. 2002<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tang |first=Weihua |last2=Nakamura |first2=Yasushi |last3=Tsujimoto |first3=Masahiko |last4=Sato |first4=Misako |last5=Wang |first5=Xiaojuan |last6=Kurozumi |first6=Kazushi |last7=Nakahara |first7=Masaaki |last8=Nakao |first8=Kazuyasu |last9=Nakamura |first9=Misa |last10=Mori |first10=Ichiro |last11=Kakudo |first11=Kennichi |date=2002-06 |title=Heparanase: A Key Enzyme in Invasion and Metastasis of Gastric Carcinoma |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/3880571 |journal=Modern Pathology |language=en |publisher=Nature Publishing Group |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=593–598 |doi=10.1038/modpathol.3880571 |issn=1530-0285}}</ref>) and Cyclic Vomiting Syndrome (Kucukesmen et al. 2007) * Fronto-temporal dementia (Narvid et al. 2009) and ADHD (Mooney et al. 2016), brain function (Condomitti and Wit 2018). Also see video of MHE mice at <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A</nowiki>. * Eyesight/ocular diseases (Park and Shukla, 2013) * Dental defects (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 and Wiweger et al. 2012) * Prediabetes  (Heibert 2021)Diabetes and glucose difficulty (Matsuzawa 2021) * Unusual drug reactions (many drugs act on heparan-binding domain [Boer and Gaillard 2007]) * Kidney stones and other problems (See Van den Born et al. 1993 and Farhan et al. 2015) * Lung issues (Nackerts et al. 1997 and Haeger et al. 2016) * Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), blood clots and coagulation (Stringer and Gallagher 1997 and Ho et al. 1997), psuedoaneurysms (Wiater and Farley 1996 and Harari et al. 2024) * Extremely painful menstruation and pregnancy issues (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018) * Inflammation (Parish 2005); slow wound healing (Zhongjun et al. 2004); scarring and keloids  (Hosalkar et al. 2007) * Connective tissue issues (Forsberg and Kjellen, 2001 and Otsuka et al. 2020). * Liver functions (Arnold et al. 2020 and Dituri et al. 2022) * Cholesterol and lipid functions (Kolsett and Salmverta 1999) * Deficient Vitamin D synthesis (Cooper 2021) == Children's Corner == === Teach your child to live with MHE === You just got a diagnosis for your child and you are terrified for their life. Yeah, MHE sucks. And it is a life-long, untreatable disease. Sure you can have surgery, sure, physical therapy helps. But the underlying condition will be there every day for the rest of your life. So. How can you prepare your child to live successfully with MHE? * '''Believe their pain.''' MHE can have some strange symptoms. Even the bones can subluxate (go in and out) within seconds, so the kid who could not walk two minutes ago is running now. Believe your child. Do not let the doctors gaslight you or your child into pretending that nothing is wrong. * '''Let your child master their pain.''' Give your child as much control and autonomy as possible. Provide a "pain corner" with comfy pillows, their favorite toys, quiet activities, warmies or coolies. Let your child go to that pain area whenever they feel the need--when they are tired or in pain. This lets them regulate their own pain and functions. * '''Teach your child to brainstorm and plan around problems.''' Pain and limited mobility may limit certain options, but life still goes on. So when your child can not do something, brainstorm with them. Use your imaginations. You can not climb these steps. Ok, how can you get into the room? Can you slide on your butt? Should we get a giraffe from next door to help out? (Throw in silly suggestions because that expands their imagination and puts a bit of humor into the situation.) === Advocate for your child with HME in schools === It is vital to advocate for your child so that they can work well in schools. Here are some suggested ways to ask for accommodations for this complex disease. Note that not every child will need all of these accommodations. My child has MHE, which involves bony bumps on their bones that can vary in size, location, and number as well as some neurological and other physical symptoms.Accommodations are needed for my child’s symptoms, which include: * '''Limited mobility.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Amajjar |first=Ihsane |last2=Vergauwen |first2=Kuni |last3=Willigenburg |first3=Nienke W. |last4=Huijnen |first4=Ivan P. J. |last5=Smeets |first5=Rob J. E. M. |last6=Ham |first6=S. John |date=2025-05-30 |title=Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02812-3 |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=18990 |doi=10.1038/s41598-025-02812-3 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>''' Allow my child to participate in sports and in activities to the best of their abilities. When starting something new, allow my child to go last and ask my child privately if they can perform that action. If not, quietly allow them to pursue a different prearranged activity. Note that mobility changes daily and sometimes hourly, depending on the bone growth stages, whether muscle has moved over a bone growth,  or other complications. * '''Neurological symptoms'''. My child has Asperger-like and ADHD symptoms,<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Irie |first=Fumitoshi |last2=Badie-Mahdavi |first2=Hedieh |last3=Yamaguchi |first3=Yu |date=2012-03-27 |title=Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=109 |issue=13 |pages=5052–5056 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117881109 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3323986 |pmid=22411800}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Pérez |first=Christine |last2=Sawmiller |first2=Darrell |last3=Tan |first3=Jun |date=2016-04-18 |title=The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |journal=Neural Development |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=11 |doi=10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x |issn=1749-8104 |pmc=4836088 |pmid=27089953}}</ref> so please engage all measures for children on the spectrum as well as ADHD. Bone tumors on the spine can also create neurological issues.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Hereditary-multiple-exostoses-causing-cord-Bari-Alam/4687ea7d1225f1ecf4ecf4742a794f84576dce6d/figure/0 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.semanticscholar.org}}</ref> Please understand that bright lights or sound may cause pain or other issues. Please report any behavioral issues so that we can determine if MHE may be underlying these problems and we can address the issues with reasonable accommodations and an Individual Education Plan. * '''Frequent pain and fatigue<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Christina M. |last2=Beals |first2=Janette |last3=Whitesell |first3=Nancy Rumbaugh |last4=Voices of Indian Teens team |last5=Pathways of Choice team |date=2008-09 |title=Alcohol use among American Indian high school youths from adolescence and young adulthood: a latent Markov model |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18781241 |journal=Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs |volume=69 |issue=5 |pages=666–675 |issn=1937-1888 |pmc=2575396 |pmid=18781241}}</ref>'''. If my child is in pain or is tired, allow them to rest in preplanned area with preplanned quiet activities (reading, watching an educational video, etc.). This area should be equipped with a heating pad and medication should be dispensed as agreed upon by me and the school. * '''Writing difficulties'''.<ref name=":1" /> My child may have extra bones on their wrists or hands, making writing painful. Please allow my child to use a computer.  Typing may be slow and please allow other software such as Dragon Naturally Speaking or Otter AI. * '''Coordination difficulties'''. My child may have neurological difficulties and problems coordinating eyesight. Please allow more time for tests if needed. Administer tests that require filling in bubbles in an alternative method. * '''Incontinence/Vomiting'''. Please allow my child free access to the restroom without requiring a pass for sudden issues. Keep a spare set of clothing at the school in case of accidents. * '''Hall passes.''' Give my child access to the nurse and bathroom as they determine that they need to go. My child may have bathroom urgencies or need to get pain medication quickly. My child may also have a limb that has "gone out" or stopped working for a few seconds to a few days and will need to attend to that medical urgency. === Advocation Laws and Directives === In U.S. cite Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. = How to Respond to Doctors = There are suggested treatment protocols for MHE (see Rueda et al., 2025). However, MHE is a rare disease, and you will probably be the first patient that a medical practitioner has ever seen with this disease.  Try to be patient with the doctors and get doctors who work with you as a partner--you having lived with MHE do know a lot about your body! Ill-informed or too-busy doctors often rely on research that is outdated or inaccurate. Here are some common misconceptions that a doctor might tell you and how to respond. Before you go to the doctor, write out your questions. Take someone with you to take notes. Advocate for yourself! 1.'''I have never seen an MHE patient. Surely this is just a bone condition!''' The condition involves much more than bone growths. MHErs do not biosynthesize heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG), in much the same way that diabetics do not biosynthesize insulin (see Cueller et al. 2013 and Jones et al. 2014). Those HSPGs play a vital role in pretty much every single cell and every system in a human body (Bishop et al. 2017). Therefore, since I do not have sufficient levels of HSPG, I can have many different problems. Let's rule out anything comorbid (in other words, any other disease I might have at the same time). IF we can not find something to explain the cause of my symptoms of {REPEAT YOUR SYMPTOMS HERE} then we can blame the MHE and treat the symptoms. '''2. You do not feel pain. It is just stress.'''  Bone does not have nerves, therefore there is no pain.  Even if that were true (which it is not--see Nencini and Ivanusic 2016<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Nencini |first=Sara |last2=Ivanusic |first2=Jason J. |date=2016-04-26 |title=The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157/full |journal=Frontiers in Physiology |language=English |volume=7 |doi=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157 |issn=1664-042X |pmc=4844598 |pmid=27199772}}</ref> for example ), then you wouldn't mind putting a stone in your shoe, right? Because the stone would not feel any pain. Oh, you wouldn't like that because it might hurt? Really? Ok. So I have an extra bone (LIKE A STONE) where there should only be muscle, nerve, and ligaments (LIKE A FOOT). For MHE-specific pain studies, see Darilek et al. 2005. 3. '''Your MHE did not cause x symptom.'''  I had one MHE patient (or read a case study) and they did not have x symptom, so therefore you do not have x symptom (or x symptom is unrelated). MHE is a rare and complex disease. Sometimes medical professionals will resort to explanations of hypochondria or Munchausens to explain away something that they do not understand. MHE is different for each patient, as there are different genetic mutations (EXT1, EXT2, EXT3 genes all play a role, as well as your other genetic profiles). There is not enough research to determine whether your symptoms are or are not caused by MHE. It is best to work with a doctor who will look for causes and accept that your MHE is not the same as anyone else's--including your own family members. Also, look at the list below for similar case studies on HME. '''4. No one else has had that reaction to that drug. You are lying or mistaken.''' No. HSPG plays a role in nearly every body function and is assumed to be present. My body does not produce HSPG. Therefore my drug interactions may well differ!<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Boer |first=A. G. de |last2=Gaillard |first2=P. J. |date=2007-02-10 |title=Drug Targeting to the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |journal=Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=Volume 47, 2007 |pages=323–355 |doi=10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.47.120505.105237 |issn=0362-1642}}</ref> 5. '''The bones do not grow past puberty. If they have, then it is cancer.''' While studies have assumed this, it is not true. This has not been well researched, because it is difficult to have full xrays and to monitor over a lifetime, which would be required for absolute proof. But while there is a slight chance of chondrosarcoma, other MHE patients have reported bone growth past puberty. See the pictures of the 92- year old woman's skeleton with MHE. Bones grew back over her surgeries at age 70 and 80. If bones do not grow back, how do you explain the growths on her implants? === Questions to ask doctors if you are not being taken seriously === '''Scripts to Use When You Feel Dismissed''' '''• This is affecting my daily life. I can not function well with this problem.''' Show pictures. Keep a diary of your pain and what you are not able to do. For example: When the tumor on my rib prevents me from raising my arm, I can not dress myself or brush my hair. When the fatigue is so bad, I can not go to class. When the pain is over a 5 (slamming your hand in a car door) continually, then I can not think well. '''• Yes, the test results you got were normal, but I have problems.''' However, there are no tests for Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans, which may play a role. Therefore, we need to look deeper. I still have these issues. Explain again that you have MHE and do not biosynthesize HSPG, which plays a role in every cell. Look for common problems--because of course you can still have those! But do not let the doctor gaslight you into thinking it is all in your head. If nothing else, look in Google Scholar with HSPG and your symptom. '''• I’m still concerned. Can we talk about next steps?''' What can we do, and how long should we wait to see if that step works? Ask again about your specific symptom. There may be a medication to try, or physical therapy. Note what you have tried--keep a record! '''Scripts for When Symptoms Are Minimized''' '''• This may seem mild to you, but this is really affecting my life.''' Again, be specific. Use the analogy of a rock in your shoe or anything else that makes sense to you. '''• I'm a zebra. I have a rare complex disease. What can we do?''' Again remind them that MHE is a complex systemic disease and the extra bones are only one symptom of a wider range of problems stemming from not biosynthesizing  HSPG. • '''While this may seem mild, I think it is part of an overall pattern. This symptom is persistent and worsening, which is why I’m concerned.''' (Keep a diary. Keep images over time). '''Scripts for Redirecting the Conversation''' '''• I know my body is complex. But here is my main issue now--let's focus on that'''. Before your appointment, write out and send a list of your main symptoms. This is a complex disease and you will not get to everything. • '''Can we go back to what I mentioned earlier?''' I know that everything is connected, but I am most concerned about ... so I can live my life. Keep that list. Have someone else in the room taking notes on that list of symptoms. '''• Please send me a copy of my medical chart.''' I want to be sure my concern is documented in my chart. Always ask for a copy of your medical records, including doctors' notes. '''Scripts for Asking for Clarification''' • “Can you explain why you don’t think further evaluation is needed?” (MHE is a life long condition.) • “What would be a red flag that should prompt me to follow up?” (Ask about red flags for chondrosarcoma) • “If this doesn’t improve, what’s the next step?” (Get referrals.) = See also (MHE sites and resources) = === Institutions and Foundations === MHE Learning System<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home - MHE Learning System |url=https://mhels.org/ |access-date=2026-09-30 |website=mhels.org |language=en}}</ref> a site for MHE patients to learn about the disease and to cope. MHE Research Foundation<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.mherf.org/ |access-date=2026-09-30 |website=website |language=en}}</ref> a site to share MHE research. === Patient's voices === YouTube - * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1YdUFvXH1Kw Voices of MHE: Christine - YouTube] * Deena Larsen therapy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qVV4Lhmg4ao&list=PLUs4fzSTQEnXyCt3dWeqNxI0kbYSIHBhR * Deena Larsen, ''Embodying My Mother's Bones''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bodies of Knowledge |url=http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs/ |access-date=2026-11-06 |website=www.deenalarsen.net}}</ref> * Anne Feit, ''When It All Fades Away: A Memoir of Healing and Hope'' * Irv Rosenfeld, ''My Medicine.'' <ref>{{Cite book |last=Rosenfeld |first=Irvin |title=My Medicine: How I Convinced the Federal Government to Provide my Marijuana and Helped Launch a National Movement |date=2010 |publisher=Open Archive Press |isbn=978-0-9636380-9-0}}</ref> = Research and medical studies = Italics after a citation is a sentence directly from that work that summarizes the main points for HME patients and their doctors. Please go to the actual study cited. == HME Specific studies == === Summary studies === '''Rueda-de-Eusebio, A., Gomez-Pena, S., Moreno-Casado, M.J. et al. Hereditary multiple exostoses: an educational review. Insights Imaging 16, 46 (2025). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-025-01899-6</nowiki>''' ''  This review summarises current knowledge on the clinical presentation, pathogenesis, imaging characteristics, complications, and treatment of HME.'' === Autism and neurological issues === '''Yamaguchi, Yu. Research on rare bone disorder reveals new insights into autism. <nowiki>https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/857331</nowiki> March 2012,''' ''Sanford-Burnham researchers discover the molecular basis of autistic symptoms in children with a rare bone disorder -- findings that also provide new insights for the general autistic population.Researchers at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute (Sanford-Burnham) used a mouse model of MHE to investigate cognitive function. They found that mice with a genetic defect that models human MHE show symptoms that meet the three defining characteristics of autism: social impairment, language deficits, and repetitive behavior.'' See associated video presentations: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SmRRG03zxo Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. - Consequences of Genetic Deficiency] 'Heparan Sulfate, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses, and Autism: Insight from a Rare Disease for a Common Disease" at the Third Annual Rare Disease Day Symposium at Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute. The symposium took place at Sanford-Burnham's La Jolla campus on February 24, 2012 and the focus was Glycosylation-Based Disorders: Discovery, Patients, and Progress Toward Treatments.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sanford Burnham Prebys |title=Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. |date=2012-03-05 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A |access-date=2026-09-10}}</ref> Heparan Sulfate and Human Diseases, March 5, 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Yu Yamaguchi, M.D., Ph.D. |url=https://www.google.com/search?hl=en-US&hl=en&client=mobilesearchapp&sca_esv=16067ccfc9d0a6cf&channel=iss&rlz=1MDAPLA_enUS667US667&v=437.4.973319807&q=yu+yamaguchi+video&docid=8EyS2A5A5MmJHM&ibp=video&shem=epsd1,ivsple,rimspwouoe&shndl=41&shmd=H4sIAAAAAAAA_42Rz24TMRDGVeDUN4DTqAcqoc0mjUC0kSqUNG0DYkubRKjtbeqdjU3W9uIZN9kbD8UD8Cw8Aw-AFwTiABInW_Pnm983s_vt0e7jmwg3aHEVlTYZFPk0z-BSp-fJWos0POr3yanQNkJlT-7cIF-xoBiVK2_7JnUSv_p4nDKj8UV5dK6u3hWzKb-_qm6ro_nJ4banr882L9qLw_CB2nYwtJNC3Rer2Uu3vOXx9eYpHx8Mnn19-E-QDHwFC3SVD2VvEoPTaKGg0iisYU5MGJSG147FSBSCJqSYEwZtGATrdQZ7-zNqMKCDRawrFMpgRiFJCIYWiliLaWqC061n8UycAboSxlEM21EnbVZaoAreAsIcA8HUpLlMkKBS6MRb692v4B6ggGiCpTYhyTgXO9I_26bYwqK1jWcTbVf-__7yJEvAv5vF-zU0NSr6i84-w1uEN76uERTaJjIkzjO6C7FzPnyewXBwMPxhtyOuvEolG2Q4r1vlua3Tqb3rTRJ02dEnbQo86r7K31No05FSSbfvn0u7DH6VDsCw9BtM7peBUGyXz7dfHnza-bzzHdtbemZ3AgAA&shmds=v1_ARwrE22JjgnjP0eJT9xgIFMVGTFJDAswWntiJI2oXY3-HEfR1A&source=sh/x/vid/m1/5&kgs=82929becb69767fb&utm_source=epsd1,ivsple,rimspwouoe,sh/x/vid/m1/5#fpstate=ive&vld=cid:911b02e3,vid:6-EXRt_YL6A,st:0 |access-date=2026-09-10 |website=www.google.com}}</ref> === Pain, disability, and fatigue === '''Amajjar I, Vergauwen K, Willigenburg NW, Huijnen IPJ, Smeets RJEM, Ham SJ, 2025, Scientific report. Physical activity level and health-related quality of life in adults with multiple osteochondromas: a Dutch cross-sectional study. 2045-2322, 2025 May 30, Vol. 15, Issue 1'''<ref name=":1" /> ''Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) can significantly impact physical functioning,..These results underscore the need for targeted interventions focusing on pain management, psychological factors, and lifestyle changes to improve both PAL and HRQOL in MO patients.'' '''Bathen T, Fredwall S, Steen U, 2019. Fatigue and pain in children and adults with multiple osteochondromas in Norway, a cross-sectional study. International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing [Int J Orthop Trauma Nurs] 2019 Aug; Vol. 34, pp. 28-35. Date of Electronic Publication: 2019 Feb 10.  ISSN: 18781241''' <ref name=":0" /> ''Background: Multiple Osteochondromas (MO) is a rare skeletal disorder frequently needing orthopaedic surgery. High prevalence of pain has been reported, however fatigue has not previously been investigated.'' ''Results: Children with MO reported significantly higher fatigue than healthy children. Adults reported significantly higher fatigue than the general Norwegian population. Six of 11 children and 20 of 21 adults reported pain. Severe fatigue was more prevalent in persons with high age, high pain intensity and many pain locations; however none of these differences were significant.'' '''Darilek, Sandra MS*; Wicklund, Catherine MS†; Novy, Diane PhD‡; Scott, Allison MD§; Gambello, Michael MD, PhD*; Johnston, Dennis PhD¶; Hecht, Jacqueline PhD*. Hereditary Multiple Exostosis and Pain. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics 25(3):p 369-376, May 2005. | DOI: 10.1097/01.bpo.0000150813.18673.''' ''This study was undertaken to characterize pain in individuals with hereditary multiple exostosis (HME). Eighty-four percent of participants reported having pain, indicating that pain is a real problem in HME.'' '''Goud, A. L., de Lange, J., Scholtes, V. A. B., Bulstra, S. K., & Ham, S. J. (2012). Pain, Physical and Social Functioning, and Quality of Life in Individuals with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses in the Netherlands. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery-American Volume, 94A(11), 1013-1020. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2106/JBJS.K.00406</nowiki>.'''<ref name=":9" /> ''Our study confirms that multiple hereditary exostoses is a chronic disease causing a profound impact on quality of life. The results suggest that pain is not the only problem associated with multiple hereditary exostoses, as it has an extensive influence on daily activities, as well as on social and psychological well-being, causing significant disability.'' '''Tremosini, M., Morri, M., Forni, C., Pedrini, E., Mordenti, M., Gnoli, M., Di Cecco, A., Moroni, A., & Sangiorgi, L. (2025). Pain in patients with multiple inherited osteochondromas: Incidence and potential prognostic factors. Journal of Bone Oncology, 52, 100672.''' ''Purpose: the purpose of this study was to describe the baseline characteristics, presenting phenotype and treatment interventions for patients diagnosed with multiple osteochondromas who presented with severe pain'' ''symptoms. .Conclusion: from the early stages of multiple osteochondromas diagnosis, pain symptoms must be carefully assessed. An increase in age is associated with a worsening of pain; IOR classification of the multiple osteo-chondromas phenotype does not currently allow an association between the various classes and pain. A re-evaluation of the classification in this light could be an important new element for clinical practice.'' === Bone growth complications === '''Burki, Vincent, Alexander So, Bérengère Aubry-Rozier, 2011. Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses, Joint Bone Spine, Volume 78, Issue 4, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burki |first=Vincent |last2=So |first2=Alexander |last3=Aubry-Rozier |first3=Bérengère |date=2011-07 |title=Cervical myelopathy in hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1297319X11000558 |journal=Joint Bone Spine |language=en |volume=78 |issue=4 |pages=412–414 |doi=10.1016/j.jbspin.2011.02.021}}</ref>'''.''' ''Spinal cord compression due to cervical exostoses is a rare but recognized complication of hereditary multiple exostosis (HME), an autosomal dominant disorder. This disease, also called multiple osteochondromatosis, is characterised by osteocartilaginous exostoses, typically involving the juxtaepiphyseal regions of long bones. Complications such as transformation to sarcoma (1 to 5%) or neurological compression (of the spinal cord, 1 to 9%) can arise during the course of the disease.'' '''Bukowska-Olech Ewelina, Trzebiatowska Wiktoria, Czech Wiktor, Drzymała Olga, Frąk Piotr, Klarowski Franciszek, Kłusek Piotr, Szwajkowska Anna, Jamsheer Aleksander, Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies. <nowiki>https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129</nowiki> '''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bukowska-Olech |first=Ewelina |last2=Trzebiatowska |first2=Wiktoria |last3=Czech |first3=Wiktor |last4=Drzymała |first4=Olga |last5=Frąk |first5=Piotr |last6=Klarowski |first6=Franciszek |last7=Kłusek |first7=Piotr |last8=Szwajkowska |first8=Anna |last9=Jamsheer |first9=Aleksander |date=2021-12-10 |title=Hereditary Multiple Exostoses—A Review of the Molecular Background, Diagnostics, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/genetics/articles/10.3389/fgene.2021.759129/full |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |language=English |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2021.759129 |issn=1664-8021 |pmc=8704583 |pmid=34956317}}</ref> ''' '''''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HMEs) syndrome, also known as multiple osteochondromas, represents a rare and severe human skeletal disorder. The disease may severely affect the quality of patients’ life due to motion impairments, skeletal deformations, chronic pain, or growth retardation and possibility of malignant transformation of exostoses.'' '''Matsumoto, K., Ogawa, H., Nozawa, S. et al. An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. Osteoporos Int 31, 2355–2361 (2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Matsumoto |first=K. |last2=Ogawa |first2=H. |last3=Nozawa |first3=S. |last4=Akiyama |first4=H. |date=2020-12-01 |title=An analysis of osteoporosis in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |journal=Osteoporosis International |language=en |volume=31 |issue=12 |pages=2355–2361 |doi=10.1007/s00198-020-05533-7 |issn=1433-2965}}</ref> ''We analyzed osteoporosis in 20 HME patients. Our results indicate HME patients have low bone mass. They do not have abnormal bone metabolism.'' '''Phan, A. Q., Pacifici, M., & Esko, J. D. (2017). Advances in the pathogenesis and possible treatments for multiple hereditary exostoses from the 2016 international MHE conference. Connective Tissue Research, 59(1), 85–98. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/action/cookieAbsent |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=www.tandfonline.com |doi=10.1080/03008207.2017.1394295 |pmc=7604901 |pmid=29099240}}</ref>''  MHE, also known as hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) or multiple osteochondromas (MO), is characterized by cartilage-capped outgrowths called osteochondromas that develop adjacent to the growth plates of skeletal elements in young patients. These benign tumors can affect growth plate function, leading to skeletal growth retardation, or deformations, and can encroach on nerves, tendons, muscles, and other surrounding tissues and cause motion impairment, chronic pain, and early onset osteoarthritis. In about 2–5% of patients, the osteochondromas can become malignant and life threatening.'' '''Stiever, JR., and J.P. Dormans (2005). Manifestations of hereditary multiple exostoses. Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 13: 110-120'''''.'' '''<nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15850368/</nowiki>''' ''Hereditary multiple exostosis is an autosomal dominant disorder manifested by the presence of multiple osteochondromas. Linkage analysis has implicated mutations in the EXT gene family, resulting in an error in the regulation of normal chondrocyte proliferation and maturation that leads to abnormal bone growth. Although exostoses are benign lesions, they are often associated with characteristic progressive skeletal deformities and may cause clinical symptoms. Patients with hereditary multiple exostosis have a slight risk of sarcomatous transformation of the cartilaginous portion of the exostosis.'' === '''Screening and treatment''' === '''Fei, Li,  Clara Ngoh, Daniel E. Porter, Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model, Journal of Bone Oncology, Volume 13, 2018, Pages 114-122, ISSN 2212-1374, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fei |first=Li |last2=Ngoh |first2=Clara |last3=Porter |first3=Daniel E. |date=2018-11-01 |title=Chondrosarcoma transformation in hereditary multiple exostoses: A systematic review and clinical and cost-effectiveness of a proposed screening model |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212137418300903 |journal=Journal of Bone Oncology |volume=13 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.1016/j.jbo.2018.09.011 |issn=2212-1374 |pmc=6303411 |pmid=30591865}}</ref>''  The most serious complication of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME) is chondrosarcoma transformation. Three HME screening strategies were then developed and compared using cost per life-year gained and incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER).'' '''Hosalkar, Harish MD, MBMS (Ortho), FCPS (Ortho), DNB (Ortho)*; Greenberg, Jared MD†; Gaugler, Rebecca L. BS‡; Garg, Sumeet MD§; Dormans, John P. MD∥, 2007. Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics: May 2007 - Volume 27 - Issue 3 - p 333-337 doi: 10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hosalkar |first=Harish |last2=Greenberg |first2=Jared |last3=Gaugler |first3=Rebecca L. |last4=Garg |first4=Sumeet |last5=Dormans |first5=John P. |date=2007-05 |title=Abnormal Scarring With Keloid Formation After Osteochondroma Excision in Children With Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/01241398-200704000-00017 |journal=Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=333–337 |doi=10.1097/BPO.0b013e3180326732 |issn=0271-6798}}</ref> ''Although this study has limited numbers, the results demonstrate a statistically significant correlation between keloid formation and MHE. The risk for abnormal scarring and keloid formation should be discussed with all patients before surgery.'' '''Monroig-Rivera, Carlos MD1; Bockhorn, Lauren MD1,2; Thornberg, David BS1; Santillan, Brenda BS1,2; Rathjen, Karl E. MD1,2,a. Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. JBJS Open Access 10(1):e24.00072, January-March 2025. | DOI: 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Monroig-Rivera |first=Carlos |last2=Bockhorn |first2=Lauren |last3=Thornberg |first3=David |last4=Santillan |first4=Brenda |last5=Rathjen |first5=Karl E. |date=2025-01 |title=Prevalence of Osteochondromas in the Spine in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |journal=JBJS Open Access |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |doi=10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00072 |issn=2472-7245}}</ref>''Although nearly half of the patients had spinal osteochondromas, neural impingement was rare (4%). Neither age, gender, nor the presence of rib and pelvic osteochondromas were associated with spinal involvement, osteochondromas in the canal, or neural impingement. This information can be used to guide clinical decision-making regarding the use of MRI scans for patient screening'''''.''' '''Troxel, J., Fleury, I. G., & Buckwalter V, J. A. (2025). Revisiting Sex Differences in Multiple Hereditary Exostoses (MHE): A Comprehensive Retrospective Analysis of Patient Characteristics and Surgical Patterns. ''Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics'', ''46''(3), 180–185.''' ''We examined 103 MHE-diagnosed patients treated at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics from June 2008 to March 2023.'' ''Our findings deviate from the commonly accepted male predominance in MHE, revealing an even male-female distribution.'' '''Van der Woude HJ, Flipsen M, Welsink C, Van der Zwan AL, Ham SJ, 2025. Is total-body MRI useful as a screening tool to rule out malignant progression in patients with multiple osteochondromas? Results in a single-center cohort of 319 adult patients. By''''':''  '''Skeletal radiology, 1432-2161, 2024 Jan, Vol. 53, Issue 1.'''''To evaluate the results of total-body (TB) MRI used as a screening tool for assessment or exclusion of malignant transformation in patients with hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO). Conclusion: TB-MRI can identify malignant transformation of osteochondromas in HMO patients. All peripheral chondrosarcomas occurred in flat bones (ribs, scapula, pelvis) in our study. TB-MRI might assist in triage between higher risk patients with a high burden of OC, including the location of OC in main flat bones vs lower risk patients without OC of the flat bones.'' '''Teeth''' '''Wiweger, Malgorzata I. Wiweger, Zhe Zhao, Richard J. P. van Merkesteyn, Henry H. Roehl, and Pancras C. W. Hogendoorn, 2012. HSPG-Deficient Zebrafish Uncovers Dental Aspect of Multiple Osteochondromas. PLOS 1. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029734</nowiki>'''''.'' ''Here we analyse dental defects present in ext2−/− fish. Histological analysis reveals that ext2−/− fish have very severe defects associated with the formation and the morphology of teeth. Our findings from zebrafish model were validated in a dental survey that was conducted with assistance of the MHE Research Foundation. The presence of the malformed and/or displaced teeth with abnormal enamel was declared by half of the respondents indicating that MO might indeed be also associated with dental problems.'' == Genetic studies (EXT genes) == As HME is associated with genetic issues on the EXT genes, here is a list of genetic studies: '''Benoist-Lasselina, Catherine Emmanuel de Margerieb, Linda Gibbsa, Sarah Cormierc, Caroline Silvec, Gisèle Nicolasd, Martine LeMerrera, Jean-Francois Mallete, Arno­­­­ld Munnicha, Jacky Bonaventurea, Louise Zylberbergb, Laurence Legeai-Malleta,  2006.  ''Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients''. Bone, Volume 39, Issue 1, July 2006, Pages 17–26'''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Benoist-Lasselin |first=Catherine |last2=de Margerie |first2=Emmanuel |last3=Gibbs |first3=Linda |last4=Cormier |first4=Sarah |last5=Silve |first5=Caroline |last6=Nicolas |first6=Gisèle |last7=LeMerrer |first7=Martine |last8=Mallet |first8=Jean-Francois |last9=Munnich |first9=Arnold |last10=Bonaventure |first10=Jacky |last11=Zylberberg |first11=Louise |last12=Legeai-Mallet |first12=Laurence |date=2006-07 |title=Defective chondrocyte proliferation and differentiation in osteochondromas of MHE patients |url=http://www.thebonejournal.com/article/S8756-3282(05)00540-5/fulltext |journal=Bone |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=17–26 |doi=10.1016/j.bone.2005.12.003 |issn=8756-3282}}</ref> . ''Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is an autosomal dominant skeletal disorder caused by mutations in one of the two EXT genes and characterized by multiple osteochondromas that generally arise near the ends of growing long bones.'' '''Busse-Wicher, Marta; Wicher, Krzysztof B.; Kusche-Gullberg, Marion (2014). "The extostosin family: Proteins with many functions". Matrix Biology. Elsevier BV. 35: 25–33. doi:10.1016/j.matbio.2013.10.001. hdl:1956/10590. ISSN 0945-053X.''' ''Mutations in either EXT1 or EXT2 cause hereditary multiple osteochondromas (HMO), an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by bone deformities and cartilage-capped bony outgrowths, called exostoses or osteochondromas, at the ends of the long bones (reviewed in (Jennes et al., 2009)). HMO is one of the most common inherited skeletal disorders with an estimated incidence of 1–2 per 100 000 live births.'' '''Cuellar, A., Reddi, A.H. Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates. International Orthopaedics (SICOT) 37, 1591–1596 (2013). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cuellar |first=Araceli |last2=Reddi |first2=A. Hari |date=2013-08-01 |title=Cell biology of osteochondromas: Bone morphogenic protein signalling and heparan sulphates |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |journal=International Orthopaedics |language=en |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=1591–1596 |doi=10.1007/s00264-013-1906-5 |issn=1432-5195 |pmc=3728397 |pmid=23771188}}</ref> ''While factors for severity remain unknown, mutations in exostosin 1 and exostosin 2 genes, encoding glycosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of ubiquitously expressed heparan sulphate (HS) chains, are associated with MHE.'' '''Nozawa S, Inubushi T, Irie F, et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass. JCI Insight. 2018;3(3):e89624. Published 2018 Feb 8. doi:10.1172/jci.insight.89624.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nozawa |first=Satoshi |last2=Inubushi |first2=Toshihiro |last3=Irie |first3=Fumitoshi |last4=Takigami |first4=Iori |last5=Matsumoto |first5=Kazu |last6=Shimizu |first6=Katsuji |last7=Akiyama |first7=Haruhiko |last8=Yamaguchi |first8=Yu |date=2018-02-08 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate regulates osteoprotegerin function and bone mass |url=https://insight.jci.org/articles/view/89624 |journal=JCI Insight |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.89624 |issn=2379-3708 |pmc=5821205 |pmid=29415886}}</ref> ''To determine the role of HS in bone homeostasis, we conditionally ablated Ext1, which encodes an essential glycosyltransferase for HS biosynthesis, in osteoblasts. Resultant conditional mutant mice developed severe osteopenia. Surprisingly, this phenotype is not due to impairment in bone formation but to enhancement of bone resorption. We also show that bone mineral density is reduced in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses, a genetic bone disorder caused by heterozygous mutations of Ext1, suggesting that the mechanism revealed in this study may be relevant to low bone mass conditions in humans.'' '''Pacifici M. The pathogenic roles of heparan sulfate deficiency in hereditary multiple exostoses. Matrix Biol. 2018 Oct;71-72:28-39. doi: 10.1016/j.matbio.2017.12.011. Epub 2017 Dec 24. PMID: 29277722; PMCID: PMC6015767'''''.''<ref name=":7" /> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential component of cell surface and matrix proteoglycans (HS-PGs) that include syndecans and perlecan. Because of their unique structural features, the HS chains are able to specifically interact with signaling proteins–including bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs)-via their HS-binding domain, regulating protein availability, distribution and action on target cells. Hereditary Multiple Exostoses (HME) is a rare pediatric disorder linked to germline heterozygous loss-of-function mutations in EXT1 or EXT2 that encode Golgi-resident glycosyltransferases responsible for HS synthesis, resulting in a systemic HS deficiency. HME is characterized by cartilaginous/bony tumors-called osteochondromas or exostoses- that form within perichondrium in long bones, ribs and other elements. This review examines most recent studies in HME, framing them in the context of classic studies. New findings show that the spectrum of EXT mutations is larger than previously realized and the clinical complications of HME extend beyond the skeleton.'' '''Sefcik R, Earl D. Hereditary Multiple Osteochondromas. 2000 Aug 3 [Updated 2026 Jan 29]. In: Adam MP, Bick S, Mirzaa GM, et al., editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2026. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1235</nowiki>.''' ''Each child of an individual with HMO has a 50% chance of inheriting an HMO-causing pathogenic variant.'' '''Zak, B.M., B.E. Crawford, and J.D. Esko, 2002. Hereditary multiple exostoses and heparan sulfate polymerization Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) Volume 1573, Issue 3, 19 December 2002, Pages 346–355 <nowiki>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304416502004026</nowiki>''' ''Hereditary multiple exostoses (HME, OMIM 133700, 133701) results from mutations in EXT1 and EXT2, genes encoding the copolymerase responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) biosynthesis. Here, we provide an overview of HME, the EXT family of proteins, and possible models for the relationship of altered HS biosynthesis to the ectopic bone growth characteristic of the disease.'' == HSPG-Related studies == While HME is a rare disease and rarely studied, the connection between HME and HSPG is noted. Therefore, this list of research articles covers HME, HSPG, and the genetic issues associated with the EXT1, EXT2, and EXT3 genes. '''Aldunate, Rebecca, Juan Carlos Casar, Enrique Brandan, Nibaldo C. Inestrosa, 2004. Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase, Brain Research Reviews, Volume 47, Issues 1–3,''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aldunate |first=Rebeca |last2=Casar |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Brandan |first3=Enrique |last4=Inestrosa |first4=Nibaldo C. |date=2004-12 |title=Structural and functional organization of synaptic acetylcholinesterase |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0165017304001092 |journal=Brain Research Reviews |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1-3 |pages=96–104 |doi=10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.07.019}}</ref> ''"The presence of two heparin-binding domains in ColQ that interact with heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) at the synaptic basal lamina; and second, a knockout mouse for perlecan, a HSPG concentrated in nerve–muscle contact, in which absence of asymmetric AChE at the NMJ is observed."'' '''Aplin, J.D., Charlton, A.K. & Ayad, S.  1988. An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy. Cell Tissue Res. 253: 231. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758</nowiki>.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aplin |first=J. D. |last2=Charlton |first2=A. K. |last3=Ayad |first3=S. |date=1988-07-01 |title=An immunohistochemical study of human endometrial extracellular matrix during the menstrual cycle and first trimester of pregnancy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00221758 |journal=Cell and Tissue Research |language=en |volume=253 |issue=1 |pages=231–240 |doi=10.1007/BF00221758 |issn=1432-0878}}</ref> ''Changes in the organisation and composition of extracellular matrix in human endometrium during the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy have been assessed by immunofluorescence.'' '''Arnold, K. Y-E. Liao, and J. Liu, 2020. ''Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage. Biomedicines 2020, 8(11), 503;''''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arnold |first=Katelyn |last2=Liao |first2=Yi-En |last3=Liu |first3=Jian |date=2020-11-16 |title=Potential Use of Anti-Inflammatory Synthetic Heparan Sulfate to Attenuate Liver Damage |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/8/11/503 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=503 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines8110503 |issn=2227-9059}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is an essential glycan for liver function.'' '''Ascencio, F. L. Å. Fransson and T. WadstrÖum, 1993. ''Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminoglycan heparan sulphate'' J Med Microbiol April 1993 vol. 38 no. 4 240-244''' <ref>{{Cite web |last=F |first=Ascencio |last2=A |first2=Fransson, L. |last3=T |first3=Wadstrom |date=1993-04-01 |title=Affinity of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori for the N-sulphated glycosaminogly… |url=https://www.sgmjournals.org/jmm/content/38/4/240 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=SGM Journals |language=en}}</ref>'''.''' ''Binding of 125I-heparan sulphate was a common property of Helicobacter pylori strains isolated from patients with gastroduodenal ulcer diseases.'' '''Berg et al., 1999. Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or Fibromyalgia as a variation of Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory  diagnosis'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berg |first=D. |last2=Berg |first2=L. H. |last3=Couvaras |first3=J. |last4=Harrison |first4=H. |date=1999-10 |title=Chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia as a variation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome: an explanatory model and approach to laboratory diagnosis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10695770 |journal=Blood Coagulation & Fibrinolysis: An International Journal in Haemostasis and Thrombosis |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=435–438 |doi=10.1097/00001721-199910000-00006 |issn=0957-5235 |pmid=10695770}}</ref> Not in this paper, but the logic is that low levels of HSPG are found in patients with chronic fatigue, and there is probably a correlation with MHE fatigue and low levels of HSPG. '''Bishop, J., Schuksz, M. & Esko, J. Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology. Nature 446, 1030–1037 (2007). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05817</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bishop |first=Joseph R. |last2=Schuksz |first2=Manuela |last3=Esko |first3=Jeffrey D. |date=2007-04 |title=Heparan sulphate proteoglycans fine-tune mammalian physiology |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05817 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=446 |issue=7139 |pages=1030–1037 |doi=10.1038/nature05817 |issn=1476-4687}}</ref> ''Heparan sulphate proteoglycans reside on the plasma membrane of all animal cells studied so far and are a major component of extracellular matrices. . A recurrent theme is the electrostatic interaction of the heparan sulphate chains with protein ligands, which affects metabolism, transport, information transfer, support and regulation in all organ systems.'' '''Boer and Gaillard, 2007. Drug Targeting to the Brain. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology. Volume 47, 2007. Pp 323-355'''<ref name=":3" />'''.'''''… For many diseases of the brain, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, depression, schizophrenia, epilepsia and migraine headache, the drugs on the market … enter the cell following binding to heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) receptors …'' '''Brown, Anissa Joy. Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2008. 3324491.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Function of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and heparanase (HPSE) in endochondral bone formation. by Brown, Anissa Joy (9781243986054) {{!}} Browns Books |url=https://www.brownsbfs.co.uk/Product/Brown-Anissa-Joy/Function-of-heparan-sulfate-proteoglycans-HSPGs-and-hepar/9781243986054 |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=www.brownsbfs.co.uk}}</ref> ''Endochondral bone formation is a tightly regulated process involving coordination among cell-cell, cell-matrix and growth factor signaling that eventually results in the production of mineralized bone from a cartilage template. Chondrogenic and osteogenic differentiation occur in sequence during this process, and the temporospatial patterning clearly requires the activities of heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), heparin binding growth factors (HBGFs) and their receptors.'' '''O'Callaghan P, Zhang X, Li JP. 2018. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation. J Histochem Cytochem. 2018 Apr;66(4):305-319. doi: 10.1369/0022155417742147. Epub 2018 Jan 1. PMID: 29290138; PMCID: PMC5958378'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=O'Callaghan |first=Paul |last2=Zhang |first2=Xiao |last3=Li |first3=Jin-Ping |date=2018-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Relays of Neuroinflammation |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5958378/ |journal=The Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry: Official Journal of the Histochemistry Society |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=305–319 |doi=10.1369/0022155417742147 |issn=1551-5044 |pmc=5958378 |pmid=29290138}}</ref>'''.''' ''.'' ''We summarize some of the contrasting roles that HS and heparanase have been assigned in diseases associated with chronic inflammatory states, including Alzheimer's disease (AD).'' '''Chen, Ming and Xiao, Xiao and Rui, Yimin and Jin, Yu,''' '''2023. Relationship of Sleep Disorder with Neurodegenerative and Psychiatric Diseases: An Updated Review. Available at SSRN:''' <nowiki>https://ssrn.com/abstract=4484640</nowiki> or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4484640. "''Another key factor in the circadian timing of Aβ42 phagocytosis is the presence of cell-surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs), which highlights a potential causative factor for increased Aβ42 accumulation in patients with clock/sleep disorders due to the apparent circadian rhythmicity of HSPGs levels and the inhibitory role of HSPGs in the phagocytosis of Aβ42(Clark et al., 2022)."'' '''Chmiela, M. et al. 1995. The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages. <nowiki>http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x/full</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}</ref> ''The role of heparan sulphate (HS)-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori microbes in their adhesion to and ingestion by inflammatory peritoneal macrophages.'' '''Clark, GT, Yu Y, Urban C et al. 2023. Circadian control of heparan sulfate levels times phagocytosis of amyloid beta aggregates. February 10, 202. PLOS Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1009994<nowiki/>.''' ''PGs like heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) are involved in the clearance of Aβ42, associate with Aβ42 to foster the formation of plaques, and reduce Aβ plaque load upon the knockout of a key enzyme in the HSPG biosynthesis pathway... our findings suggest the disruption of the circadian timing of macrophage/microglia phagocytosis may be a vital component in Aβ42 metabolism, highlighting a potential causative factor in the increase in accumulation of Aβ42 in patients with clock/sleep disturbances [8,13,20,22,25,94,97].'' '''Collins LE, Troeberg L. 2019. Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity. J Leukoc Biol. 2019 Jan;105(1):81-92. doi: 10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R. Epub 2018 Oct 30. PMID: 30376187.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Collins |first=Laura E |last2=Troeberg |first2=Linda |date=2018-12-27 |title=Heparan sulfate as a regulator of inflammation and immunity |url=https://academic.oup.com/jleukbio/article/105/1/81/6935486 |journal=Journal of Leukocyte Biology |language=en |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1002/JLB.3RU0618-246R |issn=1938-3673}}</ref> ''In this review, we discuss the multiple roles for HS in regulating immune responses, and the evidence for inflammation-associated changes to HS structure.Keywords: chemokines; cytokines; heparan sulfate; inflammation; leukocyte.'' '''Condomitti, G., & de Wit, J. (2018). Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity. Frontiers in molecular neuroscience, 11, 14. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Condomitti |first=Giuseppe |last2=de Wit |first2=Joris |date=2018-01-26 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans as Emerging Players in Synaptic Specificity |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/molecular-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014/full |journal=Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience |language=English |volume=11 |doi=10.3389/fnmol.2018.00014 |issn=1662-5099 |pmc=5790772 |pmid=29434536}}</ref> ''The heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) family of cell-surface proteins is emerging as a key regulator of connectivity. HSPGs are expressed throughout brain development and play important roles in axon guidance, synapse development and synapse function.'' '''Cooper, Isabella D.; Brookler, Kenneth H.; Crofts, Catherine A. P. (2021-09-06). "Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas" Biomedicines 9, no. 9: 1165.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Isabella D. |last2=Brookler |first2=Kenneth H. |last3=Crofts |first3=Catherine A. P. |date=2021-09-06 |title=Rethinking Fragility Fractures in Type 2 Diabetes: The Link between Hyperinsulinaemia and Osteofragilitas |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9059/9/9/1165 |journal=Biomedicines |language=en |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages=1165 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9091165 |issn=2227-9059}}</ref> ''<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9091165</nowiki> Hyperinsulinaemia negatively impacts HSPG function and availability, via impairment of vitamin D regulation. Vitamin D regulates sulfate synthesis, required for heparan sulphate ['''145'''].'' '''Dituri F, Gigante G, Scialpi R, Mancarella S, Fabregat I, Giannelli G. Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancers. 2022; 14(8):1902. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14081902</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dituri |first=Francesco |last2=Gigante |first2=Gianluigi |last3=Scialpi |first3=Rosanna |last4=Mancarella |first4=Serena |last5=Fabregat |first5=Isabel |last6=Giannelli |first6=Gianluigi |date=2022-04-09 |title=Proteoglycans in Cancer: Friends or Enemies? A Special Focus on Hepatocellular Carcinoma |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6694/14/8/1902 |journal=Cancers |language=en |volume=14 |issue=8 |pages=1902 |doi=10.3390/cancers14081902 |issn=2072-6694 |pmc=9024587 |pmid=35454809}}</ref> ''Proteoglycans are a class of highly glycosylated proteins expressed in virtually all tissues, which are localized within membranes, but more often in the pericellular space and extracellular matrix (ECM), and are involved in tissue homeostasis and remodeling of the stromal microenvironment during physiological and pathological processes, such as tissue regeneration, angiogenesis, and cancer.'' '''Farhan, S.M.K. , Wang J, Robinson JF, et al., 2015. Old gene, new phenotype: mutations in heparan sulfate synthesis enzyme, EXT2 leads to seizure and developmental disorder, no exostoses. Journal of Medical Genetics 2015;52:666-675. ''' ''Many genes are involved in modulating heparan sulfate synthesis, and when these genes are mutated, they can give rise to early-onset developmental disorders affecting multiple body systems.'' '''Forsberg E. and L. Kjellen, 2001. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. Journal of Clinical Investigation. <nowiki>https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561</nowiki>.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Forsberg |first=Erik |last2=Kjellén |first2=Lena |date=2001-07-15 |title=Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice |url=https://www.jci.org/articles/view/13561 |journal=The Journal of Clinical Investigation |language=en |volume=108 |issue=2 |pages=175–180 |doi=10.1172/JCI13561 |issn=0021-9738 |pmid=11457868}}</ref> ''Kidney'' ''agenesis, “broken heart,” abnormal mast cells, somatic overgrowth, lung dysfunction, and chondrodysplasia are some phenotypes of mice where different genes important for heparan sulfate (HS) expression have been knocked out.The authors speculate that, during inflammation or wounding when fibronectin is degraded, syndecan-4 may be important for focal adhesion formation and actin fiber organization, which in turn contribute to cell migration.'' '''Fumitoshi Irie, Hedieh Badie-Mahdavi, and Yu Yamaguchi, 2012. ''Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate''. PNAS 2012 109 (13) 5052-5056;  March 27, 2012 vol. 109 no. 13'''<ref name=":4" /> '''<nowiki>http://www.pnas.org/content/109/13/5052.short</nowiki>''' ''Heparan sulfate regulates diverse cell-surface signaling events, and its roles in the development of the nervous system recently have been increasingly uncovered by studies using genetic models carrying mutations of genes encoding enzymes for its synthesis. Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypes characteristic for autism.'' '''Ge, Xiao Na, Bastan, Idil, Ha, Sung Gil, Greenberg, Yana G., Esko, Jeffrey D., Rao, Savita P., Sriramarao, P., 2018. Regulation of eosinophil recruitment and allergic airway inflammation by heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) modifying enzymes. Experimental Lung Research, 01902148, Mar2018, Vol. 44, Issue''' ''Our study demonstrates that allergen exposure reduces expression of Hs2st; loss of uronyl 2-O-sulfation in endothelial and leukocyte HSPG amplifies recruitment of eosinophils likely due to a compromised vascular endothelium resulting in persistent inflammation whereas loss of N-sulfation limits eosinophilia and attenuates inflammation underscoring the importance of site-specific sulfation in HSPG to their role in AAI.'' '''Haeger SM, Yang Y, Schmidt EP. Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2016;55(1):5-11. doi:10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR''' '''''<nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4942210/</nowiki>'''''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haeger |first=Sarah M. |last2=Yang |first2=Yimu |last3=Schmidt |first3=Eric P. |date=2016-07 |title=Heparan Sulfate in the Developing, Healthy, and Injured Lung |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4942210/ |journal=American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=5–11 |doi=10.1165/rcmb.2016-0043TR |issn=1535-4989 |pmc=4942210 |pmid=26982577}}</ref> ''This Translational Review highlightsthe importance of athe glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS) on lung health and disease.'' '''Hiebert, Linda M. 2021. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes. DOI: 10.1055/s-0041-1724118. Thieme E-''' '''Journals - Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis / Abstract (thieme-connect.com).''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hiebert |first=Linda M. |date=2021-04 |title=Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Diabetes |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |journal=Seminars in Thrombosis and Hemostasis |language=en |volume=47 |issue=03 |pages=261–273 |doi=10.1055/s-0041-1724118 |issn=0094-6176}}</ref> ''Understanding the role of HSPGs and how they are modified by diabetes may lead to new treatments as well as preventative measures to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with this complex condition.'' '''Ho, G., G Broze, A. Schwartz, 1997. Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes. CELL BIOLOGY AND METABOLISM| VOLUME 272, ISSUE 27, P16838-16844, JULY 1997.<nowiki>https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/fulltext</nowiki>''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ho |first=Guyu |last2=Broze |first2=George J. |last3=Schwartz |first3=Alan L. |date=1997-07-04 |title=Role of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in the Uptake and Degradation of Tissue Factor Pathway Inhibitor-Coagulation Factor Xa Complexes * |url=https://www.jbc.org/article/S0021-9258(18)39299-8/abstract |journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry |language=English |volume=272 |issue=27 |pages=16838–16844 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.27.16838 |issn=0021-9258}}</ref>''These results suggest that heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) are required for the uptake and degradation of 125I-TFPI·fXa complexes.'' '''Huang M, He H, Belenkaya T, Lin X. Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis. J Cell Sci. 2018 May 29;131(10):jcs210781. doi: 10.1242/jcs.210781. PMID: 29700203; PMCID: PMC6031332.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Meina |last2=He |first2=Hua |last3=Belenkaya |first3=Tatyana |last4=Lin |first4=Xinhua |date=2018-05-15 |title=Multiple roles of epithelial heparan sulfate in stomach morphogenesis |url=https://journals.biologists.com/jcs/article/131/10/jcs210781/56866/Multiple-roles-of-epithelial-heparan-sulfate-in |journal=Journal of Cell Science |language=en |volume=131 |issue=10 |doi=10.1242/jcs.210781 |issn=1477-9137 |pmc=6031332 |pmid=29700203}}</ref> ''In the posterior stomach, HS depletion disrupts glandular stomach patterning and cytodifferentiation via attenuation of Fgf signaling activity.'' '''Irie, F.,  H. Badie-Mahdavi, Y. Yamaguchi, 2012. Autism-like socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies in mice lacking heparan sulfate Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 109 (2012), pp. 5052-5056. <nowiki>https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.1117881109</nowiki>.''' <ref name=":5" />''Our results demonstrate that heparan sulfate is critical for normal functioning of glutamatergic synapses and that its deficiency mediates socio-communicative deficits and stereotypies characteristic for autism.'' '''Jennes I, Pedrini E, Zuntini M, Mordenti M, Balkassmi S, Asteggiano CG, Casey B, Bakker B, Sangiorgi L, Wuyts W. Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb). Hum Mutat. 2009 Dec;30 (12):1620-7. doi: 10.1002/humu.21123. PMID: 19810120.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jennes |first=Ivy |last2=Pedrini |first2=Elena |last3=Zuntini |first3=Monia |last4=Mordenti |first4=Marina |last5=Balkassmi |first5=Sahila |last6=Asteggiano |first6=Carla G. |last7=Casey |first7=Brett |last8=Bakker |first8=Bert |last9=Sangiorgi |first9=Luca |last10=Wuyts |first10=Wim |date=2009-12 |title=Multiple osteochondromas: mutation update and description of the multiple osteochondromas mutation database (MOdb) |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/humu.21123 |journal=Human Mutation |language=en |volume=30 |issue=12 |pages=1620–1627 |doi=10.1002/humu.21123}}</ref>''MO is genetically heterogeneous, and is associated with mutations in Exostosin-1 (EXT1) or Exostosin-2 (EXT2), both tumor-suppressor genes of the EXT gene family. All members of this multigene family encode glycosyltransferases involved in the adhesion and/or polymerization of heparin sulfate (HS) chains at HS proteoglycans (HSPGs).'' '''Jones, K. B., Pacifici, M., & Hilton, M. J. (2014). Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE): elucidating the pathogenesis of a rare skeletal disorder through interdisciplinary research. Connective Tissue Research, 55(2), 80–88. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3109/03008207.2013.867957</nowiki>.''' ''MHE is largely caused by autosomal dominant mutations in EXT1 or EXT2, genes encoding Golgi-associated glycosyltransferases responsible for heparan sulfate (HS) synthesis. HS chains are key constituents of cell surface- and extracellular matrix-associated proteoglycans, which are known regulators of skeletal development. MHE affected individuals are HS-deficient, can display skeletal growth retardation and deformities, and consistently develop benign, cartilage-capped bony outgrowths (termed exostoses or osteochondromas) near the growth plates of many skeletal elements. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes.'' '''Kemp, Annissa et al. 2017. Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction, Developmental Cell, Volume 43, Issue 1, 24 - 34.e5 <nowiki>https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/fulltext/S1534-5807(17)30674-3</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kempf |first=Anissa |last2=Boda |first2=Enrica |last3=Kwok |first3=Jessica C. F. |last4=Fritz |first4=Rafael |last5=Grande |first5=Valentina |last6=Kaelin |first6=Andrea M. |last7=Ristic |first7=Zorica |last8=Schmandke |first8=Andre |last9=Schmandke |first9=Antonio |last10=Tews |first10=Bjoern |last11=Fawcett |first11=James W. |last12=Pertz |first12=Olivier |last13=Buffo |first13=Annalisa |last14=Schwab |first14=Martin E. |date=2017-10-09 |title=Control of Cell Shape, Neurite Outgrowth, and Migration by a Nogo-A/HSPG Interaction |url=https://www.cell.com/developmental-cell/abstract/S1534-5807(17)30674-3 |journal=Developmental Cell |language=English |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=24–34.e5 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2017.08.014 |issn=1534-5807 |pmid=28943240}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) critically modulate adhesion-, growth-, and migration-related processes. Here, we show that the transmembrane protein, Nogo-A, inhibits neurite outgrowth and cell spreading in neurons and Nogo-A-responsive cell lines via HSPGs. Finally, we show in explant cultures ex vivo that Nogo-A-?20 promotes the migration of neuroblasts via HSPGs but not S1PR2.'' '''Kolset, S., Salmivirta, M. Cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans and lipoprotein metabolism. CMLS, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 56, 857–870 (1999). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s000180050031</nowiki>''' [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s000180050031.] ''Heparan sulfate has been further implicated in presentation and stabilization of lipoprotein lipase and hepatic lipase on cell surfaces and in the transport of lipoprotein lipase from extravascular cells to the luminal surface of the endothelia. In atherosclerosis, heparan sulfate is intimately involved in several events important to the pathophysiology of the disease.'' '''Laabs, T.; Carulli, D.; Geller, H.M.; Fawcett, J.W. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2005, 15, 116–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carulli |first=Daniela |last2=Laabs |first2=Tracy |last3=Geller |first3=Herbert M. |last4=Fawcett |first4=James W. |date=2005-02 |title=Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in neural development and regeneration |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15721753 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=116–120 |doi=10.1016/j.conb.2005.01.014 |issn=0959-4388 |pmid=15721753}}</ref> ''Proteoglycans are of two main types, chondroitin sulfate (CSPGs) and heparin sulfate (HSPGs). The CSPGs act mainly as barrier-forming molecules, whereas the HSPGs stabilise the interactions of receptors and ligands.'' '''Lundberg, Y.W., Y. Xu, K.D. Theissen, and K.L. Framer, 2014. Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development. Developmental Dynamics, 9/24/2014.''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lundberg |first=Yunxia Wang |last2=Xu |first2=Yinfang |last3=Thiessen |first3=Kevin D. |last4=Kramer |first4=Kenneth L. |date=2015 |title=Mechanisms of otoconia and otolith development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dvdy.24195 |journal=Developmental Dynamics |language=en |volume=244 |issue=3 |pages=239–253 |doi=10.1002/dvdy.24195 |issn=1097-0177 |pmc=4482761 |pmid=25255879}}</ref> ''Deletion of different HSPGs and CSPGs causes calcification deficiencies which exemplifies their critical role in bone and teeth formation.'' '''Mansouri, R., Jouan, Y., Hay, E. et al. Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells. Cell Death Dis 8, e2902 (2017). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1038/cddis.2017.287</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mansouri |first=Rafik |last2=Jouan |first2=Yohann |last3=Hay |first3=Eric |last4=Blin-Wakkach |first4=Claudine |last5=Frain |first5=Monique |last6=Ostertag |first6=Agnès |last7=Le Henaff |first7=Carole |last8=Marty |first8=Caroline |last9=Geoffroy |first9=Valérie |last10=Marie |first10=Pierre J. |last11=Cohen-Solal |first11=Martine |last12=Modrowski |first12=Dominique |date=2017-06 |title=Osteoblastic heparan sulfate glycosaminoglycans control bone remodeling by regulating Wnt signaling and the crosstalk between bone surface and marrow cells |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/cddis2017287 |journal=Cell Death & Disease |language=en |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=e2902–e2902 |doi=10.1038/cddis.2017.287 |issn=2041-4889 |pmc=5520938 |pmid=28661485}}</ref> ''Syndecan-2 is a membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan that is associated with osteoblastic differentiation. The osteogenic properties of matrix glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) have been explored; however, the functions of GAGs at the surface of bone-forming cells are less documented.'' '''Matsuzawa, T. et al., 2021. Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Journal of Biological Chemistry.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Matsuzawa |first=Takuro |last2=Morita |first2=Masanobu |last3=Shimane |first3=Ai |last4=Otsuka |first4=Rina |last5=Mei |first5=Yu |last6=Irie |first6=Fumitoshi |last7=Yamaguchi |first7=Yu |last8=Yanai |first8=Kazuhiko |last9=Yoshikawa |first9=Takeo |date=2021-09 |title=Heparan sulfate promotes differentiation of white adipocytes to maintain insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34310946 |journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry |volume=297 |issue=3 |pages=101006 |doi=10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101006 |issn=1083-351X |pmc=8379462 |pmid=34310946}}</ref> ''We observed that Ext1Δ/WT mice showed glucose intolerance because of insulin resistance. Our results demonstrate that HS plays a crucial role in the differentiation of white adipocytes through BMP4–FGF1 signaling pathways, thereby contributing to insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis.'' '''Meneghetti, Maria C. Z.; Hughes, Ashley J.; Rudd, Timothy R.; Nader, Helena B.; Powell, Andrew K.; Yates, Edwin A.; Lima, Marcelo A. (2015-09-06). "Heparan sulfate and heparin interactions with proteins". Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 12 (110): 0589. doi:10.1098/rsif.2015.0589. ISSN 1742-5662. PMC 4614469. <nowiki>PMID 26289657</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Echits |first=S. V. |last2=Pichko |first2=V. B. |last3=Tikhomirova |first3=A. S. |last4=Letunova |first4=E. V. |date=1975 |title=[Preparation and properties of beta-galactosidase linked covalently with KM-cellulose] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1742 |journal=Prikladnaia Biokhimiia I Mikrobiologiia |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=848–851 |issn=0555-1099 |pmid=1742}}</ref>''. Heparan sulfate (HS) polysaccharides are ubiquitous components of the cell surface and extracellular matrix of all multicellular animals, whereas heparin is present within mast cells and can be viewed as a more sulfated, tissue-specific, HS variant. HS and heparin regulate biological processes through interactions with a large repertoire of proteins. Owing to these interactions and diverse effects observed during in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo experiments, manifold biological/pharmacological activities have been attributed to them'''''.''' '''Mooney et al. 2016.Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Volume 171, Sept 2016. <nowiki>https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446</nowiki>''' <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mooney |first=Michael A. |last2=McWeeney |first2=Shannon K. |last3=Faraone |first3=Stephen V. |last4=Hinney |first4=Anke |last5=Hebebrand |first5=Johannes |last6=Consortium |first6=Image2 |last7=Group |first7=German ADHD GWAS |last8=Nigg |first8=Joel T. |last9=Wilmot |first9=Beth |date=2016 |title=Pathway analysis in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: An ensemble approach |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics |language=en |volume=171 |issue=6 |pages=815–826 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.b.32446 |issn=1552-485X |pmc=4983253 |pmid=27004716}}</ref> ''These results support previous hypotheses about the role of regulation of neurotransmitter release, neurite outgrowth and axon guidance in contributing to the ADHD phenotype and suggest the value of cross-method convergence in evaluating pathway analysis results.'' '''Nackaerts, K. et al. 1997. Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Expression In Human Lung-Cancer Cells. Int. J. Cancer (Pred. Oncol.): 74, 335–345 (1997) r 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Maurits_Demedts/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells/links/5600565108aeafc8ac8c7374.pdf</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nackaerts |first=Kris |last2=Verbeken |first2=Erik |last3=Deneffe |first3=Georges |last4=Vanderschueren |first4=Bernadette |last5=Demedts |first5=Maurits |last6=David |first6=Guido |date=1997-07-01 |title=Heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression in human lung-cancer cells |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/13997415_Heparan_sulfate_proteoglycan_expression_in_human_lung-cancer_cells |journal=International journal of cancer. Journal international du cancer |volume=74 |pages=335–45 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970620)74:33.3.CO;2-4}}</ref> ''Heparan sulfate (HS) functions as a co-factor in several signal-transduction systems that affect cellular growth, differentiation, adhesion and motility. HS, therefore, may also play a role in the malignant transformation of cells, tumor growth, cell invasiveness and the formation of tumor metastases. Our results suggest that poorly differentiated lung tumors have markedly altered patterns of HSPG expression, which may contribute to their invasive phenotype. Int. J. Cancer 74:335– 345, 1997.'' '''Nencini Sara , Ivanusic Jason J. The Physiology of Bone Pain. How Much Do We Really Know? Frontiers in Physiology. Volume 7 - 2016.''' '''<nowiki>https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2016.00157</nowiki>. DOI=10.3389/fphys.2016.00157. ISSN=1664-042X'''<ref name=":6" /> ''Pain is associated with most bony pathologies. Clinical and experimental observations suggest that bone pain can be derived from noxious stimulation of the periosteum or bone marrow Whilst these provide some clues as to the way information about bone pain is centrally coded, they need to be expanded to further our understanding of other central territories involved.'' '''Otsu, K.; Kato, S.; Ohtake, K.; Akamatsu, N. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1992, 294, 544–549. Alteration of rat liver proteoglycans during regeneration - PubMed (nih.gov)'''''. Heparan sulfates (HS) are probably the major GAGs present on the surface of hepatocytes under normal conditions. Nevertheless, HSPGs expression increases during liver regeneration. Using [35S] sulfuric acid incorporation, Otsu et al. showed that, in the hepatic regeneration phase after hepatectomy, the synthesis of heparin sulfate proteoglycans, and to a lesser extent, of chondroitin/dermatan sulfate proteoglycans, increases up to 3–5 days and is temporally shifted compared to the stage of maximum mitosis that occurs 1–2 days following the surgical procedure [94].'' '''Otsuka, T., Phan, A.Q., Laurencin, C.T. et al. Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration. Regen. Eng. Transl. Med. 6, 7–17 (2020). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3</nowiki> <nowiki>https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Otsuka |first=T. |last2=Phan |first2=A. Q. |last3=Laurencin |first3=C. T. |last4=Esko |first4=J. D. |last5=Bryant |first5=S. V. |last6=Gardiner |first6=D. M. |date=2020-03 |title=Identification of Heparan-Sulfate Rich Cells in the Loose Connective Tissues of the Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum) with the Potential to Mediate Growth Factor Signaling during Regeneration |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |journal=Regenerative Engineering and Translational Medicine |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=7–17 |doi=10.1007/s40883-019-00140-3 |issn=2364-4133 |pmc=7971174 |pmid=33748405}}</ref> ''. We hypothesized that there are cells in the axolotl that synthesize specific HSPGs that control growth factor signaling in time and space. Given their high level of HSPG expression, their stellate morphology, and their distribution throughout the loose connective tissues, we refer to these as the positional information GRID (Groups that are Regenerative, Interspersed and Dendritic) cells.'' '''Parish, C., 2005. Heparan sulfate and inflammation. Nature Immunology 6(9):861-2 ·  October. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parish |first=Christopher |date=2005-10-01 |title=Heparan sulfate and inflammation |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7645220_Heparan_sulfate_and_inflammation |journal=Nature immunology |volume=6 |pages=861–2 |doi=10.1038/ni0905-861}}</ref> ''Entry of leukocytes into tissues is a key feature of inflammation. New data suggest the polysaccharide heparan sulfate is required for several stages of this entry process.'' '''Park, P.J, and D. Shukla. Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases, Experimental Eye Research, Volume 110, 2013, Pages 1-9, ISSN 0014-4835, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Paul J. |last2=Shukla |first2=Deepak |date=2013-05-01 |title=Role of heparan sulfate in ocular diseases |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014483513000274 |journal=Experimental Eye Research |volume=110 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1016/j.exer.2013.01.015 |issn=0014-4835 |pmc=3638857 |pmid=23410824}}</ref> ''Abstract: Heparan sulfate (HS), a ubiquitous and structurally diverse cell surface polysaccharide and extracellular matrix component, is a factor common to several major eye pathologies. Its multitude of functions and variable distribution among the different ocular tissues makes it an important contributor to a variety of disease states. Although HS facilitates the pathogenesis of many disorders, its role in each varies. Unique functions of HS have been particularly noted in viral and bacterial keratitis and age-related macular degeneration.'' '''Pérez, C., Sawmiller, D. & Tan, J. The role of heparan sulfate deficiency in autistic phenotype: potential involvement of Slit/Robo/srGAPs-mediated dendritic spine formation. Neural Dev 11, 11 (2016). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s13064-016-0066-x</nowiki>''' <ref name=":8" /> ''Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are the second most common developmental cause of disability in the United States. The brains of ASD patients have marked structural abnormalities, in the form of increased dendritic spines and decreased long distance connections. These structural differences may be due to deficiencies in Heparin Sulfate (HS), a proteoglycan involved in a variety of neurodevelopmental processes. Through interference with this pathway, HS deficiency can lead to excess spine formation.'' '''Poli, Maura, Michela Asperti, Paola Ruzzenenti, Annamaria Naggi, and Paolo Arosio. 2017. "Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia" Molecules 22, no. 4: 598. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules22040598</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Poli |first=Maura |last2=Asperti |first2=Michela |last3=Ruzzenenti |first3=Paola |last4=Naggi |first4=Annamaria |last5=Arosio |first5=Paolo |date=2017-04-08 |title=Non-Anticoagulant Heparins Are Hepcidin Antagonists for the Treatment of Anemia |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/22/4/598 |journal=Molecules |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=598 |doi=10.3390/molecules22040598 |issn=1420-3049 |pmc=6154463 |pmid=28397746}}</ref> ''This review summarizes recent findings on the anti-hepcidin activity of heparins and their possible use for the treatment of anemia caused by hepcidin excess, including the anemia of chronic diseases.'' '''Russel A.L. and M.F.McCarty, 2000 Glucosamine for migraine prophylaxis?  Medical Hypotheses. Volume 55, Issue 3, September 2000, Pages 195-198. <nowiki>http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306987799910125</nowiki>''' ''We postulate that supplemental glucosamine can boost mast cell heparin synthesis – perhaps correcting a functional heparin deficiency – thereby preventing or ameliorating the neurogenic inflammation that mediates pain in vascular headache. Whether or not this idea has validity, a controlled study of glucosamine for migraine prophylaxis appears to be warranted.'' '''Stringer, S.E. and Gallagher. 1997. Molecules in focus. Heparan sulphate. The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, Volume 29, Issue 5, 1997.''' ''Heparan sulphates, the N-sulphated polysaccharides components of proteoglycans, are common constituents of cell surfaces and the extracellular matrix. The diverse functions of heparan sulphate, which range from the control of blood coagulation to the regulation of cell growth and adhesion, depend on the capacity of the chains to activate protein ligands, such as antithrombin III and members of the fibroblast growth factor family. These properties are currently being exploited in the development of synthetic heparan sulphates as anticoagulants and promoters of wound healing. Conversely organic mimics of growth factor activating saccharides could possibly be designed to suppress tumour growth and prevent restenosis after coronary vessel angioplasty.'' '''Theoharides TC et al.  1999. Stress-induced rat intestinal mast cell intragranular activation and inhibitory effect of sulfated proteoglycans.  Digestive Diseases and Sciences [1999, 44 (8 Suppl):87S-93S]. Pages 709-714. <nowiki>http://europepmc.org/abstract/med/10490045</nowiki>''' ''Cyclic vomiting syndrome is characterized by sudden episodes of vomiting and abdominal pain. It occurs primarily in children, is exacerbated by stress, and is often considered a migraine equivalent. Migraines have been linked to mast cells, which are often found close to neurons where they are activated by neuropeptides. We investigated the ultrastructural appearance of rat ileal brush border and mast cells following acute stress by immobilization.These results suggest the possible usefulness of chondroitin sulfate in conditions such as cyclic vomiting syndrome.'' '''Thompson, W.R. 2011. Perlecan modulates the function of the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular system. University of Delaware, ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 2011. 3443246.''' ''In this study, along with my colleagues, I examined osteocyte lacunocanalicular morphology in mice deficient in the large heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG) PLN in this tissue. . . Ultrastructural measurements using electron micrograph images of PLN deficient mice demonstrate a significant decrease in osteocyte canalicular pericellular area, resulting from a reduction in the total canalicular area, when compared to controls. Additionally, PLN deficient mice show significantly diminished canalicular density and a significant reduction in the number of transverse tethering elements per canaliculus.'' '''van den Born J, van den Heuvel LP, Bakker MA, Veerkamp JH, Assmann KJ, Weening JJ, Berden JH., 1993. ''Distribution of GBM heparan sulfate proteoglycan core protein and side chains in human glomerular diseases.'' Kidney Int. 1993 Feb;43(2):454-63. <nowiki>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8441243</nowiki>''' ''Using monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) recognizing either the core protein or the heparan sulfate (HS) side chain of human GBM heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG), we investigated their glomerular distribution on cryostat sections of human kidney tissues. In conclusion, major alterations were observed in the glomerular distribution of HS and HSPG-core in various human glomerulopathies. The mAbs can be useful to further delineate the significance of HSPG and HS for glomerular diseases.'' '''Vicente, Carolina Meloni, da Silva, Daiana Aparecida, Sartorio, Priscila Veronica, Silva, Tiago Donizetti, Saad, Sarhan Sydney, Nader, Helena Bonciani, Forones, Nora Manoukian, Toma, Leny, Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans in Human Colorectal Cancer, Analytical Cellular Pathology, 2018, 8389595, 10 pages, 2018.''' <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/8389595</nowiki>'''  <nowiki>https://www.hindawi.com/journals/acp/2018/8389595/</nowiki>''' ''Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are complex molecules present in the cell membrane and extracellular matrix, which play vital roles in cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and signaling pathways. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans are candidate molecules to clarify colorectal cancer tumorigenesis, as well as important targets to therapy and diagnosis.'' '''Vlodavestky, I. et al. 2007. Heparanase: Structure, Biological Functions, and Inhibition by Heparin-Derived Mimetics of Heparan Sulfate. Current Pharmaceutical Design, Volume 13, Number 20, July 2007, pp. 2057-2073(17). <nowiki>http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/ben/cpd/2007/00000013/00000020/art00004</nowiki>''' ''Heparanase is an endoglycosidase which cleaves heparan sulfate (HS) and hence participates in degradation and remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Heparanase is preferentially expressed in human tumors and its over-expression in tumor cells confers an invasive phenotype in experimental animals. These observations and the unexpected identification of a single functional heparanase, suggest that the enzyme is a promising target for anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory drug development.'' '''Weihua T. et al. 2002. Heparanase: A Key Enzyme in Invasion and Metastasis of Gastric Carcinoma.Mod Pathol 2002;15(6):593–59. <nowiki>http://www.nature.com/modpathol/journal/v15/n6/abs/3880571a.html</nowiki>''' ''Previous reports have shown that the biochemical activity of heparanase is significantly correlated with the invasion and metastasis of malignant cells in vitro.'' ''It was concluded that heparanase might play an important role in the development of invasion and metastasis of the gastric cancer. It was indicated that patients with heparanase-positive gastric carcinoma would have a greater chance of metastasis with a poor prognosis.'' '''Whitelock John M. and Renato V. Iozzo, 2005. H''eparan Sulfate:  A Complex Polymer Charged with Biological Activity''. Chem. Rev., 2005, 105 (7), pp 2745–2764. <nowiki>http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/cr0102</nowiki>''' ''  “HS is a complex and highly active biopolymer…” one section is on heparan sulfate therapies,'' '''Yan Yin, Adam Wang, Li Feng, Yu Wang, Hong Zhang, Ivy Zhang, Brent M Bany, Liang Ma, Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan Sulfation Regulates Uterine Differentiation and Signaling During Embryo Implantation, Endocrinology, Volume 159, Issue 6, June 2018, Pages 2459–2472, <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1210/en.2018-00105</nowiki>''' ''One important modulator of these signaling pathways is the cell surface and extracellular matrix macromolecules, heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). HSPGs play crucial roles in signal transduction by regulating morphogen transport and ligand binding. In this study, we examine the role of HSPG sulfation in regulating uterine receptivity…'' '''Zhongjun Zhou et al. 2004.  Impaired Angiogenesis, Delayed Wound Healing and Retarded Tumor Growth in Perlecan Heparan Sulfate-Deficient Mice. DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-04-0810 Published July 2004. <nowiki>http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/64/14/4699</nowiki>.''' ''Perlecan, a modular proteoglycan carrying primary heparan sulfate (HS) side chains, is a major component of blood vessel basement membranes.Perlecan HS-deficient (Hspg2Δ3/Δ3) mice survived embryonic development and were apparently healthy as adults. However, mutant mice exhibited significantly delayed wound healing, retarded FGF-2-induced tumor growth, and defective angiogenesis.'' '''Zhu W, Li J, Liang G. How does cellular heparan sulfate function in viral pathogenicity? Biomed Environ Sci. 2011 Feb;24(1):81-7. doi: 10.3967/0895-3988.2011.01.011. PMID: 2144084'''4. ''Heparan sulfate (HS) is ubiquitously expressed on the surfaces and in the extracellular matrix of virtually all cell types, making it an ideal receptor for viral infection. Understanding how heparan sulfate functions during virus infection in vivo may prove critical for elucidating the molecular mechanism of viral pathogenesis, and may contribute to the development of therapeutics targeting HS''. == Case studies == '''Ahn, YS., Kim, S., Kim, WJ. et al. Characteristics of hip impingement syndrome in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 22, 153 (2021). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ahn |first=Yeong-Seub |last2=Kim |first2=Sungmin |last3=Kim |first3=Woo-Jong |last4=Lim |first4=Jun-Hyuk |last5=Jung |first5=Sung-Taek |date=2021-02-06 |title=Characteristics of hip impingement syndrome in patients with multiple hereditary exostoses |url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1 |journal=BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders |language=en |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=153 |doi=10.1186/s12891-021-04021-1 |issn=1471-2474 |pmc=7868013 |pmid=33549073}}</ref> ''Between 2001 and 2019, total 51 patients (102 hips) were evaluated in this study. Patients with MHE were classified to femoro-acetabular impingement (FAI) symptom group, ischio-femoral impingement (IFI) symptom group and non-impingement symptom group by comparing the symptoms, clinical signs and imaging studies.'' '''Albokhari, Daniah, Christopher R. Bailey, Francis Hwang, Clifford R. Weiss, Jonathan Forsberg, Nara Sobreira.  2023. Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands.  American Journal of Medical Genetics.''' '' ''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Albokhari |first=Daniah |last2=Bailey |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Hwang |first3=Francis |last4=Weiss |first4=Clifford R. |last5=Forsberg |first5=Jonathan |last6=Sobreira |first6=Nara |date=2023 |title=Venous malformation may be a feature of EXT1-related hereditary multiple exostoses: A report of two unrelated probands |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |journal=American Journal of Medical Genetics Part A |language=en |volume=191 |issue=6 |pages=1570–1575 |doi=10.1002/ajmg.a.63158 |issn=1552-4833}}</ref> ''Report two unrelated probands that presented with a clinical and molecular diagnosis of HME with venous malformation, a clinical feature not previously reported in individuals with HME.'' '''Anel-Quimpo, Joselynna, Mark Anthony Santiago Sandoval, Frances Lina Lantion-Ang, 2011. Hypercalcaemia from genitourinary tuberculosis in a female with multiple exostoses. BMJ Journals. <nowiki>https://casereports.bmj.com/content/2011/bcr.12.2010.3651</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Anel-Quimpo |first=Joselynna |last2=Sandoval |first2=Mark Anthony Santiago |last3=Lantion-Ang |first3=Frances Lina |date=2011-05-17 |title=Hypercalcaemia from genitourinary tuberculosis in a female with multiple exostoses |url=https://casereports.bmj.com/content/2011/bcr.12.2010.3651 |journal=BMJ Case Reports |language=en |volume=2011 |pages=bcr1220103651 |doi=10.1136/bcr.12.2010.3651 |issn=1757-790X}}</ref> ''The authors present a puzzling case of nephrolithiasis, hypercalcaemia, amenorrhoea, short stature and gross skeletal deformities in a 30-year-old female. Multiple pituitary hormone deficiency and metabolic bone disease were initially considered but were eventually excluded. The final diagnosis is genitourinary tuberculosis (TB) which caused the hypercalcaemia, nephrolithiasis and amenorrhoea, and also found to have the syndrome of multiple exostoses which explained the gross skeletal deformities and the short stature. After treatment with anti-TB therapy, there was resolution of hypercalcaemia and return of regular menstruation. The short stature and gross skeletal deformities remain as part of the congenital syndrome.'' '''Bari MS, Jahangir Alam MM, Chowdhury FR, Dhar PB, Begum A. 2012. Hereditary multiple exostoses causing cord compression. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak 22:797–799.'''<ref name=":2" />''' ''' ''Neurological presentations are rare and usually happened due to direct compression of a peripheral nerve or nerve root or less often the spinal cord. This case is possibly the first case of HME described from Bangladesh, presented with dorsal cord compression. Decompression was done and the complaints of myelopathy were improved.'' '''Caino, Silvia, Marisa Angelica Cubilla, Romina Alba, María Gabriela Obregón, Virginia Fano, Abel Gómez, Lorena Zecchini, Pablo Lapunzina, Miriam Aza-Carmona, Karen E. Heath, and et al. 2022. "Clinical and Genetic Analysis of Multiple Osteochondromas in a Cohort of Argentine Patients" Genes 13, no. 11: 2063.''' '''<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13112063</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Caino |first=Silvia |last2=Cubilla |first2=Marisa Angelica |last3=Alba |first3=Romina |last4=Obregón |first4=María Gabriela |last5=Fano |first5=Virginia |last6=Gómez |first6=Abel |last7=Zecchini |first7=Lorena |last8=Lapunzina |first8=Pablo |last9=Aza-Carmona |first9=Miriam |last10=Heath |first10=Karen E. |last11=Asteggiano |first11=Carla Gabriela |date=2022-11-07 |title=Clinical and Genetic Analysis of Multiple Osteochondromas in a Cohort of Argentine Patients |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4425/13/11/2063 |journal=Genes |language=en |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=2063 |doi=10.3390/genes13112063 |issn=2073-4425 |pmc=9690389 |pmid=36360300}}</ref> ''Multiple Osteochondromatosis (MO, MIM 133700 & 133701), an autosomal dominant O-glycosylation disorder (EXT1/EXT2-CDG), can be associated with a reduction in skeletal growth, bony deformity, restricted joint motion, shortened stature and pathogenic variants in two tumor suppressor genes, EXT1 and EXT2. In this work, we report a cross-sectional study including 35 index patients and 20 affected family members. Clinical phenotyping of all 55 affected cases was obtained, but genetic studies were performed only in 35 indexes.'' '''Hariri O, Al Laham O, Ibrahim Basha Z, Ghannam E, Ghannam M, Mohammad A. Multiple Hereditary Exostoses instigating a popliteal pseudoaneurysm in a young Middle Eastern male: A case report and literature review. Int J Surg Case Rep. 2024 Apr 12;118:109633. doi: 10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 38626641; PMCID: PMC11035074.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hariri |first=Omar |last2=Al Laham |first2=Omar |last3=Ibrahim Basha |first3=Zein |last4=Ghannam |first4=Eman |last5=Ghannam |first5=Mohammad |last6=Mohammad |first6=Ammar |date=2024-05 |title=Multiple Hereditary Exostoses instigating a popliteal pseudoaneurysm in a young Middle Eastern male: A case report and literature review |url=https://journals.lww.com/10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633 |journal=International Journal of Surgery Case Reports |language=en |volume=118 |issue=C |doi=10.1016/j.ijscr.2024.109633 |issn=2210-2612 |pmc=11035074 |pmid=38626641}}</ref> ''We present the case of a 37-year-old Middle Eastern male with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses who experienced sudden-onset left lower limb pain persisting for a month prior to admission. It was associated with coldness and paresthesia of the ipsilateral lower limb. The presurgical radiological workup uncovered a popliteal pseudoaneurysm subsequent to Multiple Hereditary Exostoses.'' '''Kambouris, M., Fadda A, Al-Arraj, Y, et al., 2016. Putative Relation Between Autism Spectrum Disease & Hereditary Multiple Exostosis Investigated by Whole Genome Sequencing & Comparative Genome Analyses in a Family with ASD and HME with EXT-1 Mutations''' ''A family with two male children affected with ASD and HME as well as an unaffected female child, was studied to identify the Genetic basis of ASD in the family and the possible relation between ASD & HME. The HME unaffected parent [mother] contributed heterozygous variants in the Heparan Sulfate biosynthesis pathway that in synergy with the EXT-1 mutation could be the genetic causes of ASD in the family.'' '''Kim, Min Jeong, Yunjin Lee, Sang Ook Nam, Young Mi Kim, 2021. An 8q24.11q24.13 Microdeletion Encompassing EXT1 in a Boy with Autistic Spectrum Disorder, Intellectual Disability, and Multiple Hereditary Exostoses. Annals of Child Neurology. Letter to the Editor, 11/9/2021.''' ''Here, we describe the case of a boy with a microdeletion (8q24.11q24.13 [118,625,768-124,169,620]×1), who presented with autism, intellectual disability, and MHE. the parents signed informed consent and approved the anonymous use of clinical and molecular data for the present diagnostic study'''''.''' '''Küçükesmen, Çiḡdem DDS, PhD, Buḡra Özen, DDS, PhD,b and Mustafa Akçam, DDS, PhDc, 1997. Multiple Hereditary Osteochondromatosis: A Case Report. Eur J Dent. 2007 Jul; 1(3): 183–187.<nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih</nowiki>.''' ''Common carious lesions owing to vomiting are not widespread in children. In this case, we aimed to report an 11-years-old male patient with common carious lesions due to repeated vomitings, chewing and eating difficulty and retarded growth with Multiple Hereditary Osteochondromatosis (MHO).'' '''Li H, Yamagata T, Mori M, Momoi MY. 2002.Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1. J Hum Genet 2002;47:262-5. <nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595/</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li |first=Hung |last2=Yamagata |first2=Takanori |last3=Mori |first3=Masato |last4=Momoi |first4=Mariko Y. |date=2002 |title=Association of autism in two patients with hereditary multiple exostoses caused by novel deletion mutations of EXT1 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12032595 |journal=Journal of Human Genetics |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=262–265 |doi=10.1007/s100380200036 |issn=1434-5161 |pmid=12032595}}</ref>''  Two boys from separate families presented with hereditary multiple exostoses (EXT) and autism associated with mental retardation.'' '''Malagón, V., 2001.  Development of Hip Dysplasia in Hereditary Multiple Exostosis. Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics, 21(2): 205-211.  <nowiki>https://journals.lww.com/pedorthopaedics/Abstract/2001/03000/Development_of_Hip_Dysplasia_in_Hereditary.14.aspx</nowiki>''.'''''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Development of Hip Dysplasia in Hereditary... : Journal of Pediatric Orthopaedics |url=https://www.ovid.com/jnls/pedorthopaedics/fulltext/01241398-200103000-00014~development-of-hip-dysplasia-in-hereditary-multiple |access-date=2026-07-16 |website=Ovid |language=en}}</ref> ''In approximately 25% of patients with hereditary multiple exostosis, there is an abnormal osteochondral formation localized in the femoral proximal metaphysis. Although this entity is rather frequent and quite severe, it is rarely found in the medical literature. The author describes six private cases, taken from a total of 24,000 patients (0.25/1000) as examples of this entity, and provides a review of the literature.'' '''Mazza, D., Fabbri, M., Calderaro, C., Iorio, C., Labianca, L., Poggi, C., Turturro, F., Montanaro, A., & Ferretti, A. (2017). Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature. World journal of orthopedics, 8(5), 436–440. https://doi.org/10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436<nowiki/>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mazza |first=Daniele |last2=Fabbri |first2=Mattia |last3=Calderaro |first3=Cosma |last4=Iorio |first4=Carlo |last5=Labianca |first5=Luca |last6=Poggi |first6=Camilla |last7=Turturro |first7=Francesco |last8=Montanaro |first8=Antonello |last9=Ferretti |first9=Andrea |date=2017 |title=Chest pain caused by multiple exostoses of the ribs: A case report and a review of literature |url=http://www.wjgnet.com/2218-5836/full/v8/i5/436.htm |journal=World Journal of Orthopedics |language=en |volume=8 |issue=5 |pages=436 |doi=10.5312/wjo.v8.i5.436 |issn=2218-5836 |pmc=5434351 |pmid=28567348}}</ref> ''An exceptional case of multiple internal exostoses of the ribs in a young patient affected by multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) coming to our observation for chest pain as the only symptom of an intra-thoracic localization. The computed tomography (CT) scan revealed the presence of three exostoses located on the left third, fourth and sixth ribs, all protruding into the thoracic cavity, directly in contact with visceral pleura. Moreover, the apex of the one located on the sixth rib revealed to be only 12 mm away from pericardium.'' '''Montgomery BK, Cahan EM, Frick S. Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey- PubMed''' '''. Cureus. 2019 Dec 23;11(12):e6452. doi: 10.7759/cureus.6452. PMID: 32010535; PMCID: PMC6975245'''''.''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Montgomery |first=Blake K |last2=Cahan |first2=Eli M |last3=Frick |first3=Steve |date=2019-12-23 |title=Spinal Screening MRI Trends in Patients with Multiple Hereditary Exostoses: National Survey |url=https://www.cureus.com/articles/23789-spinal-screening-mri-trends-in-patients-with-multiple-hereditary-exostoses-national-survey |journal=Cureus |language=en |doi=10.7759/cureus.6452 |issn=2168-8184 |pmc=6975245 |pmid=32010535}}</ref> ''Background Multiple hereditary exostoses (MHE) is a rare disease characterized by multiple osteochondromas. Osteochondromas growing into the spinal canal can produce devastating consequences, including permanent neurologic deficits and even death. This study presents a case of an intracanal osteochondroma at C1 identified by routine screening and a survey describing current practices of MHE experts.'' '''Narvid, J., M. L. Gorno-Tempini, A. Slavotinek, S. J. DeArmond, Y. H. Cha, B. L. Miller & K. Rankin, 2009. Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A. Neurocase Vol. 15, Iss. 3, 2009.''' '''<nowiki>http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13554790802632967</nowiki>'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Narvid |first=J. |last2=Gorno-Tempini |first2=M. L. |last3=Slavotinek |first3=A. |last4=DeArmond |first4=S. J. |last5=Cha |first5=Y. H. |last6=Miller |first6=B. L. |last7=Rankin |first7=K. |date=2009-06-01 |title=Of brain and bone: The unusual case of Dr. A |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13554790802632967 |journal=Neurocase |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=190–205 |doi=10.1080/13554790802632967 |issn=1355-4794 |pmc=2997763 |pmid=20183548}}</ref>''. Frontotemporal dementia (FTD) is a clinical syndrome characterized by progressive decline in social conduct and a focal pattern of frontal and temporal lobe damage. Its biological basis is still poorly understood but the focality of the brain degeneration provides a powerful model to study the cognitive and anatomical basis of social cognition. Here, we present Dr. A, a patient with a rare hereditary bone disease (hereditary multiple exostoses) and FTD (pathologically characterized as Pick's disease), This case provides new evidence regarding the neural basis of social cognition and suggests a possible genetic link between bone disease and FTD.'' '''Puiu1, Maria , Iulia Simina-Jurca, Simona Dumitriu, Smaranda Arghirescu,  Adela Chirita-Emandi,  2012. . Multiple Hereditary Exostoses - Clinical Features and Management.''' ''We report two cases of skeletally immature patients who presented with multiple exostoses, bone deformation without bone pain; and growth and pubertal retardation. The cases need adequate counseling, long-term follow-up, and measures to improve the quality of life of patients with multiple hereditary exostoses.'' '''Stitzman Wengrowicz, M.L., J  Pretell-Mazzini,  J.P. Dormans, R.S. Davidson, 2011.. Regression of a Sessile Osteochondroma: A Case Study and Review of the Literature.''' ''<nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267426996_Regression_of_a_Sessile_Osteochondroma_A_Case_Study_and_Review_of_the_Literature</nowiki> . The most common benign bone tumor is osteochondroma.  Its natural history is poorly understood as a consequence of its benign symptomatology in most cases. It typically grows in childhood and growth during adulthood can be a sign of malignant  degeneration. We present  a case of  spontaneous regression of  a solitary osteochondroma.  A review of the  current  literature which  reveals 21  other cases of  spontaneous regression  of solitary  osteochondromas is also discussed. We believe that the possibility of regression of solitary osteochondromas should be taken into account when considering surgical excision.'' '''Viala P, Vanel D, Larbi A, Cyteval C, Laredo JD. Bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses. Skeletal Radiol. 2012;41:1637–40. [PubMed] <nowiki>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22865159/</nowiki>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Viala |first=Pierre |last2=Vanel |first2=Daniel |last3=Larbi |first3=Ahmed |last4=Cyteval |first4=Catherine |last5=Laredo |first5=Jean-Denis |date=2012-12 |title=Bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22865159 |journal=Skeletal Radiology |volume=41 |issue=12 |pages=1637–1640 |doi=10.1007/s00256-012-1488-0 |issn=1432-2161 |pmid=22865159}}</ref> ''We report a case of bilateral ischiofemoral impingement in a patient with hereditary multiple exostoses. The association of exostoses and femoral metaphyseal widening resulted in the narrowing of the ischiofemoral spaces.'' '''Wang YZ, Park KW, Oh CS, Ahn YS, Kang QL, Jung ST, Song HR. Developmental pattern of the hip in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses. BMC Musculoskelet Disord. 2015;16:54'''''.'' '''https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4429362/<nowiki/>.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ya-Zhou |last2=Park |first2=Kwang-Won |last3=Oh |first3=Chang-Seon |last4=Ahn |first4=Yeong-Seub |last5=Kang |first5=Qing-Lin |last6=Jung |first6=Sung-Taek |last7=Song |first7=Hae-Ryong |date=2015-03-15 |title=Developmental pattern of the hip in patients with hereditary multiple exostoses |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4429362/ |journal=BMC musculoskeletal disorders |volume=16 |pages=54 |doi=10.1186/s12891-015-0514-5 |issn=1471-2474 |pmc=4429362 |pmid=25888017}}</ref> '''C'''''oxa valga is a common clinical feature of hereditary multiple exostoses (HME). The current study aimed to determine the unique developmental pattern of the hip in patients with HME and evaluate the factors that influence its progression.'' '''Wiater JM, Farley FA. Popliteal pseudoaneurysm caused by an adjacent osteochondroma: a case report and review of the literature. Am J Orthop (Belle Mead NJ). 1999 Jul;28(7):412-6. PMID: 10426440.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wiater |first=J. M. |last2=Farley |first2=F. A. |date=1999-07 |title=Popliteal pseudoaneurysm caused by an adjacent osteochondroma: a case report and review of the literature |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10426440 |journal=American Journal of Orthopedics |volume=28 |issue=7 |pages=412–416 |issn=1078-4519 |pmid=10426440}}</ref> ''A male 17-year-old with multiple hereditary exostoses presented with a mass in the distal left thigh several days after lifting weights. An arteriogram showed a popliteal artery pseudoaneurysm adjacent to a femoral osteochondroma. The osteochondroma was excised and the artery was repaired with a saphenous vein interposition graft. A review of the literature identified 23 similar reports. The average age of the patients was 21.3 years. Seventy-eight percent were men and half of the patients had multiple hereditary exostoses. Ten patients were initially misdiagnosed. The clinician should consider the diagnosis of pseudoaneurysm in a young patient with an osteochondroma and a mass about the knee.'' '''Zaijun L, Xinhai Y, Zhipeng W, Wending H, Quan H, Zhenhua Z, Dapeng F, Jisheng Z, Wei Z, Jianru X. 2013. Outcome and prognosis of myelopathy and radiculopathy from osteochondroma in the mobile spine: a report on 14 patients. J Spinal Disord Tech 26:194–199.''' ''Fourteen symptomatic spinal osteochondroma (OC)  cases, including 2 hereditary multiple exostoses, were treated surgically from 2001 to 2010.'' = People and books with HME: = [[w:Deena_Larsen|Deena Larsen]] wrote about her mother at http://www.deenalarsen.net/firs Irv Rosenfeld wrote about his experiences with medical marijuana from the U.S. government in My Medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MY MEDICINE |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/22078567-my-medicine |access-date=2026-07-15 |website=Goodreads |language=en}}</ref> = Spanish Translation = Problemas de deficiencia de proteoglicano de sulfato de heparán (HSPG). La MHE es el resultado de una mutación en los genes EXT1 y EXT2. Los pacientes con MHE tienen una biosíntesis de HSPG defectuosa: sus cuerpos no producen HSPG (cf Cueller et al. 2013 y Jones et al. 2014). Los HSPG son parte de cada superficie celular y regulan los procesos biológicos (cf Zak et al. 2002, Meneghetti et al. 2015). Desempeñan un papel vital en la adhesión, migración, crecimiento y comunicación celular (Vicente et al. 2018). Whitlock e Iozzo (2005) han identificado varias enfermedades relacionadas con la ausencia de HSPG (es decir, si un proceso corporal requiere HSPG y no hay suficiente HSPG para completar esa función, entonces podrían ocurrir estos problemas). Los pacientes con MHE han reportado síntomas como: * Baja masa ósea (Nozawa et al. 2018 y Matsumoto et al. 2020) * Deficiencias neurológicas: Trastorno del espectro autista (Li et al, 2002, Fumitoshi et al. 2012, Irie et al, 2012, Yamaguchi 2012, Perez et al. 2015, Kambouris et al. 2016, Kim et al 2022); y problemas cognitivos (Farhan et al. 2015) * Demencia frontotemporal (Narvid et al. 2009) y TDAH (Mooney et al. 2016), función cerebral (Condomitti y Wit 2018). Vea también el vídeo de ratones MHE en <nowiki>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6-EXRt_YL6A</nowiki>. * Enfermedades oculares (Park y Shukla, 2013) * Defectos dentales (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 y Wiweger et al. 2012) * Prediabetes (Heibert 2021)Diabetes y dificultad para controlar la glucosa (Matsuzawa 2021) * Reacciones medicamentosas inusuales (muchos medicamentos actúan sobre el dominio de unión del heparán [Boer y Gaillard 2007]) * Fatiga severa y continua (Berg et al. 1999) * Problemas gástricos graves, incluidas úlceras no causadas por H. pylori (Ascencio et al. 1993<ref name=":10" /> y Chmiela et al. 1995<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chmiela |first=M. |last2=Paziak-Domanska |first2=B. |last3=Rudnicka |first3=W. |last4=WadstrÖM |first4=T. |date=1995 |title=The role of heparan sulphate-binding activity of Helicobacter pylori bacteria in their adhesion to murine macrophages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |journal=APMIS |language=en |volume=103 |issue=1-6 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01133.x |issn=1600-0463}}</ref>), cáncer gástrico (Weihua et al. 2002<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tang |first=Weihua |last2=Nakamura |first2=Yasushi |last3=Tsujimoto |first3=Masahiko |last4=Sato |first4=Misako |last5=Wang |first5=Xiaojuan |last6=Kurozumi |first6=Kazushi |last7=Nakahara |first7=Masaaki |last8=Nakao |first8=Kazuyasu |last9=Nakamura |first9=Misa |last10=Mori |first10=Ichiro |last11=Kakudo |first11=Kennichi |date=2002-06 |title=Heparanase: A Key Enzyme in Invasion and Metastasis of Gastric Carcinoma |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/3880571 |journal=Modern Pathology |language=en |publisher=Nature Publishing Group |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=593–598 |doi=10.1038/modpathol.3880571 |issn=1530-0285}}</ref>) y síndrome de vómitos cíclicos (Kucukesmen et al. 2007 y Theoharides et al. 1999) * Cálculos renales y otros problemas (véase Van den Born et al. 1993 y Farhan et al. 2015) * Vértigo e hiperacusia (Lundberg et al., 2014) y migrañas * Problemas pulmonares (Nackerts et al. 1997 y Haeger et al. 2016) * Anemia (Poli et al. 2017), coágulos sanguíneos y coagulación (Stringer y Gallagher 1997 y Ho et al. 1997), pseudoaneurismas (Wiater y Farley 1996 y Harari et al. 2024) * Problemas menstruales y de embarazo extremadamente dolorosos (Alphin et al. 1988, Yin et al. 2018) * Inflamación (Parroquia 2005); cicatrización lenta de heridas (Zhongjun et al. 2004); cicatrices y queloides (Hosalkar et al. 2007, y problemas del tejido conectivo (Forsberg y Kjellen, 2001 y Otsuka et al. 2020). * Funciones hepáticas (Arnold et al. 2020 y Dituri et al. 2022) * Funciones del colesterol y los lípidos (Kolsett y Salmverta 1999) y Síntesis de vitamina D (Cooper 2021) '''Problemas de crecimiento óseo.''' En la MHE, la falta de HSPG hace que los pacientes desarrollen exostosis, que son tumores benignos en múltiples ubicaciones en todo el cuerpo (Brown 2008, Thompson 2011 y Mansouri et al. 2017). La gravedad (número y tamaño de los tumores y otras complicaciones) de la MHE varía de un paciente a otro. Las exostosis en sí mismas pueden causar numerosos problemas, incluidos: irritación de tendones y músculos que produce dolor y pérdida de movimiento, deformidad esquelética, baja estatura, discrepancia en la longitud de las extremidades, subluxaciones y deformidad angular. Los problemas directamente asociados con estas exostosis incluyen: * Dolor crónico y problemas con la calidad de vida (Goud et al. 2012) * Inflamación, respuestas inmunitarias (Callaghan et al. 2018 y Collins y Troeberg 2019) * Formación de bursa y bursitis resultante, así como artritis de aparición temprana. * Problemas respiratorios y pulmonares al estar sobre costillas que sobresalen hacia la cavidad torácica (Mazza et al. 2017) * Irritación de un nervio cercano (dolor, debilidad, entumecimiento, hormigueo) * Aneurisma de vasos sanguíneos por exostosis que presionan los vasos sanguíneos u otros problemas vasculares (Albokhari et al. 2023) * Problemas de compresión de la médula espinal: incontinencia, daño nerv'''Résumé de la MEM pour les médecins et les écoles''' == References == qwh1i4bx8tmiuednp4fg3x7ko4e12zw 0 485506 4681769 4681543 2026-11-12T04:57:37Z Idavidmiller 3577687 /* Optional Arguments */ Work in progress. Saving Changes. 4681769 wikitext text/x-wiki =Maxima Programming= Although Maxima is not a general-purpose programming language, Maxima as a CAS includes among the built-in ingredients a relatively complete set of programming expressions that are useful for the intended context. Many of the code examples of this section are intended to be illustrative of technical details relevant to Maxima programming as their purpose, and consequently are intentionally elementary in character. Learning any sort of programming language, including Maxima programming expressions, is a subjective process. In any case, it is essential to have enough technical know-how specific to the programming language in order to begin the learning process, even in cases where much positive transfer from other programming experience is involved. Much can be accomplished mathematically using Maxima without having to resort to in-depth knowledge and proficiency in the technical details of Maxima programming expressions. However, Maxima programming expressions are frequently essential for the purpose of defining functions, both in the programming sense of the term, but also more relevantly, for the mathematical sense. For that reason alone, familiarity and sufficient proficiency with Maxima programming expressions should be given some attention. One way to begin the learning process is to become familiar with enough of the programming essentials to accomplish independent efforts toward accomplishing some specific programming goal of interest. The other way is to study the many available programming expressions of others. This section is intended to provide the essentials toward learning by whatever means are chosen. The following table shows some built-in ingredients related to Maxima programming expressions: {| class="wikitable" |+Maxima Programming Category |if |unless |errcatch |prederror |- |block |for |error |return |- |catch |from |warning |throw |- |local |thru |errormsg |sstatus |- |garbage_collect |step |errormsg |status |- |do |next |go | |- |while |in | | |} Some of these programming expression ingredients can also be considered as belonging to one or more other categories than the Programming category. === Block Expressions === Arguably, the first expressions to consider in the context of Maxima programming are '''''block''''' expressions. All <code>block</code> expressions as programming ingredients come in two flavors: * <code>( expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n )</code> * <code>block ([v₁,v_2,…,v_m], expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> The first form of a <code>block</code> expression is equivalent to the second form, but without the first list argument: <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code>, as in <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code>, unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the block expression. In that, case the form <code>block (expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n)</code> must be used. It should be noted that for Maxima to interpret of the syntax of the first of these forms as a block operator, there must be at least two expressions in the comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. Otherwise, Maxima will interpret the parentheses of this syntax as simply grouping related to the precedence order of operations. The purpose of the list argument, <code>[v₁,v_2,…,v_m]</code> is to declare the values of identifiers of the list to be local to the <code>block</code>. If there is no need for local identifiers, the list argument can be omitted (unless <code>return</code> or <code>go</code> operators are used in the <code>block</code> expression), and either form is sufficient.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* This block expression */ (%i1) (x : 2, x^2); (%o1) 4 /* Is equivalent to this block expression */ (%i2) block (x : 2, x^2); (%o2) 4</syntaxhighlight>So, in the case where values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> of expressions are not required, then the choice of either form of the <code>block</code> expression is a matter of user preference. In both cases, the values of identifiers referenced in the <code>block</code> are global, and not local to the <code>block</code> expression. However, for the sake of clarity and consistency use of the latter form may be a better choice. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* The value 3 assigned to x is global */ (%i3) x : 3; (x) 3 /* The value 2 assigned to x in the block is global */ (%i4) (x : 2, x^2); (%o4) 4 /* The global value assigned to x in the block is 2 not 3 */ (%i5) x; (%o5) 2 </syntaxhighlight>Values of identifiers local to the <code>block</code> may not be global:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* the value of identifier y is local only */ (%i6) block ([y], y : 4, y); (%o6) 4 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i7) y; (%o7) y /* the values of identifiers x and y are both local */ (%i8) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x); (%o8) 3 /* the global value of identifier x is not 3, but is 2 */ (%i9) x; (%o9) 2 /* the global value of identifier y is not 4, but is itself */ (%i10) y; (%o10) y</syntaxhighlight> Regardless of the form of the <code>block</code> expressions these have in common the comma-separated expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> which are evaluated each in turn from first to last (unless the evaluation sequence is modified by by the <code>go</code>, <code>throw</code>, or <code>return</code> operators), and the value of the block expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code>. The main purpose of the <code>block</code> expression, regardless of the form, is to group expressions that are related in some manner, and the value of the last expression may be the only value of interest. However, there are very few limitations imposed on the nature of the <code>block</code> expression arguments, so it might be the case that the purpose of evaluating the <code>block</code> expression has been achieved before the last expression argument is evaluated, in which case the value of the <code>block</code> expression may not necessarily be the value of the last argument expression. One way to accomplish that is to use an empty string as the last argument expression with the option flag <code>stringdisp</code> set to <code>false</code> which is the default value.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i11) stringdisp; (%o11) false (%i12) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x, ""); (%o12) (%i13) block ([x,y], x : 3, y : 4, x)$ </syntaxhighlight> The display of the value of the <code>block</code> expression may be suppressed using a <code>$</code> to end the input expression instead of a semi-colon. Either technique produces a <code>block</code> expression value, but the value is not displayed. If a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated as a argument expression, this will cause evaluation of expression arguments to end explicitly, and the value of the <code>return</code> operator becomes the value of the <code>block</code> expression.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i14) is (equal (x, 2)); (%o14) true %i15) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), " x not 2"); (%o15) 2 (%i16) x : 3; (x) 3 (%i17) block (if is (equal (x, 2)) then return (x), "x not 2"); (%o17) x not 2 </syntaxhighlight>When a <code>return</code> operator is evaluated within a <code>block</code> expression the result is to stop evaluation of expressions within the enclosing <code>block</code> expression and to return the value of its argument as the value of the enclosing <code>block</code> expression. It therefore can be compared with the <code>return</code> statement found in other programming languages, but with one difference: In Maxima, the <code>return</code> operator affects only the block expression in which the <code>return</code> operator is an expression, and has no effect otherwise.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i18) test_nested_block (val) := block ( [outer_var : 10], print("Entering outer block expression"), /* inner block expression */ block( [inner_var : 20], print (" Entering inner block expression"), if val > 5 then /* another inner block expression */ block ( print (" val > 5"), print (" Returning only to inner block expression"), return (inner_var + val) /* returns only to the inner block expression */ ), /* end of another inner block expression */ print (" inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val) ), /* end of inner block expression */ print ("Back in outer block expression"), outer_var + val /* end of outer block expression */ )$ (%i19) test_nested_block (1); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression inner_var + val is 21 Back in outer block expression (%o19) 11 (%i20) test_nested_block (6); Entering outer block expression Entering inner block expression val > 5 Returning only to inner block expression Back in outer block expression (%o20) 16</syntaxhighlight> '''''The <code>block</code> operators''''': Each instance may define local variables and has a comma-separated sequence of expressions as arguments. '''''Nested blocks''''': There are three <code>block</code> operators used in the right-hand side of the function definition expression named <code>test_nested_block (val</code>. There is an outer <code>block</code> expression that has an inner <code>block</code> expression as an argument,and there is a third <code>block</code> expression that is an argument of the inner <code>block</code> expression. '''''The <code>return</code> operator''''': If <code>val > 5</code> is <code>true</code> then the return operator of the most inner <code>block</code> expression is evaluated and evaluation of remaining expressions of that block expression does not occur. The value of that most inner <code>block</code> expression is the value of the argument of the return operator – <code>inner_var + val</code>. Evaluation of expressions continues with the first expression of the inner <code>block</code> expression after the end of the most inner <code>block</code> expression – which is <code>print ("   inner_var + val is ", inner_var + val)</code>. The value of the <code>print</code> operator is the value of <code>inner_var + val</code>. However, while that value is the value of the inner <code>block</code> expression it is effectively lost, as it is not the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> sequence of expressions. That value is the value of <code>outer_var + val</code>, which, being the last expression of the outer <code>block</code> is always the value of the function. ==== Block Expression Evaluation Sequence Modifications ==== <code>block</code> expression arguments <code>expr₁, expr₂,…, expr_n</code> are generally evaluated each in turn from first to last, and the value of the <code>block</code> expression is the value of <code>expr_n</code> unless this sequence is modified by some means. One way to modify the first-to-last expression evaluation sequence of a <code>block</code> expression is by way of a <code>go</code> operator with a ''label'' (or ''"tag"'') argument ( the ''"go to"'') as the following exemplifies:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i18) sum_to_n (n) := block ( [i : 1, total : 0], loop, total : total + i, i : i + 1, if i <= n then go (loop), total)$ (%i19) sum_to_n(25); (%o19) 325 (%i20) n; (%o20) n (%i21) i; (%o21) i (%i22) total; (%o22) total </syntaxhighlight> Note the following: * <code>'''block ([ i : 1,total : 0], ...)'''</code>: The list argument creates a local environment with local identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code>. The function argument <code>n</code> is also a local identifier. * <code>'''loop'''</code>: This label serves as a target inside the <code>block</code> expression to where <code>go (loop)</code> can jump. * <code>'''if i <= n then go (loop)'''</code>: This conditional expression causes the <code>go (loop)</code> operator to be evaluated if the condition is <code>true</code>. * <code>'''total'''</code>: The value of this local identifier is the returned value of the <code>block</code> expression. It should also be worth noting that the identifiers <code>n</code>, <code>i</code>, and <code>total</code> have local values assigned within the <code>block</code> expression, but their global values are themselves. Also notice that the identifiers <code>i</code> and <code>total</code> were both declared local and assigned initial values within the <code>block</code> list argument. The ''go-to'' label argument of the <code>go</code> operator must be the name of a tag appearing within the same block expression. The <code>go</code> operator cannot be used to go to a tag in a different <code>block</code> expression. There is nothing special about the <code>loop</code> identifier name used for the go-to tag in this example. Other identifiers could be used, but they must be atomic. Another way to modify a <code>block</code> expression evaluation sequence is by way of the <code>throw</code> operator.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i32) /* Define a function using a block expression that searches for a specific condition and a throw value to catch */ find_element (target_list, threshold) := block ( [found_val : false], /* local identifier value */ catch( for x in target_list do ( if x > threshold then ( /* Immediately exit the block and return this value */ throw (x) ) ), /* This string is returned only if the do loop finishes without a throw to catch */ "No element exceeded the threshold" ) )$ (%i31) /* Test the block */ find_element ( [10, 20, 55, 80], 50 ); (%o31) 55</syntaxhighlight>This example unpacks as follows: <code>'''catch (...)'''</code>: This expression creates a target scope that ''"catches"'' the value of any <code>throw</code> expression evaluated within that scope. <code>'''throw (x)'''</code>: When Maxima encounters this operator, it immediately stops evaluation of the <code>do</code> loop expression '''''and the rest of the''''' <code>block</code> '''''expression.''''' It jumps directly out of the scope of the <code>catch</code> expression, returning the value of <code>x</code> as the value of the entire <code>catch</code> expression. ==== Nested Block Expressions ==== <code>block</code> operators may appear within other block expressions as arguments – '''''nested''''' <code>block</code> expressions. A local environment with local identifiers may be created for nested block expressions. Local values for identifiers, if declared by a first <code>block</code> operator list argument, are created each time a nested <code>block</code> is evaluated. However, identifiers with global values that have not been declared as local within any <code>block</code> expressions, are global values for nested <code>block</code> expressions as well as enclosing <code>block</code> expressions. Likewise, local identifiers of any enclosing <code>block</code> expression have values that are global within any enclosed blocks, if not declared as local within the enclosed block. If the value of an identifier is not local in a <code>block</code> expression, its value is the value most recently assigned by an enclosing <code>block</code> expression, if any value has been assigned. Otherwise, it is the value of the identifier in the global environment. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) z : 2^(1/3); (z) 2^(1/3) (%i24) /* Outer block starts */ block ( [x : 10, y : 20], /* values of x and y declared local to outer block */ /* Inner block starts */ block ( [y : 99, z : 100], /* values of y and z declared local to inner block */ print ("Inside inner block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the local value of y of outer block"), print("z =", z, "is the local value of z of inner block") ), /* Inner block ends */ /* Outer block resumes */ print ("Back in outer block:"), print ("x =", x, "is the value of x from outer block"), print ("y =", y, "is the restored value of y of the outer block"), print ("z =", z, "is the value of z global to both blocks") /* Outer block ends */ )$ Inside inner block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 99 is the local value of y of outer block z = 100 is the local value of z of inner block Back in outer block: x = 10 is the value of x from outer block y = 20 is the restored value of y of the outer block z = 2^(1/3) is the value of z global to both blocks </syntaxhighlight> ==== Values, Properties, and the <code>local</code> Operator ==== The expression <code>local (v₁, v₂, ... , v_m)</code> within a <code>block</code> expression saves the '''''properties''''' associated with the symbols <code>v₁, v₂, ... , v_m</code>, removes any properties before evaluating other expressions, and restores any saved properties on exit from the block. Because Maxima is an application based on the Common Lisp programming language, it utilizes Lisp '''''symbol''''' structure. Lisp symbols are objects that carry their own "dictionary" of attributes. A Lisp symbol's internal property list (''plist'') is a built-in data structure attached directly to a symbol. Maxima uses this underlying Lisp symbol structure to associate '''''properties''''' with Maxima identifiers. Properties of identifiers can be ''declared explicitly'' by users. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i23) declare (x, real); (%o23) done </syntaxhighlight> However, some identifier property declarations are ''implemented implicitly'' as properties of a symbol, including <code>:=</code>, <code>array</code>, <code>dependencies</code>, <code>atvalue</code>, <code>matchdeclare</code>, <code>atomgrad</code>, <code>constant</code>, <code>nonscalar</code>, <code>assume</code>, and some others. Below is a description of how each of those specific declarations is implemented as a property under the hood: ====== Functions and Arrays ====== * '''<code>:=</code> (Function Definition):''' When you define a function using <code>f(x) := x^2</code>, the actual expression (<code>x^2</code>) and its argument list (<code>x</code>) are stored as a property of the symbol <code>f</code>. * '''<code>array</code>:''' When you declare or use a subscripted array (like <code>a[i]</code>), the array type, dimensions, and memory pointer are attached as a property to the symbol <code>a</code>. This differentiates it from a standard scalar variable. ====== Calculus and Dependencies ====== * '''<code>dependencies</code>:''' If you declare <code>depends(y, x)</code>, Maxima attaches a dependency list property to <code>y</code> noting that it functionally depends on <code>x</code>. This tells the <code>diff</code> (differentiation) engine not to treat <code>y</code> as a constant relative to <code>x</code>. * '''<code>atvalue</code>:''' When you define a specific value for an expression at a boundary point (e.g., <code>atvalue(y, x=0, 1)</code>), this boundary constraint is stored as an evaluation property on the symbol <code>y</code>. * '''<code>atomgrad</code>:''' This assigns a specific gradient or derivative to an atomic identifier (e.g., telling Maxima what (df/dx) is explicitly). Maxima saves this rule as a gradient property on that symbol. ====== Pattern Matching and Rules ====== * '''<code>matchdeclare</code>:''' Used in Maxima's pattern-matching system (like <code>tellsimp</code>). When you type <code>matchdeclare(x, freeof(a))</code>, Maxima attaches a predicate property to <code>x</code>. When a pattern rule runs, Maxima looks at property list of <code>x</code> to see what conditions a matching expression must meet. ====== Mathematical and Evaluation Attributes ====== * '''<code>constant</code>:''' Declaring <code>declare(c, constant)</code> places a "constant" flag on property list of <code>c</code>. Core routines (like integration and differentiation) check this flag to know they can pull <code>c</code> out of integrals or differentiate it to zero. * '''<code>nonscalar</code>:''' Tells Maxima to treat a symbol as a matrix or vector rather than a regular number. This property changes how operators like <code>.</code> (non-commutative multiplication) treat the symbol. * '''<code>assume</code>:''' When an expression such as <code>assume(x > 0)</code> is used, Maxima's database system (<code>context</code>) assigns facts and properties (like <code>pos</code> or <code>nonnegative</code>) to the symbol <code>x</code>, allowing the simplifier to safely reduce expressions like <code>sqrt(x^2)</code> to <code>x</code>. The effect of the <code>local</code> operator is to make such declarations effective only within a <code>block</code> expression. Otherwise, declarations within a <code>block</code> expression are considered to be global declarations. So what does all of this mean to the typical Maxima user? It means that the list of identifiers that is the first argument of a <code>block</code> expression only declares the '''''values''''' of those identifiers as local to the <code>block</code> expression in which the list is an argument. Any properties of identifiers are not declared local by this means. In order to declare '''''properties''''' of identifiers to be local to a <code>block</code> expression, the <code>local</code> operator must be used as an expression within the <code>block</code> expression. At the point where the local operator is evaluated as an argument of a <code>block</code> expression, the properties of the identifiers that are arguments to the <code>local</code> operator become local to the block. It is not an unfair criticism that perhaps the <code>local</code> operator should have been named something like <code>local_properties</code>. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i25) f (s) := cos (s); (%o25) f(s):=cos(s) (%i26) f (%pi/6); (%o26) sqrt(3)/2 (%i27) block (local (f), f (s) := sin (s), f (%pi/6)); (%o27) 1/2 (%i28) f (s); (%o28) cos(s) </syntaxhighlight>In the above example, the '''''properties''''' of identifier <code>f</code> were declared to be local in the <code>block</code> expression using the <code>local</code> operator. However, global properties of the identifier <code>f</code> were not affected by the local function definition of <code>f</code> in the <code>block</code> expression. The global definition expression of <code>f</code> which is <code>cos (s)</code> and the argument <code>s</code> were not affected by the local definition of <code>f</code> because the properties of <code>f</code> were declared local to the <code>block</code> expression. <code>block</code> expressions can be used for different purposes in the Maxima programming context. <code>block</code> expressions can be used in a stand-alone fashion or as part of an expression. However, <code>block</code> expressions are commonly used in expressions that define '''''functions''''', which is the topic that follows. === Functions === {| class="wikitable" |+Function Definition Operators and Identifiers |<code>:=</code> |<code>fundef</code> |<code>buildq</code> |- |<code>::=</code> |<code>lambda</code> |<code>macros</code> |- |<code>define</code> |<code>local</code> |<code>slice</code> |- |<code>dispfun</code> |<code>remfunction</code> | |- |<code>functions</code> |<code>setup_autoload</code> | |} As a technical term '''''function''''' is aptly characterized as being overloaded. In the context of Maxima as a CAS, it has both a programming meaning and a mathematical meaning in terms of usage. In this book, the convention is to refer to what may otherwise be referred to as built-in Maxima functions as ''operators'' including those of built-in packages. By this convention, the term '''''function''''' in this book refers exclusively to expressions composed by the user by way of the <code>:=</code> or <code>define</code> operators. As has been mentioned elsewhere in this book, what are conventionally termed ''operators'' that are built-in to Maxima, are at the level of underlying expression construction, Lisp procedures of one type or another. So it makes sense to simply refer to built-in Maxima functions and operators simply as operators one and all. This convention obviates the need for the repetitious use of qualifiers such as ''built-in Maxima'' and ''user-defined'' functions. There are two operators used to define functions as follows: # The <code>''''':='''''</code> operator # The <code>'''define'''</code> operator <var><code>f (x₁, x_2, ..., x_n) ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n] ''':=''' expr</code> <code>f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n](y₁, y₂, ..., y_m) ''':=''' expr</code></var> <code>define (f</code> <code>(x₁, x_2, …, x_n), expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n], expr)</code> <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n](y₁, y_2, …, y_m), expr)</code> <code>define (funmake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (arraymake (f, [</code><code>x₁, x_2, …, x_n]), expr)</code> <code>define (ev (</code><code>expr₁, expr₂))</code> where <code>expr</code> is some Maxima expression that is commonly referred to as the ''function body''. As can be concluded from the above, each of these operators has different forms of syntax that can be used. In any case, the most significant differences between these two operators are in terms of the evaluation of the function body and the composition and identification of functions dynamically. * '''Evaluation:''' ** The <code>:=</code> operator '''suppresses (quotes)''' the evaluation of the function body when this operator is first evaluated. It does not evaluate or simplify the function body until the function identifier itself is evaluated with arguments. ** The <code>define()</code> operator '''evaluates''' the function body when this operator is first evaluated. If the function body involves intermediate computations, substituted values, or extracted parts of expressions (like <code>rhs()</code> or derivative results), the <code>define()</code> operator includes the evaluated results of those directly into the function body. * '''Dynamic Function Composition and Identifiers:''' ** Function identifiers cannot easily be composed dynamically on the left-hand side of the <code>:=</code> operator when used inside programmatic loop expressions or in scripts. ** The <code>define()</code> operator accepts expressions like <code>funmake</code> or evaluated symbols as its first argument, allowing the composition and identification of functions dynamically during evaluation. So, there are in general two different operators that can be used to define and evaluate functions. The choice by the Maxima user between these two operators depends on the purpose and context. ==== Function Definition Using the <code>:=</code> Operator ==== For the purpose of understanding the two ways of defining functions, consider the following example which is elementary, but in terms of clarification is not merely simple:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* "kill" all previously used identifier and values */ (%i29) kill (all); (%o0) done /* assign identifier x the global value of 5 */ (%i1) x : 5; (x) 5 /* define f as a function with local argument x */ (%i2) f (x) := x; (%o2) f(x):=x /* evaluate f at local value of x is 3 */ (%i3) f (3); (%o3) 3 /* the global value of x is not affected */ (%i4) x; (%o4) 5 /* show the definition expression of the function named f */ (%i5) fundef (f); (%o5) f(x):=x</syntaxhighlight>'''Function Definition Using the''' '''<code>define</code> Operator'''<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a function with identifier g with a local argument y and with a function body of identifier x */ (%i3) define (g('x), x); (%o3) g(x):=5 /* identifier x of the function body is evaluated */ /* identifier x as an argument of g is local in scope */ (%i4) fundef (g); (%o4) g(x):=5 /* the same identifier x used in three different roles */ /* used as the global name of a function x */ /* used as a local argument of a function */ /* used as an unevaluated expression for a function body */ (%i7) x(x) := x; (%o7) x(x):=x (%i9) x(3); (%o9) 3 (%i10) x; (%o10) 5 (%i8) fundef (x); (%o8) x(x):=x (%i11) define (x('x), x); (%o11) x(x):=5 (%i12) fundef (x); (%o12) x(x):=5 </syntaxhighlight>The purpose of this example is not to encourage this sort of syntax as a typical choice for identifiers and function definitions. The purpose is to clarify how Maxima implicitly determines the scope and meaning of identifiers used for function definition in the absence of any explicit user stipulations. It should be noted that the <code>define</code> operator not only evaluates the expression that is the function body, it also evaluates the arguments of the function identifier that is the first argument of the <code>define</code> operator. Since there is a global value of the identifier <code>x</code> of <code>5</code>, it was necessary to suppress evaluation (quote) the argument in the expression <code>(%i12) define ('x), x);</code> as otherwise an error would be the result:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* define a new function named x */ (%i14) define (x('x), 'x^2); (%o14) x(x):=x^2 /* check the definition of the new function named x */ (%i15) fundef (x); (%o15) x(x):=x^2 /* the identifier x has a global value */ (%i16) values; (%o16) [x] /* the global value of identifier x is 5 */ (%i17) x; (%o17) 5 /* the suppressed global value 'x of identifier x is x */ (%i18) 'x; (%o18) x /* not quoting the global value of identifier x is an error */ (%i19) define (x(x), 'x^2); define: in definition of x, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); </syntaxhighlight> ==== Understanding the Differences Between the <code>:=</code> and <code>define</code> Operators ==== In cases such as these, the suppression of evaluation by quoting is a user stipulation as to evaluation. Users must be aware of these differences between the two operators (<code>:=</code> and <code>define</code>) for the purpose of function definition in order to achieve what is intended and to avoid errors,<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i20) f (x) := 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5; (%o20) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i21) fundef (f); (%o21) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i22) f(2); (%o22) 27 (%i23) define (f (x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); define: in definition of f, parameter must be a symbol and must not be a system constant; found: 5 -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); (%i24) define (f ('x) , 3*x^3 + 4*x - 5); (%o24) f(x):=390 (%i25) define (f ('x) , '(3*x^3 + 4*x - 5)); (%o25) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i26) fundef (f); (%o26) f(x):=3*x^3+4*x-5 (%i27) f(2); (%o27) 27 </syntaxhighlight>What is true in the case of these elementary examples is true in general for function definitions involving multiple arguments:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* x has a global value of 5 while y is local to g */ (%i28) g (x, y) := x^3 - y^2; (%o28) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i29) g (6,2); (%o29) 212 (%i30) define (g('x, y), 'x^3 - y^2); (%o30) g(x,y):=x^3-y^2 (%i31) values; (%o31) [x] (%i32) g (6,2); (%o32) 212 </syntaxhighlight>The <code>define</code> operator is a good choice in cases where an existing expression is used as the function body:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i33) /* assign an expression to identifier expr */ expr : diff('x^3, 'x); /* Returns 3*x^2 */ (expr) 3*x^2 (%i34) /* evaluate expr and define h (x) := 3*x^2 */ define (h ('x), expr); (%o34) h(x):=3*x^2 </syntaxhighlight>In cases in which functions require local variables or more than one expression for the function body, use the block operator:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i35) remvalue (x); (%o35) [x] (%i36) values; (%o36) [expr] --> power_sum (x, y) := block ( /* values of these identifiers are explicitly local to the function */ [sqx, sqy], /* unevaluated identifiers x and y are local arguments of the function and values of these identifiers are implicitly local to the function */ sqx : x^2, sqy : y^2, sqx + sqy /* the value of the function */ )$ (%i37) fundef (power_sum); (%o37) power_sum(x,y):=block([sqx,sqy],sqx:x^2,sqy:y^2,sqx+sqy) (%i38) power_sum (3,4); (%o38) 25 </syntaxhighlight>The <code>define</code> operator could also be used to define this function, but with different definition values as a consequence:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i39) define (power_sum (x,y), block ( [sqx,sqy], sqx : x^2, sqy : y^2, sqx + sqy ) )$ (%i40) fundef (power_sum); (%o40) power_sum(x,y):=y^2+x^2 (%i41) power_sum (3,4); (%o41) 25</syntaxhighlight>The function definition of <code>power_sum</code> is different using the <code>define</code> operator instead of the <code>:=</code> operator. The value of the function when referenced with arguments (<code>power_sum (3,4)</code>) is the same in both cases – <code>25</code>. However, in general for defining functions, this may not be the case. The choice between these two operators depends on the intentions of the user. ==== Practical Considerations Related to Function Composition ==== In general, programming is a technical skill as well as a subjective art. So, absolute rules are not offered here. For practical purposes some "guidelines" are offered here that may be useful for Maxima function composition as well as Maxima programming in general: * * * * * Consider the following linear algebraic equation: <math display="block">3y - 7x = 10</math> As an example suppose the value that is sought is the slope <code>m</code> of this equation, and in general, the slope of any linear equation regardless of the form. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* assign the linear equation to an identifier */ (%i42) lineqn : 3*y - 7*x = 10; (lineqn) 3*y-7*x=10 /* solve the linear equation for y */ (%i43) solve([lineqn], [y]) (%o43) [y=(7*x+10)/3] /* use the index [1] of the list to get the solved equation */ (%i44) solve([lineqn], [y])[1] (%o44) y=(7*x+10)/3 /* use the rhs operator to get right-hand side */ (%i45) rhs(solve([lineqn], [y])[1]); (%o45) (7*x+10)/3 /* use the expand operator change the RHS */ (%i46) expand(rhs(solve([lineqn], [y])[1])); (%o46) (7*x)/3+10/3 /* use the coeff operator to get the coefficient of x */ (%i47) coeff(expand(rhs(solve([lineqn], [y])[1])),x,1); (%o47) 7/3 /* define the function with an argument eqn for lineqn */ (%i48) m (eqn) := coeff (expand (rhs (solve ([eqn], [y])[1])),x,1)$ /* check the function definition */ (%i49) fundef (m); (%o49) m(eqn):=coeff(expand(rhs((solve([eqn],[y]))[1])),x,1) /* reference the function using lineqn as an argument */ (%i50) m (lineqn); (%o50) 7/3 /* assign a different linear equation to lineqn */ (%i51) lineqn : x = 6*y + 13; (lineqn) x=6*y+13 /* reference the function using lineqn as an argument */ %i52) m (lineqn); (%o52) 1/6</syntaxhighlight>The function body of this example will result in an error if it is used with the <code>define</code> operator:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i53) define ( m (eqn), coeff (expand (rhs (solve ([eqn], [y])[1])),x,1) )$ inpart: invalid index 1 of list or matrix. -- an error. To debug this try: debugmode(true); </syntaxhighlight>This error is a consequence of the evaluation that occurs when using the <code>define</code> operator. In this case, this evaluation results in a reference to the indexed value of a list object that does not exist when evaluation occurs during definition – <code>solve ([eqn], [y])[1]</code>. ==== Memoizing Functions ==== The functions discussed so far are often referred to as '''''ordinary functions'''''. The arguments of ordinary functions are enclosed using parentheses – <var><code>(x₁, x_2, ..., x_n)</code>.</var> Function definition forms which include arguments enclosed by brackets (as in <var><code>[x₁, x_2, ..., x_n]</code></var>) are called '''''memoizing functions'''''. Memoizing functions can be categorized both as functions and as data structures – specifically a ''hashed array'' of values. Memoizing functions are also referred to as '''''array functions'''''. In any case, memoizing functions can be defined using either the <code>:=</code> operator or the <code>define</code> operator. If the form of the function definition expression is <code>f [x₁, x₂,..., x_n] := expr</code> The function body <code>expr</code> is evaluated once for each individual value of the arguments, and that value is the value of the function, without again evaluating the function body, whenever referenced using arguments that have those same values. Once evaluated during a function reference with arguments, that value of a memoizing function is thereby "frozen" in other words. This frozen value also becomes an instance of a hashed array data structure that can be referenced by way of the value of the index used as an argument when first evaluated. In keeping with previous practice, the examples provided here are intentionally elementary for the purpose of demonstrating and clarifying the technical aspects involved. There is thereby no intention to convey that the composition of function definition expressions with multiple arguments and complex expressions for the function body is ruled out or of lesser practical value. <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* define a memoizing function f */ /* x and n may serve as both arguments and array indices */ (%i54) f [x, n] := x^n; (%o54) f[x,n]:=x^n /* check the array information for f */ (%i55) arrayinfo (f); (%o55) [hashed,2] /* f does not appear in the list of functions */ (%i56) functions; (%o56) [m(lineqn)] /* reference f with argument values */ (%i57) f [2,3] ; (%o57) 8 /* check the array information for f again */ (%i58) arrayinfo (f); (%o58) [hashed,2,[2,3]] /* list the array values of f */ (%i59) listarray (f); (%o59) [8] /* f does appear in the list of arrays */ (%i60) arrays; (%o60) [f] /* reference f with new argument values */ (%i61) f [5,2]; (%o61) 25 /* check the array information for f again */ (%i62) arrayinfo (f); (%o62) [hashed,2,[2,3],[5,2]] /* list the array values of f */ (%i63) listarray (f); (%o63) [8,25]</syntaxhighlight>An expression of the form <code>define (f [x1, x2</code><code>,…, xn], expr)</code> may also be used to define the same memoizing function <code>f</code> in this case as the evaluation imposed by the <code>define</code> operator during evaluation of these function arguments and this function body that occurs makes no difference:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* remove the function definition and values of f */ (%i64) remarray (f); (%o64) [f] /* the list of arrays is now empty */ (%i65) arrays; (%o65) [] /* define the same memoizing function f using the define operator */ /* evaluation makes no difference to the definition of f in this case */ (%i66) define (f [x,n], x^n); (%o66) f[x,n]:=x^n /* reference f with different argument values */ (%i67) f [3, 2]; (%o67) 9 /* reference f again with different argument values */ (%i68) f [2, 5]; (%o68) 32 /* f again appears in the list of arrays */ (%i69) arrays; (%o69) [f] /* check the array information for f */ (%i70) arrayinfo (f); (%o70) [hashed,2,[2,5],[3,2]] /* list the array values of f */ (%i71) listarray (f); (%o71) [32,9] </syntaxhighlight> ===== Special Forms of Memoizing Functions ===== <code>f [x₁, x₂,..., x_n](y₁, y₂,..., y_m):= expr</code> or <code>define (f</code> <code>[x₁, x_2, …, x_n](y₁, y_2, …, y_m), expr)</code> An expression of the form <code>f [x₁, x₂,..., x_n](y₁, y₂,..., y_m):= expr</code>, or alternatively of the form <code>define (f [x1, x2</code><code>,…, xn](y₁, y₂,..., y_m), expr)</code>, may also be used to define a memoizing function named <code>f</code>. When either of these forms are used to compose a function definition expression, there is a sense in which the resulting function is a hybrid – part memoizing function, and part "ordinary" function. These forms create a hashed array of functions where the array subscripts <code>[x₁, x₂,..., x_n]</code> evaluate immediately to "specialize" the function body, while the ordinary function arguments <code>(y₁, y₂,..., y_m)</code> are used when evaluating these individual functions.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* Define a function for an array of "shifted" power functions */ (%i72) define( p[n](x), x^n + n ); (%o72) p[n](x):=x^n+n (%i73) p[2]; (%o73) lambda([x],x^2+2) (%i74) p[2](5); (%o74) 27 (%i75) p[4]; (%o75) lambda([x],x^4+4) (%i76) p[4](5); (%o76) 629 (%i77) arrayinfo (p); (%o77) [hashed,1,[2],[4]] (%i78) listarray (p) (%o78) [lambda([x],x^2+2),lambda([x],x^4+4)] (%i79) p[5]; (%o79) lambda([x],x^5+5) (%i80) p[5](2); (%o80) 37 (%i81) listarray (p); (%o81) [lambda([x],x^2+2),lambda([x],x^4+4),lambda([x],x^5+5)] (%i82) arrayinfo (p); (%o82) [hashed,1,[2],[4],[5]]</syntaxhighlight>'''Explanation of the code example:''' '''1. Defining the memoizing function:''' The expression composed using the <code>define</code> operator has a value that defines a special form of a memoizing function. The value of this defining expression serves as a "template" for indexed values of a hashed array – <code>p[n]</code>. '''2. The value of array instances:''' Applying the defined function <code>p</code> to an expression enclosed only with brackets for the argument identified as <code>n</code>, returns a value that is a <code>lambda</code> expression, and that is an indexed instance of a hashed array. The identifier <code>n</code> serves as both as an argument of the function body and as an index of the hashed array in this case. <code>lambda</code> expressions are sometimes referred to as ''anonymous'', ''ad hoc'', or ''throw-away''. The technical details of <code>lambda</code> expressions are explained in a following section. '''3. Evaluating the memoizing functions with arguments:''' The argument identified as <code>x</code> in parentheses serves only as part of the composition of the function body of the indexed <code>lambda</code> expressions of the hashed array <code>p</code> when referenced by some expression in parentheses. This form of the composition of a Maxima memoizing function is useful to create an array of unique <code>lambda</code> expressions where the composition of each individual expression depends explicitly on the structural indices of the array that are used. This form in general can be composed using more than one argument for index values enclosed in brackets, as well more than one evaluation argument enclosed in parentheses. The number of each type of argument need not be the same. For example, in a defining expression of the form: <code>f [x₁, x₂,..., x_n](y₁, y₂,..., y_m):= expr</code>, that <math display="inline">n = m</math> is true, is not necessary. The operator <code>:=</code> can also be used to define this type of memoizing function:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* index values can be expressions */ (%i83) p [2*x]; (%o83) lambda([x],x^(2*x)+2*x) (%i84) p [2*x](4); (%o84) 65544 /* a memoizing function definition with multiple arguments */ (%i85) p2 [m, n](x, y) := x^n + y^m + (m+n); (%o85) p2[m,n](x,y):=x^n+y^m+(m+n) /* this expression creates the first indexed value of a hashed array identified as p2 */ (%i86) p2 [2, 2]; (%o86) lambda([x,y],y^2+x^2+4) /* this expression has a value of 17 for values of the arguments (2, 3) for the first indexed values of [2, 2] of a hashed array identified as p2 */ (%i87) p2 [2, 2](2,3); (%o87) 17 /* this expression creates the second indexed value of a hashed array identified as p2 */ (%i88) p2 [3, 4]; (%o88) lambda([x,y],y^3+x^4+7) /* this expression has a value of 213 for values of the arguments (3, 5) for the second indexed values of [3, 4] of a hashed array identified as p2 */ (%i89) p2 [3, 4](3, 5); (%o89) 213 (%i90) arrayinfo (p2); (%o90) [hashed,2,[2,2],[3,4]] (%i91) arrayinfo (p); (%o91) [hashed,1,[2],[4],[5],[2*x]] /* another memoizing function definition with multiple arguments and where n is not erqual to m */ (%i92) p3 [i, j](x, y, z) := x^i * y^j * z^j; (%o92) p3[i,j](x,y,z):=x^i*y^j*z^j (%i93) p3 [3,4]; (%o93) lambda([x,y,z],x^3*y^4*z^4) (%i94) p3 [3, 4] (2, 3, 4); (%o94) 165888 (%i95) arrayinfo (p3); (%o95) [hashed,2,[3,4]] (%i96) arrays; (%o96) [p,p2,p3] (%i97) listarray (p3); (%o97) [lambda([x,y,z],x^3*y^4*z^4)] </syntaxhighlight> ===== More Special Forms of Memoizing Functions Using the <code>define</code> Operator ===== <code>define (funmake (f, [x₁, x_2,…, x_n]), expr)</code> or <code>define (arraymake (f, [x₁, x_2,…, x_n]), expr)</code> or <code>define (ev (expr₁, expr₂))</code> ==== Lambda Expressions ==== ==== Macros – <code>::=</code> and <code>buildq</code> Operators ==== In the Maxima Computer Algebra System (CAS), a '''''macro''''' is a special type of function that manipulates the structure of an expression before it is evaluated. The Maxima Manual describes ''macros''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maxima Manual - Operator ::= |url=https://maxima.sourceforge.io/docs/manual/Operators.html#index-_003a_003a_003d |url-status=live}}</ref> as follows: ''"Macro function definition operator.'' <code>::=</code> ''defines a function (called a "macro" for historical reasons) which quotes its arguments, and the expression which it returns (called the "macro expansion") is evaluated in the context from which the macro was called. A macro function is otherwise the same as an ordinary function."'' {| class="wikitable" |+Macro Operators and Identifiers |<code>::=</code> |<code>macroexpand</code> |<code>macros</code> |<code>splice</code> |- |<code>fundef</code> | <code>dispfun</code> | <code>buildq</code> | |- |<code>remfunction</code> |<code>kill</code> |<code>remove</code> | |}While ordinary Maxima functions evaluate their arguments immediately when referenced, a ''macro'' quotes its arguments. It treats those arguments as raw, not evaluated expression blocks, ''transforms'' them mathematically or syntactically, and then <code>evaluates</code> the newly generated code. Because Maxima is written in and inherits the semantics of Common Lisp, its macro system acts similarly to Lisp macros, functioning essentially as a programmable compiler extension. Key Mechanics of a Maxima Macro * '''Definition Operator (<code>::</code>=):''' You define a macro using the <code>::=</code> operator instead of the ordinary function definition operator (<code>:=</code>). * '''The Global <code>macros</code> List:''' Every time you create a macro, Maxima automatically tracks it by appending it to a global information list called <code>macros</code>. * '''Macro Expansion:''' When a macro is invoked, Maxima executes a process called ''expansion''. The macro code runs to generate a new Maxima expression, and then Maxima evaluates that final output expression. ====== Some Reasons to Use a Macro Instead of a Function: ====== Ordinary functions cannot control how or when arguments are evaluated. Macros are a good choice for: # '''Evaluation Control:''' Preventing an expression from being evaluated until specific conditional statements are checked. # '''Meta-programming:''' Writing clean, shorthand code that automatically generates longer, repetitive mathematical boilerplate expressions "under the hood" so to speak. # '''Context Manipulation:''' Altering identifiers inside the environment where referenced rather than within a closed, localized function scope. ====== Example: Function vs. Macro ====== <syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* an ordinary function definition expression */ (%i98) a_function (expr) := print( "The expression is: ", expr)$ (%i99) x : 5; (x) 5 /* An ordinary function evaluates arguments when referenced */ (%i100) a_function (x + 2)$ The expression is: 7 /* This expression has the same value as the above */ (%i101) a_function (expr : x + 2)$ The expression is: 7 /* A macro quotes its arguments and controls execution */ (%i102) a_macro (expr) ::= buildq ( [expr], print ("The expression is: ", 'expr) )$ (%i103) a_macro (x + 2); The expression is: x+2 (%o103) x+2 (%i104) a_macro (expr : x + 2); The expression is: expr:x+2 (%o104) expr:x+2 /* a macro function expression does not evaluate the argument */ (%i105) a_macro (expr : 2); The expression is: expr:2 (%o105) expr:2 /* the macros identifier lists defined macros */ (%i106) macros; (%o106) [a_macro(expr)] </syntaxhighlight>To "quote" ( <code>'</code> ) an expression is to suppress evaluation. The above example provides some insight into the value of the argument that a function references compared to the value of the argument that a macro references. Maxima macros (and Lisp as well) are an example of the fact that expressions can be used as data – which is referred to as '''''homoiconicity'''''. The typical purpose of using macros is to reference expressions as arguments and have as a value of the macro a different expression, which has been evaluated instead. To understand the difference, consider how a function and a macro handle a identifier named <code>x</code>: * If <code>a_function(x + 2)</code> is referenced when <code>x</code> has been previously assigned a value of <code>5</code>, the function immediately receives <code>7</code> as the value of the argument expression. * If <code>a_macro(x + 2)</code>, is referenced the macro receives the exact symbolic structure <code>x + 2</code> as the value of the argument expression without evaluating it first, allowing manipulation of the literal algebraic format. Expression templates like <code>buildq</code> are frequently used inside macros to compose new mathematical expressions. On the surface, a macro functions does not appear to be different than an ordinary function – both are expressions that have values if referenced using arguments. The difference involves the point in the processing of the expression as to what is evaluated when referenced and when. In short, The ordinary function processes evaluated arguments while the macro uses unevaluated arguments to reshape the process of composing the returned value. ====== Two Other Simple Examples ====== Simple macros are typically used to create shorthand syntax, control evaluation, or mimic standard programming constructs like in-place modification. '''Example''' '''1: In-place Increment''' In Maxima, there is no built-in <code>x++</code> or <code>x : x + 1</code> when <code>x</code> is referenced as an argument of an ordinary function. Using a macro, an identifier can be referenced as an argument without evaluating it, modify it, and then reassign it.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* macro definition expression */ (%i107) incm (var) ::= buildq ([var], var : var + 1); (%o108) incm(var)::=buildq([var],var:var+1) /* Usage */ (%i109) x : 10; (x) 10 (%i110) incm (x); (%o110) 11 /* x is now 11 */ (%i111) x; (%o111) 11</syntaxhighlight>An ordinary function would evaluate <code>x</code> to <code>10</code> immediately, passing the number <code>10</code> to the function. Consequently, an ordinary function cannot assign a new value to the raw identifier <code>x</code>.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">/* function definition expression */ (%i112) incf(var) := buildq([var], var : var + 1); (%o112) incf(var):=buildq([var],var:var+1) (%i113) incf (x); (%o113) 11:12 /* x is still 11 */ (%i114) x; (%o114) 11</syntaxhighlight>'''Example 2: Unless Conditional''' <code>(unless_then)</code> A macro for a custom control flow that evaluates a body of expressions only if a condition is <code>false</code>.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* definition expression for the macro */ (%i115) unless_then(cond, body) ::= buildq([cond, body], if not cond then body)$ /* usage */ (%i115) is_raining : false; (is_raining) false (%i116) unless_then(is_raining, print("Let's go for a walk!"))$ Let's go for a walk! </syntaxhighlight> ====== Some Complex Macro Examples ====== Complex macros often use <code>buildq</code> (build quotation) alongside loop structures to dynamically generate heavily nested code, unroll repetitive operations, or create entirely new domain-specific syntax. '''Example 1: Parallel Assignment''' <code>(psetq)</code> This macro mimics parallel assignment as in Lisp. It takes a list of identifiers and a list of values, evaluating all values first before assigning them to prevent identifiers from overwriting each other mid-process (useful for swapping identifiers).<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i117) psetq ([args]) ::= block ( [len, vars, vals, gensyms, assignments, final_assigns], len : length (args), if oddp (len) then error ("psetq requires an even number of arguments"), /* Separate variables and expressions */ vars : makelist (args[i], i, 1, len, 2), vals : makelist (args[i], i, 2, len, 2), /* Create unique temporary identifiers to hold the evaluated values safely */ gensyms : makelist (gensym (), i, 1, length (vars)), /* 1. Evaluate expressions into temporary identifiers */ assignments : makelist (buildq ([g: gensyms[i], v: vals[i]], g: v), i, 1, length (vars) ), /* 2. Assign temporary identifiers back to target identifiers */ final_assigns : makelist (buildq([v : vars[i], g : gensyms[i]], v : g), i, 1, length (vars)), /* Return a block containing both steps sequentially */ buildq ([assignments, final_assigns], block ( splice (assignments), splice (final_assigns) ) ) )$ (%i118) x : 5$ (%i119) y : 10$ (%i120) psetq(x, y, y, x)$ (%i121) print("x =", x, "y =", y)$ "x ="5"y ="10 </syntaxhighlight>Key Concept: <code>splice</code> is used here inside <code>buildq</code> to unpack the list of generated assignment expressions directly into the <code>block(...)</code> expression so it executes as raw, flat sequential code. '''Example 2: Memoized Timing Wrapper''' <code>(time_and_cache)</code> This macro wraps an "expensive" mathematical calculation. It checks if a global cache has the result; if not, it prints a timing message, computes the result, saves the result to a hashed array, and returns the value.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i122) time_and_cache (cache_name, key, expr) ::= buildq ( [cache_name, key, expr], block ( [cached_val], cached_val : cache_name[key], if cached_val # false then ( print("Cache Hit!"), cached_val ) else ( print ("Cache Miss. Computing..."), block ( [start_t, result], start_t : absolute_real_time(), result : expr, print("Elapsed time:", absolute_real_time() - start_t, "seconds"), cache_name[key] : result, result ) ) ) )$ (%i123) time_and_cache (my_cache, "heavy_sum", sum (k^2, k, 1, 100000)); Cache Miss. Computing... Elapsed time:"0"seconds (%o123) 333338333350000 (%i124) time_and_cache (my_cache, "heavy_sum", sum (k^2, k, 1, 100000)); Cache Hit! (%o124) 333338333350000 </syntaxhighlight>'''Core Macro Operators:''' As the need for relatively more complex macros arises, users will likely find that the following three operators are useful: 1. <code>buildq([substitutions], expression)</code>: Safely substitutes identifiers into a quoted expression template. 2. <code>splice(list)</code>: Flattens a list within a <code>buildq</code> template, removing the outer list bracket tags. 3. <code>gensym()</code>: Generates a completely unique identifier name (e.g., g1234) to prevent macro internal variables from inadvertently conflicting with identifiers of the main program. ==== Optional Arguments ==== Maxima functions can be defined with optional arguments. In Maxima, enclosing an argument in square brackets in a function definition allows the function to accept an arbitrary number of arguments. When the defined function is referenced with arguments, the argument identifier enclosed by the brackets has a value of a Maxima list containing all passed arguments. A variadic function is a function that accepts a variable number of arguments – zero, one, or many arguments<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima">(%i125) g([y]) := ( disp (sconcat (length(y), " optional arguments")), y ); (%125) g([y]):=(disp(sconcat(length(y)," optional arguments")),y) (%i126) g (1,2,3); 3 optional arguments (%o126) [1,2,3] /* the value of y is a list of the arguments */ (%i127) g (x^2,y^2,z^2); 3 optional arguments (%o127) [x^2,y^2,z^2] (%i128) g ([]); 1 optional arguments (%o128) [[]] (%i129) length ( [[]] ); (%o129) 1 /* the value of y is a list of an empty list */</syntaxhighlight> This form of function composition may include one or more required arguments as exemplified below:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* c is a required argument */ (%i130) h (c, [vars]) := ( disp(sconcat(length(vars)," optional arguments")), [vars, c] ); (%o130) h(c,[vars]):=(disp(sconcat(length(vars)," optional arguments")),[vars,c]) (%i131) h (5, x,y,z); 3 optional arguments (%o131) [[x,y,z],5] /* the value of vars is the list [x,y,z] */ /* 6 is the value of the required argument and all other argument values are in the list identified as vars */ (%i132) h (6, a,b,c,d,e); 5 optional arguments (%o132) [[a,b,c,d,e],6] /* the function h can be referenced with no optional arguments */ (%i133) h(6); 0 optional arguments (%o133) [[],6] /* the value of vars is the empty list [] */ </syntaxhighlight>If a function defined with one or more required arguments is referenced with more arguments than the required number of arguments, the excess argument values are of the optional list.<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i134) sum_of_squares ([vals]) := block ( apply ("+", map (lambda([x], x^2), vals) ) )$ (%i135) sum_of_squares(2, 3); (%o135) 13 (%i136) sum_of_squares(1, 2, 3, 4, 5); (%o136) 55 (%i137) sum_of_squares(); (%o137) 0 (%i138) tagged_list (prefix, [rest]) := cons (prefix, rest)$ (%i139) tagged_list (root, a, b, c); (%o139) [root,a,b,c] </syntaxhighlight> ====== Understanding Block and Function Argument Expressions and Possible Side Affects ====== Consider the example of the following expressions:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* assign global values to identifiers a and c */ (%i140) a : %pi; (%o140) %pi (%i141) c : %e; (%o141) %e /* identifiers a and c are local to this block expression */ /* assign local values to a and c */ /* the value of the block is a list of the values of a and c */ (%i142) block ([a : 3, c : a], [a, c]); (%o142) [3,%pi] /* global values of identifiers a and c are unchanged */ (%i143) c; (%o143) %e (%i144) a; (%o144) %pi </syntaxhighlight>Notice that argument <code>a</code> was assigned a value of <code>3</code>, and that argument <code>c</code> was assigned the value of <code>a</code> in <code>%i142</code>. However, the list of <code>%o142</code> that is the value of the block shows the value of <code>c</code> as <code>%pi</code> and not <code>3</code>. The reason for this result is that the expressions of the list of local arguments of the block expression are not evaluated in "series" so to speak. Instead they are evaluated independently in "parallel" before they are referenced as local values in the expression of the block – which in this example is simply a list of their values. Consider how this behavior is described in the Maxima Manual<ref>{{Cite web |title=Maxima Manual 32.2.1 - Ordinary functions |url=https://maxima.sourceforge.io/docs/manual/Function-Definition.html#Ordinary-functions}}</ref>:<blockquote>''"Note that the assignments in the block variables, are done in parallel. This means, that if you had used c : a in the above, the value of c would have been the value of a at the time you just entered the block, but before a was bound."'' </blockquote>This is precisely the behavior that is exemplified by the expression above. The declared local argument <code>a</code> is assigned a value of <code>3</code>. The declared local argument <code>c</code> is assigned the value of <code>a</code>, but the value of <code>a</code> at this point in the evaluation process is not <code>3</code>. Rather it is the value of the global identifier <code>a</code> which is <code>%pi</code>. Note that the values of the global identifiers <code>a</code> and <code>c</code> are unchanged by the block expression – <code>a</code> is <code>%pi</code> and <code>c</code> is <code>%e</code>. This <code>block</code> operator behavior is important to recognize as functions can appear to behave in a fashion that is similar to this <code>block</code> expression example:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> (%i145) f (x) := x; (%o145) f(x):=x (%i146) f(1); (%o146) 1 /* this block expression will have the same value as f if x = 1 is true */ (%i147) block ([x : 1], x); (%o147) 1 </syntaxhighlight>When using assignment expressions as arguments of defined functions, it is important to recognize that there exists the potential to change the values of global identifiers:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* assign global identifier a a value of 3 */ (%i148) x : 3; (%o148) 3 /* define an ordinary function f */ (%i149) f (x) := x^2; (%o149) f(x):=x^2 /*reference function f with an assignment expression as an argument */ (%i150) f (x : a); (%o150) %pi^2 /* the global value of identifier x has been changed from 3 to %pi */ (%i151) x; (%o151) %pi /* the global value of identifier a is not changed */ (%i152) a; (%o152) %pi </syntaxhighlight>If it is necessary to reference the value of a global identifier by name as the argument to a function, side effects of this sort can be avoided by using an expression similar to the following:<syntaxhighlight lang="maxima"> /* reference the function f with the argument assignment expression x : x */ (%i153) f (x : x); (%o153) %pi^2 /* the value of the global identifier x is not changed */ (%i154) x; (%o154) %pi </syntaxhighlight>The effect of the value of the expression <code>x : x</code> is to assign the local argument of <code>x</code> the value of the global identifier <code>x</code>, which is <code>%pi</code>, which is not changed. It is this local value of <code>x</code> that is used in the evaluation the function body. Below is a graphic diagram that depicts ''in general'' the connection between the arguments of a Maxima CAS ordinary function (<code>:=</code> operator) and the identifiers used in its function body: [[File:Ordinary Function Definition - General.jpg|center|1408x1408px]] It is essential to understand that when a defined function is referenced with arguments, Maxima accommodates a surprising range of expressions that can serve as arguments. Function expressions are often referenced using numerical values as arguments - in the reference to <code>f (5)</code> the value of <code>5</code> is 5. This type of atomic expression used as an argument is frequently not recognized in terms of being an expression, but it is. Recall that expressions, when evaluated have a value as a result, even if the display of those values are suppressed by some means – the values are there, you just can't see them. The upshot of this allowable range of expressions that can serve as arguments is that these are all evaluated when the function is "called" – or in other words "referenced", "evaluated", or "executed", terms which essentially are synonymous. Thus, in the graphic above, the "actual arguments" depicted above as val 1, val 2, … , val n, are in general expressions that have a value, and it is these values that are then "bound" to the "formal" local arguments, depicted above arg 1, arg 2, … , arg n, which are used in the evaluation of the function body. Below is a graphic diagram that depicts a specific example of the connection between the arguments of a Maxima CAS ordinary function (<code>:=</code> operator) and the identifiers used in its function body: [[File:Connecting Function Arguments to Body Identifiers Example.jpg|center|952x952px]] Users should understand that the evaluation of expressions as formal arguments when a function is referenced occurs one at a time, and so the value of each formal argument expression can be affected by those formal argument expressions already evaluated. In the specific example above, the identifiers <code>x</code> and <code>y</code> of the function body only have local values after they have been bound to the values of the formal argument expressions. Therefore, the values of global or relatively global identifiers can be affected when arguments are evaluated. A similar situation occurs when a global identifier is used to compose one or more expressions of a block operator. Below is a graphic diagram that depicts the connection between the arguments of a Maxima CAS ordinary function defined using a <code>block</code> operator and identifiers of the function body which includes a global identifier: [[File:Function-Arguments-Block-Locals-and Global-Identifiers.jpg|950x950px]] === Conditional Expressions – Special Operator <code>if</code> === === Expressions for Iteration – Special Operator <code>do</code> === The special operator <code>do</code> is used to compose expressions for iteration. It is typically used with the following other special operators: * <code>while</code> * <code>unless</code> * <code>for</code> * <code>from</code> * <code>thru</code> * <code>step</code> * <code>next</code> * <code>in</code> The general forms of <code>do</code> expressions Maxima supports are: <code>for</code> variable: initial_value <code>step</code> increment <code>thru</code> limit <code>do</code> body <code>for</code> variable: initial_value <code>step</code> increment <code>while</code> condition <code>do</code> body <code>for</code> variable: initial_value <code>step</code> increment <code>unless</code> condition <code>do</code> body <code>for</code> variable <code>in</code> list <code>do</code> body <code>for</code> variable <code>in</code> expr <code>do</code> body <code>for</code> variable <code>in</code> hash_table <code>do</code> body === Lisp and Maxima === {{BookCat}} dsei8f2mgng50m2b5o0cpdmzlpok30l 0 485861 4681654 4681538 2026-11-11T16:53:44Z Declan710 3626846 Moved sections for the final time, smoothed transitions, emphasized the phased construction section, and reworked conclusion to match 4681654 wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === Puerto Rico’s electric power system provides electricity to homes, businesses, hospitals, schools, and other important services. However, the system has faced several problems, including frequent outages, aging equipment, financial difficulties, slow disaster recovery, and disagreements about how the system should be managed. For many years, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) operated the island’s electricity system. Before Hurricane Maria struck in September 2017, PREPA already faced problems with old equipment, expensive fuel, limited maintenance, and large amounts of debt. Hurricanes Irma and Maria exposed these weaknesses and caused widespread damage to the power grid (Sotomayor, 2020; Government of Puerto Rico, 2018). Since the hurricanes, Puerto Rico has tried to repair the grid while also changing how it is managed. Private companies have taken over certain operations, the federal government has provided recovery funding, and communities have explored renewable energy and battery storage. However, these changes have not solved every problem. For example, government reports have continued to identify power outages and delays in completing recovery projects (Congressional Research Service [CRS], 2025; U.S. Government Accountability Office [GAO], 2026). This casebook examines the tension at the heart of Puerto Rico's grid recovery: How to fundamentally overhaul a failing infrastructure network without interrupting the daily electricity service that hospitals, homes, and businesses rely on to survive. <mapframe latitude="18.318026" longitude="-66.269531" zoom="8" width="530" height="389" text="Map of Puerto Rico" align="center" /> === Hurricane Maria and the Failure of the Power Grid === Puerto Rico’s power grid already had serious weaknesses before Hurricane Maria struck on September 20, 2017. Hurricane Irma had passed near the island earlier that month, damaging electricity, water, and communication systems. Maria then caused much more widespread damage, leaving many residents without electricity for long periods (Sotomayor, 2020). One problem was the way electricity was produced and transported across the island. Many major power plants were located in southern Puerto Rico, while much of the electricity demand was in the north. Only a limited number of high-voltage transmission lines connected these areas. This made the system vulnerable because damage to a major transmission line could prevent electricity from reaching communities that needed it (Sotomayor, 2020). For example, if a major power plant in the south stopped working during a hurricane, the remaining power plants and transmission lines would have to carry more of the electricity demand. If several transmission lines were also damaged, the system might not be able to deliver enough electricity to the north. This shows how damage to a few important parts of a centralized system can affect many customers. Puerto Rico also depended heavily on imported fuels, including oil, natural gas, and coal. This meant that electricity production relied on fuel shipments and port facilities. If a hurricane damaged a port or disrupted fuel deliveries, power plants could face additional problems obtaining the fuel they needed (Sotomayor, 2020; CRS, 2025). The hurricanes showed that simply replacing damaged equipment would not be enough. Puerto Rico also needed stronger infrastructure, regular maintenance, and better plans for handling future storms. For example, stronger transmission poles and better-protected substations could help reduce storm damage, while backup power systems could help essential services continue operating during outages. The main lesson is Puerto Rico’s experience shows that a power system must be designed to withstand disasters, not just operate during normal conditions. [[File:The use of Solar Power and Batteries.png|center|555x555px]] === PREPA’s Financial Problems and Institutional Restructuring === PREPA faced financial and operating problems for many years. Act 120-2018 described issues such as aging infrastructure, expensive fuel, poor maintenance, administrative problems, and large amounts of debt. These problems made it difficult for PREPA to pay for improvements while continuing to provide electricity (Government of Puerto Rico, 2018). The government responded by creating a legal framework that allowed private companies to take over certain operations and allowed some electricity-generation assets to be sold. The goal was to improve efficiency, modernize the system, and make electricity service more financially sustainable. As part of this restructuring, LUMA began managing transmission and distribution operations on June 1, 2021. Genera Puerto Rico began managing most non-hydroelectric generation operations on July 1, 2023, while PREPA continued operating its hydroelectric plants (CRS, 2025). This division of responsibilities can make coordination especially important. For example, when a neighborhood loses power because a distribution line is damaged, the organization responsible for that line must identify the problem and arrange repairs. If the  repair also requires coordination with a power plant operator or another agency, the organizations must communicate clearly to restore service as quickly as possible. Changing the management structure, however, does not automatically repair old power lines or prevent future outages. The CRS reported that Puerto Rico continued to experience partial and island-wide blackouts in 2025 (CRS, 2025). This shows why the results of restructuring should be judged by actual improvements, such as fewer outages, faster repairs, better maintenance, and more affordable electricity. The key takeaway is changing who manages the system can be part of the solution, but the changes must lead to better service and stronger infrastructure. === Main Organizations and Their Roles === PREPA is the public corporation associated with Puerto Rico’s electricity assets and financial restructuring. LUMA manages transmission and distribution operations, while Genera manages most non-hydroelectric generation operations. These different responsibilities mean that repairing a damaged power line, managing a power plant, and planning future energy projects may require coordination among several organizations (CRS, 2025). The Puerto Rico Energy Bureau regulates the energy sector, including important planning and rate decisions. Federal agencies also play major roles. FEMA supports eligible disaster recovery projects, HUD provides community development funding that includes grid recovery, and DOE supports energy assessments and modernization efforts. Local communities and energy partners contribute by identifying needs and developing projects such as residential solar and battery systems (CRS, 2025; GAO, 2026; EDF, 2026). For example, improving electricity service in a community may require a utility operator to repair equipment, a government agency to approve or fund a project, and local organizations to explain which services residents need most. If these groups do not coordinate, a project may be delayed or fail to address the community’s most urgent problems. === Federal Funding and the Slow Recovery Process === After Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico needed major investments to repair and improve its electricity system. Federal agencies, including FEMA, HUD, and DOE, supported recovery and modernization efforts. According to PREPA, more than $15 billion in federal funding had been awarded for the electricity system by June 2023 (CRS, 2025).However, money being awarded does not mean that construction is finished. In its May 2025 report, CRS stated that more than $10 billion in FEMA funding had been obligated for permanent work, but approximately $2 billion had been disbursed. CRS also reported that less than 1% of the $1.9 billion HUD had obligated for the electric grid had been disbursed as of July 2024 (CRS, 2025). These figures refer to different dates and stages of funding, so they should not be treated as the same measure. Recovery can take a long time because projects require engineering plans, reviews, permits, contracts, equipment, and trained workers. GAO reported that only nine of 258 large FEMA-funded permanent grid-recovery projects had been completed by the end of 2025. It identified lengthy reviews, staff turnover, complicated funding requirements, and uncertainty about responsibilities as barriers to progress (GAO, 2026). For example, a project to replace damaged power poles may have funding available but still need engineering approval, environmental review, materials, and a contractor before construction can begin. If one of these steps is delayed, the community may continue relying on damaged or outdated infrastructure while the project waits to move forward. To improve recovery, government agencies need to coordinate their work, make responsibilities clear, and explain delays to the public. They should also report how much money has been spent, which projects have been completed, and whether the work has improved electricity service. Federal funding is important, but it must be turned into completed projects that make the power system more reliable. === Phased Construction: The Balance Between Immediate Needs and Long-term Improvements === Transforming a failing power grid is like performing repair on a car while its whipping down the highway. Puerto Rico cannot shut down its entire electricity system while it replaces equipment and builds a new one. Hospitals, homes, businesses, schools, and emergency services still need electricity during construction and recovery. This repair and overhaul is a dangerous and difficult balance for the multitude of organizations in charge of the electric grid. This means repairs and improvements must happen in stages. For example, crews can repair a damaged transmission line to restore electricity while engineers plan how to strengthen that line against future storms. The immediate repair helps customers today, while the longer-term improvement can reduce the chance of similar problems in the future. However, every source of funding, engineer assigned, and materials helping the necessary immediate repair is a resource diverted from permanent modernization. Following catastrophic damage from major storms, repair is needed, however with the trickle of federal funds this priority has lead to a slowly degrading system. Shifting from emergency repairs to overhauling critical infrastructure without halting service requires steady substantial investment and a strict balance between emergency repairs and permanent upgrades. The same principle applies to management and funding. Puerto Rico has changed who operates different parts of its electricity system, but continuing outages show that organizational changes must be supported by better maintenance, clear responsibilities, and measurable improvements in service (CRS, 2025). Federal funding must also move through planning and construction so that it results in completed projects rather than remaining tied up in lengthy processes (GAO, 2026). Puerto Rico must keep electricity flowing, improve how the system is managed, complete recovery projects, and prepare for a cleaner energy future. At the same time they look to prepare for a cleaner and perhaps more stable electrical grid. In more remote places like Culebra, the US Department of Energy is funding an initiative for a more decentralized, resilient, and green energy source. === Microgrids: Culebra, Solar Power, and Battery Storage === Culebra is a small island municipality off the eastern coast of Puerto Rico. Its residents face the risk of long electricity interruptions when storms damage the wider power system. These outages can affect everyday needs, such as keeping food refrigerated, charging communication devices, and operating medical equipment (Environmental Defense Fund [EDF], 2026). In a 2020 master’s paper, Federico Sotomayor examined the possibility of building a utility-scale solar farm on Culebra. The proposal was intended to increase local electricity production and reduce dependence on the main power system. EDF later described a community-focused project involving residential solar panels and battery storage to help participating households lower energy costs and maintain essential electricity during outages (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Distributed energy resources, such as rooftop solar panels and household battery systems, provide electricity closer to where it is consumed which can ease the burden of grid transformation. A nanogrid generally serves a single building or small group of buildings, whereas a microgrid can connect multiple buildings and local energy resources within a defined electrical network. This creates a buffer that allows engineers to focus on permanent structural upgrades. For example, if a hurricane causes the main grid to fail in the evening, a home with solar panels and a properly configured battery may still be able to power selected appliances. This allows the residences to continue to live and work without complete loss of needed appliances until the utility crews can connect the house back to the grid. This capability, known as islanding, can help maintain electricity service during wider grid outages. Solar panels alone do not guarantee backup electricity. Systems require appropriate inverters, battery storage or another available generation source, and equipment capable of self operation. In addition installing these systems can be expensive, and some residents may need financial assistance to participate. These systems do not replace the need for a strong island-wide grid. Both local backup systems and major infrastructure improvements are needed (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Equipment must also be installed correctly, maintained, and protected from severe weather. A utility-scale solar farm would face additional challenges, including finding suitable land, connecting to the local grid, and determining how much electricity and storage the island would need. The proposal described by Sotomayor should not be treated as proof that the proposed solar farm was built. EDF’s description of residential solar and battery work is a separate community-based approach (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Local renewable energy can help communities prepare for outages, but projects must be affordable, properly designed, and supported over time. [[File:Use of Solar Power and Batteries.png|center|513x513px]] === Renewable Energy Goals and the Future of Puerto Rico’s Grid === Puerto Rico has been working toward a cleaner electricity system, but there are different views about how quickly the transition should happen and which energy sources should be used. Act 17-2019 established a goal of obtaining 100% of Puerto Rico’s electricity from renewable sources by 2050, with earlier targets for 2025 and 2040. Act 1-2025 removed those interim targets and extended the planned end of coal use from 2028 to 2032 (CRS, 2025).Renewable energy can reduce the need to import fossil fuels, but solar and wind power must be supported by equipment that helps deliver electricity when and where it is needed. For example, solar panels may produce plenty of electricity on a sunny afternoon, but they do not produce electricity after sunset. Batteries, other generating sources, and a well-planned grid are needed to help meet demand at night. Puerto Rico must also make sure that new energy projects can connect to its existing infrastructure. If a solar farm is built in an area where transmission lines cannot carry the additional electricity, the project may not provide its full intended benefit. This is why renewable-energy development must happen alongside improvements to transmission, distribution, storage, and system controls (CRS, 2025; EDF, 2026). The transition also raises questions about affordability. A household that can afford rooftop solar and batteries may have more options during an outage, while a household with fewer financial resources may still depend entirely on the wider grid. Support programs and community-based projects can help ensure that improvements reach people who need them most (EDF, 2026). Puerto Rico therefore needs a plan that addresses immediate reliability problems while also preparing for a cleaner energy future. This means repairing the existing grid, improving storage and transmission, expanding renewable energy where suitable, and keeping electricity affordable. Reliable electricity and renewable energy should be planned together. Puerto Rico needs a dependable system today while building a cleaner system for tomorrow. [[File:Renewable Energy Goals.png|center|528x528px]] {| class="wikitable" |+Timeline of Important Events !Year !Event !Why it matters |- |2014 |Act 57 changed parts of PREPA's governance and oversight |It was part of the effort to reform the electricity sector |- |2017 |Hurricanes Irma and Maria severely damaged the grid |The storms existing infrastructure and maintenance problems |- |2018 |Act 120 established a framework for private-sector precipitation |It changed how PREPA's assets and operations could be managed |- |2019 |Act 17 established renewable-energy goals |It set a long term direction for the energy transition |- |June 2021 |LUMA began managing transmission and distribution operations |Responsibility for major parts of the grid shifted to a private operator |- |July 2023 |Genera began managing most non-hydroelectric generation operations |Generation management became separate from transmission and distribution |- |2025 |Act 1 changed interim renewable-energy targets and extended planned coal use |It changed the timeline for parts of the energy transition |- |2025- 2026 |Government reports continued to identify outrages and recovery delays |They showed that improving reliability and completing recovery work remained challenges |} (Sources: Government of Puerto Rico, 2018; CRS, 2025; GAO, 2026.) === Conclusion === Puerto Rico’s electricity system shows how difficult it can be to transform essential infrastructure while people continue to depend on it. Hurricanes Irma and Maria exposed weaknesses that had developed over many years. Financial problems, aging equipment, and complicated recovery processes have made rebuilding difficult. Changes in management have altered who operates parts of the system, but reliable electricity remains a major concern. The case studies show that no single solution can fix every problem. Proper dispersion of federal funds can unlock the ability to transform the island territory electrical system, provided there is a custom plan to deal with the unique challenges. Stronger equipment can reduce storm damage, better coordination can help recovery projects move forward, and clear oversight can improve accountability. Solar panels, batteries, and other local energy systems decouple demand so communities can maintain essential electricity during outages. A failing system can be transformed while it continues to provide service, but only through careful planning, cooperation, funding, and attention to the needs of residents. The goal should not be to rebuild the old system exactly as it was. The flaws of the old system must be identified, the realistic tradeoffs of the current state must be accepted, and then a plan for the future can be made. === References === Congressional Research Service. (2025). Electric reliability and resiliency in Puerto Rico (IF12913). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF12913 Environmental Defense Fund. (2026, June 12). Transforming Puerto Rico’s energy system. https://www.edf.org/energy/strengthening-puerto-ricos-energy-system Government Accountability Office. (2026). El Apagón—The Blackout: Puerto Rico’s continuing struggle for stable electricity. https://www.gao.gov/blog/el-apagon-blackout.-puerto-ricos-continuing-struggle-stable-electricity Government of Puerto Rico. (2018). Puerto Rico Electric Power System Transformation Act, Act No. 120-2018. https://bvirtualogp.pr.gov/ogp/Bvirtual/leyesreferencia/PDF/2-ingles/120-2018.pdf Sotomayor, F. (2020). Master’s paper on Puerto Rico’s electric power system and the potential for a utility-scale solar farm on Culebra. Clark University. https://commons.clarku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1258&context=idce_masters_papers nsgok9oge40nlajqfmljbmpz9syez79 4681662 4681654 2026-11-11T17:26:56Z Declan710 3626846 Modified the renewable energy section to more heavily reference the coal laws that the timeline ends on and match our core ideas. Also changed heading format from subheading to heading. 4681662 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == <mapframe latitude="18.247612" longitude="-66.442566" zoom="8" width="309" height="373" text="Map of Puerto Rico" align="right" />Puerto Rico’s electric power system provides electricity to homes, businesses, hospitals, schools, and other important services. However, the system has faced several problems, including frequent outages, aging equipment, financial difficulties, slow disaster recovery, and disagreements about how the system should be managed. For many years, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) operated the island’s electricity system. Before Hurricane Maria struck in September 2017, PREPA already faced problems with old equipment, expensive fuel, limited maintenance, and large amounts of debt. Hurricanes Irma and Maria exposed these weaknesses and caused widespread damage to the power grid (Sotomayor, 2020; Government of Puerto Rico, 2018). Since the hurricanes, Puerto Rico has tried to repair the grid while also changing how it is managed. Private companies have taken over certain operations, the federal government has provided recovery funding, and communities have explored renewable energy and battery storage. However, these changes have not solved every problem. For example, government reports have continued to identify power outages and delays in completing recovery projects (Congressional Research Service [CRS], 2025; U.S. Government Accountability Office [GAO], 2026). This casebook examines the tension at the heart of Puerto Rico's grid recovery: How to fundamentally overhaul a failing infrastructure network without interrupting the daily electricity service that hospitals, homes, and businesses rely on to survive. == Hurricane Maria and the Failure of the Power Grid == Puerto Rico’s power grid already had serious weaknesses before Hurricane Maria struck on September 20, 2017. Hurricane Irma had passed near the island earlier that month, damaging electricity, water, and communication systems. Maria then caused much more widespread damage, leaving many residents without electricity for long periods (Sotomayor, 2020). One problem was the way electricity was produced and transported across the island. Many major power plants were located in southern Puerto Rico, while much of the electricity demand was in the north. Only a limited number of high-voltage transmission lines connected these areas. This made the system vulnerable because damage to a major transmission line could prevent electricity from reaching communities that needed it (Sotomayor, 2020). For example, if a major power plant in the south stopped working during a hurricane, the remaining power plants and transmission lines would have to carry more of the electricity demand. If several transmission lines were also damaged, the system might not be able to deliver enough electricity to the north. This shows how damage to a few important parts of a centralized system can affect many customers. Puerto Rico also depended heavily on imported fuels, including oil, natural gas, and coal. This meant that electricity production relied on fuel shipments and port facilities. If a hurricane damaged a port or disrupted fuel deliveries, power plants could face additional problems obtaining the fuel they needed (Sotomayor, 2020; CRS, 2025). The hurricanes showed that simply replacing damaged equipment would not be enough. Puerto Rico also needed stronger infrastructure, regular maintenance, and better plans for handling future storms. For example, stronger transmission poles and better-protected substations could help reduce storm damage, while backup power systems could help essential services continue operating during outages. The main lesson is Puerto Rico’s experience shows that a power system must be designed to withstand disasters, not just operate during normal conditions. [[File:The use of Solar Power and Batteries.png|center|555x555px]] == PREPA’s Financial Problems and Institutional Restructuring == PREPA faced financial and operating problems for many years. Act 120-2018 described issues such as aging infrastructure, expensive fuel, poor maintenance, administrative problems, and large amounts of debt. These problems made it difficult for PREPA to pay for improvements while continuing to provide electricity (Government of Puerto Rico, 2018). The government responded by creating a legal framework that allowed private companies to take over certain operations and allowed some electricity-generation assets to be sold. The goal was to improve efficiency, modernize the system, and make electricity service more financially sustainable. As part of this restructuring, LUMA began managing transmission and distribution operations on June 1, 2021. Genera Puerto Rico began managing most non-hydroelectric generation operations on July 1, 2023, while PREPA continued operating its hydroelectric plants (CRS, 2025). This division of responsibilities can make coordination especially important. For example, when a neighborhood loses power because a distribution line is damaged, the organization responsible for that line must identify the problem and arrange repairs. If the  repair also requires coordination with a power plant operator or another agency, the organizations must communicate clearly to restore service as quickly as possible. Changing the management structure, however, does not automatically repair old power lines or prevent future outages. The CRS reported that Puerto Rico continued to experience partial and island-wide blackouts in 2025 (CRS, 2025). This shows why the results of restructuring should be judged by actual improvements, such as fewer outages, faster repairs, better maintenance, and more affordable electricity. The key takeaway is changing who manages the system can be part of the solution, but the changes must lead to better service and stronger infrastructure. == Main Organizations and Their Roles == PREPA is the public corporation associated with Puerto Rico’s electricity assets and financial restructuring. LUMA manages transmission and distribution operations, while Genera manages most non-hydroelectric generation operations. These different responsibilities mean that repairing a damaged power line, managing a power plant, and planning future energy projects may require coordination among several organizations (CRS, 2025). The Puerto Rico Energy Bureau regulates the energy sector, including important planning and rate decisions. Federal agencies also play major roles. FEMA supports eligible disaster recovery projects, HUD provides community development funding that includes grid recovery, and DOE supports energy assessments and modernization efforts. Local communities and energy partners contribute by identifying needs and developing projects such as residential solar and battery systems (CRS, 2025; GAO, 2026; EDF, 2026). For example, improving electricity service in a community may require a utility operator to repair equipment, a government agency to approve or fund a project, and local organizations to explain which services residents need most. If these groups do not coordinate, a project may be delayed or fail to address the community’s most urgent problems. == Federal Funding and the Slow Recovery Process == After Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico needed major investments to repair and improve its electricity system. Federal agencies, including FEMA, HUD, and DOE, supported recovery and modernization efforts. According to PREPA, more than $15 billion in federal funding had been awarded for the electricity system by June 2023 (CRS, 2025).However, money being awarded does not mean that construction is finished. In its May 2025 report, CRS stated that more than $10 billion in FEMA funding had been obligated for permanent work, but approximately $2 billion had been disbursed. CRS also reported that less than 1% of the $1.9 billion HUD had obligated for the electric grid had been disbursed as of July 2024 (CRS, 2025). These figures refer to different dates and stages of funding, so they should not be treated as the same measure. Recovery can take a long time because projects require engineering plans, reviews, permits, contracts, equipment, and trained workers. GAO reported that only nine of 258 large FEMA-funded permanent grid-recovery projects had been completed by the end of 2025. It identified lengthy reviews, staff turnover, complicated funding requirements, and uncertainty about responsibilities as barriers to progress (GAO, 2026). For example, a project to replace damaged power poles may have funding available but still need engineering approval, environmental review, materials, and a contractor before construction can begin. If one of these steps is delayed, the community may continue relying on damaged or outdated infrastructure while the project waits to move forward. To improve recovery, government agencies need to coordinate their work, make responsibilities clear, and explain delays to the public. They should also report how much money has been spent, which projects have been completed, and whether the work has improved electricity service. Federal funding is important, but it must be turned into completed projects that make the power system more reliable. == Phased Construction: The Balance Between Immediate Needs and Long-term Improvements == Transforming a failing power grid is like performing repair on a car while its whipping down the highway. Puerto Rico cannot shut down its entire electricity system while it replaces equipment and builds a new one. Hospitals, homes, businesses, schools, and emergency services still need electricity during construction and recovery. This repair and overhaul is a dangerous and difficult balance for the multitude of organizations in charge of the electric grid. This means repairs and improvements must happen in stages. For example, crews can repair a damaged transmission line to restore electricity while engineers plan how to strengthen that line against future storms. The immediate repair helps customers today, while the longer-term improvement can reduce the chance of similar problems in the future. However, every source of funding, engineer assigned, and materials helping the necessary immediate repair is a resource diverted from permanent modernization. Following catastrophic damage from major storms, repair is needed, however with the trickle of federal funds this priority has lead to a slowly degrading system. Shifting from emergency repairs to overhauling critical infrastructure without halting service requires steady substantial investment and a strict balance between emergency repairs and permanent upgrades. The same principle applies to management and funding. Puerto Rico has changed who operates different parts of its electricity system, but continuing outages show that organizational changes must be supported by better maintenance, clear responsibilities, and measurable improvements in service (CRS, 2025). Federal funding must also move through planning and construction so that it results in completed projects rather than remaining tied up in lengthy processes (GAO, 2026). Puerto Rico must keep electricity flowing, improve how the system is managed, complete recovery projects, and prepare for a cleaner energy future. At the same time they look to prepare for a cleaner and perhaps more stable electrical grid. In more remote places like Culebra, the US Department of Energy is funding an initiative for a more decentralized, resilient, and green energy source. == Microgrids: Culebra, Solar Power, and Battery Storage == Culebra is a small island municipality off the eastern coast of Puerto Rico. Its residents face the risk of long electricity interruptions when storms damage the wider power system. These outages can affect everyday needs, such as keeping food refrigerated, charging communication devices, and operating medical equipment (Environmental Defense Fund [EDF], 2026). In a 2020 master’s paper, Federico Sotomayor examined the possibility of building a utility-scale solar farm on Culebra. The proposal was intended to increase local electricity production and reduce dependence on the main power system. EDF later described a community-focused project involving residential solar panels and battery storage to help participating households lower energy costs and maintain essential electricity during outages (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Distributed energy resources, such as rooftop solar panels and household battery systems, provide electricity closer to where it is consumed which can ease the burden of grid transformation. A nanogrid generally serves a single building or small group of buildings, whereas a microgrid can connect multiple buildings and local energy resources within a defined electrical network. This creates a buffer that allows engineers to focus on permanent structural upgrades. For example, if a hurricane causes the main grid to fail in the evening, a home with solar panels and a properly configured battery may still be able to power selected appliances. This allows the residences to continue to live and work without complete loss of needed appliances until the utility crews can connect the house back to the grid. This capability, known as islanding, can help maintain electricity service during wider grid outages. Solar panels alone do not guarantee backup electricity. Systems require appropriate inverters, battery storage or another available generation source, and equipment capable of self operation. In addition installing these systems can be expensive, and some residents may need financial assistance to participate. These systems do not replace the need for a strong island-wide grid. Both local backup systems and major infrastructure improvements are needed (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Equipment must also be installed correctly, maintained, and protected from severe weather. A utility-scale solar farm would face additional challenges, including finding suitable land, connecting to the local grid, and determining how much electricity and storage the island would need. The proposal described by Sotomayor should not be treated as proof that the proposed solar farm was built. EDF’s description of residential solar and battery work is a separate community-based approach (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Local renewable energy can help communities prepare for outages, but projects must be affordable, properly designed, and supported over time. [[File:Use of Solar Power and Batteries.png|center|513x513px]] == Renewable Energy Goals and the Future of Puerto Rico’s Grid == Puerto Rico has been working toward a cleaner electricity system, but there are different views about how quickly the transition should happen and which energy sources should be used. Act 17-2019 established a goal of obtaining 100% of Puerto Rico’s electricity from renewable sources by 2050, with earlier targets for 2025 and 2040. Act 1-2025 removed those interim targets and extended the planned end of coal use from 2028 to 2032 (CRS, 2025). This reveals the reality of attempting to overhaul a crippled system in real time. With the livelihood of the territory's residences on the line, ambitious and ideological goals fall to the wayside. The immediate stability of the degrading system once again becomes the first priority. Extending coal dependency is an admission that until the physical and institutional core of the grid is rebuilt, decommissioning pollutant power plants risks plunging the island into the dark. Renewable energy can reduce the need to import fossil fuels, but solar and wind power must be supported by equipment that helps deliver electricity when and where it is needed. New energy projects, and new energy storage, must be able to connect to its existing infrastructure. If a solar farm is built in an area where transmission lines cannot carry the additional electricity, the project may not provide its full intended benefit. This is why renewable-energy development must happen alongside improvements to transmission, distribution, storage, and system controls (CRS, 2025; EDF, 2026). The transition also raises questions about affordability. A household that can afford rooftop solar and batteries may have more options during an outage, while a household with fewer financial resources may still depend entirely on the coal powered wider grid. Support programs and community-based projects can help ensure that improvements reach people who need them most (EDF, 2026). Although if these programs and initiatives can scale fast enough to reach the population that needs help the most before the lights turn out remains up for debate. [[File:Renewable Energy Goals.png|center|528x528px]] {| class="wikitable" |+Timeline of Important Events !Year !Event !Why it matters |- |2014 |Act 57 changed parts of PREPA's governance and oversight |It was part of the effort to reform the electricity sector |- |2017 |Hurricanes Irma and Maria severely damaged the grid |The storms existing infrastructure and maintenance problems |- |2018 |Act 120 established a framework for private-sector precipitation |It changed how PREPA's assets and operations could be managed |- |2019 |Act 17 established renewable-energy goals |It set a long term direction for the energy transition |- |June 2021 |LUMA began managing transmission and distribution operations |Responsibility for major parts of the grid shifted to a private operator |- |July 2023 |Genera began managing most non-hydroelectric generation operations |Generation management became separate from transmission and distribution |- |2025 |Act 1 changed interim renewable-energy targets and extended planned coal use |It changed the timeline for parts of the energy transition |- |2025- 2026 |Government reports continued to identify outrages and recovery delays |They showed that improving reliability and completing recovery work remained challenges |} (Sources: Government of Puerto Rico, 2018; CRS, 2025; GAO, 2026.) === Conclusion === Puerto Rico’s electricity system shows how difficult it can be to transform essential infrastructure while people continue to depend on it. Hurricanes Irma and Maria exposed weaknesses that had developed over many years. Financial problems, aging equipment, and complicated recovery processes have made rebuilding difficult. Changes in management have altered who operates parts of the system, but reliable electricity remains a major concern. The case studies show that no single solution can fix every problem. Proper dispersion of federal funds can unlock the ability to transform the island territory electrical system, provided there is a custom plan to deal with the unique challenges. Stronger equipment can reduce storm damage, better coordination can help recovery projects move forward, and clear oversight can improve accountability. Solar panels, batteries, and other local energy systems decouple demand so communities can maintain essential electricity during outages. A failing system can be transformed while it continues to provide service, but only through careful planning, cooperation, funding, and attention to the needs of residents. The goal should not be to rebuild the old system exactly as it was. The flaws of the old system must be identified, the realistic tradeoffs of the current state must be accepted, and then a plan for the future can be made. === References === Congressional Research Service. (2025). Electric reliability and resiliency in Puerto Rico (IF12913). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF12913 Environmental Defense Fund. (2026, June 12). Transforming Puerto Rico’s energy system. https://www.edf.org/energy/strengthening-puerto-ricos-energy-system Government Accountability Office. (2026). El Apagón—The Blackout: Puerto Rico’s continuing struggle for stable electricity. https://www.gao.gov/blog/el-apagon-blackout.-puerto-ricos-continuing-struggle-stable-electricity Government of Puerto Rico. (2018). Puerto Rico Electric Power System Transformation Act, Act No. 120-2018. https://bvirtualogp.pr.gov/ogp/Bvirtual/leyesreferencia/PDF/2-ingles/120-2018.pdf Sotomayor, F. (2020). Master’s paper on Puerto Rico’s electric power system and the potential for a utility-scale solar farm on Culebra. Clark University. https://commons.clarku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1258&context=idce_masters_papers ttoviwjv25dvid59ruusz5qk5ib9rhv 4681663 4681662 2026-11-11T17:29:30Z Declan710 3626846 Formatting edits. 4681663 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == <mapframe latitude="18.247612" longitude="-66.442566" zoom="8" width="309" height="373" text="Map of Puerto Rico" align="right" />Puerto Rico’s electric power system provides electricity to homes, businesses, hospitals, schools, and other important services. However, the system has faced several problems, including frequent outages, aging equipment, financial difficulties, slow disaster recovery, and disagreements about how the system should be managed. For many years, the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA) operated the island’s electricity system. Before Hurricane Maria struck in September 2017, PREPA already faced problems with old equipment, expensive fuel, limited maintenance, and large amounts of debt. Hurricanes Irma and Maria exposed these weaknesses and caused widespread damage to the power grid (Sotomayor, 2020; Government of Puerto Rico, 2018). Since the hurricanes, Puerto Rico has tried to repair the grid while also changing how it is managed. Private companies have taken over certain operations, the federal government has provided recovery funding, and communities have explored renewable energy and battery storage. However, these changes have not solved every problem. For example, government reports have continued to identify power outages and delays in completing recovery projects (Congressional Research Service [CRS], 2025; U.S. Government Accountability Office [GAO], 2026). This casebook examines the tension at the heart of Puerto Rico's grid recovery: How to fundamentally overhaul a failing infrastructure network without interrupting the daily electricity service that hospitals, homes, and businesses rely on to survive. == Hurricane Maria and the Failure of the Power Grid == Puerto Rico’s power grid already had serious weaknesses before Hurricane Maria struck on September 20, 2017. Hurricane Irma had passed near the island earlier that month, damaging electricity, water, and communication systems. Maria then caused much more widespread damage, leaving many residents without electricity for long periods (Sotomayor, 2020). One problem was the way electricity was produced and transported across the island. Many major power plants were located in southern Puerto Rico, while much of the electricity demand was in the north. Only a limited number of high-voltage transmission lines connected these areas. This made the system vulnerable because damage to a major transmission line could prevent electricity from reaching communities that needed it (Sotomayor, 2020). For example, if a major power plant in the south stopped working during a hurricane, the remaining power plants and transmission lines would have to carry more of the electricity demand. If several transmission lines were also damaged, the system might not be able to deliver enough electricity to the north. This shows how damage to a few important parts of a centralized system can affect many customers. Puerto Rico also depended heavily on imported fuels, including oil, natural gas, and coal. This meant that electricity production relied on fuel shipments and port facilities. If a hurricane damaged a port or disrupted fuel deliveries, power plants could face additional problems obtaining the fuel they needed (Sotomayor, 2020; CRS, 2025). The hurricanes showed that simply replacing damaged equipment would not be enough. Puerto Rico also needed stronger infrastructure, regular maintenance, and better plans for handling future storms. For example, stronger transmission poles and better-protected substations could help reduce storm damage, while backup power systems could help essential services continue operating during outages. The main lesson is Puerto Rico’s experience shows that a power system must be designed to withstand disasters, not just operate during normal conditions. [[File:The use of Solar Power and Batteries.png|center|555x555px]] == PREPA’s Financial Problems and Institutional Restructuring == PREPA faced financial and operating problems for many years. Act 120-2018 described issues such as aging infrastructure, expensive fuel, poor maintenance, administrative problems, and large amounts of debt. These problems made it difficult for PREPA to pay for improvements while continuing to provide electricity (Government of Puerto Rico, 2018). The government responded by creating a legal framework that allowed private companies to take over certain operations and allowed some electricity-generation assets to be sold. The goal was to improve efficiency, modernize the system, and make electricity service more financially sustainable. As part of this restructuring, LUMA began managing transmission and distribution operations on June 1, 2021. Genera Puerto Rico began managing most non-hydroelectric generation operations on July 1, 2023, while PREPA continued operating its hydroelectric plants (CRS, 2025). This division of responsibilities can make coordination especially important. For example, when a neighborhood loses power because a distribution line is damaged, the organization responsible for that line must identify the problem and arrange repairs. If the  repair also requires coordination with a power plant operator or another agency, the organizations must communicate clearly to restore service as quickly as possible. Changing the management structure, however, does not automatically repair old power lines or prevent future outages. The CRS reported that Puerto Rico continued to experience partial and island-wide blackouts in 2025 (CRS, 2025). This shows why the results of restructuring should be judged by actual improvements, such as fewer outages, faster repairs, better maintenance, and more affordable electricity. The key takeaway is changing who manages the system can be part of the solution, but the changes must lead to better service and stronger infrastructure. == Main Organizations and Their Roles == PREPA is the public corporation associated with Puerto Rico’s electricity assets and financial restructuring. LUMA manages transmission and distribution operations, while Genera manages most non-hydroelectric generation operations. These different responsibilities mean that repairing a damaged power line, managing a power plant, and planning future energy projects may require coordination among several organizations (CRS, 2025). The Puerto Rico Energy Bureau regulates the energy sector, including important planning and rate decisions. Federal agencies also play major roles. FEMA supports eligible disaster recovery projects, HUD provides community development funding that includes grid recovery, and DOE supports energy assessments and modernization efforts. Local communities and energy partners contribute by identifying needs and developing projects such as residential solar and battery systems (CRS, 2025; GAO, 2026; EDF, 2026). For example, improving electricity service in a community may require a utility operator to repair equipment, a government agency to approve or fund a project, and local organizations to explain which services residents need most. If these groups do not coordinate, a project may be delayed or fail to address the community’s most urgent problems. == Federal Funding and the Slow Recovery Process == After Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico needed major investments to repair and improve its electricity system. Federal agencies, including FEMA, HUD, and DOE, supported recovery and modernization efforts. According to PREPA, more than $15 billion in federal funding had been awarded for the electricity system by June 2023 (CRS, 2025).However, money being awarded does not mean that construction is finished. In its May 2025 report, CRS stated that more than $10 billion in FEMA funding had been obligated for permanent work, but approximately $2 billion had been disbursed. CRS also reported that less than 1% of the $1.9 billion HUD had obligated for the electric grid had been disbursed as of July 2024 (CRS, 2025). These figures refer to different dates and stages of funding, so they should not be treated as the same measure. Recovery can take a long time because projects require engineering plans, reviews, permits, contracts, equipment, and trained workers. GAO reported that only nine of 258 large FEMA-funded permanent grid-recovery projects had been completed by the end of 2025. It identified lengthy reviews, staff turnover, complicated funding requirements, and uncertainty about responsibilities as barriers to progress (GAO, 2026). For example, a project to replace damaged power poles may have funding available but still need engineering approval, environmental review, materials, and a contractor before construction can begin. If one of these steps is delayed, the community may continue relying on damaged or outdated infrastructure while the project waits to move forward. To improve recovery, government agencies need to coordinate their work, make responsibilities clear, and explain delays to the public. They should also report how much money has been spent, which projects have been completed, and whether the work has improved electricity service. Federal funding is important, but it must be turned into completed projects that make the power system more reliable. == Phased Construction: The Balance Between Immediate Needs and Long-term Improvements == Transforming a failing power grid is like performing repair on a car while its whipping down the highway. Puerto Rico cannot shut down its entire electricity system while it replaces equipment and builds a new one. Hospitals, homes, businesses, schools, and emergency services still need electricity during construction and recovery. This repair and overhaul is a dangerous and difficult balance for the multitude of organizations in charge of the electric grid. This means repairs and improvements must happen in stages. For example, crews can repair a damaged transmission line to restore electricity while engineers plan how to strengthen that line against future storms. The immediate repair helps customers today, while the longer-term improvement can reduce the chance of similar problems in the future. However, every source of funding, engineer assigned, and materials helping the necessary immediate repair is a resource diverted from permanent modernization. Following catastrophic damage from major storms, repair is needed, however with the trickle of federal funds this priority has lead to a slowly degrading system. Shifting from emergency repairs to overhauling critical infrastructure without halting service requires steady substantial investment and a strict balance between emergency repairs and permanent upgrades. The same principle applies to management and funding. Puerto Rico has changed who operates different parts of its electricity system, but continuing outages show that organizational changes must be supported by better maintenance, clear responsibilities, and measurable improvements in service (CRS, 2025). Federal funding must also move through planning and construction so that it results in completed projects rather than remaining tied up in lengthy processes (GAO, 2026). Puerto Rico must keep electricity flowing, improve how the system is managed, complete recovery projects, and prepare for a cleaner energy future. At the same time they look to prepare for a cleaner and perhaps more stable electrical grid. In more remote places like Culebra, the US Department of Energy is funding an initiative for a more decentralized, resilient, and green energy source. == Microgrids: Culebra, Solar Power, and Battery Storage == Culebra is a small island municipality off the eastern coast of Puerto Rico. Its residents face the risk of long electricity interruptions when storms damage the wider power system. These outages can affect everyday needs, such as keeping food refrigerated, charging communication devices, and operating medical equipment (Environmental Defense Fund [EDF], 2026). In a 2020 master’s paper, Federico Sotomayor examined the possibility of building a utility-scale solar farm on Culebra. The proposal was intended to increase local electricity production and reduce dependence on the main power system. EDF later described a community-focused project involving residential solar panels and battery storage to help participating households lower energy costs and maintain essential electricity during outages (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Distributed energy resources, such as rooftop solar panels and household battery systems, provide electricity closer to where it is consumed which can ease the burden of grid transformation. A nanogrid generally serves a single building or small group of buildings, whereas a microgrid can connect multiple buildings and local energy resources within a defined electrical network. This creates a buffer that allows engineers to focus on permanent structural upgrades. For example, if a hurricane causes the main grid to fail in the evening, a home with solar panels and a properly configured battery may still be able to power selected appliances. This allows the residences to continue to live and work without complete loss of needed appliances until the utility crews can connect the house back to the grid. This capability, known as islanding, can help maintain electricity service during wider grid outages. Solar panels alone do not guarantee backup electricity. Systems require appropriate inverters, battery storage or another available generation source, and equipment capable of self operation. In addition installing these systems can be expensive, and some residents may need financial assistance to participate. These systems do not replace the need for a strong island-wide grid. Both local backup systems and major infrastructure improvements are needed (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Equipment must also be installed correctly, maintained, and protected from severe weather. A utility-scale solar farm would face additional challenges, including finding suitable land, connecting to the local grid, and determining how much electricity and storage the island would need. The proposal described by Sotomayor should not be treated as proof that the proposed solar farm was built. EDF’s description of residential solar and battery work is a separate community-based approach (Sotomayor, 2020; EDF, 2026). Local renewable energy can help communities prepare for outages, but projects must be affordable, properly designed, and supported over time. [[File:Use of Solar Power and Batteries.png|center|513x513px]] == Renewable Energy Goals and the Future of Puerto Rico’s Grid == Puerto Rico has been working toward a cleaner electricity system, but there are different views about how quickly the transition should happen and which energy sources should be used. Act 17-2019 established a goal of obtaining 100% of Puerto Rico’s electricity from renewable sources by 2050, with earlier targets for 2025 and 2040. Act 1-2025 removed those interim targets and extended the planned end of coal use from 2028 to 2032 (CRS, 2025). This reveals the reality of attempting to overhaul a crippled system in real time. With the livelihood of the territory's residences on the line, ambitious and ideological goals fall to the wayside. The immediate stability of the degrading system once again becomes the first priority. Extending coal dependency is an admission that until the physical and institutional core of the grid is rebuilt, decommissioning pollutant power plants risks plunging the island into the dark. Renewable energy can reduce the need to import fossil fuels, but solar and wind power must be supported by equipment that helps deliver electricity when and where it is needed. New energy projects, and new energy storage, must be able to connect to its existing infrastructure. If a solar farm is built in an area where transmission lines cannot carry the additional electricity, the project may not provide its full intended benefit. This is why renewable-energy development must happen alongside improvements to transmission, distribution, storage, and system controls (CRS, 2025; EDF, 2026). The transition also raises questions about affordability. A household that can afford rooftop solar and batteries may have more options during an outage, while a household with fewer financial resources may still depend entirely on the coal powered wider grid. Support programs and community-based projects can help ensure that improvements reach people who need them most (EDF, 2026). Although if these programs and initiatives can scale fast enough to reach the population that needs help the most before the lights turn out remains up for debate. [[File:Renewable Energy Goals.png|center|528x528px]] {| class="wikitable" |+Timeline of Important Events !Year !Event !Why it matters |- |2014 |Act 57 changed parts of PREPA's governance and oversight |It was part of the effort to reform the electricity sector |- |2017 |Hurricanes Irma and Maria severely damaged the grid |The storms existing infrastructure and maintenance problems |- |2018 |Act 120 established a framework for private-sector precipitation |It changed how PREPA's assets and operations could be managed |- |2019 |Act 17 established renewable-energy goals |It set a long term direction for the energy transition |- |June 2021 |LUMA began managing transmission and distribution operations |Responsibility for major parts of the grid shifted to a private operator |- |July 2023 |Genera began managing most non-hydroelectric generation operations |Generation management became separate from transmission and distribution |- |2025 |Act 1 changed interim renewable-energy targets and extended planned coal use |It changed the timeline for parts of the energy transition |- |2025- 2026 |Government reports continued to identify outrages and recovery delays |They showed that improving reliability and completing recovery work remained challenges |} (Sources: Government of Puerto Rico, 2018; CRS, 2025; GAO, 2026.) == Conclusion == Puerto Rico’s electricity system shows how difficult it can be to transform essential infrastructure while people continue to depend on it. Hurricanes Irma and Maria exposed weaknesses that had developed over many years. Financial problems, aging equipment, and complicated recovery processes have made rebuilding difficult. Changes in management have altered who operates parts of the system, but reliable electricity remains a major concern. The case studies show that no single solution can fix every problem. Proper dispersion of federal funds can unlock the ability to transform the island territory electrical system, provided there is a custom plan to deal with the unique challenges. Stronger equipment can reduce storm damage, better coordination can help recovery projects move forward, and clear oversight can improve accountability. Solar panels, batteries, and other local energy systems decouple demand so communities can maintain essential electricity during outages. A failing system can be transformed while it continues to provide service, but only through careful planning, cooperation, funding, and attention to the needs of residents. The goal should not be to rebuild the old system exactly as it was. The flaws of the old system must be identified, the realistic tradeoffs of the current state must be accepted, and then a plan for the future can be made. == References == # ''Congressional Research Service. (2025). Electric reliability and resiliency in Puerto Rico (IF12913). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF12913'' # ''Environmental Defense Fund. (2026, June 12). Transforming Puerto Rico’s energy system. https://www.edf.org/energy/strengthening-puerto-ricos-energy-system'' # ''Government Accountability Office. (2026). El Apagón—The Blackout: Puerto Rico’s continuing struggle for stable electricity. https://www.gao.gov/blog/el-apagon-blackout.-puerto-ricos-continuing-struggle-stable-electricity'' # ''Government of Puerto Rico. (2018). Puerto Rico Electric Power System Transformation Act, Act No. 120-2018. https://bvirtualogp.pr.gov/ogp/Bvirtual/leyesreferencia/PDF/2-ingles/120-2018.pdf'' # ''Sotomayor, F. (2020). Master’s paper on Puerto Rico’s electric power system and the potential for a utility-scale solar farm on Culebra. Clark University. https://commons.clarku.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1258&context=idce_masters_papers'' b1tj5lj8l14e7jopqfz1hw59mnbem7o 4 486385 4681786 4680909 2026-11-12T08:10:30Z ArchiverBot 1227662 Bot: Archiving 1 thread from [[Wikibooks:Reading room/Administrative Assistance]] 4681786 wikitext text/x-wiki {{talk archive}} == Tunde akinlabi reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Tunde akinlabi}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Tunde akinlabi/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:18, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Barakat isiaka reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Barakat isiaka}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Barakat isiaka/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 1 October 2026 (UTC) : Page was deleted by another admin. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:11, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Roconpaas01 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Roconpaas01}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315913]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Roconpaas01/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:19, 2 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 14:10, 2 October 2026 (UTC) == Diiminstitute reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Diiminstitute}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/315963]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Diiminstitute/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 02:34, 4 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} --[[User:SHB|SHB]] ([[User talk:SHB|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB|contribs]]) 02:58, 4 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-51118-27 reported by EggRoll97 == * {{anonlinks|~2026-51118-27}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-51118-27/ --> [[User:EggRoll97|EggRoll97]] ([[User talk:EggRoll97|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/EggRoll97|contribs]]) 07:28, 4 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}} by NDG (GS). [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 13:13, 4 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-53393-86 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-53393-86}} Vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-53393-86/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:37, 5 October 2026 (UTC) :Various contributions deleted—watching to see how this develops. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 19:15, 5 October 2026 (UTC) == [[CustomChessTheory]] == Reason for reporting: Wrong title, renaming needed. [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:45, 5 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:21, 8 October 2026 (UTC) == Siddhgiritubes reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Siddhgiritubes}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Siddhgiritubes/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:31, 7 October 2026 (UTC) : Page deleted by JJPMaster. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:09, 8 October 2026 (UTC) == Editbots reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Editbots}} Link spam ([[Special:AbuseLog/316068]], [[Special:Contributions/~2026-54143-79]]) <!-- USERREPORTED:/Editbots/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:13, 8 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:10, 8 October 2026 (UTC) == Lenawalker1 reported by TechVindicator == * {{userlinks|Lenawalker1}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Lenawalker1/ --> [[User:TechVindicator|TechVindicator]] ([[User talk:TechVindicator|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/TechVindicator|contribs]]) 04:07, 10 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Dealt with}} by SHB —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 04:31, 11 October 2026 (UTC) == Cleanwipes reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Cleanwipes}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/316154]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Cleanwipes/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:21, 14 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:20, 14 October 2026 (UTC) == Suniluv2026 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Suniluv2026}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/316149]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Suniluv2026/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:22, 14 October 2026 (UTC) : {{done}}. [[User:Codename Noreste|<span style="color: blue">Codename Noreste</span>]] /// [[User talk:Codename Noreste|⭐️✨]] 15:21, 14 October 2026 (UTC) == Rudrashares01 reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Rudrashares01}} Spam <!-- USERREPORTED:/Rudrashares01/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:26, 15 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 19:25, 15 October 2026 (UTC) == Rimshad12 reported by Morkoz == * {{userlinks|Rimshad12}} Spam ([[:m:special:GlobalContributions/Rimshad12|cross-wiki]]) <!-- USERREPORTED:/Rimshad12/ --> [[User:Morkoz|Morkoz]] ([[User talk:Morkoz|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Morkoz|contribs]]) 06:06, 16 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done|Locked}} --[[User:SHB|SHB]] ([[User talk:SHB|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/SHB|contribs]]) 11:41, 16 October 2026 (UTC) == Wanjigires reported by MathXplore == * {{userlinks|Wanjigires}} Link spam, [[Special:AbuseLog/316338]] <!-- USERREPORTED:/Wanjigires/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 04:22, 24 October 2026 (UTC) == Hoquangvinh70 reported by MathsScienceNerd1 == * {{userlinks|Hoquangvinh70}} Link spam, see userpage <!-- USERREPORTED:/Hoquangvinh70/ --> [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 12:44, 24 October 2026 (UTC) == Help == I need help with the contributions of user [[User:Ԛѣуех|Ԛѣуех]]. I initially rollbacked the edits because it was vandalism, which I later reverted, because it was a misclick. Though, looking at the diff, it looks as if it was vandalism, so I reverted my edit. Could a moderator please check if it was vandalism/ test edit, because I am not too sure. [[User:MathsScienceNerd1|MathsScienceNerd1]] ([[User talk:MathsScienceNerd1|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathsScienceNerd1|contribs]]) 04:19, 25 October 2026 (UTC) == ~2026-57615-63 reported by MathXplore == * {{anonlinks|~2026-57615-63}} vandalism <!-- USERREPORTED:/~2026-57615-63/ --> [[User:MathXplore|MathXplore]] ([[User talk:MathXplore|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MathXplore|contribs]]) 12:46, 28 October 2026 (UTC) :{{done}} ―[[User:Koavf|Justin (<span style="color:grey">ko'''a'''<span style="color:black">v</span>f</span>)]]<span style="color:red">❤[[User talk:Koavf|T]]☮[[Special:Contributions/Koavf|C]]☺[[Special:Emailuser/Koavf|M]]☯</span> 23:21, 28 October 2026 (UTC) tfq5ce1rwjh9iyrkysjrl50boxvtv55 0 486426 4681599 4680566 2026-11-11T12:47:32Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681599 wikitext text/x-wiki == Create Monsters? == If monsters are not real, then man would have to create them. <br> <br> Yet why do we need to create monsters when nature has already created many fascinating creatures? <br> <br> According to Natalie Lawrence, from the University of Cambridge: <br> Exotic beasts brought to Europe for the first time in the 16th century, such as armadillos or walruses, were often interpreted as 'monstrous'. More accurately, they were made into monsters: things that did not fit into the accepted natural categories. An armadillo became a pig-turtle, while a walrus was a fish-ox. [1] <br> <br> Displaying exotic animals from around the world may have been a money-making business, yet creating monsters to show before a gullible crowd became a money-making fraud! <br> <br> According to Lawrence, "Making monsters added value. They were commercially lucrative things: oddities, curiosities and rare things were very marketable." [1] <br> <br> The lust for money is great. Overtime, creative salesmen went to great lengths to convince other people that monsters were real and could be owned or closely examined. <br> <br> According to Lawrence, from the University of Cambridge: <br> The market for monstrosity motivated the literal creation of monsters: 'mermaids' were assembled from pieces of fish, monkeys and other objects while 'ray-dragons' were created from carefully mutilated and dried rays. These objects could be sold to collectors or displayed in menageries and freak-shows. Writing about and portraying virtual monsters helped to sell books and pamphlets. [1] <br> <br> The capture of a Hodag is a great example of a modern-day hoax. The origin of Hodag stories comes from Eugene Shepard, a Trapper who told the public that he had captured a wild beast named a Hodag. Customers paid money to see the wild Hodag. The creature displayed was actually a wood carving, covered in an animal pelt. It was later revealed that Shepard had ran wires to the Hodag's legs, to give the wood dummy movement. As the story of the Hodag grew, it drew greater scrutiny. Under pressure, Shepard came clean and admitted to crafting a hoax, yet people continued to seek out the Hodag. [2] <br> <br> In Wisconsin today, the Hodag is popular. There is an annual Hodag music festival, and a country festival. The Hodag has made appearances in the world of ''Harry Potter'' and ''Scooby Doo''. Sports teams have also been named after the Hodag. [2] <br> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ Hodag |- ! [[File:Hodag 002.jpg|thumb|Hodag 002]] |- | The Hodag in front of the Rhinelander chamber of commerce. |} <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. Lawrence, Natelie. What Is A Monster? September 7, 2015 Under Research In The University of Cambridge https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/discussion/what-is-a-monster <br> <br> 2. Estep, Richard. Monsters: Myths, Legends, and Real Encounters. Visible Ink Press. 2026 <br> <br> <noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Two Part Two|Chapter Four|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> e1m9uc9hn9atudztl106x4y212tutq9 2 486460 4681641 4677499 2026-11-11T16:19:18Z Shivasrivastava29 3628922 4681641 wikitext text/x-wiki = '''ESP32 Microcontroller''' = ESP32 is a 32-bit dual core Xtensa LX6 processor based microcontroller which supports multiple programming language such as C, C++ and micropython to perform embedded tasks. Developed by ESPRESSIF, integreated with inbuit Wi-Fi, Bluetooth(BLE), ADC and DAC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Maier |first=Alexander |last2=Sharp |first2=Andrew |last3=Vagapov |first3=Yuriy |date=2017-09 |title=Comparative analysis and practical implementation of the ESP32 microcontroller module for the internet of things |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8101926 |journal=2017 Internet Technologies and Applications (ITA) |pages=143–148 |doi=10.1109/ITECHA.2017.8101926}}</ref> === ESP32-WROOM-32 Specifications === * CPU - XTENSA LX6 * Architecture - RISC * Core - 2 * Maximum Clock - 240MHz * SRAM - 520KB (on-chip) * Wi-Fi - 2.4 GHz, 802.11 b/g/n * Bluetooth - Both classic bluetooth and BLE(Bluetooth Low Energy) * Operating Voltage - 3.3V * ADC - 12 bit * DAC - 2 ,8 bit * Communication - UART, SPI, I2C, CAN-compatable TWAI === Communication Protocols === ==== UART - Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter ==== An asynchronous serial communication protocol used to transfer data between two devices. * TX (Transmit): Sends data * RX (Receive): Receives data ==== I2C - Inter Integrated Circuit ==== Two wire synchronized serial communication developed by Philips(now NXP) to connect multiple sensors and display module to one microcontroller. * SDA(Serial Data): Transfers Data * SCL(Serial Clock): Synchronizes Data ==== SPI – Serial Peripheral Interface ==== Synchronous Serial Protocol to transfer data between peripeheral devices and microcontroller. * MOSI (Master Out Slave In): Data from controller to peripheral * MISO (Master In Slave Out): Data from peripheral to controller * SCLK (Serial Clock): Synchronizes data * CS/SS (Chip Select / Slave Select): Selects the peripheral === REFERENCES === # https://www.espressif.com/sites/default/files/documentation/esp32-wroom-32_datasheet_en.pdf # https://www.espressif.com/sites/default/files/documentation/esp32_technical_reference_manual_en.pdf # https://docs.espressif.com/projects/esp-idf/en/stable/esp32/api-reference/peripherals/uart.html # https://docs.espressif.com/projects/esp-idf/en/stable/esp32/api-reference/peripherals/i2c.html # [https://docs.espressif.com/projects/esp-idf/en/stable/esp32/api-reference/peripherals/spi_master.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com https://docs.espressif.com/projects/esp-idf/en/stable/esp32/api-reference/peripherals/spi_master.html] ru9407a7eq0xbvw352xcpbqaicgum14 0 486462 4681715 4677562 2026-11-11T18:28:17Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681715 wikitext text/x-wiki In the realm of transportation infrastructure, the structure of funding programs is critical to understanding how projects are planned and executed. Two primary examples of funding mechanisms are taxes and tolls. Taxes, particularly fuel taxes, serve as a critical part of transportation funding in the U.S. The federal government, states, and local governments all levy fuel taxes, which are deposited into the Highway Trust Fund (HTF). This fund is the primary source of federal transportation dollars, supporting the construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, and transit systems across the country. However, with fuel efficiency improving and the rise of electric vehicles, fuel tax revenues have stagnated, leading to funding gaps that challenge the sustainability of this mechanism​<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Last Exit: Fixing the Highway Trust Fund while Solvency is still Solvable |url=https://enotrans.org/the-last-exit/ |access-date=2026-10-21 |website=Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref>. On the other hand, tolls represent a user-based financing method, where those who directly use a specific transportation facility—such as highways, bridges, or tunnels—pay for its upkeep. Tolling is increasingly popular for financing new infrastructure or maintaining existing roads, especially in densely populated regions where congestion pricing or electronic toll collection can help manage demand while generating revenue.   While taxes provide a stable but increasingly insufficient funding base, tolls offer a flexible, scalable solution to meet the growing demands on transportation infrastructure. Both mechanisms are essential to understanding how transportation projects are financed and executed in the modern era, with each presenting unique challenges and opportunities for policymakers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> === Funding Programs for Capital Investment === ==== Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) ==== The most significant recent legislation for federal capital investment funding is the IIJA, signed into law in 2021. This bipartisan legislation seeks to enhance U.S. infrastructure and generate employment. With an investment exceeding $1 trillion, it designates funds for key sectors including transportation, broadband, water, and energy. The initiative is anticipated to create millions of jobs and will be implemented in phases over several years. The IIJA authorized spending on federal highway and public transportation programs until September 30, 2026. It included a substantial $118 billion in general fund transfers to the HTF, securing its solvency throughout the act's duration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act |url=https://www.ey.com/en_us/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.ey.com |language=en-US}}</ref> However, projections from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) foresee a shortfall of $149.7 billion over the five fiscal years following the IIJA's expiration, prompting discussions on how to address this potential deficit. This issue is chronic and not yet directly addressed by the Congress beyond increasing the amounts transferred from the general fund. The IIJA introduced changes to the funding structure by providing additional non-trust fund sums through advance multiyear supplemental appropriations. It included advance appropriations totaling $47 billion for highways and $21 billion for public transportation over FY2022-FY2026, ensuring a guaranteed funding source.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - Funding {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/funding.cfm |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The IIJA's reliance on large general fund amounts, in addition to HTF monies, may  a focal point during its reauthorization debate in FY2025-FY2026. Potential considerations include exploring options such as raising motor fuel taxes, adopting a vehicle miles traveled (VMT) charge, implementing a carbon tax, or an electric vehicle fee. Alternatives involve continuing the use of Treasury general fund transfers, potentially requiring budget offsets, or evaluating a combination of authorized trust-funded budget authority and multiyear appropriations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-13 |title=Running on Empty: The Highway Trust Fund |url=https://enotrans.org/article/running-on-empty-the-highway-trust-fund/ |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=The Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref> ==== Multimodal Project Discretionary Grants (MPDG) ==== Several programs will be highlighted in the coming pages, collectively supporting a wide range of transportation projects aligned with the Department of Transportation's strategic goals. MPDG represents a collection of grant programs aimed at funding these initiatives. This includes categories such as MEGA Grants, INFRA Grants, and Rural Grants, each designed to address specific transportation needs. MEGA Grants: These grants provide substantial funding for large-scale transportation projects that have significant regional or national impacts. Examples of such projects include the construction of major highways, bridges, and transit systems that enhance connectivity and economic growth. Mega Grants are crucial for undertaking ambitious infrastructure projects that require extensive resources and long-term commitment. INFRA Grants: The Infrastructure for Rebuilding America (INFRA) grants are aimed at addressing critical transportation challenges that impede the efficient movement of goods and people. These grants focus on projects that improve freight mobility, reduce congestion, enhance safety, and boost the reliability of transportation networks. INFRA grants support initiatives that are vital for maintaining the competitiveness of the U.S. economy by ensuring that critical infrastructure is modernized and well-maintained. Rural Grants: Recognizing the unique transportation needs of rural areas, Rural Grants provide targeted funding to support infrastructure projects in these regions. These grants help address the disparities in transportation infrastructure between urban and rural areas, ensuring that rural communities have access to safe and reliable transportation options. Projects funded by Rural Grants often include road improvements, bridge repairs, and enhancements to public transit systems, which are crucial for the economic and social well-being of rural populations. ==== Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) Program<ref>{{Cite web |title=RAISE Discretionary Grants |url=https://www.transportation.gov/RAISEgrants |access-date=04/01/2024}}</ref> ==== The Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) program, formerly known as BUILD (Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development) and TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery), is a discretionary grant initiative managed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. The RAISE program aims to invest in a wide range of infrastructure projects, including road, rail, transit, and port projects. It supports state and local project sponsors and focuses on projects that are multimodal and multi-jurisdictional in nature. A key feature of the RAISE program is its investment in a diverse array of infrastructure projects. The program allocates funds to a wide range of initiatives aimed at improving transportation networks across various modes, including highways, rail systems, public transit, and port facilities. This broad approach ensures a comprehensive strategy for infrastructure development, contributing to a more resilient and robust transportation system. Another important aspect of the RAISE program is its support for multimodal projects. By funding initiatives that integrate multiple transportation modes, the program seeks to foster a more efficient and interconnected transportation network. This multimodal strategy aims to reduce congestion, decrease emissions, and enhance overall transportation efficiency. For example, a project might upgrade both rail and road infrastructure, creating smoother connections between different transportation modes and improving the movement of goods and people. The RAISE program emphasizes equity and sustainability in its approach. It is designed to ensure that infrastructure investments benefit all communities, especially those that have been historically underserved. Projects funded through RAISE are intended to advance environmental sustainability by supporting green infrastructure and reducing transportation-related carbon emissions. Additionally, these projects aim to promote economic growth and social equity, contributing to the overall well-being of diverse populations. The program's focus on these values aims to support a more inclusive and sustainable future for transportation infrastructure in the United States. === '''Financial Programs for Capital Investments''' === Modern infrastructure financing has evolved to include a range of mechanisms beyond traditional “pay as you go” excise taxes aimed at improving the efficiency of public funds, accelerating project delivery, and stimulating economic growth through the use of private capital and the distribution of financial risk. The Federal government plays a crucial role in this process, with agencies such as the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Department of the Treasury being central to the support and facilitation of these financing approaches. A notable development in this area is the establishment of the Build America Bureau. This initiative, part of a broader government effort to enhance infrastructure investment, was designed to actively involve private sector investors, foster collaboration, and expand opportunities for public-private partnerships (P3s). The Bureau supports this objective through key programs such as the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) and the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) credit programs.   This section will examine these financial programs and other federal initiatives that play a role in capital investments, providing an overview of their impact and function in the current infrastructure financing landscape. ==== Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation (TIFIA) Program ==== TIFIA, established in 1998, is a federal initiative aimed at enhancing the impact of limited Federal resources and attracting significant capital market investment in transportation infrastructure. It provides credit assistance through mechanisms such as direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit, focusing on projects of national or regional importance. The program's objectives include facilitating projects with substantial public benefits, exploring innovative revenue streams, encouraging private sector involvement, and addressing gaps in capital markets. TIFIA operates under a framework that includes requirements for project cost determinations, credit assistance limits, investment-grade ratings, and compliance with federal regulations. The application process for TIFIA is rolling and allows various entities, including state governments and transportation improvement districts, to submit project proposals. Eligible projects range widely, from highways and bridges to transit facilities and airports. To qualify, projects must demonstrate creditworthiness, obtain investment-grade ratings, and show readiness to proceed. Legislative changes have significantly influenced TIFIA. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century (MAP-21) Act of 2012 greatly expanded TIFIA's credit authority and introduced a "first-come, first-served" application process. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 reduced the program’s credit authority and clarified refinancing rules. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021 further enhanced TIFIA by extending commitment periods, increasing project rating thresholds, and broadening eligible project types, while streamlining the application process for projects ready to start within 90 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: Selected Changes Impacting Public-Private Partnerships {{!}} Bracewell LLP |url=https://bracewell.com/insights/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-selected-changes-impacting-public-private |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=bracewell.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. [[File:Sources_of_Funds_for_Transit_Operating_Expenditures.png|none|thumb|Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures]] '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. === References === {{BookCat}} 7ej858bla1gp51jd3kdx4lgf9b79d54 4681722 4681715 2026-11-11T19:54:56Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681722 wikitext text/x-wiki == Funding and Finance at the Federal Level == In the realm of transportation infrastructure, the structure of funding programs is critical to understanding how projects are planned and executed. Two primary examples of funding mechanisms are taxes and tolls. Taxes, particularly fuel taxes, serve as a critical part of transportation funding in the U.S. The federal government, states, and local governments all levy fuel taxes, which are deposited into the Highway Trust Fund (HTF). This fund is the primary source of federal transportation dollars, supporting the construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, and transit systems across the country. However, with fuel efficiency improving and the rise of electric vehicles, fuel tax revenues have stagnated, leading to funding gaps that challenge the sustainability of this mechanism​<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Last Exit: Fixing the Highway Trust Fund while Solvency is still Solvable |url=https://enotrans.org/the-last-exit/ |access-date=2026-10-21 |website=Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref>. On the other hand, tolls represent a user-based financing method, where those who directly use a specific transportation facility—such as highways, bridges, or tunnels—pay for its upkeep. Tolling is increasingly popular for financing new infrastructure or maintaining existing roads, especially in densely populated regions where congestion pricing or electronic toll collection can help manage demand while generating revenue.   While taxes provide a stable but increasingly insufficient funding base, tolls offer a flexible, scalable solution to meet the growing demands on transportation infrastructure. Both mechanisms are essential to understanding how transportation projects are financed and executed in the modern era, with each presenting unique challenges and opportunities for policymakers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> === Funding Programs for Capital Investment === ==== Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) ==== The most significant recent legislation for federal capital investment funding is the IIJA, signed into law in 2021. This bipartisan legislation seeks to enhance U.S. infrastructure and generate employment. With an investment exceeding $1 trillion, it designates funds for key sectors including transportation, broadband, water, and energy. The initiative is anticipated to create millions of jobs and will be implemented in phases over several years. The IIJA authorized spending on federal highway and public transportation programs until September 30, 2026. It included a substantial $118 billion in general fund transfers to the HTF, securing its solvency throughout the act's duration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act |url=https://www.ey.com/en_us/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.ey.com |language=en-US}}</ref> However, projections from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) foresee a shortfall of $149.7 billion over the five fiscal years following the IIJA's expiration, prompting discussions on how to address this potential deficit. This issue is chronic and not yet directly addressed by the Congress beyond increasing the amounts transferred from the general fund. The IIJA introduced changes to the funding structure by providing additional non-trust fund sums through advance multiyear supplemental appropriations. It included advance appropriations totaling $47 billion for highways and $21 billion for public transportation over FY2022-FY2026, ensuring a guaranteed funding source.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - Funding {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/funding.cfm |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The IIJA's reliance on large general fund amounts, in addition to HTF monies, may  a focal point during its reauthorization debate in FY2025-FY2026. Potential considerations include exploring options such as raising motor fuel taxes, adopting a vehicle miles traveled (VMT) charge, implementing a carbon tax, or an electric vehicle fee. Alternatives involve continuing the use of Treasury general fund transfers, potentially requiring budget offsets, or evaluating a combination of authorized trust-funded budget authority and multiyear appropriations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-13 |title=Running on Empty: The Highway Trust Fund |url=https://enotrans.org/article/running-on-empty-the-highway-trust-fund/ |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=The Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref> ==== Multimodal Project Discretionary Grants (MPDG) ==== Several programs will be highlighted in the coming pages, collectively supporting a wide range of transportation projects aligned with the Department of Transportation's strategic goals. MPDG represents a collection of grant programs aimed at funding these initiatives. This includes categories such as MEGA Grants, INFRA Grants, and Rural Grants, each designed to address specific transportation needs. MEGA Grants: These grants provide substantial funding for large-scale transportation projects that have significant regional or national impacts. Examples of such projects include the construction of major highways, bridges, and transit systems that enhance connectivity and economic growth. Mega Grants are crucial for undertaking ambitious infrastructure projects that require extensive resources and long-term commitment. INFRA Grants: The Infrastructure for Rebuilding America (INFRA) grants are aimed at addressing critical transportation challenges that impede the efficient movement of goods and people. These grants focus on projects that improve freight mobility, reduce congestion, enhance safety, and boost the reliability of transportation networks. INFRA grants support initiatives that are vital for maintaining the competitiveness of the U.S. economy by ensuring that critical infrastructure is modernized and well-maintained. Rural Grants: Recognizing the unique transportation needs of rural areas, Rural Grants provide targeted funding to support infrastructure projects in these regions. These grants help address the disparities in transportation infrastructure between urban and rural areas, ensuring that rural communities have access to safe and reliable transportation options. Projects funded by Rural Grants often include road improvements, bridge repairs, and enhancements to public transit systems, which are crucial for the economic and social well-being of rural populations. ==== Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) Program<ref>{{Cite web |title=RAISE Discretionary Grants |url=https://www.transportation.gov/RAISEgrants |access-date=04/01/2024}}</ref> ==== The Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) program, formerly known as BUILD (Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development) and TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery), is a discretionary grant initiative managed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. The RAISE program aims to invest in a wide range of infrastructure projects, including road, rail, transit, and port projects. It supports state and local project sponsors and focuses on projects that are multimodal and multi-jurisdictional in nature. A key feature of the RAISE program is its investment in a diverse array of infrastructure projects. The program allocates funds to a wide range of initiatives aimed at improving transportation networks across various modes, including highways, rail systems, public transit, and port facilities. This broad approach ensures a comprehensive strategy for infrastructure development, contributing to a more resilient and robust transportation system. Another important aspect of the RAISE program is its support for multimodal projects. By funding initiatives that integrate multiple transportation modes, the program seeks to foster a more efficient and interconnected transportation network. This multimodal strategy aims to reduce congestion, decrease emissions, and enhance overall transportation efficiency. For example, a project might upgrade both rail and road infrastructure, creating smoother connections between different transportation modes and improving the movement of goods and people. The RAISE program emphasizes equity and sustainability in its approach. It is designed to ensure that infrastructure investments benefit all communities, especially those that have been historically underserved. Projects funded through RAISE are intended to advance environmental sustainability by supporting green infrastructure and reducing transportation-related carbon emissions. Additionally, these projects aim to promote economic growth and social equity, contributing to the overall well-being of diverse populations. The program's focus on these values aims to support a more inclusive and sustainable future for transportation infrastructure in the United States. === '''Financial Programs for Capital Investments''' === Modern infrastructure financing has evolved to include a range of mechanisms beyond traditional “pay as you go” excise taxes aimed at improving the efficiency of public funds, accelerating project delivery, and stimulating economic growth through the use of private capital and the distribution of financial risk. The Federal government plays a crucial role in this process, with agencies such as the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Department of the Treasury being central to the support and facilitation of these financing approaches. A notable development in this area is the establishment of the Build America Bureau. This initiative, part of a broader government effort to enhance infrastructure investment, was designed to actively involve private sector investors, foster collaboration, and expand opportunities for public-private partnerships (P3s). The Bureau supports this objective through key programs such as the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) and the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) credit programs.   This section will examine these financial programs and other federal initiatives that play a role in capital investments, providing an overview of their impact and function in the current infrastructure financing landscape. ==== Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation (TIFIA) Program ==== TIFIA, established in 1998, is a federal initiative aimed at enhancing the impact of limited Federal resources and attracting significant capital market investment in transportation infrastructure. It provides credit assistance through mechanisms such as direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit, focusing on projects of national or regional importance. The program's objectives include facilitating projects with substantial public benefits, exploring innovative revenue streams, encouraging private sector involvement, and addressing gaps in capital markets. TIFIA operates under a framework that includes requirements for project cost determinations, credit assistance limits, investment-grade ratings, and compliance with federal regulations. The application process for TIFIA is rolling and allows various entities, including state governments and transportation improvement districts, to submit project proposals. Eligible projects range widely, from highways and bridges to transit facilities and airports. To qualify, projects must demonstrate creditworthiness, obtain investment-grade ratings, and show readiness to proceed. Legislative changes have significantly influenced TIFIA. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century (MAP-21) Act of 2012 greatly expanded TIFIA's credit authority and introduced a "first-come, first-served" application process. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 reduced the program’s credit authority and clarified refinancing rules. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021 further enhanced TIFIA by extending commitment periods, increasing project rating thresholds, and broadening eligible project types, while streamlining the application process for projects ready to start within 90 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: Selected Changes Impacting Public-Private Partnerships {{!}} Bracewell LLP |url=https://bracewell.com/insights/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-selected-changes-impacting-public-private |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=bracewell.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. [[File:Sources_of_Funds_for_Transit_Operating_Expenditures.png|none|thumb|Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures]] '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. === References === {{BookCat}} i2ecnvvlxzatq2vw40gy4zxt7n59pby 4681724 4681722 2026-11-11T19:57:35Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681724 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Funding and Finance at the Federal Level == In the realm of transportation infrastructure, the structure of funding programs is critical to understanding how projects are planned and executed. Two primary examples of funding mechanisms are taxes and tolls. Taxes, particularly fuel taxes, serve as a critical part of transportation funding in the U.S. The federal government, states, and local governments all levy fuel taxes, which are deposited into the Highway Trust Fund (HTF). This fund is the primary source of federal transportation dollars, supporting the construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, and transit systems across the country. However, with fuel efficiency improving and the rise of electric vehicles, fuel tax revenues have stagnated, leading to funding gaps that challenge the sustainability of this mechanism​<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Last Exit: Fixing the Highway Trust Fund while Solvency is still Solvable |url=https://enotrans.org/the-last-exit/ |access-date=2026-10-21 |website=Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref>. On the other hand, tolls represent a user-based financing method, where those who directly use a specific transportation facility—such as highways, bridges, or tunnels—pay for its upkeep. Tolling is increasingly popular for financing new infrastructure or maintaining existing roads, especially in densely populated regions where congestion pricing or electronic toll collection can help manage demand while generating revenue.   While taxes provide a stable but increasingly insufficient funding base, tolls offer a flexible, scalable solution to meet the growing demands on transportation infrastructure. Both mechanisms are essential to understanding how transportation projects are financed and executed in the modern era, with each presenting unique challenges and opportunities for policymakers.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> === Funding Programs for Capital Investment === ==== Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) ==== The most significant recent legislation for federal capital investment funding is the IIJA, signed into law in 2021. This bipartisan legislation seeks to enhance U.S. infrastructure and generate employment. With an investment exceeding $1 trillion, it designates funds for key sectors including transportation, broadband, water, and energy. The initiative is anticipated to create millions of jobs and will be implemented in phases over several years. The IIJA authorized spending on federal highway and public transportation programs until September 30, 2026. It included a substantial $118 billion in general fund transfers to the HTF, securing its solvency throughout the act's duration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act |url=https://www.ey.com/en_us/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.ey.com |language=en-US}}</ref> However, projections from the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) foresee a shortfall of $149.7 billion over the five fiscal years following the IIJA's expiration, prompting discussions on how to address this potential deficit. This issue is chronic and not yet directly addressed by the Congress beyond increasing the amounts transferred from the general fund. The IIJA introduced changes to the funding structure by providing additional non-trust fund sums through advance multiyear supplemental appropriations. It included advance appropriations totaling $47 billion for highways and $21 billion for public transportation over FY2022-FY2026, ensuring a guaranteed funding source.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - Funding {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/funding.cfm |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The IIJA's reliance on large general fund amounts, in addition to HTF monies, may  a focal point during its reauthorization debate in FY2025-FY2026. Potential considerations include exploring options such as raising motor fuel taxes, adopting a vehicle miles traveled (VMT) charge, implementing a carbon tax, or an electric vehicle fee. Alternatives involve continuing the use of Treasury general fund transfers, potentially requiring budget offsets, or evaluating a combination of authorized trust-funded budget authority and multiyear appropriations.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-13 |title=Running on Empty: The Highway Trust Fund |url=https://enotrans.org/article/running-on-empty-the-highway-trust-fund/ |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=The Eno Center for Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref> ==== Multimodal Project Discretionary Grants (MPDG) ==== Several programs will be highlighted in the coming pages, collectively supporting a wide range of transportation projects aligned with the Department of Transportation's strategic goals. MPDG represents a collection of grant programs aimed at funding these initiatives. This includes categories such as MEGA Grants, INFRA Grants, and Rural Grants, each designed to address specific transportation needs. MEGA Grants: These grants provide substantial funding for large-scale transportation projects that have significant regional or national impacts. Examples of such projects include the construction of major highways, bridges, and transit systems that enhance connectivity and economic growth. Mega Grants are crucial for undertaking ambitious infrastructure projects that require extensive resources and long-term commitment. INFRA Grants: The Infrastructure for Rebuilding America (INFRA) grants are aimed at addressing critical transportation challenges that impede the efficient movement of goods and people. These grants focus on projects that improve freight mobility, reduce congestion, enhance safety, and boost the reliability of transportation networks. INFRA grants support initiatives that are vital for maintaining the competitiveness of the U.S. economy by ensuring that critical infrastructure is modernized and well-maintained. Rural Grants: Recognizing the unique transportation needs of rural areas, Rural Grants provide targeted funding to support infrastructure projects in these regions. These grants help address the disparities in transportation infrastructure between urban and rural areas, ensuring that rural communities have access to safe and reliable transportation options. Projects funded by Rural Grants often include road improvements, bridge repairs, and enhancements to public transit systems, which are crucial for the economic and social well-being of rural populations. ==== Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) Program<ref>{{Cite web |title=RAISE Discretionary Grants |url=https://www.transportation.gov/RAISEgrants |access-date=04/01/2024}}</ref> ==== The Rebuilding American Infrastructure with Sustainability and Equity (RAISE) program, formerly known as BUILD (Better Utilizing Investments to Leverage Development) and TIGER (Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery), is a discretionary grant initiative managed by the U.S. Department of Transportation. The RAISE program aims to invest in a wide range of infrastructure projects, including road, rail, transit, and port projects. It supports state and local project sponsors and focuses on projects that are multimodal and multi-jurisdictional in nature. A key feature of the RAISE program is its investment in a diverse array of infrastructure projects. The program allocates funds to a wide range of initiatives aimed at improving transportation networks across various modes, including highways, rail systems, public transit, and port facilities. This broad approach ensures a comprehensive strategy for infrastructure development, contributing to a more resilient and robust transportation system. Another important aspect of the RAISE program is its support for multimodal projects. By funding initiatives that integrate multiple transportation modes, the program seeks to foster a more efficient and interconnected transportation network. This multimodal strategy aims to reduce congestion, decrease emissions, and enhance overall transportation efficiency. For example, a project might upgrade both rail and road infrastructure, creating smoother connections between different transportation modes and improving the movement of goods and people. The RAISE program emphasizes equity and sustainability in its approach. It is designed to ensure that infrastructure investments benefit all communities, especially those that have been historically underserved. Projects funded through RAISE are intended to advance environmental sustainability by supporting green infrastructure and reducing transportation-related carbon emissions. Additionally, these projects aim to promote economic growth and social equity, contributing to the overall well-being of diverse populations. The program's focus on these values aims to support a more inclusive and sustainable future for transportation infrastructure in the United States. === '''Financial Programs for Capital Investments''' === Modern infrastructure financing has evolved to include a range of mechanisms beyond traditional “pay as you go” excise taxes aimed at improving the efficiency of public funds, accelerating project delivery, and stimulating economic growth through the use of private capital and the distribution of financial risk. The Federal government plays a crucial role in this process, with agencies such as the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT) and the Department of the Treasury being central to the support and facilitation of these financing approaches. A notable development in this area is the establishment of the Build America Bureau. This initiative, part of a broader government effort to enhance infrastructure investment, was designed to actively involve private sector investors, foster collaboration, and expand opportunities for public-private partnerships (P3s). The Bureau supports this objective through key programs such as the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) and the Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing (RRIF) credit programs.   This section will examine these financial programs and other federal initiatives that play a role in capital investments, providing an overview of their impact and function in the current infrastructure financing landscape. ==== Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation (TIFIA) Program ==== TIFIA, established in 1998, is a federal initiative aimed at enhancing the impact of limited Federal resources and attracting significant capital market investment in transportation infrastructure. It provides credit assistance through mechanisms such as direct loans, loan guarantees, and standby lines of credit, focusing on projects of national or regional importance. The program's objectives include facilitating projects with substantial public benefits, exploring innovative revenue streams, encouraging private sector involvement, and addressing gaps in capital markets. TIFIA operates under a framework that includes requirements for project cost determinations, credit assistance limits, investment-grade ratings, and compliance with federal regulations. The application process for TIFIA is rolling and allows various entities, including state governments and transportation improvement districts, to submit project proposals. Eligible projects range widely, from highways and bridges to transit facilities and airports. To qualify, projects must demonstrate creditworthiness, obtain investment-grade ratings, and show readiness to proceed. Legislative changes have significantly influenced TIFIA. The Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century (MAP-21) Act of 2012 greatly expanded TIFIA's credit authority and introduced a "first-come, first-served" application process. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act of 2015 reduced the program’s credit authority and clarified refinancing rules. The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) of 2021 further enhanced TIFIA by extending commitment periods, increasing project rating thresholds, and broadening eligible project types, while streamlining the application process for projects ready to start within 90 days.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title=Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act: Selected Changes Impacting Public-Private Partnerships {{!}} Bracewell LLP |url=https://bracewell.com/insights/infrastructure-investment-and-jobs-act-selected-changes-impacting-public-private |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=bracewell.com |language=en}}</ref> ==== The Railroad Rehabilitation and Improvement Financing Program (RRIF) Program ==== The RRIF Program was established in 1998 under the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). This program provides direct loans and loan guarantees to support the development of railroad infrastructure. DOT is authorized to offer up to $35.0 billion in credit assistance, with at least $7.0 billion specifically reserved for projects that benefit freight railroads other than Class I carriers. Class I carriers are the largest freight railroads, classified based on revenue thresholds set by the Surface Transportation Board. The RRIF program prioritizes assistance to smaller freight railroads and other entities not classified as Class I carriers to promote broader infrastructure development and support a diverse range of rail services. Eligible applicants for RRIF credit assistance include state and local governments, interstate compacts, government-sponsored authorities and corporations, railroads, limited option rail freight shippers that own or operate a plant or facility, and joint ventures involving at least one of these entities.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''''Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs)''''' ==== A GARVEE (Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicle) is a financial instrument used to provide upfront funding for transportation projects based on anticipated future revenue. Specifically, GARVEEs rely on expected Federal-aid grants as their revenue source. In the context of highway finance, GARVEEs are debt instruments secured by future Title 23 Federal-aid funding. They allow states to use Federal reimbursements to cover debt service and related financing costs, which can include interest payments, principal repayment, and other expenses related to issuing bonds, notes, certificates, mortgages, or leases for eligible projects. GARVEEs offer states the ability to accelerate construction schedules and distribute the financial burden of transportation projects over their useful lifespan, rather than concentrating costs during the construction phase. This approach also provides expanded access to capital markets, complementing other bonding methods such as general obligation or revenue bonds.   The flexibility introduced by GARVEEs, particularly under the NHS Act of 1995, has allowed for longer-term financing of Federal-aid eligible projects and improved states' financial planning capabilities. However, it is important for states to consider the implications of committing future Federal-aid funds for debt service against the immediate financial benefits of GARVEE financing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== Section 129 Loans ==== Generally, tolling is not allowed on Federal-aid projects funded under Title 23. However, Section 129 of Title 23 provides exceptions to this rule by permitting Federal involvement in state loans that are backed by dedicated revenue streams, including tolls. Section 129 allows states to obtain Federal assistance for loans supported by various dedicated revenue sources, such as tolls, excise taxes, sales taxes, real property taxes, motor vehicle taxes, incremental property taxes, or other beneficiary fees. This provision enables states to use these resources to fund transportation projects and to recycle the funding for additional eligible projects. Unlike State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), which is discussed under the state and local section, Section 129 loans offer states flexibility in negotiating terms, including interest rates. When a Section 129 loan is repaid, the state must use the funds for other Title 23 eligible projects or for credit enhancement activities, such as purchasing insurance or establishing a capital reserve. This requirement helps manage the funding for future projects. Section 129 loans are subject to fewer Federal requirements compared to SIB loans. The provision was modified by the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) to allow Federal participation in loans for toll projects and was further expanded by the 1995 National Highway System Act to include loans for non-toll projects supported by dedicated revenue streams. This change aimed to broaden Federal-aid eligibility based on the experiences from the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21). In summary, while Federal-aid projects typically prohibit tolling, Section 129 provides an exception that allows for Federal involvement in state loans supported by tolls and other dedicated revenue sources.<ref name=":1" /> ==== Build America Bonds ==== Build America Bonds (BABs), introduced under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) of February 2009, represent a distinctive form of Federal financing designed to support state and local government projects. Unlike other Federal-aid programs that may have restrictions on taxable interest or specific funding caps, BABs offer a federal interest subsidy to offset the taxable nature of the bonds' interest. Overseen by the Treasury Department, BABs are issued by state or local government entities for public purposes, excluding private activities. This Federal subsidy allows BABs to finance a wide range of projects, including surface transportation, without a volume cap during the years 2009 and 2010. There are two main types of Build America Bonds: Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs. Tax Credit BABs provide investors with a tax credit equal to 35 percent of the interest paid by the issuer, effectively reducing the issuer's interest expense by approximately 26 percent. Investors can apply these tax credits against their regular income tax liability or alternative minimum tax, with the option to carry forward unused credits to subsequent years. This structure allows issuers to attract investors seeking tax-advantaged investments while reducing their borrowing costs. Direct Payment BABs, on the other hand, offer a more straightforward subsidy where the Treasury Department provides a refundable tax credit directly to the issuer equivalent to 35 percent of the gross interest payable to investors. This subsidy is paid in cash and does not depend on the investor's tax liability, making Direct Payment BABs highly attractive and easily marketable. Unlike Tax Credit BABs, Direct Payment BABs are primarily intended for new construction projects and are not applicable for refinancing or working capital purposes. In comparison, Direct Payment BABs provide a higher subsidy rate (35 percent) than Tax Credit BABs (26 percent) and eliminate the need for investors to consider their tax situation when investing. However, their use is restricted to new construction projects, limiting their flexibility compared to Tax Credit BABs. From an investor's standpoint, Direct Payment BABs resemble conventional taxable bonds because the return is received entirely in cash without the tax credit component. In summary, BABs represent a significant innovation in municipal finance by providing states and local governments with flexible financing options to stimulate infrastructure development, particularly during economic downturns. The choice between Tax Credit BABs and Direct Payment BABs depends on the specific financing needs of the issuer and the preferences of potential investors seeking either tax advantages or cash payments.<ref name=":1" /> === Funding for Operational Expenditure === Transportation assets, including highways and transit systems, have regular life cycles requiring ongoing maintenance, repair, and occasional replacement. Deterioration is not linear; it occurs slowly when the asset is new but accelerates as the asset ages, especially if not properly maintained, which increases operating and maintenance costs. Highway infrastructure operating costs encompass activities like fixing potholes, replacing guardrails, and snow removal. Transit infrastructure operating costs include not only maintenance and repair of vehicles and rails but also labor, fuel, and insurance. In 2020, 62% of total transit operating expenses were allocated to employee salaries, wages, and fringe benefits.<ref>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</ref> The remaining operating expenses covered capital costs such as purchasing new buses.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref>  With the launch of the Interstate Highway Program as part of the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the federal government committed to paying 90% of the construction costs of interstate highways. However, the Act did not include maintenance stipulations. The original Federal-Aid Highway program, established by President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, designated states as the owners of the interstate highways and responsible for their maintenance.<ref name=":9">https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/intmaint.cfm</ref>  The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1976 authorized $175 million annually to address maintenance costs for untolled highways, with the federal government covering 90% of operating costs.<ref name=":9" /> This was followed by the Surface Transportation Assistance Act of 1978, which made Interstate “3R” (resurfacing, restoring, and rehabilitating) funding a permanent category within the Act, also making tolled highways eligible for 3R funding. In 1981, "reconstruction" was added as a fourth "R" to replace aged infrastructure that no longer met acceptable levels of service. In 1982, President Ronald Reagan increased the federal gas tax by 5 cents per gallon, with 4 cents going toward the Highway Trust Fund and 1 cent to the Transit Account.<ref name=":9" /> This program went through various iterations until 2005 when the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU) was approved. SAFETEA-LU allotted $100 million annually for 4R work within the Interstate system.<ref name=":9" /> This program expired in 2009, leading to the establishment of the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (MAP-21) in 2012<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 17, 2023 |title=MAP-21 - Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act |url=https://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/mission/policy/map-21-moving-ahead-progress-21st-century-act |website=Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration}}</ref>, which includes clauses addressing reconstruction, resurfacing, restoration, rehabilitation, and preservation of highways and bridges.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MAP-21 Program Explainer: National Highway Performance Program |url=https://t4america.org/maps-tools/map-21/nhpp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Transportation For America |language=en-US}}</ref>  In 2022, 96% of all federal spending ($50 billion) went to capital investments, with the remainder going toward operating expenditures. This funding is not project-specific and is limited to the interstate highway system, excluding local roads.<ref>https://www.cbo.gov/system/files/2023-10/59634.pdf</ref> Given this history and the responsibility placed on states and local governments to maintain highway infrastructure, federal funding for highway operating costs remains highly limited. Federal funding for transit infrastructure falls under a separate account from the Highway Trust Fund. Prior to the 1960s, transit was mostly private and generated enough profits to maintain service. Following the creation of the Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) around 1960, which aimed to establish public transportation agencies to replace failing private ones, transit usage surged during the 1973 oil crisis. This shift ultimately led to the National Mass Transportation Act of 1974, which provided federal support for transit operating costs at a maximum share of 50%.<ref name=":8" /> This Act was popular with many transit operators obtaining federal funding, but in the 1980s, the federal share for transit operating costs was reduced to 30% and further reduced to 25% in the 1990s. Additionally, the Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in the 1990s, eliminated federal support for transit operating costs in urbanized areas with more than 200,000 people while maintaining support for smaller urban areas, rural areas, and small bus operators in large cities starting in 2013. This change was accompanied by a broader definition of capital expenses, allowing traditional operating costs such as preventive maintenance to be considered capital expenses, thus increasing funding.<ref name=":8" /> The chart below shows sources of funds for transit operating expenditures from 2006 to 2016. [[File:Sources_of_Funds_for_Transit_Operating_Expenditures.png|none|thumb|Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures]] '''Figure 2 - Sources of Funds for Transit Operating Expenditures, 2006-2016''' In 2019, with the onset of the Coronavirus Pandemic (COVID-19), transit ridership and revenues rapidly declined, but agencies continued to provide service to support essential workers. From 2019 to 2020, fares and revenues decreased by 40%, local support fell by 16.7% to $16.3 billion, and state support decreased by 0.9% to $12.7 billion '''('''<nowiki>https://www.apta.com/wp-content/uploads/APTA-2022-Public-Transportation-Fact-Book.pdf</nowiki>''')'''. The federal government supported transit agencies during this time with a total of $69.5 billion in 2020 and 2021<ref name=":8" />, a significant increase from the $12 billion received in 2019 and the $19 billion from fares and other revenues<ref name=":8" /> during the same year. Prior to COVID-19, transit fares and revenues covered about 25% of the total cost of providing transit service.<ref name=":8" /> This support was part of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act, which allocated $25 billion through formula funds to urban and rural areas to maintain transit services during the pandemic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/cares-act |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Below is a list of IIJA grant programs that provide opportunities to obtain federal funding for transportation operating costs,<ref>https://gfoaorg.cdn.prismic.io/gfoaorg/0727aa5a-308f-4ef0-addf-140fd43acfb5_BUILDING-A-BETTER-AMERICA-V2.pdf</ref> * State of Good Repair Grants * The Restoration and Enhancement Grant Program * Urbanized Area Formula Grants * Formula Grants for Rural Areas * Enhanced Mobility of Seniors and Individuals with Disabilities * Ferry Service for Rural Communities * Public Transportation on Indian Reservations Formula * Appalachian Development Public Transportation Assistance Program * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Community Charging) * Charging and Fueling Infrastructure Grants (Corridor Charging) * Growing State Apportionments * Growing States and High-Density States Formula === Finance for Operational Expenditure === Federal financing for operational expenditure is very limited as this financial tool is mostly used to fund capital investments and build assets rather than maintain them. Most federal financing mechanisms, such as TIFIA loans, State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs), and Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEEs), are used to pay for construction costs. These financing tools leverage future revenues to pay for the initial investment, and thus are not good tools to pay for daily expenses and repairs. These tools can support operating expenditures in some instances, but they are not primarily used for this purpose. At the federal level, funding sources are a more appropriate tool, but more commonly, state and local funding options are used to cover these expenses. === References === {{BookCat}} 1612ske051u0mncljrjodnpzv2fp1ag 0 486464 4681713 4677561 2026-11-11T18:23:39Z Svrmustafa 3449683 /* State Fuel Taxes and Fees */ 4681713 wikitext text/x-wiki In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities. Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022. This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== State Fuel Taxes and Fees ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes. '''Table 2 - State Fuel Taxes and Fees Averages in 2022''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate. Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes. The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue. ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":322">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":222">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> === References === {{BookCat}} s6or8pq69ekla9usdel8x1n6h7nmfna 4681723 4681713 2026-11-11T19:55:42Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681723 wikitext text/x-wiki = Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level = In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities. Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022. This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== State Fuel Taxes and Fees ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes. '''Table 2 - State Fuel Taxes and Fees Averages in 2022''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate. Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes. The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue. ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":322">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":222">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> === References === {{BookCat}} 5i7l09tbhn2hpb2duwmnod689n5lyud 4681725 4681723 2026-11-11T19:57:49Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681725 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} = Funding and Finance at the State and Local Level = In the United States, the "user pays" principle has long been a cornerstone for highway funding, although it is important to note that this approach has not been as prevalent for transit systems, which have primarily relied on public sector support and subsidies since their transition in the 1960s. During this period, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) emerged to address the need for coordinated planning and funding in urban areas, facilitating a more structured approach to transportation projects. By July 1965, all 224 urbanized areas had initiated an urban transportation planning process, leading to the establishment of MPOs that leveraged federal resources to enhance local capabilities. Consequently, both federal and state governments have heavily relied on fuel taxes, supplemented by vehicle-related fees and taxes, as major revenue sources considered a fair distribution of cost responsibility. These mechanisms effectively align usage levels with contributions for maintenance and development. This funding approach is intrinsically linked to the concept of dedicated revenue sources. In many instances, state constitutions and laws mandate that specific revenue streams be reserved exclusively for transportation-related purposes. Such restrictions ensure that funds derived from designated taxes or fees are applied directly to transportation infrastructure, preventing their diversion to other governmental uses. Conversely, there are scenarios where funding sources are blended and allocated across various governmental needs. In these cases, the clarity of fund origin and usage, along with the governance structures overseeing these processes, becomes critical. Dedicated revenue restrictions act as a safeguard, yet state and local governments often face challenges in tapping into available revenues for immediate projects, long-term plans, or ongoing operational needs related to transportation services.   Therefore, effective funding and finance mechanisms at the state and local levels are crucial not only for the successful implementation but also for the maintenance of various public infrastructure projects. This is highlighted by the fact that operation and maintenance accounted for 57% of state and local highway spending in 2022. This section examines the various funding sources and financial programs available to state and local governments for both capital and operational activities, as these are not typically separated at this level of government unlike at the federal level. Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for the efficient allocation of resources and the long-term sustainability of projects. ==== State Fuel Taxes and Fees ==== States employ a diverse array of taxes and fees to fund roads, bridges, and various transportation modes, however, state taxes on motor fuels serve as the primary source of revenue for state highway projects, contributing over 25% of such funding nationwide. Although this percentage is substantial, it is less than the share of federal revenue derived from motor fuel taxes. Each state sets its own tax rates for motor fuels. The average state fuel tax in 2020 was 25.6 cents per gallon across all states. As of January 2022, these rates ranged from approximately 15 to 68 cents per gallon for gasoline and 15 to 100 cents per gallon for diesel fuel. These taxes often include additional levies, such as sales taxes, environmental fees, fees for underground storage tanks, and local taxes. '''Table 2 - State Fuel Taxes and Fees Averages in 2022''' {| class="wikitable" !US National Average in 2022 !Gasoline !Diesel |- |State Excise Tax |26.16 ¢ per gallon |26.72 ¢ per gallon |- |Other State Taxes/Fees |12.53 ¢ per gallon |13.52 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State Taxes/Fees* |38.69 ¢ per gallon |40.24 ¢ per gallon |- |Total State and Federal Taxes |57.09 ¢ per gallon |64.64 ¢ per gallon |} <small>*The national average is weighted by volume and considers fuel consumption across each state.</small> To maintain the effectiveness of these revenues, an increasing number of states have adopted variable-rate fuel taxes that adjust over time. As of 2020, twenty-four states raise funds through a variable-rate fuel tax. Of these variable-rate fuel taxes, there are over 12 different ways to set the rate. Some of these taxes are periodically modified based on inflation measures, such as the consumer price index, producer price index, or the National Highway Construction Cost Index. Other states calculate fuel taxes as a percentage of wholesale or retail fuel prices, or by other criteria. In certain states, variable components are added to a fixed-rate tax, while in others, the entire fuel tax is regularly recalculated. Additionally, several states have indexed their motor fuel tax rates to local consumer price indexes or wholesale fuel prices to ensure revenues keep pace with economic changes. The table below shows the states that use variable-rate fuel taxes, the rate structure, and the year of the last increase. '''Table 3- Variable Gas Tax Structure per State''' {| class="wikitable" !State !Variable Gas Tax Structure !Year of Last Increase |- |Alabama |Tax indexed annually to the National Highway Construction Cost. |2019 |- |Arkansas |Tax based on the average wholesale price of gas and diesel, with a floor (prevents the tax from dropping if the 12-month average wholesale price of fuel is less than the previous year) and a ceiling (limits the increase to no more than .1 CPG). |2019 |- |California |Tax varies with inflation. |2020 (per 2017 legislation) |- |Colorado |Beginning in fiscal year 2032-33 the 8 cent road user fee, which is levied on gasoline, will be indexed to Highway Construction Cost Index inflation. |(2032) (per 2021 legislation) |- |Connecticut |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |Florida |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Georgia |Tax varies with vehicle fuel-efficiency and CPI. |2015 |- |Hawaii |Variable rate only because general sales tax applies to gas. |** |- |Illinois |Tax varies with CPI. |  |- |Indiana |Tax varies with inflation and general sales tax applies to gas. |2017 |- |Kentucky |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Maryland |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2013 |- |Michigan |Tax varies with inflation. |2022 (per 2015 legislation) |- |Minnesota |Tax varies annually with increases in the Minnesota Highway Construction Cost Index. The rate will be 28.3 cents in 2024. |2023 |- |Nebraska |Tax varies with gas prices and appropriation decisions. |2016 |- |New Jersey |Tax varies with gas prices and revenue collection. |2016 |- |New York |Tax varies with gas prices. |2013 |- |North Carolina |Tax varies with population and CPI. |2015 |- |Pennsylvania |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Rhode Island |Tax varies with CPI. |2015 |- |Utah |Tax varies with gas prices and CPI. |2015 |- |Vermont |Tax varies with gas prices. |2015 |- |Virginia |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |- |West Virginia |Tax varies with gas prices. |2017 |- |D.C. |Tax varies with CPI. |2020 |} For interstate motor carriers, fuel taxation is regulated by the International Fuel Tax Agreement (IFTA), which simplifies the reporting of fuel use by carriers operating in multiple jurisdictions. The International Fuel Tax Association, a non-profit organization, manages and administers the IFTA. The allocation of state-imposed fuel tax revenues varies significantly by state. These funds can be directed to state departments of transportation, special road or bridge funds, county governments, or state general funds. State sales taxes on motor fuels may also be included in a state’s motor fuel excise tax, representing a notable portion of state motor fuel tax revenue. ==== '''State Vehicle Taxes and Fees''' ==== Beyond fuel taxes, most states also depend on a variety of vehicle-related fees and taxes to finance transportation projects. These include registration fees for passenger vehicles, which can be flat-rate or calculated based on vehicle-specific factors such as weight, value, age, or horsepower. The structure of these fees varies significantly across states, with some applying a uniform rate and others using a tiered approach based on vehicle characteristics. Not all states allocate the revenue from these fees exclusively to transportation. For instance, Alaska and Georgia do not earmark all registration fee revenues for transportation projects. Besides registration fees, states commonly levy vehicle title fees, truck registration fees based on gross vehicle weight, and special permit fees for oversize or overweight vehicles. States like Georgia, South Carolina, Utah, Vermont, and Washington impose additional fees on heavy vehicles. To address inflation, several states have indexed their vehicle-related fees to the Consumer Price Index (CPI) or similar measures. For example, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia have tied their vehicle registration or title fees to the CPI. California has further indexed its transportation improvement fee, collected with registration fees, to the California Consumer Price Index. By structuring vehicle-related fees to adjust over time, states can ensure a more stable and sustainable revenue stream for maintaining and improving transportation infrastructure, thus effectively covering the associated costs.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== Road Usage Fees ==== [[File:Status_of_RUC_Pilots-Studies_in_USA_V6c_20140429.jpg|thumb|326x326px|'''Figure 3 - Status of RUC Pilots in the United States<ref>https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc</ref>''']] Road usage charging (RUC), also referred to as vehicle miles traveled (VMT) fees or mileage-based user fees (MBUF), is a policy that requires motorists to pay based on the distance they travel on the road network. The impetus for adopting RUC comes from two ongoing trends: increasing population and vehicle miles traveled, and the steady decline in fuel tax revenues. As more consumers opt for more fuel-efficient and electric vehicles, the per-mile contribution to fuel tax revenues decreases, and in some cases, these vehicles avoid fuel taxes entirely.   Over the past decade, this concept has gained considerable attention as a sustainable and fair approach to funding transportation infrastructure maintenance and operations, particularly as fuel tax revenues continue to decline due to increasing fuel efficiency and adoption of alternative fuels. RUC is grounded in the "user pays" principle, akin to tolling, but with a broader scope. While tolls are typically limited to specific roadways like expressways, bridges, or tunnels, RUC applies universally to all roads within a certain jurisdiction. The practical methods for implementing RUC range from basic paper licenses and odometer readings to sophisticated automated technologies, including in-vehicle devices and telematics systems.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=IBTTA |date=2024 |title=Status of RUC Pilots |url=https://www.ibtta.org/road-usage-charge-ruc}}</ref> ==== Tolls ==== Tolls play a crucial role in state transportation funding, serving as direct user fees imposed on specific roads, lanes, or bridges in at least 19 states. Historically, toll roads were prominent in the 18th and 19th centuries when private tollway companies built and maintained roads, charging users directly. The advent of rail travel and toll evasion reduced their significance, but public toll road programs were revived in the 1930s to meet growing demands from automobiles and commerce.  In 1956, Congress allowed tolls to be included in the Interstate Highway System to increase road connectivity without increasing costs (<nowiki>https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/interstate-system/50th-anniversary/greatest-decade-1956-1966-part-1-essential</nowiki>). By the 1980s, transportation assets were showing wear and tear, highlighting the need to increase maintenance and operating costs. TEA-21's implementation in 1998 created a pilot program where states could collect tolls on interstate highways to rehabilitate them.<ref name=":8">https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47900</ref> Further, MAP-21 removed a clause that restricted states or LPAs from establishing a toll without the permission of the FHWA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Tolling Programs - Federal Tolling Programs |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> (<nowiki>https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/tolling_and_pricing/tolling_pricing/federal_tolling_programs.aspx</nowiki>). Hence, these toll revenues are earmarked by law for maintaining and improving the infrastructure they serve. Moreover, in recent decades, tolling has experienced renewed interest as states seek additional revenue sources amid constrained public funding. Federal legislation since ISTEA in 1991 has encouraged public-private partnerships and innovative tolling practices to fund transportation infrastructure.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=State Departments of Transportation: From Highway Departments to Transportation Agencies |date=2007-02-22 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781420017021-14 |work=Handbook of Transportation Policy and Administration |pages=143–166 |access-date=2024-06-26 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-24565-7}}</ref> Some states, like Indiana, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, allocate toll revenues to their Departments of Transportation or broader multimodal transportation initiatives. Modern tolling strategies include congestion pricing models that adjust toll rates based on traffic conditions, such as express lanes and high-occupancy toll lanes. Despite variations in state approaches, tolls are increasingly recognized as a stable revenue source that also helps manage traffic congestion effectively.<ref name=":3" /> The table below shows state and local road spending covered by tolls, user fees, and user taxes in 2018. '''Table 4 - Share of State and Local Road Spending Covered by State and Local Tolls, User Fees, and User Taxes (FY 2018)'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Boesen |first=Ulrik |date=2021-04-21 |title=How Are Your State’s Roads Funded? |url=https://taxfoundation.org/data/all/state/state-infrastructure-spending/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=Tax Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" !State !State Infrastructure Revenue !Motor Fuel Tax Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !License Revenue as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !Tools and Charges as a % of Infrastructure Revenue !State Share of Highway Spending !% of Highway Spending Funded with Transportation Taxes, License, and Fees |- |Alabama |$1,005,256,000 |74% |24% |1% |$2,096,229,538 |48% |- |Alaska |$180,796,000 |26% |32% |42% |$1,049,724,632 |17% |- |Arizona |$1,121,782,000 |77% |21% |2% |$1,897,356,648 |59% |- |Arkansas |$665,839,000 |74% |25% |1% |$1,475,428,608 |45% |- |California |$11,994,405,000 |53% |39% |8% |$12,028,601,965 |100% |- |Colorado |$1,776,573,000 |38% |39% |23% |$2,772,456,079 |64% |- |Connecticut |$734,855,000 |66% |32% |1% |$1,624,393,202 |45% |- |Delaware |$514,989,000 |26% |11% |63% |$583,560,989 |88% |- |District of Columbia |$66,453,000 |40% |59% |1% |$433,172,639 |15% |- |Florida |$7,255,636,000 |50% |20% |30% |$9,149,817,994 |79% |- |Georgia |$2,285,872,000 |79% |17% |4% |$3,041,441,116 |75% |- |Hawaii |$588,588,000 |30% |69% |1% |$700,173,043 |84% |- |Idaho |$611,791,000 |59% |33% |7% |$735,035,798 |83% |- |Illinois |$4,587,377,000 |33% |36% |31% |$6,351,456,099 |72% |- |Indiana |$1,814,581,000 |78% |21% |1% |$1,608,662,790 |100% |- |Iowa |$1,359,242,000 |49% |50% |0% |$2,413,757,285 |56% |- |Kansas |$852,289,000 |54% |30% |16% |$1,300,095,656 |66% |- |Kentucky |$994,139,000 |71% |22% |8% |$1,568,414,015 |63% |- |Louisiana |$768,565,000 |82% |11% |7% |$1,396,341,731 |55% |- |Maine |$513,049,000 |49% |22% |29% |$785,498,103 |65% |- |Maryland |$2,346,694,000 |46% |21% |32% |$3,073,226,970 |76% |- |Massachusetts |$2,240,354,000 |34% |20% |46% |$2,820,488,160 |79% |- |Michigan |$2,914,169,000 |50% |45% |5% |$3,561,316,511 |82% |- |Minnesota |$1,956,224,000 |48% |42% |10% |$4,154,896,242 |47% |- |Mississippi |$623,279,000 |71% |25% |3% |$1,229,031,074 |51% |- |Missouri |$1,064,220,000 |67% |30% |3% |$1,561,177,182 |68% |- |Montana |$446,746,000 |57% |36% |7% |$433,591,746 |100% |- |Nebraska |$618,280,000 |60% |33% |7% |$1,321,709,603 |47% |- |Nevada |$836,044,000 |75% |24% |1% |$1,717,267,299 |49% |- |New Hampshire |$419,101,000 |44% |20% |37% |$586,801,288 |71% |- |New Jersey |$3,376,399,000 |14% |19% |67% |$3,982,997,979 |85% |- |New Mexico |$460,410,000 |50% |47% |3% |$572,029,177 |80% |- |New York |$7,836,570,000 |21% |20% |59% |$13,034,850,267 |60% |- |North Carolina |$2,994,714,000 |66% |32% |2% |$4,638,624,873 |65% |- |North Dakota |$335,827,000 |59% |37% |5% |$1,149,956,181 |29% |- |Ohio |$3,162,061,000 |60% |29% |11% |$4,608,355,216 |69% |- |Oklahoma |$1,586,164,000 |31% |49% |20% |$1,931,412,570 |82% |- |Oregon |$1,230,917,000 |47% |45% |8% |$1,581,015,574 |78% |- |Pennsylvania |$6,003,784,000 |56% |20% |24% |$9,079,177,201 |66% |- |Rhode Island |$147,305,000 |54% |14% |32% |$316,365,174 |47% |- |South Carolina |$1,211,199,000 |53% |35% |12% |$1,642,141,422 |74% |- |South Dakota |$315,547,000 |59% |37% |4% |$666,259,918 |47% |- |Tennessee |$1,613,688,000 |67% |33% |0% |$1,602,780,484 |100% |- |Texas |$8,591,051,000 |43% |32% |25% |$11,542,374,988 |74% |- |Utah |$736,694,000 |68% |30% |2% |$1,665,680,229 |44% |- |Vermont |$158,249,000 |52% |46% |1% |$452,556,470 |35% |- |Virginia |$2,755,628,000 |40% |25% |35% |$4,484,927,457 |61% |- |Washington |$3,525,274,000 |49% |36% |16% |$3,716,875,084 |95% |- |West Virginia |$559,850,000 |75% |1% |24% |$846,427,681 |66% |- |Wisconsin |$1,776,622,000 |59% |30% |11% |$3,935,721,697 |45% |- |Wyoming |$238,314,000 |48% |48% |5% |$409,774,278 |58% |- |U.S. |$101,773,461,000 |49% |30% |21% |$145,331,426,925 |70% |- | colspan="7" |Note: Federal highway funding to the states is subtracted from spending figures. Percentages reflect only the share of the spending that state and localities are responsible for. Sources: Tax Foundation calculations from the Census Bureau, State and Local Government Finance and Federal Highway Administration data. |} ==== General Funds and Taxes ==== In addition to traditional funding methods, states have supplemented transportation funding with general taxation, similar to the federal government's approach. This involves either making legislative appropriations from a general fund or dedicating a portion of general taxes specifically for transportation purposes. These funds are flexible and can be appropriated to support any transportation mode. Approximately half of the states currently use general funds for transportation, including funding for highways, public transit, rail, aviation, ports, waterways, and pedestrian and bicycle projects. These general funds are usually funded by individual income, corporate income, and sales and use taxes. Each state decides what is included and how to spend its general funds. For instance, in the state of Virginia, the general fund totaled $43.5 billion from 2020-2022. This included $31.5 billion from individual income taxes, $6.8 billion from sales and use taxes paid by individuals and businesses on goods, and $2.2 billion from corporate income taxes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Virginia DPB - Frequently Asked Questions |url=https://dpb.virginia.gov/budget/faq.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=dpb.virginia.gov}}</ref> However, most of this general fund goes to other sources aside from transportation since the allocations often vary yearly based on state budget priorities and available funds.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> To combat this, some states, such as Arkansas, Colorado, Maine, Washington, and Wisconsin, have established recurring transfers from the general fund for transportation purposes. New York's dedicated fund for highways and bridges, which now requires substantial annual support from the state’s general fund, is another example of this approach. In spite of their widespread use, historically, general funds collectively account for only small amount of total state highway funding. ==== '''Transportation Sales Tax Districts''' ==== A Transportation Sales Tax District (TSTD) is a designated region where an additional sales tax is levied to generate revenue for specific transportation facilities or services. These districts are meticulously mapped to encompass areas that will benefit from new or enhanced transportation infrastructure. The establishment and governance of TSTDs are dictated by state authorizing statutes, which outline permissible uses, procedures for establishment, and potential duration limits that may be subject to renewal.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> TSTDs are typically created in cities and counties where state authorization is in place, following local legislative processes in accordance with state guidelines. Since each sale generates a relatively small amount of revenue, TSTDs are usually formed in areas with high volumes of taxable sales, often encompassing entire cities, counties, or multiple jurisdictions. This approach ensures that sufficient funds are raised to support transportation projects. TSTDs have been effectively implemented in various states, including Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, and California. The types of taxes and fees that can be levied by local jurisdictions are determined by state constitutions and statutes. If a jurisdiction has the authority to impose a sales tax, adjusting the rate within a TSTD is generally an exercise of existing authority. However, imposing a sales tax increase in only certain parts of a jurisdiction typically requires legislative justification at both the state and local levels to avoid legal challenges related to uniformity.<ref name=":5" /> The activities financed by TSTDs are governed by the state or local statutes that authorize their creation, as well as by the local statutes or ordinances that establish specific TSTDs. These districts can fund both capital and operational expenditures, supporting a wide range of transportation investments. TSTDs are particularly effective in raising substantial funds in areas with significant sales activity, thereby facilitating the development and maintenance of essential transportation infrastructure. ==== '''Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST)''' ==== Local Option Sales Taxes (LOST) are taxes imposed by local governments, with voter approval, to fund specific projects or services. These taxes are an important tool for generating revenue at the local level, allowing communities to directly support and invest in their infrastructure and public services. Local option sales taxes have become a popular method for funding transportation investments, especially for transit projects. For instance, in San Diego County, California, the TransNet program levies a half-cent sales tax to support local transportation projects. In Texas, the Capital Metro area imposes a 1% sales tax across nine jurisdictions in Williamson and Travis Counties to help fund the Capital Metro budget. Similarly, the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) in Georgia collects a 1% sales tax in Fulton and DeKalb Counties to support its budget. Additionally, the Dallas Area Rapid Transit (DART) in Texas levies a one-cent sales tax across 13 cities in the metropolitan area to fund its budget.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Development Impact Fees''' ==== Impact fees are charges imposed on new developments to cover the costs of additional public services and infrastructure necessitated by the development. These fees help local governments manage growth and ensure that developers contribute to the community’s needs, such as schools, roads, and parks. These fees are typically calculated using a formulaic approach rather than negotiated agreements with developers. Widely adopted across the United States, impact fees are a key funding mechanism for transportation improvements. There are two main methods for determining impact fees. The inductive method estimates the cost of expanding infrastructure capacity, such as adding lanes to roads, based on predetermined facility capacities and costs. Developers pay a share proportional to the increased demand caused by their developments. In contrast, the deductive method tailors fees to specific development plans and local needs. It involves detailed engineering assessments to identify required infrastructure improvements and assigns costs based on geographic factors and service levels. Impact fees gained popularity in the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in fast-growing areas reluctant to use general revenues for growth-related expenses. Legally, impact fees must pass the "rational nexus" test, demonstrating a logical connection between the fees collected and the infrastructure provided. Once collected, these fees must be promptly spent on designated infrastructure projects and cannot generate surplus revenue beyond what is needed for the improvements they finance.<ref name=":6" /> ==== Other Local Level Funding Sources ==== Other local revenue sources for transportation improvement projects include various sources such as fares, advertising, naming rights, shared resources, concessions, and transportation utility fees. Fares, for instance, are fees collected exclusively from public transit users at the local level, primarily funding ongoing transit operations and maintenance. Transit agencies often issue revenue bonds against future farebox receipts to finance capital improvements. Advertising revenue is generated by selling ad space on transportation assets like transit vehicles, stations, or highway billboards. While the contribution of transit advertising to operating budgets is relatively small as a percentage, the total revenue can be substantial. Major transit agencies, excluding New York, average $6.1 million annually from advertising programs. Naming rights revenue comes from selling the rights to name transportation assets such as toll roads or transit stations to private entities. This practice provides additional funding streams and is increasingly adopted by local agencies nationwide. Shared resources involve private donations of telecommunications technology, typically fiber optic communications, and sometimes cash, in exchange for access to public rights-of-way. This approach helps states build technological infrastructure for intelligent transportation systems (ITS) while leveraging private sector investments to meet project matching requirements.<ref name=":6" /> === Finance for Capital and Operational Investments === Financing is an important tool for state and local governments to not only fund projects but also access federal grants. Federal grants are usually given as reimbursements, meaning that local governments must have access to the funds prior to receiving the grant. They can also be given through matching programs, where the federal government supplies a percentage of the cost, and the local government must supply the rest.<ref name=":322">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - State Sources |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/traditional_transportation_revenue/state.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Financing is generally used to pay for capital investments rather than recurring expenses like operating costs and maintenance. Taxes and tolls are more commonly used to pay for operating expenses. The following are some financing options at the state and local level that can be used to pay for capital and operational investments. These are general guidelines, as each state or LPA will develop a bespoke option to fit their financial needs. ==== '''State Infrastructure Bank (SIB)''' ==== State Infrastructure Banks (SIBs) are state-managed investment funds specifically designed for surface transportation infrastructure. Similar to private banks, SIBs provide a variety of loans and credit enhancement products to support public and private sponsors involved in Title 23 highway construction projects or Title 49 transit capital projects. Repayments to SIBs, whether from Federal or non-Federal sources, are considered Federal funds under the requirements of Titles 23 and 49. SIBs empower states to maximize the efficiency of their transportation funds and significantly amplify Federal resources by attracting additional public and private investments. Alternatively, SIB capital can serve as collateral for borrowing in the bond market or establishing guaranteed reserve funds. States must carefully assess factors such as loan demand, timing of infrastructure needs, and debt financing considerations when considering the strategic use of leveraged SIB approaches. Initially capitalized with Federal-aid surface transportation funds matched by state contributions, SIBs play a crucial role in financing transportation projects. Some states have also established SIBs or separate accounts funded exclusively by state resources. As loans and other forms of credit assistance are repaid to the SIB, its initial capital is replenished, enabling continuous support for new cycles of infrastructure projects.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Funding: Build America Transportation Investment Center (BATIC) |url=http://financingtransportation.org/funding_financing/funding/ |access-date=2024-06-19 |website=financingtransportation.org}}</ref> ==== '''State Transportation Bond Programs''' ==== State transportation bond programs involve the issuance of bonds to raise capital for transportation projects. These bonds are typically repaid over time using specified revenue sources, such as tolls or taxes. By utilizing bond programs, states can swiftly secure funding for critical transportation initiatives, thereby enhancing infrastructure and connectivity. Bonds are financial instruments through which states borrow money from investors, promising repayment with interest. Types of bonds include general obligation bonds, which are backed by the state's full faith and credit, and revenue bonds, secured by specific revenue streams like tolls. Municipal bonds are often issued by states, offering tax-exempt interest to investors, which is typically exempt from federal and state income taxes.<ref name=":222">{{Cite book |last=Rall |first=Jaime |url=https://trid.trb.org/View/2035087 |title=Transportation Governance and Finance: A 50-State Review of State Legislatures and Departments of Transportation, Third Edition |date=2022/10/00 |isbn=978-1-56051-796-2}}</ref> These debt securities are mostly used for capital investment in infrastructure projects, including schools, highways, and sewage systems. They can be short-term bonds, typically paid back within 1-3 years, or long-term bonds, which can be paid back a decade or longer after issuance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEC.gov {{!}} What are Municipal Bonds |url=https://www.sec.gov/munied |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.sec.gov}}</ref> ==== '''State P3 Programs''' ==== State Public-Private Partnership (P3) programs foster collaboration between public and private sectors to finance, construct, and manage infrastructure projects. These initiatives harness private investment to supplement public funding, enabling the development of projects that may otherwise be financially challenging. P3 programs enhance project efficiency, expedite timelines, and distribute risk between public and private entities. These partnerships encompass diverse arrangements where private partners design, build, finance, operate, or maintain facilities in exchange for revenue from tolls or other compensation. While P3s can unlock additional financing avenues and generate cost efficiencies for projects, they do not directly provide new state revenues. Instead, states must repay private investments using traditional funding sources like taxes or tolls. Most states now have legislation enabling public-private partnerships to varying extents, with numerous states actively engaged in P3 projects. Recent expansions in state financing options and alternative procurement methods reflect a growing trend across states like Alabama, Arkansas, California, and others, signaling increased exploration of innovative financing mechanisms to support infrastructure development.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Mallett |first=William |date=February 15, 2019 |title=The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45516}}</ref> ==== '''Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs)''' ==== Transportation Improvement Districts (TIDs) are specialized districts created to fund transportation projects, employing various financing mechanisms like special assessments or tax increments. These districts focus on enhancing transportation infrastructure and services within their designated zones, which often span multiple local or regional jurisdictions. Unlike traditional special assessment districts that target specific project benefits, TIDs take a broader, programmatic approach aligned with adopted land use or development plans. TIDs facilitate cooperation among multiple jurisdictions, pooling and strategically managing transportation funding resources to implement system-wide improvements. Governed by a board of directors representing constituent members, typically under the oversight of a lead entity such as a county commission, TIDs operate as distinct governmental bodies authorized by state legislation. They levy special assessments on property owners or sales taxes on consumers benefiting from district improvements, with the ability to issue debt against projected future revenues and engage in contracts related to infrastructure enhancements. By consolidating efforts across jurisdictions, TIDs streamline the implementation of complex transportation projects that might otherwise pose challenges for individual local entities. They are well-positioned to address anticipated regional growth and often leverage targeted transportation improvements to stimulate economic development within their areas.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Fact Sheets |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/faq_transportation_sales_tax_districts.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> ==== '''Tax Increment Financing (TIF)''' ==== Tax Increment Financing (TIF) is a tool employed by local governments to stimulate economic growth and redevelopment. It operates by capturing the future tax revenues generated from increases in property values within a designated area to finance current improvements. TIF districts, established under state laws across the United States, focus on specific geographic zones where planned improvements are intended to boost property values and spur development. Over a typical span of 20 to 25 years, any incremental real estate tax revenues above a baseline rate are redirected into the TIF fund. These funds can be utilized to repay bonds issued for initial project costs or to finance ongoing infrastructure projects as they progress. In some cases, private developers may finance improvements upfront, with reimbursement from TIF revenues as tax proceeds accrue. TIF districts are often targeted at blighted or underdeveloped areas to catalyze investment and development where it might otherwise be stagnant. While predominantly used for urban revitalization and housing initiatives, TIF has also been selectively authorized for transportation infrastructure funding in certain states, although this application remains less common compared to its use in other development contexts.<ref name=":62">{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Value Capture - Development Impact Fees |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/value_capture/defined/development_impact_fees.aspx |access-date=2024-06-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> === References === {{BookCat}} nbbhm5chfjrl9s59py633xtoa30ndnr 0 486465 4681726 4677560 2026-11-11T19:58:05Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681726 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO MAP OF SAN FRANCISCO '''Figure 4 - A Map of the San Francisco Bay Area<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bay Area Census -- Counties |url=http://www.bayareacensus.ca.gov/counties/counties.htm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.bayareacensus.ca.gov}}</ref>''' Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":112">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":122">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":122" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":123">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":132">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":123" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":114">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":113">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":132" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":113" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":132" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":113" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":113" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":113" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":113" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. === References === {{BookCat}} b6warhq339irgxltajeozkp1mczj8ar 4681728 4681726 2026-11-11T19:59:00Z Af407 3409977 Included San Francisco Bay Area Map on the Case Study section 4681728 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> [[File:California Bay Area county map (zoom&color).svg|thumb|''A Map of San Francisco Bay Area'']] Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":112">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":122">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":122" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":123">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":132">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":123" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":114">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":113">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":132" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":113" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":132" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":113" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":113" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":113" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes (<nowiki>https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/</nowiki>). Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":113" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project (<nowiki>https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/</nowiki>). ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. === References === {{BookCat}} qthk7sihmo039xhe2mn8khxol7si5nx 4681730 4681728 2026-11-11T20:09:10Z Af407 3409977 Added citations in the case study section 4681730 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> [[File:California Bay Area county map (zoom&color).svg|thumb|''A Map of San Francisco Bay Area'']] Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL CAPITAL REGION TPB '''Figure 8 - Members of the National Capital Region TPB'''<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> '''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref name=":112">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":122">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":122" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":123">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":132">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":123" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":114">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":113">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":132" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":113" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":132" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":113" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":113" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":113" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes <ref>{{Cite web |title=66 Express Lanes {{!}} Virginia Department of Transportation |url=https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.vdot.virginia.gov}}</ref>. Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":113" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project<ref>{{Cite web |title=Client Challenge |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.mwcog.org |language=en}}</ref>. ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. === References === {{BookCat}} k00vgj0r62nxbx19gaybc6wy8xctj1a 4681752 4681730 2026-11-11T21:02:33Z Af407 3409977 added DMV Map and citations 4681752 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> [[File:California Bay Area county map (zoom&color).svg|thumb|''A Map of San Francisco Bay Area'']] Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> <mapframe latitude="38.991437" longitude="-77.23114" zoom="8" width="502" height="377" align="left" text="Area Covered by TPA Agencies responsible for the National Capital Region TIP">{ "type": "FeatureCollection", "features": [ { "type": "Feature", "properties": {}, "geometry": { "type": "Polygon", "coordinates": [ [ [ -77.8015, 38.254861 ], [ -77.8015, 39.717205 ], [ -76.667797, 39.717205 ], [ -76.667797, 38.254861 ], [ -77.8015, 38.254861 ] ] ] } } ] }</mapframe> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> |'''District of Columbia''' |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |'''Suburban Maryland''' |Maryland Department of Transportation State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA) Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |'''Northern Virginia''' |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |'''Regional''' |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":122">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":122" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":123">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":132">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":123" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":114">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":113">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":132" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":113" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":132" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":113" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":113" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":113" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes <ref>{{Cite web |title=66 Express Lanes {{!}} Virginia Department of Transportation |url=https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.vdot.virginia.gov}}</ref>. Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":113" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project<ref>{{Cite web |title=Client Challenge |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.mwcog.org |language=en}}</ref>. ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. === References === {{BookCat}} eoc36q8dvhp20upmf62q3anz6639w37 4681753 4681752 2026-11-11T21:03:33Z Af407 3409977 fixed spacing between map and table on DC example 4681753 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} == Case Studies == === San Francisco Bay Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The San Francisco Bay Area is a densely populated and economically vibrant region with a population of approximately 7.75 million people. It is the fourth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S in terms of its population and it approximately has 7,000 square miles of land. It boasts high household incomes, largely driven by the prosperous tech industry. The governance structure in the Bay Area is intricate, involving nine counties such as San Francisco and Alameda, alongside numerous cities, towns, and special districts each with their own transportation needs therefore all these governmental units plays a significant role in shaping regional policies and infrastructure development.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-16 |title=What Is MTC? {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/about-mtc/what-mtc |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> [[File:California Bay Area county map (zoom&color).svg|thumb|''A Map of San Francisco Bay Area'']] Over the past thirty years, Bay Area transit ridership has experienced cycles of growth and decline, closely tied to the local economy. A significant drop occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic, with ridership rebounding to only about 50% of pre-pandemic levels by 2022. Many white-collar workers shifted to remote work, impacting local transit systems like SFMTA, BART, Golden Gate Transit/Ferry, and Caltrain, which were designed for commuting to central business districts. By 2022, average weekday boardings had fallen to just 49% of the figures from 2019.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Bay Area Transportation Study {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/planning/transportation/regional-transportation-studies/bay-area-transportation-study |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP HISTORICAL TREND FOR TRANSIT RIDERSHIP '''Figure 5 - Historical Trend for Transit Ridership by Mode in the San Francisco Bay Area'''<ref name=":14" /> The Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) serves as the transportation planning, financing, and coordinating agency for the nine-county San Francisco Bay Area. As the region’s Metropolitan Planning Organization, MTC oversees a range of transportation assets, including roads, highways, public transit, airports, and the movement of goods via ports and freight rail. In collaboration with cities and counties, MTC helps set and achieve both short- and long-term transportation goals.<ref name=":10" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== The funding landscape for transportation agencies in the Bay Area is diverse and complex, as illustrated by the various sources of revenue these agencies rely on. NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING NUMBER OF PROJECTS AND FUNDING '''Figure 6 - Number of Projects and Funding in the 2025 TIP by Bay Area County<ref name=":15">https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref>''' According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, more than 300 projects across the region, totaling over $11.7 billion, will receive funding between 2025 and 2028 to support environmental, design, engineering, and construction activities. The funding will primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and biking/walking improvements. The next section explores the various sources of funding across different levels of government.<ref name=":15" /> ==== Federal Level ==== In order to maximize the impact of federal transportation funding and increase eligibility for additional resources, MTC provides recommendations on how federal funds should be allocated and ensures compliance with project delivery regulations. '''Table 5 - San Francisco Bay Area's Transportation Program with Federal Funding Sources''' {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program''' |'''Source''' |- |One Bay Area Grants |FHWA |- |Carbon Reduction Program |FHWA |- |National Highway Freight Program (NHFP) |FHWA |- |FTA State of Good Repair Grants: Transit Capital Priorities |FTA |- |FTA Transit Expansion Grants: Next Generation Transit |FTA |- |Transit & Intercity Rail Expansion and Modernization |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Nationally Significant Mobility & Goods Movement |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Safety, Equity, Resilience & Other Local Priority Projects |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |- |Bridge & Highway |Bipartisan Infrastructure Law |} ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== MTC allocates Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) funds to Bay Area projects prioritized in the regional long-term transportation plan, Plan Bay Area. To guide the distribution of these funds, MTC developed the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) program and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). OBAG, now in its third iteration, directs the distribution of FHWA Surface Transportation Block Grant (STP) and Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) funds to projects across the Bay Area. Launched in 2015, the first iteration of OBAG focused on leveraging federal transportation funding to address climate change. It aligned with California’s climate laws and the Sustainable Communities Strategy by targeting Priority Development Areas, Priority Conservation Areas, and Climate Initiatives, while maintaining commitments to existing transportation priorities. OBAG 2, adopted in November 2015, provided over $900 million in federal funding for projects between 2018 and 2022. The third round, OBAG 3, adopted in January 2022, distributes more than $750 million for projects from 2023 to 2026, with a focus on improving safety, spurring economic development, and meeting climate and air quality goals. As part of OBAG 3, MTC also launched the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP) in October 2022, setting priorities for allocating $60 million in FHWA grants between 2022 and 2026 to support projects aimed at reducing carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-29 |title=Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-highway-administration-fhwa-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== MTC also allocates funds from the FTA to Bay Area transit agencies for maintaining and modernizing the region’s transit network. FTA funding primarily supports two types of initiatives: state of good repair projects and efforts to expand or update transit systems. Through its "Fix It First" strategy, MTC prioritizes maintaining existing infrastructure to ensure a resilient network that can accommodate the regional growth projected in Plan Bay Area. Additionally, the “Transit for the Future” program aims to partner with transit agencies to utilize FTA funds for modernizing their systems, making transportation more efficient and effective for the 21st century.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-20 |title=Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/federal-funding/federal-transit-administration-fta-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ===== Federal Discretionary Funds ===== BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE BAY AREA'S BIPARTISAN INFRASTRUCTURE '''Figure 7 - Bay Are's Bipartisan Infrastructure Law Regional Priority Projects<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2023-07/BIL_projects_congress_districts_2023dc.pdf</ref>''' Bay Area transportation projects of all sizes are looking to capitalize on competitive grant opportunities provided by the 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, also referred to as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. The BIL allocates $140 billion in new grant funding, allowing Bay Area surface transportation projects to compete for a share. About $100 billion of this amount is secured, with the rest dependent on future federal budget approvals. The USDOT will distribute these funds over a five-year period through more than two dozen specialized competitive grant programs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-03 |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) Competitive Grants {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/funding-opportunities/bipartisan-infrastructure-law-bil-competitive-grants |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Bay Area’s transportation network is partially funded through voter-supported regional measures, including toll funding and sales taxes on fuel. By assessing the needs of the region as a whole, MTC aims to enhance collaboration among various stakeholders. Toll revenues generated from the Bay Area’s state-owned bridges are used to fund infrastructure improvements. These improvements are intended to address traffic congestion, enhance safety, and provide various transportation options. Regional Measure 3 allocates funding for highway and transit improvements, while Regional Measure 2 supports projects for highways, transit, bicycles, and pedestrians on and near the bridges. Regional Measure 1 financed upgrades to bridges and roadways throughout the Bay Area, contributing to the region's transportation network.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=Regional Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/regional-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== State Level ==== MTC invests state funds in transportation programs and projects across the Bay Area, playing a key role in allocating resources from various state revenue sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program, gas taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues to support regional transportation initiatives. California’s Cap and Trade program generates revenue to help offset greenhouse gas emissions. MTC assists the Bay Area in submitting competitive project proposals to secure these funds, positioning the region effectively against others. Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) is a part of California's strategic investments aimed at fostering a more sustainable, resilient, and inclusive future. This program supports local planning efforts that align with state sustainability goals. State excise taxes on gasoline and diesel fuel, along with retail sales taxes, fund essential infrastructure, including highways and local streets. These revenues also contribute to financing the Bay Area's transit network, to provide more transportation options for residents. The State Transportation Improvement Program (STIP) outlines a five-year investment plan for state transportation funds. It integrates the Regional Transportation Improvement Programs (RTIPs) and the Interregional Transportation Improvement Program (ITIP), providing a comprehensive framework for funding state transportation projects.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-17 |title=State Funding {{!}} Metropolitan Transportation Commission |url=https://mtc.ca.gov/funding/state-funding |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=mtc.ca.gov |language=en}}</ref> ==== Local Level ==== At the local level, various funding sources and programs support transportation initiatives, including county transit and transportation sales taxes that provide financial support for local transportation projects and initiatives. The Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) is managed by Caltrans and focuses on the upkeep and enhancement of local highway bridges. This program provides financial resources specifically designated for bridge maintenance and repairs, addressing structural integrity and safety concerns. By funding necessary improvements, HBP aims to extend the lifespan of these critical assets and ensure safe passage for vehicles and pedestrians alike. Similarly, the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP), also managed by Caltrans, prioritizes safety enhancements on local roads and highways. This program allocates funding for a variety of safety improvement projects designed to reduce the number of accidents and improve overall roadway safety. HSIP projects may include the installation of traffic signals, road signage, lighting improvements, and other measures that contribute to safer travel conditions for all road users. Through these initiatives, local agencies work to create a safer transportation environment in their communities.<ref>https://mtc.ca.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2024-09/Final_TIP_Update_2025_Fact_Sheet_English.pdf</ref> ==== Innovative Financing   ==== Some projects also utilize innovative financing strategies like Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits. AC enables local agencies to start construction using local funds, with the option to be reimbursed later by federal funds. Toll credits are allocated to the state by the federal government in exchange for using toll revenue on local transportation projects. Local agencies can apply these toll credits instead of the usual non-federal match requirement (typically 11.47 percent of the total project cost), allowing federal funding to cover 100 percent of the project costs. A notable innovative financing approach is the P3s model. The Presidio Parkway in the San Francisco Bay Area project exemplifies this approach, combining public funding with private investment to enhance infrastructure development. Through the P3 structure, the project was able to utilize AC, allowing local agencies to start construction with local funds and later receive federal reimbursements. Additionally, the use of toll credits enabled the state to forgo the typical non-federal match requirement, allowing federal funds to cover the entire cost of the project.   ==== Key Findings ==== The San Francisco Bay Area, with a population of approximately 7.75 million residents, is a densely populated region characterized by a complex governance structure that includes nine counties and numerous cities. This intricate setup necessitates collaborative efforts to address the diverse transportation needs across the area. The funding landscape for transportation projects in the Bay Area is both wide-ranging and multifaceted. According to the 2025 Transportation Improvement Program, over 300 projects are set to receive more than $11.7 billion in funding between 2025 and 2028. These investments primarily focus on four key areas: transit, state highways, local roads, and improvements for biking and walking. At the federal level, the Metropolitan Transportation Commission (MTC) plays a crucial role in the allocation of funds, utilizing programs such as the One Bay Area Grant (OBAG) and the Carbon Reduction Program (CRP). These initiatives not only aim to improve transportation infrastructure but also emphasize climate change mitigation, reflecting a commitment to sustainable development. On the state level, MTC allocates funds derived from various sources, including the Cap-and-Trade program and gas taxes, to support regional transportation initiatives. Programs like the Regional Early Action Planning Grant Program (REAP 2) focus on fostering a more sustainable and inclusive future. Locally, funding is further enhanced through county transit and transportation sales taxes, which provide essential financial support for critical projects. Programs such as the Local Highway Bridge Program (HBP) and the Local Highway Safety Improvement Program (HSIP) prioritize the maintenance of infrastructure and safety improvements on local roads. Lastly, innovative financing strategies such as Advance Construction (AC) and toll credits allow local agencies to maximize the efficiency of funding. These approaches enable projects to commence using local funds while facilitating reimbursement from federal sources, thereby enhancing the overall feasibility of transportation initiatives. In summary, the Bay Area's approach to addressing transportation needs is characterized by collaborative governance, diverse funding sources, and innovative strategies aimed at ensuring a robust and effective transportation network. === Washington Metropolitan Area Case Study === ==== Background ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area (WMA) has a population of approximately 6.64 million people. The average income in the region is around $98,000 per year, reflecting a relatively high standard of living. The WMA comprises multiple counties across Northern Virginia and suburban Maryland, including Fairfax and Montgomery Counties. Besides Washington D.C., the area includes cities like Arlington and Bethesda and various special districts. This interaction between different states and a federal district creates a diverse and complex governmental landscape where local, state, and federal agencies must come together to plan for the region’s future. The metropolitan planning organization (MPO) responsible for developing a plan to address the region’s transportation needs is the National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB). The National Capital Region Transportation Planning Board (TPB) serves as the area's Metropolitan Planning Organization (MPO), coordinating and planning transportation policies across a federal district, Washington D.C., and two states: Maryland and Virginia. TPB’s members also include 23 local governments and transit agencies such as the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA). TPB's key task is to develop a continuing, cooperative, and comprehensive transportation planning process to meet the region’s diverse transportation needs.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> <mapframe latitude="38.991437" longitude="-77.23114" zoom="8" width="502" height="377" align="center" text="Area Covered by TPA Agencies responsible for the National Capital Region TIP">{ "type": "FeatureCollection", "features": [ { "type": "Feature", "properties": {}, "geometry": { "type": "Polygon", "coordinates": [ [ [ -77.8015, 38.254861 ], [ -77.8015, 39.717205 ], [ -76.667797, 39.717205 ], [ -76.667797, 38.254861 ], [ -77.8015, 38.254861 ] ] ] } } ] }</mapframe> {| class="wikitable" |+'''Table 6 - Agencies under the TPS responsible for developing the TIP Programming'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> |'''District of Columbia''' |District Department of Transportation (DDOT) |- |'''Suburban Maryland''' |Maryland Department of Transportation State Highway Administrations (MDOT SHA) Maryland Transit Administration (MTA) Maryland Transportation Authority (MDTA) Charles County Department of Public Works Frederick County Department of Public Works Montgomery County Department of Transportation Prince George’s County Department of Public Works and Transportation Maryland-National capital Park and Planning Commission (M-NNCPPC) City of Frederick Planning Department Gaithersburg Public Works Department |- |'''Northern Virginia''' |Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) Virginia Department of Rail and Public Transportation (VDRPT) Virginia Railway Express (VRE) Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) Northern Virginia Transportation Authority (NVTA) Northern Virginia Transportation Commission (NVTC) Arlington County Department of Environmental Services Fairfax County Department of Transportation Fauquier County Department of Community Development Loudoun County Department of Transportation and Capital Infrastructure Prince William County Department of Transportation City of Alexandria Department of Transportation and Environmental Services City of Fairfax Department of Public Works City of Falls Church Department of Public Works City of Manassas Public Works Department City of Manassas Park Public Works Department |- |'''Regional''' |Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) Eastern Federal Lands Highway Division Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority (MWAA) |} ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":122">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":13">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":122" /> ==== Funding Sources ==== This case study examines the 2023-2026 Transportation Improvement Program, highlighting the financial strategies and investments necessary to meet the region's growing transportation needs. The TPB’s Transportation Improvement Program (TIP) for FY 2023–2026 includes a budget of almost $11.9 billion for the region and over 300 transportation projects.<ref name=":123">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/transportation/plans/upwp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> This is a decrease from the $15 billion budget outlined in the 2019-2024 TIP.<ref name=":132">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> Of the 300 projects, 180 are location or corridor specific. Most funds will be allocated to roadways and bridges, transit and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Approved Plan, TIP and Conformity |url=https://visualize2045.org/plan-update/approved-2022-plan/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref> ==== Federal Level ==== The TPB uses Visualize 2045, the long-range transportation plan for the capital region<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://visualize2045.org/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=TPB Visualize 2045 |language=en}}</ref>, to determine how to allocate funds across the region. Additionally, TPB works in partnership with state agencies to ensure that all projects receiving federal funds comply with federal regulations and align with the region’s long-term priorities. This collaborative approach helps maximize the impact of federal funding and ensures that key regional transportation challenges are addressed. Once the TIP is completed, it is sent to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which reviews the plan to ensure it meets air quality standards. Of the $11.9 billion budget, around $5.6 billion comes from federal sources. To ensure that all required performance areas are met, all TPB agencies involved document their roles and responsibilities in Letters of Agreement (LOAs).<ref name=":123" /> {| class="wikitable" |'''Name of the Program'''   |'''Source'''   |- |BUILD Discretionary Grants   |FHWA   |- |Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation   |FHWA   |- |Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement |FHWA   |- |Demonstration   |FHWA   |- |High Priority Project |FHWA   |- |Highway Infrastructure |FHWA   |- |Highway Safety Improvement |FHWA   |- |National Highway Freight |FHWA   |- |Regional Surface Transportation |FHWA   |- |Special Project |FHWA   |- |State Planning & Research   |FHWA   |- |State Transportation Innovation Council |FHWA |- |Surface Transportation Block   |FHWA   |- |Transportation Alternatives |FHWA   |- |TIFIA Loan   |FHWA   |- |Section 5303 – Metropolitan Transportation Planning   |FTA   |- |Section 5304 – Statewide Transportation Planning Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5307 – Urbanized Area Formula   |FTA   |- |Section 5309 – Capital Investment Grant |FTA   |- |Section 5310 – Elderly and Persons with Disabilities |FTA   |- |Section 5311 – Non-urbanized Are Formula |FTA   |- |Section 5337 – State of Good Repair |FTA   |- |Section 5339(c) – Low or No Emission Vehicle   |FTA   |- |Section 5339 – Bus and Bus Facilities Formula |FTA   |- |Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act |FTA   |} '''Table 7 - National Capital Region Transportation Programs with Federal Funding Sources'''<ref name=":114">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> ===== Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) Funds ===== The three largest federal programs that will provide funds for the capital region are the Surface Transportation Block Grant Program (STBG), the National Highway Performance Program (NHPP), TIFIA loans, and the Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) program. These programs will provide $1,280,771,265; $1,280,229,943; $148,516,742; and $127,910,869 respectively. TIFIA loans will be expanded on in a later section.<ref name=":113">{{Cite web |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2022/06/15/fy-2023-2026-transportation-improvement-program-tip-visualize-2045/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.mwcog.org}}</ref> The remaining three programs have distinct objectives. The STBG is a flexible program that provides funds to preserve and improve the conditions of transportation infrastructure, such as highways, bridges, tunnels, pedestrian, and bicycle infrastructure, and bus terminals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STBG - Federal-aid Programs - Federal-aid Programs and Special Funding - Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/specialfunding/stp/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> The NHPP focuses on improving and maintaining the condition and performance of the National Highway System (NHS), supporting new NHS infrastructure, and making it more resilient to climate change and natural disasters.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bipartisan Infrastructure Law - National Highway Performance Program (NHPP) Fact Sheet {{!}} Federal Highway Administration |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/bipartisan-infrastructure-law/nhpp.cfm |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> Lastly, the CMAQ program’s main objective is to reduce emissions caused by transportation-related sources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Federal Programs Directory: Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality (CMAQ) Improvement Program |url=https://www.transportation.gov/sustainability/climate/federal-programs-directory-congestion-mitigation-and-air-quality-cmaq |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> These three programs are the same ones that provided the most funds in the previous TIP (2019-2022). In 2019-2022, NHPP provided $1,174,690,000, STBG $1,011,220,000, and CMAQ $155,930,000.<ref name=":132" /> NHPP and STBG saw increases from 2019-2024 to 2023-2026, while CMAQ saw a decrease of approximately $28 million. ===== Federal Transit Agency (FTA) Funds ===== The FTA will also provide funds to the national capital region through ten grants and programs, including section 5307, which will provide $1,032,347,213, section 5337 with $878,523,728, and the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act (PRIIA) with $424,000,000.<ref name=":113" /> Section 5307, also known as the Urbanized Area Formula Funding Program, provides funding for capital and operating needs of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Urbanized Area Formula Grants - 5307 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/urbanized-area-formula-grants-5307 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> Section 5337 is a formula grant for maintenance, replacement, and rehabilitation of transit infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=State of Good Repair Grants - 5337 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/funding/grants/state-good-repair-grants-5337 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> PRIIA authorizes investments in passenger rail infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) |url=https://www.transportation.gov/testimony/passenger-rail-investment-and-improvement-act-2008-priia |website=U.S. Department of Transportation}}</ref> In the previous TIP (2019-2024), the three largest FTA grants were section 5307, PRIIA, and section 5309<ref name=":132" />, which supports capital investments for rail, streetcars, and bus rapid transit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Investment Grants - 5309 |url=https://www.transit.dot.gov/capital-investment-grants-5309 |website=Federal Transit Administration}}</ref> ==== Regional Level ==== The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) plays a central role in managing the region’s transit network. However, WMATA does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls. It relies on state, local, and federal government funds to support its transit services. WMATA addresses the needs of Metrorail, Metrobus, and MetroAccess systems and identifies its capital needs in the 2024-2029 Capital Improvement Program and 10-Year Plan.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Capital Improvement Program |url=https://www.wmata.com/initiatives/capital-improvement-program/index.cfm |website=Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority}}</ref> WMATA divides its capital needs between state of good repair needs and future compliance needs. ==== State and Local Level ==== The District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia each have significant roles in funding transportation projects within the region. Both Maryland and Virginia contribute to the region through various revenue sources like fuel taxes, sales taxes, and vehicle registration fees, which are used to support highway and transit infrastructure. The Commonwealth Transportation Board (CTB) oversees the work of the Virginia Department of Transportation (VDOT) and develops the Six-Year Improvement Program (SYIP). The SYIP allocates funds for expanding roadways, improving safety, and enhancing transit services. From the TIP, Northern Virginia is expected to receive $694,356,044 from federal funds, $362,991,653 from state and local funds, and $184,113,543 from other funds. Of the state and local funds, the majority comes from state and district funding.<ref name=":113" /> Similarly, the state of Maryland develops the Consolidated Transportation Program (CTP), a six-year program report on transportation projects. The CTP receives annual feedback from county and local officials before being presented, in addition to the State Report on Transportation, to the Governor and General Assembly for budget approval. From 2023-2026, Maryland is set to receive $1,817,760,227 from federal funds, $241,057,849 from state and local funds, and $2,601,890,000 from other funds, of which $2,450,000,000 comes from private developers.<ref name=":113" /> The District of Columbia also develops its own six-year program, the Capital Improvement Program (CIP). The D.C. Council then acts as the state legislature to amend the CIP, which has to be approved by the U.S. Congress. The District of Columbia is set to receive $1,005,846,688 from federal funds, $632,244,805 from District/State sources, and $1,280,000 from the National Recreational Trails Funding Program.<ref name=":113" /> ==== Innovative Financing ==== Like the San Francisco Bay Area, the capital region also relies on Advanced Construction (AC) to accelerate the delivery of critical projects. The capital region also depends on Toll Financing, which collects tolls on major highways to reinvest in the region’s transportation infrastructure. While most express lanes in Virginia are privately operated, some are DOT-operated. The I-66 Express Lanes Inside the Beltway (ITB) are VDOT-operated and are dynamically tolled, meaning the toll changes every 6 minutes depending on traffic density inside the express lanes <ref>{{Cite web |title=66 Express Lanes {{!}} Virginia Department of Transportation |url=https://www.vdot.virginia.gov/projects/major-projects/66expresslanes/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.vdot.virginia.gov}}</ref>. Toll revenue is reinvested in public transit and other transportation improvements in the area. Express lanes often promote transit use by constructing park-and-ride facilities and allowing transit vehicles to use the express lanes for free. There are currently express lanes on several highways across Northern Virginia, mainly I-66, I-495, I-95, and I-395. Many of these have also received TIFIA loans to reduce upfront costs and finance these projects.<ref>{{Cite web |title=I-95 HOV / Hot Lanes Configure |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/i-95-hov-hot-lanes-configure |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Transform 66 - Outside the Beltway |url=https://www.transportation.gov/buildamerica/projects/transform-66-outside-beltway |website=Build America Bureau}}</ref> In 2023, the region received $148,516,742 from TIFIA loans.<ref name=":113" /> In previous years (2019-2024), the District of Columbia also received $294.72 million from Grant Anticipation Revenue Vehicles (GARVEE) bonds. These bonds are used to advance the upfront funding of a project.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FHWA - Center for Innovative Finance Support - Project Finance - Federal Debt Financing Tools |url=https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ipd/finance/tools_programs/federal_debt_financing/garvees/ |access-date=2024-09-26 |website=www.fhwa.dot.gov}}</ref> In the case of Washington D.C., GARVEE bonds were used to pay for part of the South Capitol Street Corridor project<ref>{{Cite web |title=Client Challenge |url=https://www.mwcog.org/documents/2020/03/18/fy-2021-2024-transportation-improvement-program/ |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.mwcog.org |language=en}}</ref>. ==== Key Findings ==== The agencies responsible for developing the Washington Metropolitan Area, home to 6.64 million people, use diverse funding sources and innovative financing mechanisms to address transportation challenges. The region is set to receive approximately $11.9 billion between 2023 and 2026 for over 300 projects. This is a slight decrease from the previous TIP (2019-2024), which allocated around $15 billion for transportation projects. However, it must be noted that the previous TIP covered more years. Key investment areas include roadways and bridges, transit, and bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. The capital region TPB ensures collaboration between Virginia, Maryland, and the District of Columbia to improve the region’s transportation network and ensure compliance with federal standards. Federal program funding will support surface transportation and transit, with a focus on air quality, climate change, and maintaining existing infrastructure. Regionally, WMATA oversees the management of the region’s extensive transit network, but it does not have a dedicated funding source that it controls, underscoring the importance of cooperation between states. Maryland, Virginia, and the District of Columbia each have their own transportation plans and departments that oversee their individual challenges and progress. The District of Columbia’s Capital Improvement Plan must be approved by the U.S. Congress, which adds a layer of complexity not found in other MPOs. Aside from their individual responsibilities, all three work together to enhance transit and surface transportation coordination. All three utilize innovative financing mechanisms such as TIFIA loans and AC to prioritize important projects and reduce upfront costs. === Case Study Comparison === {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area !Region !Federal Dependency Ratio (Federal/Total) |- |National Capital Region |48.07% |- |San Francisco Bay Area |18.10% |} Table 8 - Federal Funds Dependency Ratios for the National Capital Region and the San Francisco Bay Area The ratios in the table above represent the average federal funding over four consecutive years—FY2023-2026 for the National Capital Region and FY2025-2028 for the San Francisco Bay Area. Understanding these dependency ratios over time is vital, as a single snapshot may not fully capture the broader trends affecting regional funding. Changes in federal policies, economic conditions, and local initiatives can all impact these ratios. The National Capital Region has a notably higher federal dependency ratio of 48.07% compared to the San Francisco Bay Area’s 18.10%. This may be attributed to its proximity to federal agencies and a high concentration of federal employment, which could influence local economies and infrastructure funding. However, further investigation is needed to fully understand the factors contributing to this disparity, which is currently future research aim for the authors. Conversely, the San Francisco Bay Area, with its lower ratio, reflects a more diversified economic base. While federal funding plays a role, the region appears to rely less on it compared to the National Capital Region. By examining these trends, we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of federal support and its implications for infrastructure and economic development in different regions. === References === {{BookCat}} pl5bv3pza1z3zv6cp77zfzfqilyhac3 0 486466 4681727 4677559 2026-11-11T19:58:21Z Svrmustafa 3449683 4681727 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Nav}} === 1. Reports & Government Publications === * Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports: ** ''Funding and Financing Highways and Public Transportation Under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA) (R47573)'' ** ''Public Transportation Infrastructure: Background for the 116th Congress (R45010)'' ** ''Highway Infrastructure: Issues in the 117th Congress (R45516)'' ** ''Public Transportation in the United States: An Overview (R46826)'' ** ''Infrastructure and the Economy – Lida R. Weinstock (R46826, July 1, 2021)'' ** ''Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) in Transportation – William J. Mallet'' ** ''The Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) Program – William J. Mallett'' * ''Funding Federal-Aid Highways – FHWA – Office of Policy and Governmental Affairs'' === 2. Books === * Flyvbjerg, Bent & David Gardner (2023). ''How Big Things Get Done.'' * Tan, Willie (2007). ''Principles of Project and Infrastructure Finance.'' * Taylor, Brian D., Eran A. Morris, & Jeffrey R. Brown (2023). ''The Drive for Dollars.'' * ''Too Big to Fall: America’s Failing Infrastructure and the Way Forward'' * Walter, Ingo (2016). ''The Infrastructure Finance Challenge.'' * Weber, B., Straub-Bisang, M., & Alfen, H.W. (2016). ''Infrastructure as an Asset Class.'' * Gatti, Stefano. ''Project Finance in Theory and Practice.'' * Yescombe, E.R. (2013). ''Principles of Project Finance.'' * Estache, Antonio (2010). ''Infrastructure Finance in Developing Countries: An Overview.'' === 3. Academic Articles & Journal Papers === * Banister, David & Yossi Berechman (2001). ''“Transport Investment and the Promotion of Economic Growth.”'' ''Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3): 209-218.'' * Downs, Thomas M. (2005). ''“Is There a Future for the Federal Surface Transportation Program?”'' ''Journal of Transportation Engineering, 131(6): 393-396.'' * Wachs, Martin (2003). ''“Local Option Transportation Taxes: Devolution as Revolution.”'' ''ACCESS Magazine, 1(22).'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“Infrastructure and Growth: A Survey of Macro-Econometric Research.”'' ''Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 53: 39-49.'' * Välilä, T. (2020). ''“An Overview of Economic Theory and Evidence of Public-Private Partnerships in the Procurement of (Transport) Infrastructure.”'' ''Utilities Policy, 62.'' * Lukmann, Andrew T. (2009). ''“Unintended Effects of Federal Transportation Policy: A Look at the Lifecycle Costs of the Interstate System.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. * Antos, Justin David. (2007). ''“Paying for Public Transportation: The Optimal, the Actual, and the Possible.”'' PhD Dissertation, MIT. === 4. Book Chapters === * Taylor, Brian D. ''“The Geography of Urban Transportation Finance”'' in Hanson, Susan & Giuliano, Genevieve (eds.). ''The Geography of Urban Transportation.'' Guilford Press, 2004. * Chapter 9 (Section 9.3) in Meyer, Michael & Eric Miller. ''Urban Transportation Planning.'' McGraw-Hill, 2000. === 5. Supplementary Readings & Reports === * ''A Risk-Management Approach to a Successful Infrastructure Project'' (McKinsey Report) * ''OECD (2016) Green Investment Banks: Scaling Up Private Investment in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure'' * ''UBS (Annual) Q-Series: Global Infrastructure and Utilities (Index)'' * ''EIB Papers (European Investment Bank) on Infrastructure Investment Risks & Returns'' * ''C40 Infrastructure Interdependencies and Cascading Climate Impacts Study'' {{BookCat}} 2rofujh7jdt9eimumcr2yvbarbk6ku5 102 486592 4681629 4681381 2026-11-11T14:58:27Z Moby-Dick4000 198746 /* Procedure */ 4681629 wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary|category=Italian-American recipes|servings=6|time=2hours and 30 minutes|difficulty=3 | Image = [[Image: Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese.jpg|Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese|300px]] }}{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Italian-American Cuisine| Italian-American Cuisine]] The below recipe is inspired by [[wikipedia:Neapolitan ragù|Neapolitan ragù]]<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/tyler-florence/neapolitan-ragu-recipe-1949748 A recipe for Neapolitan ragu on the Food Network]</ref>, a dish that originated in Naples and is widely eaten in the Campania region of Italy. It's also popular among Italian-American families who call it Sunday sauce or Sunday gravy. The recipe presented here deviates from authentic dish in that it's faster to make, omits wine and includes carrots, celery and somewhat different seasonings. ==Ingredients== *1 lb (454 g) dried [[Cookbook: Pasta|pasta]] *1½ lbs [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]] chuck, cut into approximately 1½-inch chunks *1 lb [[Cookbook:Simple Italian Sausage Spaghetti Dinner| Italian sausage]] (approximately 4–5 links) *3 tablespoons extra-virgin [[Cookbook: Olive Oil|olive oil]] *1 medium [[Cookbook: Onion|onion]], finely chopped *2 medium [[Cookbook: Carrot|carrots]], finely chopped *2 [[Cookbook: Celery|celery stalks]], finely chopped *3 [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]], minced *2 cans (28 oz each) crushed [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] *6 oz [[Cookbook: Tomato Pasta|tomato paste]] *1 tablespoon dried [[Cookbook: Oregano|oregano]] *1 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoon]] dried [[Cookbook: Basil|basil]] *[[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]], to taste *Freshly grated [[wikipedia:Parmigiano Reggiano|Parmigiano Reggiano]], for serving == Equipment == *A [[wikipedia:Dutch oven|Dutch oven]] or a thick-walled, aluminum pot *a large [[Cookbook:Stock Pot|pot]] for cooking pasta in boiling water *a large pair of tongs *a large [[Cookbook: Cooking Spoon|spoon]] for stirring *a kitchen knife *a cheese grater *a measuring cup *measuring spoons *a food scale == Procedure == *Heat the olive oil in a large in a thick-walled pot. *Add the beef chuck. Season the beef lightly with salt. *Cook, turning occasionally, until the beef develops a brown crust, approximately 8–12 minutes. Work in batches if necessary to avoid overcrowding. *Remove the beef from the pot and set aside. *Reduce the heat to medium. *Add the chopped carrots, celery, and onion to the same pot, using the remaining oil and rendered fat from the meat. *Cook for approximately 8–10 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the vegetables have softened. Be careful not to burn them. *Make a small opening in the center of the vegetables and add the minced garlic. *Cook until the garlic becomes lightly golden, approximately 30–60 seconds. *Immediately add the crushed tomatoes to prevent the garlic from burning. Stir thoroughly to combine with the vegetables. *Add the tomato paste and mix well until completely incorporated. *Add the oregano and basil, stirring to distribute the herbs evenly throughout the sauce. *Season with salt to taste, keeping in mind that the sausages will contribute additional salt and allow the mixture to simmer for one to two minutes. *Return the browned beef chuck and add the raw Italian sausages to the pot, along with any accumulated juices. *Stir gently, making sure the meat is submerged in the tomato sauce. *Bring the sauce to a gentle simmer, then reduce the heat to low. *Simmer for 2 hours with the pot lid on, leaving it slightly ajar. Stir approximately every 10 minutes to prevent the sauce from sticking to the bottom of the pot. Keep the heat low enough so that the sauce bubbles gently. *Approximately 15 minutes before the sauce finishes simmering, bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. *Add the entire 1-pound box of dried pasta. *Cook until slightly underdone, approximately 1–2 minutes less than the package's recommended cooking time. Do not drain the pasta or discard the cooking water. *Using tongs, transfer the slightly undercooked pasta directly from the boiling water into the pot of ragù. *Stir thoroughly so that every piece of pasta is coated with sauce. *Add one third cup of pasta water and continue simmering over medium-low heat until the pasta is tender but not mushy and the sauce clings evenly to it. *Divide the pasta and ragù among serving plates, distributing the beef and sausage as desired. *Grate fresh Parmigiano Reggiano generously over each serving. *Serve immediately while hot. ==References== {{reflist}} kncv0b2wi28fshqbf95i8ug67q83dr9 4681755 4681629 2026-11-11T22:00:34Z Moby-Dick4000 198746 4681755 wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary|category=Italian-American recipes|servings=6|time=2hours and 30 minutes|difficulty=3 | Image = [[Image: Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese.jpg|Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese|300px]] }}{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Italian-American Cuisine| Italian-American Cuisine]] The below recipe is inspired by [[wikipedia:Neapolitan ragù|Neapolitan ragù]]<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/tyler-florence/neapolitan-ragu-recipe-1949748 A recipe for Neapolitan ragu on the Food Network]</ref>, a dish that originated in Naples and is widely eaten in the Campania region of Italy. It's also popular among Italian-American families who call it Sunday sauce or Sunday gravy. The recipe presented here deviates from the authentic dish in that it's faster to make, omits wine and includes carrots, celery and somewhat different seasonings. ==Ingredients== *1 lb (454 g) dried [[Cookbook: Pasta|pasta]] *1½ lbs [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]] chuck, cut into approximately 1½-inch chunks *1 lb [[Cookbook:Simple Italian Sausage Spaghetti Dinner| Italian sausage]] (approximately 4–5 links) *3 tablespoons extra-virgin [[Cookbook: Olive Oil|olive oil]] *1 medium [[Cookbook: Onion|onion]], finely chopped *2 medium [[Cookbook: Carrot|carrots]], finely chopped *2 [[Cookbook: Celery|celery stalks]], finely chopped *3 [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]], minced *2 cans (28 oz each) crushed [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] *6 oz [[Cookbook: Tomato Pasta|tomato paste]] *1 tablespoon dried [[Cookbook: Oregano|oregano]] *1 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoon]] dried [[Cookbook: Basil|basil]] *[[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]], to taste *Freshly grated [[wikipedia:Parmigiano Reggiano|Parmigiano Reggiano]], for serving == Equipment == *A [[wikipedia:Dutch oven|Dutch oven]] or a thick-walled, aluminum pot *a large [[Cookbook:Stock Pot|pot]] for cooking pasta in boiling water *a large pair of tongs *a large [[Cookbook: Cooking Spoon|spoon]] for stirring *a kitchen knife *a cheese grater *a measuring cup *measuring spoons *a food scale == Procedure == *Heat the olive oil in a large in a thick-walled pot. *Add the beef chuck. Season the beef lightly with salt. *Cook, turning occasionally, until the beef develops a brown crust, approximately 8–12 minutes. Work in batches if necessary to avoid overcrowding. *Remove the beef from the pot and set aside. *Reduce the heat to medium. *Add the chopped carrots, celery, and onion to the same pot, using the remaining oil and rendered fat from the meat. *Cook for approximately 8–10 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the vegetables have softened. Be careful not to burn them. *Make a small opening in the center of the vegetables and add the minced garlic. *Cook until the garlic becomes lightly golden, approximately 30–60 seconds. *Immediately add the crushed tomatoes to prevent the garlic from burning. Stir thoroughly to combine with the vegetables. *Add the tomato paste and mix well until completely incorporated. *Add the oregano and basil, stirring to distribute the herbs evenly throughout the sauce. *Season with salt to taste, keeping in mind that the sausages will contribute additional salt and allow the mixture to simmer for one to two minutes. *Return the browned beef chuck and add the raw Italian sausages to the pot, along with any accumulated juices. *Stir gently, making sure the meat is submerged in the tomato sauce. *Bring the sauce to a gentle simmer, then reduce the heat to low. *Simmer for 2 hours with the pot lid on, leaving it slightly ajar. Stir approximately every 10 minutes to prevent the sauce from sticking to the bottom of the pot. Keep the heat low enough so that the sauce bubbles gently. *Approximately 15 minutes before the sauce finishes simmering, bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. *Add the entire 1-pound box of dried pasta. *Cook until slightly underdone, approximately 1–2 minutes less than the package's recommended cooking time. Do not drain the pasta or discard the cooking water. *Using tongs, transfer the slightly undercooked pasta directly from the boiling water into the pot of ragù. *Stir thoroughly so that every piece of pasta is coated with sauce. *Add one third cup of pasta water and continue simmering over medium-low heat until the pasta is tender but not mushy and the sauce clings evenly to it. *Divide the pasta and ragù among serving plates, distributing the beef and sausage as desired. *Grate fresh Parmigiano Reggiano generously over each serving. *Serve immediately while hot. ==References== {{reflist}} 7q4e8rssz2igub9xb34pztutkhlnax6 4681804 4681755 2026-11-12T09:05:57Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Equipment */ 4681804 wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary|category=Italian-American recipes|servings=6|time=2hours and 30 minutes|difficulty=3 | Image = [[Image: Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese.jpg|Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese|300px]] }}{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Italian-American Cuisine| Italian-American Cuisine]] The below recipe is inspired by [[wikipedia:Neapolitan ragù|Neapolitan ragù]]<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/tyler-florence/neapolitan-ragu-recipe-1949748 A recipe for Neapolitan ragu on the Food Network]</ref>, a dish that originated in Naples and is widely eaten in the Campania region of Italy. It's also popular among Italian-American families who call it Sunday sauce or Sunday gravy. The recipe presented here deviates from the authentic dish in that it's faster to make, omits wine and includes carrots, celery and somewhat different seasonings. ==Ingredients== *1 lb (454 g) dried [[Cookbook: Pasta|pasta]] *1½ lbs [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]] chuck, cut into approximately 1½-inch chunks *1 lb [[Cookbook:Simple Italian Sausage Spaghetti Dinner| Italian sausage]] (approximately 4–5 links) *3 tablespoons extra-virgin [[Cookbook: Olive Oil|olive oil]] *1 medium [[Cookbook: Onion|onion]], finely chopped *2 medium [[Cookbook: Carrot|carrots]], finely chopped *2 [[Cookbook: Celery|celery stalks]], finely chopped *3 [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]], minced *2 cans (28 oz each) crushed [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] *6 oz [[Cookbook: Tomato Pasta|tomato paste]] *1 tablespoon dried [[Cookbook: Oregano|oregano]] *1 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoon]] dried [[Cookbook: Basil|basil]] *[[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]], to taste *Freshly grated [[wikipedia:Parmigiano Reggiano|Parmigiano Reggiano]], for serving == Equipment == *A [[wikipedia:Dutch oven|Dutch oven]] or a thick-walled, aluminum pot *a large [[Cookbook:Stock Pot|pot]] for cooking pasta in boiling water *a large pair of tongs *a large [[Cookbook: Cooking Spoon|spoon]] for stirring *a kitchen [[Cookbook: Knife|knife]] *a cheese grater *a measuring cup *measuring spoons *a food scale == Procedure == *Heat the olive oil in a large in a thick-walled pot. *Add the beef chuck. Season the beef lightly with salt. *Cook, turning occasionally, until the beef develops a brown crust, approximately 8–12 minutes. Work in batches if necessary to avoid overcrowding. *Remove the beef from the pot and set aside. *Reduce the heat to medium. *Add the chopped carrots, celery, and onion to the same pot, using the remaining oil and rendered fat from the meat. *Cook for approximately 8–10 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the vegetables have softened. Be careful not to burn them. *Make a small opening in the center of the vegetables and add the minced garlic. *Cook until the garlic becomes lightly golden, approximately 30–60 seconds. *Immediately add the crushed tomatoes to prevent the garlic from burning. Stir thoroughly to combine with the vegetables. *Add the tomato paste and mix well until completely incorporated. *Add the oregano and basil, stirring to distribute the herbs evenly throughout the sauce. *Season with salt to taste, keeping in mind that the sausages will contribute additional salt and allow the mixture to simmer for one to two minutes. *Return the browned beef chuck and add the raw Italian sausages to the pot, along with any accumulated juices. *Stir gently, making sure the meat is submerged in the tomato sauce. *Bring the sauce to a gentle simmer, then reduce the heat to low. *Simmer for 2 hours with the pot lid on, leaving it slightly ajar. Stir approximately every 10 minutes to prevent the sauce from sticking to the bottom of the pot. Keep the heat low enough so that the sauce bubbles gently. *Approximately 15 minutes before the sauce finishes simmering, bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. *Add the entire 1-pound box of dried pasta. *Cook until slightly underdone, approximately 1–2 minutes less than the package's recommended cooking time. Do not drain the pasta or discard the cooking water. *Using tongs, transfer the slightly undercooked pasta directly from the boiling water into the pot of ragù. *Stir thoroughly so that every piece of pasta is coated with sauce. *Add one third cup of pasta water and continue simmering over medium-low heat until the pasta is tender but not mushy and the sauce clings evenly to it. *Divide the pasta and ragù among serving plates, distributing the beef and sausage as desired. *Grate fresh Parmigiano Reggiano generously over each serving. *Serve immediately while hot. ==References== {{reflist}} 9nxknjlqlj5nhjeq21z1lboq56e3zx9 4681805 4681804 2026-11-12T09:06:36Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Equipment */ 4681805 wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary|category=Italian-American recipes|servings=6|time=2hours and 30 minutes|difficulty=3 | Image = [[Image: Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese.jpg|Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese|300px]] }}{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Italian-American Cuisine| Italian-American Cuisine]] The below recipe is inspired by [[wikipedia:Neapolitan ragù|Neapolitan ragù]]<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/tyler-florence/neapolitan-ragu-recipe-1949748 A recipe for Neapolitan ragu on the Food Network]</ref>, a dish that originated in Naples and is widely eaten in the Campania region of Italy. It's also popular among Italian-American families who call it Sunday sauce or Sunday gravy. The recipe presented here deviates from the authentic dish in that it's faster to make, omits wine and includes carrots, celery and somewhat different seasonings. ==Ingredients== *1 lb (454 g) dried [[Cookbook: Pasta|pasta]] *1½ lbs [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]] chuck, cut into approximately 1½-inch chunks *1 lb [[Cookbook:Simple Italian Sausage Spaghetti Dinner| Italian sausage]] (approximately 4–5 links) *3 tablespoons extra-virgin [[Cookbook: Olive Oil|olive oil]] *1 medium [[Cookbook: Onion|onion]], finely chopped *2 medium [[Cookbook: Carrot|carrots]], finely chopped *2 [[Cookbook: Celery|celery stalks]], finely chopped *3 [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]], minced *2 cans (28 oz each) crushed [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] *6 oz [[Cookbook: Tomato Pasta|tomato paste]] *1 tablespoon dried [[Cookbook: Oregano|oregano]] *1 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoon]] dried [[Cookbook: Basil|basil]] *[[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]], to taste *Freshly grated [[wikipedia:Parmigiano Reggiano|Parmigiano Reggiano]], for serving == Equipment == *A [[wikipedia:Dutch oven|Dutch oven]] or a thick-walled, aluminum pot *a large [[Cookbook:Stock Pot|pot]] for cooking pasta in boiling water *a large pair of tongs *a large [[Cookbook: Cooking Spoon|spoon]] for stirring *a kitchen [[Cookbook: Knife|knife]] *a cheese grater *a [[Cookbook: Measuring Cup|measuring cup]] *measuring spoons *a food scale == Procedure == *Heat the olive oil in a large in a thick-walled pot. *Add the beef chuck. Season the beef lightly with salt. *Cook, turning occasionally, until the beef develops a brown crust, approximately 8–12 minutes. Work in batches if necessary to avoid overcrowding. *Remove the beef from the pot and set aside. *Reduce the heat to medium. *Add the chopped carrots, celery, and onion to the same pot, using the remaining oil and rendered fat from the meat. *Cook for approximately 8–10 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the vegetables have softened. Be careful not to burn them. *Make a small opening in the center of the vegetables and add the minced garlic. *Cook until the garlic becomes lightly golden, approximately 30–60 seconds. *Immediately add the crushed tomatoes to prevent the garlic from burning. Stir thoroughly to combine with the vegetables. *Add the tomato paste and mix well until completely incorporated. *Add the oregano and basil, stirring to distribute the herbs evenly throughout the sauce. *Season with salt to taste, keeping in mind that the sausages will contribute additional salt and allow the mixture to simmer for one to two minutes. *Return the browned beef chuck and add the raw Italian sausages to the pot, along with any accumulated juices. *Stir gently, making sure the meat is submerged in the tomato sauce. *Bring the sauce to a gentle simmer, then reduce the heat to low. *Simmer for 2 hours with the pot lid on, leaving it slightly ajar. Stir approximately every 10 minutes to prevent the sauce from sticking to the bottom of the pot. Keep the heat low enough so that the sauce bubbles gently. *Approximately 15 minutes before the sauce finishes simmering, bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. *Add the entire 1-pound box of dried pasta. *Cook until slightly underdone, approximately 1–2 minutes less than the package's recommended cooking time. Do not drain the pasta or discard the cooking water. *Using tongs, transfer the slightly undercooked pasta directly from the boiling water into the pot of ragù. *Stir thoroughly so that every piece of pasta is coated with sauce. *Add one third cup of pasta water and continue simmering over medium-low heat until the pasta is tender but not mushy and the sauce clings evenly to it. *Divide the pasta and ragù among serving plates, distributing the beef and sausage as desired. *Grate fresh Parmigiano Reggiano generously over each serving. *Serve immediately while hot. ==References== {{reflist}} 1mh2ux6aup3h7iaxfav763za8rex14e 4681806 4681805 2026-11-12T09:07:18Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Equipment */ 4681806 wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary|category=Italian-American recipes|servings=6|time=2hours and 30 minutes|difficulty=3 | Image = [[Image: Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese.jpg|Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese|300px]] }}{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Italian-American Cuisine| Italian-American Cuisine]] The below recipe is inspired by [[wikipedia:Neapolitan ragù|Neapolitan ragù]]<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/tyler-florence/neapolitan-ragu-recipe-1949748 A recipe for Neapolitan ragu on the Food Network]</ref>, a dish that originated in Naples and is widely eaten in the Campania region of Italy. It's also popular among Italian-American families who call it Sunday sauce or Sunday gravy. The recipe presented here deviates from the authentic dish in that it's faster to make, omits wine and includes carrots, celery and somewhat different seasonings. ==Ingredients== *1 lb (454 g) dried [[Cookbook: Pasta|pasta]] *1½ lbs [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]] chuck, cut into approximately 1½-inch chunks *1 lb [[Cookbook:Simple Italian Sausage Spaghetti Dinner| Italian sausage]] (approximately 4–5 links) *3 tablespoons extra-virgin [[Cookbook: Olive Oil|olive oil]] *1 medium [[Cookbook: Onion|onion]], finely chopped *2 medium [[Cookbook: Carrot|carrots]], finely chopped *2 [[Cookbook: Celery|celery stalks]], finely chopped *3 [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]], minced *2 cans (28 oz each) crushed [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] *6 oz [[Cookbook: Tomato Pasta|tomato paste]] *1 tablespoon dried [[Cookbook: Oregano|oregano]] *1 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoon]] dried [[Cookbook: Basil|basil]] *[[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]], to taste *Freshly grated [[wikipedia:Parmigiano Reggiano|Parmigiano Reggiano]], for serving == Equipment == *A [[wikipedia:Dutch oven|Dutch oven]] or a thick-walled, aluminum pot *a large [[Cookbook:Stock Pot|pot]] for cooking pasta in boiling water *a large pair of tongs *a large [[Cookbook: Cooking Spoon|spoon]] for stirring *a kitchen [[Cookbook: Knife|knife]] *a cheese grater *a [[Cookbook: Measuring Cup|measuring cup]] *[[Cookbook: Measuring Spoon|measuring spoons]] *a food scale == Procedure == *Heat the olive oil in a large in a thick-walled pot. *Add the beef chuck. Season the beef lightly with salt. *Cook, turning occasionally, until the beef develops a brown crust, approximately 8–12 minutes. Work in batches if necessary to avoid overcrowding. *Remove the beef from the pot and set aside. *Reduce the heat to medium. *Add the chopped carrots, celery, and onion to the same pot, using the remaining oil and rendered fat from the meat. *Cook for approximately 8–10 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the vegetables have softened. Be careful not to burn them. *Make a small opening in the center of the vegetables and add the minced garlic. *Cook until the garlic becomes lightly golden, approximately 30–60 seconds. *Immediately add the crushed tomatoes to prevent the garlic from burning. Stir thoroughly to combine with the vegetables. *Add the tomato paste and mix well until completely incorporated. *Add the oregano and basil, stirring to distribute the herbs evenly throughout the sauce. *Season with salt to taste, keeping in mind that the sausages will contribute additional salt and allow the mixture to simmer for one to two minutes. *Return the browned beef chuck and add the raw Italian sausages to the pot, along with any accumulated juices. *Stir gently, making sure the meat is submerged in the tomato sauce. *Bring the sauce to a gentle simmer, then reduce the heat to low. *Simmer for 2 hours with the pot lid on, leaving it slightly ajar. Stir approximately every 10 minutes to prevent the sauce from sticking to the bottom of the pot. Keep the heat low enough so that the sauce bubbles gently. *Approximately 15 minutes before the sauce finishes simmering, bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. *Add the entire 1-pound box of dried pasta. *Cook until slightly underdone, approximately 1–2 minutes less than the package's recommended cooking time. Do not drain the pasta or discard the cooking water. *Using tongs, transfer the slightly undercooked pasta directly from the boiling water into the pot of ragù. *Stir thoroughly so that every piece of pasta is coated with sauce. *Add one third cup of pasta water and continue simmering over medium-low heat until the pasta is tender but not mushy and the sauce clings evenly to it. *Divide the pasta and ragù among serving plates, distributing the beef and sausage as desired. *Grate fresh Parmigiano Reggiano generously over each serving. *Serve immediately while hot. ==References== {{reflist}} q40nka3aurvqrdm3ajeb251py7cov78 4681807 4681806 2026-11-12T09:07:44Z A Sulaiman Z 3412824 /* Equipment */ 4681807 wikitext text/x-wiki {{recipesummary|category=Italian-American recipes|servings=6|time=2hours and 30 minutes|difficulty=3 | Image = [[Image: Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese.jpg|Beef and pork ragu with fettucine and parmigiano reggiano cheese|300px]] }}{{recipe}} | [[Cookbook:Italian-American Cuisine| Italian-American Cuisine]] The below recipe is inspired by [[wikipedia:Neapolitan ragù|Neapolitan ragù]]<ref>[http://www.foodnetwork.com/recipes/tyler-florence/neapolitan-ragu-recipe-1949748 A recipe for Neapolitan ragu on the Food Network]</ref>, a dish that originated in Naples and is widely eaten in the Campania region of Italy. It's also popular among Italian-American families who call it Sunday sauce or Sunday gravy. The recipe presented here deviates from the authentic dish in that it's faster to make, omits wine and includes carrots, celery and somewhat different seasonings. ==Ingredients== *1 lb (454 g) dried [[Cookbook: Pasta|pasta]] *1½ lbs [[Cookbook:Beef|beef]] chuck, cut into approximately 1½-inch chunks *1 lb [[Cookbook:Simple Italian Sausage Spaghetti Dinner| Italian sausage]] (approximately 4–5 links) *3 tablespoons extra-virgin [[Cookbook: Olive Oil|olive oil]] *1 medium [[Cookbook: Onion|onion]], finely chopped *2 medium [[Cookbook: Carrot|carrots]], finely chopped *2 [[Cookbook: Celery|celery stalks]], finely chopped *3 [[Cookbook:Clove|cloves]] [[Cookbook: Garlic|garlic]], minced *2 cans (28 oz each) crushed [[Cookbook: Tomato|tomatoes]] *6 oz [[Cookbook: Tomato Pasta|tomato paste]] *1 tablespoon dried [[Cookbook: Oregano|oregano]] *1 [[Cookbook: Tablespoon|tablespoon]] dried [[Cookbook: Basil|basil]] *[[Cookbook:Salt|Salt]], to taste *Freshly grated [[wikipedia:Parmigiano Reggiano|Parmigiano Reggiano]], for serving == Equipment == *A [[wikipedia:Dutch oven|Dutch oven]] or a thick-walled, aluminum pot *a large [[Cookbook:Stock Pot|pot]] for cooking pasta in boiling water *a large pair of tongs *a large [[Cookbook: Cooking Spoon|spoon]] for stirring *a kitchen [[Cookbook: Knife|knife]] *a cheese grater *a [[Cookbook: Measuring Cup|measuring cup]] *[[Cookbook: Cooking Spoon|measuring spoons]] *a food scale == Procedure == *Heat the olive oil in a large in a thick-walled pot. *Add the beef chuck. Season the beef lightly with salt. *Cook, turning occasionally, until the beef develops a brown crust, approximately 8–12 minutes. Work in batches if necessary to avoid overcrowding. *Remove the beef from the pot and set aside. *Reduce the heat to medium. *Add the chopped carrots, celery, and onion to the same pot, using the remaining oil and rendered fat from the meat. *Cook for approximately 8–10 minutes, stirring occasionally, until the vegetables have softened. Be careful not to burn them. *Make a small opening in the center of the vegetables and add the minced garlic. *Cook until the garlic becomes lightly golden, approximately 30–60 seconds. *Immediately add the crushed tomatoes to prevent the garlic from burning. Stir thoroughly to combine with the vegetables. *Add the tomato paste and mix well until completely incorporated. *Add the oregano and basil, stirring to distribute the herbs evenly throughout the sauce. *Season with salt to taste, keeping in mind that the sausages will contribute additional salt and allow the mixture to simmer for one to two minutes. *Return the browned beef chuck and add the raw Italian sausages to the pot, along with any accumulated juices. *Stir gently, making sure the meat is submerged in the tomato sauce. *Bring the sauce to a gentle simmer, then reduce the heat to low. *Simmer for 2 hours with the pot lid on, leaving it slightly ajar. Stir approximately every 10 minutes to prevent the sauce from sticking to the bottom of the pot. Keep the heat low enough so that the sauce bubbles gently. *Approximately 15 minutes before the sauce finishes simmering, bring a large pot of salted water to a boil. *Add the entire 1-pound box of dried pasta. *Cook until slightly underdone, approximately 1–2 minutes less than the package's recommended cooking time. Do not drain the pasta or discard the cooking water. *Using tongs, transfer the slightly undercooked pasta directly from the boiling water into the pot of ragù. *Stir thoroughly so that every piece of pasta is coated with sauce. *Add one third cup of pasta water and continue simmering over medium-low heat until the pasta is tender but not mushy and the sauce clings evenly to it. *Divide the pasta and ragù among serving plates, distributing the beef and sausage as desired. *Grate fresh Parmigiano Reggiano generously over each serving. *Serve immediately while hot. ==References== {{reflist}} 6ng6jn1f7d1jfensc44ru9vfa6e67qj 2 486626 4681631 4680952 2026-11-11T15:21:58Z RISHILPU 3629676 4681631 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{Delete|example=false|Encyclopedic articles belong at [[w:|Wikipedia]]}}</noinclude> == Pulse Code Modulation – PCM == Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), also known as baseband transmission, converts an input analog signal into a digital format and transmits it over a digital communication channel. It consists of the following: Band-limiting the input analog signal Sampling Quantization Analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion Signal shaping. [[File:Pcm-zh-cn.svg|thumb|289x289px|Pulse Code Modulation]] === Introduction === Analog Voice data must be translated into a series of binary digits before they can be transmitted.With Pulse Code Modulation,the amplitude of the sound wave is sampled at regular intervals and translated into a binary number.The difference between the original analog singnal and the translated digitial signal is called quantizing error.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-09-25 |title=Difference between Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Delta Modulation (DM) |url=https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/computer-networks/difference-between-pulse-code-modulation-pcm-and-delta-modulation-dm/ |access-date=2026-10-30 |website=GeeksforGeeks |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Pulse-code modulation |date=2026-10-02 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pulse-code_modulation&oldid=1378024045 |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2026-11-03 |language=en}}</ref> === PCM Processes === 1)Filtering 2)Sampling 3)Quantization 4)Encoding === 1)Sampling === Analog signal is sampled every T(sec).T(sec) is reffered to as the sampling interval. <math>F_s=1/(t_s) </math>is called the sampling rate or sampling frequency. there are 3 sampling methods. === '''2)Ideal''' === an impluse at each sampling instant === '''3)Natural''' === a pluse of short width with varying amplitude === '''4)Flattop''' === sample and hold,like natural but with single amplitude value. === 5)Quantizing === The process of measuring the numerical values of the samples and giving them a table in a suitable scale.The finite number of amplitude intervals is called the quantizing interval like quantizing interval no.1 is 10-20mV;2 is 20-30mV etc. in a case of 1V signal.Linear quantizing is where the quantizing intervals are of the same size.<ref>{{Citation |last=Faruque |first=Saleh |title=Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) |date=2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15609-5_4 |work=Radio Frequency Source Coding Made Easy |pages=65–90 |editor-last=Faruque |editor-first=Saleh |access-date=2026-10-30 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-15609-5_4 |isbn=978-3-319-15609-5}}</ref> [[File:Quantizer characteristic.png|thumb|Quantizing]] Quantization intervals are coded in binary form, and so the quantization intervals will be in power of 2. In PCM bit code is used and so we can have 256 intervals for quantizing 128 levels the positive direction and 128 levels in negative direction. == Quantization Distortion == The deviation between the amplitude of sample set the transmitter and receiving ends. Linear quantization. The distortion is more into increase the distortion. The number of steps in the given amplitude range has to be increased. Due to BW limitations, more quantum levels in small magnitude region or planet results to non-linear uniform quantization.<ref>{{Citation |last=Faruque |first=Saleh |title=Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) |date=2015 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-15609-5_4 |work=Radio Frequency Source Coding Made Easy |pages=65–90 |editor-last=Faruque |editor-first=Saleh |access-date=2026-10-30 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-15609-5_4 |isbn=978-3-319-15609-5}}</ref> === PCM Standards === There are two standards of PCM, namely, There are two standards of PCM, namely, the European standard, the American stand 1)the European standard, 2) the American standard. They differ likely in the detail of their working, but the principles are the same. a)European PCM= 30 channels. b)North American PCM = 24 channels. c) Japanese PCM = 24 channels In India, we follow the European PCM of 30 channels system working. === Bit Rate and Bandwidth Requirements of PCM === The bit rate of PCM signal can be calculated form the number of bites per samples <math>*</math>The sampling rate Bite rate=<math>n_b*f_s</math>The bandwidth required to transmit. The signal depends on the type of line encoding used referred to previous section for discussion and formulas. A digital signal will always need more bandwidth than the original analog signal price pay for Robo bus sign other futures of digital transmission. === Advatages of PCM === '''a)'''Uniform transmission quality. '''b)'''Compatibility of different classes of traffic in the network. '''c)'''Integrated digital network. '''d)'''Increased utilization of existing circuit. '''e)'''Low manufacturing cost. '''f)'''Good performance over very poor transmission paths.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pulse Code Modulation - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/pulse-code-modulation |access-date=2026-10-30 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> == Definition of PCM and Its Overlap with ADCs == Prior to the sampling process, the low-pass filter is required in order to eliminate any possible aliasing of the input signal. The aliasing problem is a consequence of the situation where the signal has frequency components above half of the sampling rate, which makes such components “fold over.” The low-pass filter in question, which is called anti-aliasing filter, filters out all of the high-frequency components from the signal before sampling process. Finally, there are three basic steps that have to be performed for PCM coding, namely sampling, quantization and encoding. [[File:Global Warming Predictions-fi.png|thumb|Pulse code Modulation<ref>{{Cite web |title=Search media - Wikimedia Commons |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?search=+PCM+system+diagram.&title=Special:MediaSearch&type=image |access-date=2026-11-03 |website=commons.wikimedia.org |language=en}}</ref>]] If you are acquainted with the concepts of ADC, then you must be knowing by now that the process involved in the generation of PCM is very much similar to the ADC process. You must be wondering what the difference between PCM and analog-to-digital (A/D) conversion is. The resemblance between the two is such that Leon W. Couch in Digital and Analog Communication Systems defines PCM as. == 1)Analog Pulse Modulation == Analog pulse modulation occurs if there is variation in one of the pulse parameters which continuesin direct proportion with the instantaneous value of the sample.In an analog pulse modulation system, the amplitude, width, or position of the pulse variescontinuously with respect to the message amplitude at the sampling period. These variations give rise to the following three types of pulse modulation: a)Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) b)Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) c)Pulse Position Modulation (PPM) === A)Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) === [[File:Pulse Amplitude Modulation - en.png|thumb|282x282px|Pulse Amplitude Modulation<ref>{{Cite web |last=Q81411358 |last2=Viaf: 106162365724425460032 |last3=Isni: 0000000503546620 |last4=Orcid: 0000-0003-2963-8799 |last5=ABO-3744-2022 |first5=ResearcherID: |last6=no2025040413 |first6=LCCN: |last7=WorldCat |date=2018-05-14 |title=File:Pulse Amplitude Modulation - en.png - Wikibooks, open books for an open world |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pulse_Amplitude_Modulation_-_en.png |access-date=2026-11-05 |website=commons.wikimedia.org |language=en}}</ref> ]] Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) refers to a modulation scheme where there is an alteration in amplitude of discrete carrier signal according to the instantaneous amplitude of message signal(modulating signal). === B)Pulse Width Modulation(PWM) === [[File:Synchronized Pulse Width Modulation Waveforms for a Three Phase Current Source Inverter.JPG|thumb|Pulse Width Modulation<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013-07-25 |title=File:Synchronized Pulse Width Modulation Waveforms for a Three Phase Current Source Inverter.JPG - Wikibooks, open books for an open world |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Synchronized_Pulse_Width_Modulation_Waveforms_for_a_Three_Phase_Current_Source_Inverter.JPG |access-date=2026-11-05 |website=commons.wikimedia.org |language=en}}</ref>]] The modulation scheme where the width of the discrete carrier signal varies according to the instantaneous value of the modulating signal(message signal), with the amplitude and position of the carrier signal remaining unchanged, is known as PWM. === C)Pulse Position Modulation(PPM) === The pulse position modulation is the system where the position of the carrier signal varies depending on the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal and while the amplitude and the width of the carrier remain constant. == 2)Digital Pulse Modulation == the message signal is the signal which is being transmitted for communication in the carrier signal is a high frequency signal which has no data, but it is also used for long distance distance transmission. There are many modulation techniques which are classified according to the type of modulation employed of them are the digital modulation technique used in Pulse modulation. [[File:Pulse density modulation.svg|thumb|274x274px|Digital Pulse Modulation]] A signal is pulse code modulated to convert its analog information into a binary sequence that is one second and zero second. The output of a PCM will resemble a binary sequence. Instead of a pulse strain PCM produces series of number of digits. This process is called as digital each one of these digits to a binary code represent the approximate amplitude of the signal sample at this instant in pulse score modulation the mass signal is represented by a sequence of coded pulses. This message signal is cured by representing the signal in discrete form in both time and amplitude. === A)Low Pass Fliter === These LPF is used to remove the high frequency components that are present within the input analog signal. Hear the signal is ERS compared to the highest frequency signal so that it avoids analyzing of the message signal === B) Regenerative repeater === The signal strength can be financial through this regenerator repeater so the channel output also includes a regenerator repeated circuit to balance the signal loss Renovate the signal, and also increases the signal strength. === C)Decoder === The main function of a decode a circuit is to decode. The pulse coded signal to repeat the actual signal. The circuit works like a D modulator. === D)Reconstruction filter === After the conversion of DAC digital to unlock conversion, he's done with the help of the decoder and regenerative circuit. Then Low pass filter is used to get back the original signal so this is known as reconstruction filter. Therefore, the pulse code modulator circuit is used to digitalize the specified analog signal code it sample it, and after that transmits in the form of analogue, so the center procedure can be repeated within a reverse model to get the original signal. === E)Coding === The encoder Encor, the Qantas samples each Qantas samples included into a eight bit code by using a law in the encoding process. 1)One BT is most significant by MSB. It represents the polarity of the sample one represent positive polar and zero represents negative polarity. 2)2,3 and 4 will define the location of the sample value this three bites together from a linear curve for low level negative or positive samples. 3)Bit 5,6 7 and 8 are the least significant bites LSB it represents one of the segments quantized value each segment is divide into 16 quantum levels. Pulse score modulation is similar to PWNPAM otherwise PPM however there is a significant disparity among them that is their analog pulse modulation systems, but pulse code modulation is digital pulse modulation system. So the output of the PCM is in the form of coded digital, and it is in the form of digital signal of stable with position and amplitude. The data can be transmitted in code words format a Pulse code modulation system include transmitter like a PCM encoder, and a receiver, like a PCM decoder the important operations within a transmitter of pulse score modulation mainly includes sampling quantizing, and encoding. Generally, these operations are performed within similar circuit, namely ADC (analog-to-digital converter). == Reference == nhpwa0imifvgle63keb0yxn65m98c5w 0 486695 4681832 4680434 2026-11-12T10:09:58Z Johnanth 298662 update - I no longer want to delete this page 4681832 wikitext text/x-wiki {{delete|reason=Chess openings are named based on their notability, i.e. played regularly, played by world-class players, or titled opening specialists, and having written material covering the opening. This variation is one the author has penned after their name (as confirmed in a discussion on the [https://github.com/lichess-org/chess-openings/pull/415 Lichess Chess Openings GitHub]) and does not currently meet notability criteria. As such, I am proposing removing this opening. -- [[User:Johnanth|Johnanth]] ([[User talk:Johnanth|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Johnanth|contribs]]) 21:45, 5 November 2026 (UTC) UPDATE: I cannot remove this notice and have reported it as a [[Wikibooks:Edit filter/False positives|false positive]]. As the page has been moved, I believe this no longer needs to be deleted. [[User:Johnanth|Johnanth]] ([[User talk:Johnanth|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Johnanth|contribs]]) 10:09, 12 November 2026 (UTC)}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Position |name=Caro–Kann Defence |eco=[[Chess/ECOB|B12]] |parent=[[../|5...Bf5]] }} == 6. g4 == '''6. g4''' is the critical answer to 5...Bf5 and the most ambitious way of handling the Mieses Attack. The pawn hits the undefended bishop and claims space on the kingside. The bishop usually retreats with '''6...Bg6'''. White then plays h4, intending to chase the bishop again, with Ne2 and Nf4 as a further idea. A typical continuation is 7. h4 h5 8. g5 Nd5 9. e2 e6, with white keeping the initiative on the kingside.<ref>[https://lichess.org/J1qwsG6O Ditrealman v StrapoChi02M, Lichess 2026]</ref> ==References== {{reflist}} {{Chess Opening Theory/Footer}} {{ChessStub}} glwr8qy8k09d5963hjsyc3pvwgf8cac 2 486798 4681851 4679818 2026-11-12T11:38:41Z Sonupandit2580 3626133 /* Battery System Packaging and Thermal Management */ 4681851 wikitext text/x-wiki == Battery System Packaging and Thermal Management == === Introduction === EV batteries are typically lithium-ion batteries storing chemical energy that can be converted to electrical energy. They make up a significant portion of the cost and weight of an EV. Battery cells are the basic building blocks of an EV battery pack. The EV battery system packaging is designed to integrate battery cells into the battery pack. The battery pack includes many cells connected in series and in parallel to provide the required current and voltage. The EV battery system packaging is critical to ensure that batteries can be operated at their optimum performance. This chapter will start by outlining the basics of lithium-ion batteries. Next, the integration from individual cells to the complete battery pack will be explained in detail, including the commonly used cell-to-module-to-pack approach and the cellto-pack approach. Lastly, the state-of-the-art EV battery system packaging and the latest advancements in EV battery thermal management will be covered. [[File:Lead_aicd_battery.png|thumb|Schematic drawing of a lead acid battery]] === Lithium-ion Battery Fundamentals === Lithium-ion batteries are the most widely used EV battery. Their high energy density, large number of charge/discharge cycles, fast charging time, and low self-discharge rate make them the most common choice for today’s EV traction applications (Warner, 2015). The lithium-ion battery cell is an electrochemical cell. It includes two layers of electrodes: one layer of cathode and one layer of anode are separated by a layer of separator and an electrolyte medium (see Figure 1.1 ). The cathode is a thin aluminum foil coated with some type of lithium-ion compound (such as lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide). The anode is a thin copper foil coated with graphite (C6). Both the cathode and anode have high electrical and thermal conductivity. The electrolyte will only allow lithium ions to move and realize electricity conduction. It is typically in liquid or gel form. The separator is a porous polymetricfilm that separates the cathode and anode, preventing the electrode layers from touching each other but allowing lithium ions to move from one side to the other. === Charging and Discharging === When charging occurs (see Figure 4.1), an external voltage is applied and drives the lithium ions moving from the cathode through the electrolyte to the anode inside the cell. In the external circuit, the electrons move from the cathode to the anode, and the current is in the reverse direction. An electrochemical reaction happens during the process to convert electrical energy to chemical energy. In this way, the energy is stored in the battery. Discharging is the reverse of charging (Figure 4.1). Now, chemical energy stored in the battery is converted to electrical energy and the battery supplies the power to drive the vehicles. During discharging, lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolytes in the cell. In the external circuit, the electrons flow from the anode to the cathode and current flows from the cathode to the anode.Battery System Packaging and Thermal Management === Battery Loss and Resistance === Batteries generate heat loss during charging and discharging. The typical efficiency of a battery system is around 85–95%. The heat loss is around 5–15%. The heat loss originates from several sources. 1. Ohmic heat loss due to battery cell resistances and all the connections. The loss is proportional to the square of the current (I2R) (I is the battery current). The internal battery cell resistance includes electrodes, electrolytes, and current collectors. The connections include terminal welding spots, wires, and connectors. 2. Electrochemical polarization Another source is polarization resistance (Rp), which accounts for ionic diffusion in the solid phase of the electrode materials and electrolyte. 3. Irreversible Reactions The loss is related to the charge transfer reaction occurring at the electrode/ electrolyte interface at the beginning. ==== Types of Internal Resistence : ==== Two resistance parameters are used to represent the impact of those losses: # Direct current internal resistance (DCIR) # Alternating current internal resistance (ACIR) DCIR is the resistance in charge and discharge when a DC is applied . ACIR is the resistance in charge and discharge when an AC is applied. ACIR measurements are common and more standardized. The factors affecting the internal resistance of a battery cell include : # Current # State of charge (SoC) # State of health # Temperature. === Battery Cell === The basic building block for current EV battery systems is a lithium-ion battery cell with a voltage around 3–4 V. There are three types of battery forms: cylindrical cell, pouch cell, and prismatic cell (see Figure 4.2). Cylindrical cells look like AA batteries. They are one of the most popular forms of EV battery cells. Tesla, Rivian, Lucid, and other EV companies use this type of cell. In the cell, the anode, separator, and cathode are wound in a spiral and 48 Electric Drive System Design for Electric Vehicles inserted into a metal cylindrical case with terminals at both ends. These cells are first connected in series and then in parallel to form a cell module with the required voltage and current rating. Pouch cells directly pack both the electrode and separator into a rectangular shaped pouch (see Figure 4.2). Without a metal case like the other two, pouch cells are flexible, light, and have the highest energy density. Of course, additional support is needed when pouch cells are integrated into the battery pack. Prismatic cells are a group of pouch cells bundled together. Prismatic cells are normally contained in a rectangular metal case. They are much larger than cylindri cal cells and have higher power density because less casing material is used. Some Audi models use prismatic cells. === Battery Management System(BMS) === BMSs act as Brain of the battery system. The main function of the BMS is to monitor and control the state of the battery. It measures the voltage of individual battery cells, temperature, and pack current. It keeps all the cells in the battery pack under the same SoC throughout the battery’s life. A higher voltage of battery cells generally relates to a higher SoC. By measuring the voltage of each individual cell, the BMS determines the SoC for each cell. The BMS also senses each cell’s temperature. It measures the current in and out of the whole battery pack and determines how much power and energy have been consumed or generated. Subsequently, as it monitors SoC, it discharges the cells with higher voltage and achieves a balanced SoC for all the cells. This protects battery cells from under-utilization, over-discharge, cell short circuits, and extreme temperatures. A critical function of the BMS is to detect a battery system isolation fault and cut off the power supply when a problem occurs. An isolation fault occurs when the electrical isolation between EV HV components (such as battery cells, motors, and inverters) and the vehicle’s chassis ground fails. The BMS continuously measures isolation resistance between the HV battery’s positive and negative terminals and the chassis ground. Normally, the resistance is very high ('''>1 Mohm'''). If there is an isola tion fault, the resistance will drop significantly. The BMS will detect it and open the contactors in the junction box. === Battery System Packaging === The most common battery packaging solution is Cell → Cell Module → Battery Pack. A number of cells are first packaged into a cell module, then several cell mod ules are put together to form the battery pack (see Figure 4.4). Most current EV battery packs have a 400 V nominal voltage, though there are some with 800 V. Based on the voltage and driving range needed, an appropriate combination of battery cells can be determined. Many cells are arranged in series/ parallel to provide sufficient power and energy to EVs. Individual cells are first connected either in series or in parallel, to form a cell module with specific module voltage and energy capacity. Each cell module is enclosed in a metal housing to protect the cells from vibration and other environ mental impacts. Next, several cell modules are assembled to form the battery pack (see Figure 4.4). The battery pack provides the desired voltage, current, and power output. The example below is the battery cell module used in one EV. It is a 62 kWh ver sion, where 12 prismatic cells with a voltage of 3.7 V are connected in series, and then two sets are connected in parallel. Therefore, the cell module voltage is '''3.7V X 12= 44.4V''' In total, there are 24 prismatic cells packaged in one cell module. There are nine cell modules connected in series in a battery pack. Therefore, the battery pack volt age can be determined. '''44.4V X 9=399.6V''' === Thermal Runaway === Safety considerations to contain high thermal instability of lithium-ion batteries are always a priority for EV applications. Thermal runaway in lithium-ion batteries occurs when temperature increases in the battery, resulting in further reactions. This reaction leads to even more heat generation than what the cooling system can handle. Therefore, the temperature increases even more, eventually resulting in a catastrophic failure. Thermal runaway can result in cell venting, fire, or even explosions. Once the temperature of the cell reaches '''~80°C''', the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) protective layer on the anode will start to break down and result in a reaction of lithium with the electrolyte solvent, generating additional heat. This further increases temperature. As the temperature reaches '''100-120°C''', the electrolyte starts to break down and gas is produced. As the temperature continues to increase to around '''120–130°C''', the separator layer starts to melt. Next, the cathode layer starts to break down as the temperature further increases to around '''130–150°C'''. This comes with oxygen generation. All of these are exothermic reac tions with significant heat generation, eventually driving the cell to failure and fire. This is why it is desired to have the battery temperature well below '''80°C''', preferably below '''60°C'''. For some EV batteries, the recommended temperature is '''0–45°C''' for charging, and '''20–60°C''' for discharging (Prismatic & Pouch Battery Packs, n.d.). '''Main causes for thermal runaway include:''' * Overcharging * Over-discharging * Physical damage to the battery * High temperature or hotspot * Manufacturing defects * Overcharging * Over-discharging Proper thermal management and protective circuitry are essential to prevent thermal runaway. The first solution is to avoid overcharging and over-discharging by the BMS. One major function of the BMS is to evaluate the SoC for each battery cell by monitoring its voltage and temperature in real time. Through this data, the BMS can ensure the normal operation of healthy cells, detect abnormal cells, and regu late or even limit the operation of suspected cells. The second solution is to design appropriate thermal management to avoid high temperatures and high temperature gradients for battery systems. Most EV battery systems use active liquid cooling systems. With the help of the BMS, the cooling system will try to maintain a desired temperature within a battery cell and minimize temperature difference from cell to cell. === Battery System Thermal Management === EV batteries need to last 10 years/100,000 miles despite their degradation over time. A good thermal management system and BMS can extend battery life while ensuring battery safety, performance, and efficiency. ==== Thermal Management Objective ==== The primary objectives of battery thermal management include: # Keep the battery temperature within an optimal range. # Ensure uniform temperature distribution across the battery pack. # Eliminate temperature-related safety issues such as thermal runaway. The thermal challenges of the battery system are to maintain it within a very narrow range of (10–35°C )for most of its use life and to ensure minimal temperature gradient from cell to cell and within the cell. This is challenging since sometimes the ambient temperature alone already exceeds this range. In addition, the heat loss generated during battery charging and discharging needs to be dissipated effectively to minimize temperature rise.In the current EV battery system, active cooling with water/glycol is the default choice. The selection of the cooling system depends on the usage cycles, battery cell form, and ambient conditions. === Bottom Cooling === Bottom cooling is the typical cooling option for the cell to module to battery pack packaging. The bottom of the battery pack is a large cooling plate, to which the bottom of the cell modules is thermally attached via some type of thermal interface material (TIM). The cells are in pouch form. They are first thermally connected to the bottom of the battery module with a (TIM) then, the module base is thermally connected to the battery pack cooling plate underneath the pack. === Side cooling === The cold plate is sandwiched between two rows of cells. Coolant flows inside the cold plates adjacent to the sides of the cells. The cold plates are curved around the perimeter of the walls. Thermal paste is applied to fill the gap between the cold plates and the cells. === Comparison Between two Battery System Cooling Methods === The choice between side cooling or bottom cooling depends on the battery system packaging. If cell modules are used, as in most EVs, bottom cooling is the choice. Tesla uses side cooling because its cells are directly integrated into the battery pack. The effectiveness of these two cooling options is compared here. Regardless of cylindrical cell or pouch cell, the cell is made of one layer of cathode electrode and one layer of anode electrode, separated by the electrolyte and the separator. As elec trodes are made from sheets of aluminum and copper, both have excellent thermal conductivity (100–400 W/mK). In contrast, both the electrolyte and separators are poor thermal conductors. Therefore, heat conduction along the in-plane layer direc tion is much higher than in the out of plane direction, where the heat has to dissipate through layers of low thermal conductivity layers. Lastly, battery system cooling is different from other powertrain component cooling. It has lower power loss density and does not necessarily need high cool ing efficiency in terms of thermal resistance. i8dytrxvcr4vb8k9gn59ay0d8kcwms9 2 486800 4681645 4681162 2026-11-11T16:31:55Z Abhaypal2005 3626134 4681645 wikitext text/x-wiki == AC Voltage Controllers: Working Principles, Types and Applications == == 1. Abstract == An AC voltage controller is a power device. It controls the RMS value of an alternating voltage. The controller sends power to a load. It does not change the frequency of the supply. It regulates voltage by adjusting the conduction time of semiconductor switches. Common switches include Silicon Controlled Rectifiers and TRIACs. These controllers are often used in industries. They help control heating systems. They also regulate lighting levels. They control the speed of induction motors. They adjust output voltage. AC voltage controllers are used in industrial setups. The main way they work is through phase angle control and integral-cycle control. Phase-angle control changes the point at which the switch turns on during each AC cycle. Integral-cycle control turns the switch on for cycles and off for full cycles. Both methods adjust power delivery. The article explains the working of AC voltage controllers. It describes the circuit setups used. It covers control techniques. It includes expressions, for voltage and power. It also looks at real-world applications. The article lists the benefits and drawbacks of using AC voltage controllers. == 2. Introduction == Electrical power control is a part of modern power electronic systems. Many industrial and domestic uses need adjustable AC voltage to manage how electrical devices work. An AC voltage controller is a type of power device that takes a fixed AC input voltage and turns it into a variable AC output voltage. The output voltage changes depending on the firing angle of the thyristors. By adjusting how many AC cycles reach the load. Unlike an AC to DC converter an AC voltage controller keeps the output frequency the same as the input supply frequency. For instance when connected to a heating element an AC voltage controller can change the voltage to control how much heat is produced. It can also adjust the voltage going to an induction motor helping to manage its speed and performance. The main goals of AC voltage controllers are: To regulate the RMS output voltage. To control the amount of power sent to the load. To increase the flexibility of how electrical equipment operates. To offer electronic control, over AC loads. == 3. Basic Principle of AC Voltage Control == The operation of an AC voltage controller works by using power semiconductor devices to switch on and off. The input supply is typically an AC voltage that can be written as: Vs(t) = Vm sin(ωt) Where: Vm = Maximum value of input voltage. Ω = Angular frequency of the supply. T = Time. Vs = Instantaneous supply voltage. The output voltage is managed by adjusting the firing angle of the thyristors. The firing angle is the angle that starts from the natural turn on point of a thyristor and goes up, to the moment when the gate pulse is sent. When the firing angle is small the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be higher. When the firing angle is larger the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be lower. So the output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. [[File:AC Voltage Controller.png|681x681px]] Figure 1. Basic Block Diagram of an AC Voltage Controller. == 4. Main Components of an AC Voltage Controller == An AC voltage controller generally consists of the following components :- 4.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) An SCR is a three semiconductor switching device. It has an anode, a cathode and a gate. It begins to conduct when it is forward biased and receives a gate pulse. SCRs are often used in AC voltage controllers because they can handle voltage and high current levels. 4.2 TRIAC A TRIAC is a bidirectional semiconductor switching device. It can allow current to flow in both directions. It can be triggered during both the negative half cycles of an AC supply. It is widely used in low and medium power AC voltage control applications. 4.3 Gate Triggering Circuit The gate triggering circuit creates pulses that control the switching of the SCRs. It sets the firing angle. Helps adjust the output voltage. 4.4 Load The load is the equipment that receives the controlled AC power. Common examples include heating elements, lighting systems and motors. == 5. Types of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers can be grouped by how phases they use and by their control methods. 5.1 Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller A single-phase AC voltage controller is used to regulate the RMS voltage that is supplied to a single-phase AC load. I find that it helps to keep the voltage steady. It usually uses two SCRs set up in antiparallel. It may use one TRIAC. The two SCRs conduct during half-cycles of the AC supply: SCR T1 conducts during the positive half-cycle. SCR T2 conducts, during the half-cycle. The output voltage is controlled by changing the firing angle of the SCRs. Single-phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in appliances, heating systems and lighting control. [[File:Single Phase Full Wave Controller.png|413x413px]] Figure 2. Single-Phase Full-Wave AC Voltage Controller Circuit. 5.2 Three-Phase AC Voltage Controller A three-phase AC voltage controller is used to control the RMS voltage supplied to three-phase loads. It generally uses six SCRs or an equivalent semiconductor switching arrangement. Three-phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in: heating systems. Three-phase induction motor control. Industrial power regulation. Large electrical equipment. Three-phase AC voltage controllers provide controlled power to three-phase loads. == 6. Control Techniques of AC Voltage Controllers == There are two control techniques used in AC voltage controllers: Phase-angle control. Integral-cycle control. 6.1 Phase-Angle Control Phase-angle control is a method in which the output voltage is regulated by varying the firing angle of the thyristors during each AC cycle. In this method the SCR is triggered after a delay from the zero crossing of the supply voltage. During the half-cycle SCR T1 is triggered at firing angle alpha. During the half-cycle SCR T2 is triggered at pi plus alpha. For a resistive load the SCR conducts from alpha to pi in the positive half-cycle and from pi plus alpha to 2 pi in the negative half-cycle. The RMS output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. RMS output voltage for a phase full-wave AC voltage controller with a resistive load: Vo = Vs √[(1/pi)(pi − alpha + sin 2 alpha / 2)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage. Vs = RMS input supply voltage. alpha = Firing angle in radians. Important observations: At alpha = 0 degrees the output voltage is equal, to the input voltage. As alpha increases the RMS output voltage decreases. At alpha = 180 degrees the output voltage becomes zero. Phase-angle control is commonly used in AC power regulation applications. 6.2 Integral-Cycle Control Integral-cycle control is a method used to control AC voltage. In this method the AC supply is connected to the load for a number of full cycles and then disconnected for the remaining cycles. This technique is also called on-off control or burst-firing control. For example if the load gets power for six cycles and is turned off for four cycles the system works with six ON cycles and four OFF cycles. The RMS output voltage can be calculated using the formula: Vo = Vs √[n/(n + m)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage Vs = RMS input voltage n = Number of ON cycles m = Number of OFF cycles Integral-cycle control is mostly used for loads that respond slowly like heating systems. It reduces the number of switching actions, per unit time compared to phase-angle control. However it may cause low-frequency fluctuations and flicker in some applications. [[File:Integral-Cycle Control.png|679x679px]] Figure 3. Voltage Waveforms under Integral-Cycle Control. == 7. Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with Resistive Load == A single phase AC voltage controller with a load uses two SCRs connected in antiparallel. The resistive load is connected in series with the AC supply. During the half-cycle of the input voltage SCR T1 becomes forward biased. When a gate pulse is applied at a firing angle α SCR T1 starts conducting. The load voltage follows the input voltage from angle α to π. In the half-cycle SCR T2 becomes forward biased. It begins to conduct when triggered at angle π. Α. The output voltage then follows the half cycle of the supply from π + α to 2π. Because the load is purely resistive the load current remains in phase with the load voltage. There is no phase shift. The RMS load current is calculated as: Io = Vo / R Where: Io is the RMS load Vo is the RMS output voltage. R is the load resistance. The power delivered to the load is: P = Io²R P = Vo² / R This type of circuit is commonly used in heating applications and lighting control. It allows control of power delivered to resistive loads by adjusting the firing angle α. Changing the firing angle changes the amount of power delivered making it ideal, for applications where variable power is needed. == 8. Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load == An RL load is made up of resistance written as R and inductance written as L that are connected one after another in series. In this kind of load the current does not follow the voltage away because the inductance holds energy inside its magnetic field. The load current falls behind the load voltage by a phase angle. The load phase angle is given by : φ = tan⁻¹(ωL/R) Where : φ equals the load phase angle. R equals resistance. L equals inductance. Ω equals frequency. When SCR T1 is triggered at the firing angle α the current begins to flow through the RL load. Nevertheless because of the inductance the current keeps flowing after the supply voltage crosses zero at π. The SCR stops conducting when the load current drops to zero at the extinction angle β. The conduction angle is defined as: γ = β − α Where: β equals the extinction angle. Α equals the firing angle. Γ equals the conduction angle. Thus the inductive load changes both the waveform and the conduction period of the thyristors. AC voltage controllers that use RL loads are commonly found in motor control and, in industrial applications that involve inductive loads. [[File:Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load.png|654x654px]] Figure 4. Voltage and Current Waveforms for an RL Load. == 9. Harmonics in AC Voltage Controllers == Harmonics are parts of the frequency that exist in waveforms. These parts are at number multiples of the main supply frequency. In AC voltage controllers the output voltage and current waveforms are usually not shaped like a wave. This is because the thyristors turn on and off at times during the AC cycle. These waveforms that are not shaped like a wave have harmonic parts inside them. Harmonics can lead to: heating in electrical equipment. More losses in motors and transformers. Electromagnetic interference. Worse power quality. Distorted. Current waveforms. For a wave supply the main frequency is usually 50 Hz, in India. Harmonics appear at multiples of this frequency like 150 Hz, 250 Hz and 350 Hz. Harmonic analysis is important when building AC voltage controllers because much harmonic distortion can hurt how electrical equipment works. == 10. Sequence Control of AC Voltage Controllers == Sequence control is a method where two or more AC voltage controller stages are connected side by side and used in an order to get a controlled output voltage. The main goal of sequence control is to make the power factor better and to cut down the distortions, in the input and output signals. In multistage sequence control each controller stage is turned on at the moment to get the voltage that is needed. This method works well in places where better power quality and managed AC power are needed. == 11. Applications of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers are used in industrial and domestic settings. 11.1 Industrial Heating AC voltage controllers manage the power that electric heating elements receive. By changing the RMS voltage AC voltage controllers can control how hot the heating becomes. 11.2 Lighting Control AC voltage controllers are used in lighting systems to set lamp brightness by controlling the AC voltage supplied. 11.3 Induction Motor Control AC voltage controllers can manage the stator voltage of induction motors. AC voltage controllers enable speed control and soft starting for such motors. 11.4 Fan Speed Control AC voltage controllers are used in some AC fan speed regulators to change the voltage that the motor receives. 11.5 Transformer Voltage Regulation AC voltage controllers can be used in controlled AC power applications that involve transformers. Multistage arrangements of AC voltage controllers can deliver output voltage levels. 11.6 Industrial Power Control AC voltage controllers are used to manage power, in industrial equipment, furnaces and other AC loads. == 12. Advantages of AC Voltage Controllers == The main advantages of AC voltage controllers are: Basic configurations of power electronic circuits. Semiconductor switching leads to high efficiency. RMS smooth regulation of output voltage. Smaller than some conventional voltage-control arrangements. Needs little maintenance. Quick electronic control response. Suitable for various resistive and inductive loads. == 13. Disadvantages and Limitations == Although AC voltage controllers have advantages, there are some limitations also: They cause harmonic distortion of the waveforms of supply and load. Phase-angle control can result in a poor input power factor, especially for large firing angles. Electromagnetic interference may be caused by switching operations. The output voltage waveform is not sinusoidal in general. The controller performance depends on the nature of the load. In sensitive applications, additional filtering and protection circuits may be needed. == 14. Future Scope of AC Voltage Controllers == The power electronic technology is still evolving and offers new possibilities for better AC voltage control systems. Modern controllers can use digital control circuits, microcontrollers and sophisticated triggering techniques to improve the switching accuracy. Application of intelligent control system may maximise the regulation effect of industrial power. Possible areas for future development include Better methods for harmonic reduction. Control of digital ignition angle. Smart power management Better power factor. “Better semiconductor switching devices. Integration with automated industrial equipment. Such developments can enhance reliability and applicability of AC voltage controllers in modern electrical applications. == 15. Conclusion == AC Voltage Controllers play a vital role of power electronic converter, which controls the RMS value of AC voltage applied to loads. The working principle of these AC Voltage Controllers relies on the controlled switching of the semiconductor switches such as SCR and TRIAC. Two control methods of the AC voltage control are phase angle control and integral cycle control. Single phase and Three Phase systems provide more choice for application in domestic and industrial sectors. The AC Voltage Controller adds harmonics and reduces the power factor of the input side, but still, they provide a cost-effective way to control AC Power. Due to improvement in the semiconductor switch and digital control system, AC Voltage Controller is widely used today. == 16. References == P.S. Bimbhra, Power Electronics, Khanna Publishers. Refer to the section on AC Voltage Controllers from the book used for this article. M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications, Pearson. NPTEL – Power Electronics course: <nowiki>https://nptel.ac.in/</nowiki> IEEE Xplore – Technical research articles related to AC voltage controllers and power electronics: <nowiki>https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/</nowiki> All About Circuits – Learn electronics and power electronics: <nowiki>https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/</nowiki> qpoqfnl3ndslhqsmaoonhgz496hum5w 4681652 4681645 2026-11-11T16:50:37Z Abhaypal2005 3626134 4681652 wikitext text/x-wiki == AC Voltage Controllers: Working Principles, Types and Applications == == 1. Abstract == An AC voltage controller is a power device. It controls the RMS value of an alternating voltage. The controller sends power to a load. It does not change the frequency of the supply. It regulates voltage by adjusting the conduction time of semiconductor switches. Common switches include Silicon Controlled Rectifiers and TRIACs. These controllers are often used in industries. They help control heating systems. They also regulate lighting levels. They control the speed of induction motors. They adjust output voltage. AC voltage controllers are used in industrial setups. The main way they work is through phase angle control and integral cycle control. Phase-angle control changes the point at which the switch turns on during each AC cycle. Integral cycle control turns the switch on for cycles and off for full cycles. Both methods adjust power delivery. The article explains the working of AC voltage controllers. It describes the circuit setups used. It covers control techniques. It includes expressions, for voltage and power. It also looks at real-world applications. The article lists the benefits and drawbacks of using AC voltage controllers. == 2. Introduction == Electrical power control is a part of modern power electronic systems. Many industrial and domestic uses need adjustable AC voltage to manage how electrical devices work. An AC voltage controller is a type of power device that takes a fixed AC input voltage and turns it into a variable AC output voltage. The output voltage changes depending on the firing angle of the thyristors. By adjusting how many AC cycles reach the load. Unlike an AC to DC converter an AC voltage controller keeps the output frequency the same as the input supply frequency. For instance when connected to a heating element an AC voltage controller can change the voltage to control how much heat is produced. It can also adjust the voltage going to an induction motor helping to manage its speed and performance. The main goals of AC voltage controllers are : To regulate the RMS output voltage. To control the amount of power sent to the load. To increase the flexibility of how electrical equipment operates. To offer electronic control, over AC loads. == 3. Basic Principle of AC Voltage Control == The operation of an AC voltage controller works by using power semiconductor devices to switch on and off. The input supply is typically an AC voltage that can be written as : Vs(t) = Vm sin(ωt) Where : Vm = Maximum value of input voltage. Ω = Angular frequency of the supply. T = Time. Vs = Instantaneous supply voltage. The output voltage is managed by adjusting the firing angle of the thyristors. The firing angle is the angle that starts from the natural turn on point of a thyristor and goes up, to the moment when the gate pulse is sent. When the firing angle is small the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be higher. When the firing angle is larger the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be lower. So the output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. [[File:AC Voltage Controller.png|681x681px]] Figure 1. Basic Block Diagram of an AC Voltage Controller. == 4. Main Components of an AC Voltage Controller == An AC voltage controller generally consists of the following components :- 4.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) An SCR is a three semiconductor switching device. It has an anode, a cathode and a gate. It begins to conduct when it is forward biased and receives a gate pulse. SCRs are often used in AC voltage controllers because they can handle voltage and high current levels. 4.2 TRIAC A TRIAC is a bidirectional semiconductor switching device. It can allow current to flow in both directions. It can be triggered during both the negative half cycles of an AC supply. It is widely used in low and medium power AC voltage control applications. 4.3 Gate Triggering Circuit The gate triggering circuit creates pulses that control the switching of the SCRs. It sets the firing angle. Helps adjust the output voltage. 4.4 Load The load is the equipment that receives the controlled AC power. Common examples include heating elements, lighting systems and motors. == 5. Types of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers can be grouped by how phases they use and by their control methods. 5.1 Single Phase AC Voltage Controller A single phase AC voltage controller is used to regulate the RMS voltage that is supplied to a single phase AC load. I find that it helps to keep the voltage steady. It usually uses two SCRs set up in antiparallel. It may use one TRIAC. The two SCRs conduct during half cycles of the AC supply: SCR T1 conducts during the positive half cycle. SCR T2 conducts, during the half cycle. The output voltage is controlled by changing the firing angle of the SCRs. Single phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in appliances, heating systems and lighting control. [[File:Single Phase Full Wave Controller.png|413x413px]] Figure 2. Single Phase Full Wave AC Voltage Controller Circuit. 5.2 Three Phase AC Voltage Controller A three phase AC voltage controller is used to control the RMS voltage supplied to three phase loads. It generally uses six SCRs or an equivalent semiconductor switching arrangement. Three phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in: heating systems. Three phase induction motor control. Industrial power regulation. Large electrical equipment. Three phase AC voltage controllers provide controlled power to three phase loads. == 6. Control Techniques of AC Voltage Controllers == There are two control techniques used in AC voltage controllers: Phase angle control. Integral cycle control. 6.1 Phase Angle Control Phase angle control is a method in which the output voltage is regulated by varying the firing angle of the thyristors during each AC cycle. In this method the SCR is triggered after a delay from the zero crossing of the supply voltage. During the half cycle SCR T1 is triggered at firing angle alpha. During the half cycle SCR T2 is triggered at pi plus alpha. For a resistive load the SCR conducts from alpha to pi in the positive half cycle and from pi plus alpha to 2 pi in the negative half cycle. The RMS output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. RMS output voltage for a phase full wave AC voltage controller with a resistive load: Vo = Vs √[(1/pi)(pi − alpha + sin 2 alpha / 2)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage. Vs = RMS input supply voltage. alpha = Firing angle in radians. Important observations: At alpha = 0 degrees the output voltage is equal, to the input voltage. As alpha increases the RMS output voltage decreases. At alpha = 180 degrees the output voltage becomes zero. Phase angle control is commonly used in AC power regulation applications. 6.2 Integral Cycle Control Integral cycle control is a method used to control AC voltage. In this method the AC supply is connected to the load for a number of full cycles and then disconnected for the remaining cycles. This technique is also called on off control or burst firing control. For example if the load gets power for six cycles and is turned off for four cycles the system works with six ON cycles and four OFF cycles. The RMS output voltage can be calculated using the formula: Vo = Vs √[n/(n + m)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage Vs = RMS input voltage n = Number of ON cycles m = Number of OFF cycles Integral cycle control is mostly used for loads that respond slowly like heating systems. It reduces the number of switching actions, per unit time compared to phase angle control. However it may cause low frequency fluctuations and flicker in some applications. [[File:Integral-Cycle Control.png|679x679px]] Figure 3. Voltage Waveforms under Integral Cycle Control. == 7. Single Phase AC Voltage Controller with Resistive Load == A single phase AC voltage controller with a load uses two SCRs connected in antiparallel. The resistive load is connected in series with the AC supply. During the half cycle of the input voltage SCR T1 becomes forward biased. When a gate pulse is applied at a firing angle α SCR T1 starts conducting. The load voltage follows the input voltage from angle α to π. In the half cycle SCR T2 becomes forward biased. It begins to conduct when triggered at angle π. Α. The output voltage then follows the half cycle of the supply from π + α to 2π. Because the load is purely resistive the load current remains in phase with the load voltage. There is no phase shift. The RMS load current is calculated as: Io = Vo / R Where: Io is the RMS load Vo is the RMS output voltage. R is the load resistance. The power delivered to the load is: P = Io²R P = Vo² / R This type of circuit is commonly used in heating applications and lighting control. It allows control of power delivered to resistive loads by adjusting the firing angle α. Changing the firing angle changes the amount of power delivered making it ideal, for applications where variable power is needed. == 8. Single Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load == An RL load is made up of resistance written as R and inductance written as L that are connected one after another in series. In this kind of load the current does not follow the voltage away because the inductance holds energy inside its magnetic field. The load current falls behind the load voltage by a phase angle. The load phase angle is given by : φ = tan⁻¹(ωL/R) Where :- φ equals the load phase angle. R equals resistance. L equals inductance. Ω equals frequency. When SCR T1 is triggered at the firing angle α the current begins to flow through the RL load. Nevertheless because of the inductance the current keeps flowing after the supply voltage crosses zero at π. The SCR stops conducting when the load current drops to zero at the extinction angle β. The conduction angle is defined as: γ = β − α Where: β equals the extinction angle. Α equals the firing angle. Γ equals the conduction angle. Thus the inductive load changes both the waveform and the conduction period of the thyristors. AC voltage controllers that use RL loads are commonly found in motor control and, in industrial applications that involve inductive loads. [[File:Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load.png|654x654px]] Figure 4. Voltage and Current Waveforms for an RL Load. == 9. Harmonics in AC Voltage Controllers == Harmonics are parts of the frequency that exist in waveforms. These parts are at number multiples of the main supply frequency. In AC voltage controllers the output voltage and current waveforms are usually not shaped like a wave. This is because the thyristors turn on and off at times during the AC cycle. These waveforms that are not shaped like a wave have harmonic parts inside them. Harmonics can lead to : Heating in electrical equipment. More losses in motors and transformers. Electromagnetic interference. Worse power quality. For a wave supply the main frequency is usually 50 Hz, in India. Harmonics appear at multiples of this frequency like 150 Hz, 250 Hz and 350 Hz. Harmonic analysis is important when building AC voltage controllers because much harmonic distortion can hurt how electrical equipment works. == 10. Sequence Control of AC Voltage Controllers == Sequence control is a method where two or more AC voltage controller stages are connected side by side and used in an order to get a controlled output voltage. The main goal of sequence control is to make the power factor better and to cut down the distortions, in the input and output signals. In multistage sequence control each controller stage is turned on at the moment to get the voltage that is needed. This method works well in places where better power quality and managed AC power are needed. == 11. Applications of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers are used in industrial and domestic settings. 11.1 Industrial Heating AC voltage controllers manage the power that electric heating elements receive. By changing the RMS voltage AC voltage controllers can control how hot the heating becomes. 11.2 Lighting Control AC voltage controllers are used in lighting systems to set lamp brightness by controlling the AC voltage supplied. 11.3 Induction Motor Control AC voltage controllers can manage the stator voltage of induction motors. AC voltage controllers enable speed control and soft starting for such motors. 11.4 Fan Speed Control AC voltage controllers are used in some AC fan speed regulators to change the voltage that the motor receives. 11.5 Transformer Voltage Regulation AC voltage controllers can be used in controlled AC power applications that involve transformers. Multistage arrangements of AC voltage controllers can deliver output voltage levels. 11.6 Industrial Power Control AC voltage controllers are used to manage power, in industrial equipment, furnaces and other AC loads. == 12. Advantages of AC Voltage Controllers == The main advantages of AC voltage controllers are : Basic configurations of power electronic circuits. Semiconductor switching leads to high efficiency. RMS smooth regulation of output voltage. Smaller than some conventional voltage control arrangements. Needs little maintenance. Quick electronic control response. Suitable for various resistive and inductive loads. == 13. Disadvantages and Limitations == Although AC voltage controllers have advantages, there are some limitations also : They cause harmonic distortion of the waveforms of supply and load. Phase-angle control can result in a poor input power factor, especially for large firing angles. Electromagnetic interference may be caused by switching operations. The output voltage waveform is not sinusoidal in general. The controller performance depends on the nature of the load. In sensitive applications, additional filtering and protection circuits may be needed. == 14. Future Scope of AC Voltage Controllers == The power electronic technology is still evolving and offers new possibilities for better AC voltage control systems. Modern controllers can use digital control circuits, microcontrollers and sophisticated triggering techniques to improve the switching accuracy. Application of intelligent control system may maximise the regulation effect of industrial power. Possible areas for future development include : Better methods for harmonic reduction. Control of digital ignition angle. Smart power management Better power factor. Better semiconductor switching devices. Integration with automated industrial equipment. Such developments can enhance reliability and applicability of AC voltage controllers in modern electrical applications. == 15. Conclusion == AC Voltage Controllers play a vital role of power electronic converter, which controls the RMS value of AC voltage applied to loads. The working principle of these AC Voltage Controllers relies on the controlled switching of the semiconductor switches such as SCR and TRIAC. Two control methods of the AC voltage control are phase angle control and integral cycle control. Single phase and Three Phase systems provide more choice for application in domestic and industrial sectors. The AC Voltage Controller adds harmonics and reduces the power factor of the input side, but still, they provide a cost effective way to control AC Power. Due to improvement in the semiconductor switch and digital control system, AC Voltage Controller is widely used today. == 16. References == P.S. Bimbhra, Power Electronics, Khanna Publishers. Refer to the section on AC Voltage Controllers from the book used for this article. M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications, Pearson. NPTEL – Power Electronics course: <nowiki>https://nptel.ac.in/</nowiki> IEEE Xplore – Technical research articles related to AC voltage controllers and power electronics: <nowiki>https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/</nowiki> All About Circuits – Learn electronics and power electronics: <nowiki>https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/</nowiki> 6fg4gzvtv5bnuey90qc0eo0ltyyxjer 4681655 4681652 2026-11-11T16:54:40Z Abhaypal2005 3626134 4681655 wikitext text/x-wiki == AC Voltage Controllers: Working Principles, Types and Applications == == 1. Abstract == An AC voltage controller is a power device. It controls the RMS value of an alternating voltage. The controller sends power to a load. It does not change the frequency of the supply. It regulates voltage by adjusting the conduction time of semiconductor switches. Common switches include Silicon Controlled Rectifiers and TRIACs. These controllers are often used in industries. They help control heating systems. They also regulate lighting levels. They control the speed of induction motors. They adjust output voltage. AC voltage controllers are used in industrial setups. The main way they work is through phase angle control and integral cycle control. Phase-angle control changes the point at which the switch turns on during each AC cycle. Integral cycle control turns the switch on for cycles and off for full cycles. Both methods adjust power delivery. The article explains the working of AC voltage controllers. It describes the circuit setups used. It covers control techniques. It includes expressions, for voltage and power. It also looks at real-world applications. The article lists the benefits and drawbacks of using AC voltage controllers. == 2. Introduction == Electrical power control is a part of modern power electronic systems. Many industrial and domestic uses need adjustable AC voltage to manage how electrical devices work. An AC voltage controller is a type of power device that takes a fixed AC input voltage and turns it into a variable AC output voltage. The output voltage changes depending on the firing angle of the thyristors. By adjusting how many AC cycles reach the load. Unlike an AC to DC converter an AC voltage controller keeps the output frequency the same as the input supply frequency. For instance when connected to a heating element an AC voltage controller can change the voltage to control how much heat is produced. It can also adjust the voltage going to an induction motor helping to manage its speed and performance. The main goals of AC voltage controllers are :- To regulate the RMS output voltage. To control the amount of power sent to the load. To increase the flexibility of how electrical equipment operates. To offer electronic control, over AC loads. == 3. Basic Principle of AC Voltage Control == The operation of an AC voltage controller works by using power semiconductor devices to switch on and off. The input supply is typically an AC voltage that can be written as :- Vs(t) = Vm sin(ωt) Where :- Vm = Maximum value of input voltage. Ω = Angular frequency of the supply. T = Time. Vs = Instantaneous supply voltage. The output voltage is managed by adjusting the firing angle of the thyristors. The firing angle is the angle that starts from the natural turn on point of a thyristor and goes up, to the moment when the gate pulse is sent. When the firing angle is small the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be higher. When the firing angle is larger the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be lower. So the output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. [[File:AC Voltage Controller.png|681x681px]] Figure 1. Basic Block Diagram of an AC Voltage Controller. == 4. Main Components of an AC Voltage Controller == An AC voltage controller generally consists of the following components :- 4.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) An SCR is a three semiconductor switching device. It has an anode, a cathode and a gate. It begins to conduct when it is forward biased and receives a gate pulse. SCRs are often used in AC voltage controllers because they can handle voltage and high current levels. 4.2 TRIAC A TRIAC is a bidirectional semiconductor switching device. It can allow current to flow in both directions. It can be triggered during both the negative half cycles of an AC supply. It is widely used in low and medium power AC voltage control applications. 4.3 Gate Triggering Circuit The gate triggering circuit creates pulses that control the switching of the SCRs. It sets the firing angle. Helps adjust the output voltage. 4.4 Load The load is the equipment that receives the controlled AC power. Common examples include heating elements, lighting systems and motors. == 5. Types of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers can be grouped by how phases they use and by their control methods. 5.1 Single Phase AC Voltage Controller A single phase AC voltage controller is used to regulate the RMS voltage that is supplied to a single phase AC load. I find that it helps to keep the voltage steady. It usually uses two SCRs set up in antiparallel. It may use one TRIAC. The two SCRs conduct during half cycles of the AC supply: SCR T1 conducts during the positive half cycle. SCR T2 conducts, during the half cycle. The output voltage is controlled by changing the firing angle of the SCRs. Single phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in appliances, heating systems and lighting control. [[File:Single Phase Full Wave Controller.png|413x413px]] Figure 2. Single Phase Full Wave AC Voltage Controller Circuit. 5.2 Three Phase AC Voltage Controller A three phase AC voltage controller is used to control the RMS voltage supplied to three phase loads. It generally uses six SCRs or an equivalent semiconductor switching arrangement. Three phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in: heating systems. Three phase induction motor control. Industrial power regulation. Large electrical equipment. Three phase AC voltage controllers provide controlled power to three phase loads. == 6. Control Techniques of AC Voltage Controllers == There are two control techniques used in AC voltage controllers :- Phase angle control. Integral cycle control. 6.1 Phase Angle Control Phase angle control is a method in which the output voltage is regulated by varying the firing angle of the thyristors during each AC cycle. In this method the SCR is triggered after a delay from the zero crossing of the supply voltage. During the half cycle SCR T1 is triggered at firing angle alpha. During the half cycle SCR T2 is triggered at pi plus alpha. For a resistive load the SCR conducts from alpha to pi in the positive half cycle and from pi plus alpha to 2 pi in the negative half cycle. The RMS output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. RMS output voltage for a phase full wave AC voltage controller with a resistive load: Vo = Vs √[(1/pi)(pi − alpha + sin 2 alpha / 2)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage. Vs = RMS input supply voltage. alpha = Firing angle in radians. Important observations: At alpha = 0 degrees the output voltage is equal, to the input voltage. As alpha increases the RMS output voltage decreases. At alpha = 180 degrees the output voltage becomes zero. Phase angle control is commonly used in AC power regulation applications. 6.2 Integral Cycle Control Integral cycle control is a method used to control AC voltage. In this method the AC supply is connected to the load for a number of full cycles and then disconnected for the remaining cycles. This technique is also called on off control or burst firing control. For example if the load gets power for six cycles and is turned off for four cycles the system works with six ON cycles and four OFF cycles. The RMS output voltage can be calculated using the formula :- Vo = Vs √[n/(n + m)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage Vs = RMS input voltage n = Number of ON cycles m = Number of OFF cycles Integral cycle control is mostly used for loads that respond slowly like heating systems. It reduces the number of switching actions, per unit time compared to phase angle control. However it may cause low frequency fluctuations and flicker in some applications. [[File:Integral-Cycle Control.png|679x679px]] Figure 3. Voltage Waveforms under Integral Cycle Control. == 7. Single Phase AC Voltage Controller with Resistive Load == A single phase AC voltage controller with a load uses two SCRs connected in antiparallel. The resistive load is connected in series with the AC supply. During the half cycle of the input voltage SCR T1 becomes forward biased. When a gate pulse is applied at a firing angle α SCR T1 starts conducting. The load voltage follows the input voltage from angle α to π. In the half cycle SCR T2 becomes forward biased. It begins to conduct when triggered at angle π. Α. The output voltage then follows the half cycle of the supply from π + α to 2π. Because the load is purely resistive the load current remains in phase with the load voltage. There is no phase shift. The RMS load current is calculated as: Io = Vo / R Where :- Io is the RMS load Vo is the RMS output voltage. R is the load resistance. The power delivered to the load is: P = Io²R P = Vo² / R This type of circuit is commonly used in heating applications and lighting control. It allows control of power delivered to resistive loads by adjusting the firing angle α. Changing the firing angle changes the amount of power delivered making it ideal, for applications where variable power is needed. == 8. Single Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load == An RL load is made up of resistance written as R and inductance written as L that are connected one after another in series. In this kind of load the current does not follow the voltage away because the inductance holds energy inside its magnetic field. The load current falls behind the load voltage by a phase angle. The load phase angle is given by : φ = tan⁻¹(ωL/R) Where :- φ equals the load phase angle. R equals resistance. L equals inductance. Ω equals frequency. When SCR T1 is triggered at the firing angle α the current begins to flow through the RL load. Nevertheless because of the inductance the current keeps flowing after the supply voltage crosses zero at π. The SCR stops conducting when the load current drops to zero at the extinction angle β. The conduction angle is defined as: γ = β − α Where :- β equals the extinction angle. Α equals the firing angle. Γ equals the conduction angle. Thus the inductive load changes both the waveform and the conduction period of the thyristors. AC voltage controllers that use RL loads are commonly found in motor control and, in industrial applications that involve inductive loads. [[File:Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load.png|654x654px]] Figure 4. Voltage and Current Waveforms for an RL Load. == 9. Harmonics in AC Voltage Controllers == Harmonics are parts of the frequency that exist in waveforms. These parts are at number multiples of the main supply frequency. In AC voltage controllers the output voltage and current waveforms are usually not shaped like a wave. This is because the thyristors turn on and off at times during the AC cycle. These waveforms that are not shaped like a wave have harmonic parts inside them. Harmonics can lead to :- Heating in electrical equipment. More losses in motors and transformers. Electromagnetic interference. Worse power quality. For a wave supply the main frequency is usually 50 Hz, in India. Harmonics appear at multiples of this frequency like 150 Hz, 250 Hz and 350 Hz. Harmonic analysis is important when building AC voltage controllers because much harmonic distortion can hurt how electrical equipment works. == 10. Sequence Control of AC Voltage Controllers == Sequence control is a method where two or more AC voltage controller stages are connected side by side and used in an order to get a controlled output voltage. The main goal of sequence control is to make the power factor better and to cut down the distortions, in the input and output signals. In multistage sequence control each controller stage is turned on at the moment to get the voltage that is needed. This method works well in places where better power quality and managed AC power are needed. == 11. Applications of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers are used in industrial and domestic settings. 11.1 Industrial Heating AC voltage controllers manage the power that electric heating elements receive. By changing the RMS voltage AC voltage controllers can control how hot the heating becomes. 11.2 Lighting Control AC voltage controllers are used in lighting systems to set lamp brightness by controlling the AC voltage supplied. 11.3 Induction Motor Control AC voltage controllers can manage the stator voltage of induction motors. AC voltage controllers enable speed control and soft starting for such motors. 11.4 Fan Speed Control AC voltage controllers are used in some AC fan speed regulators to change the voltage that the motor receives. 11.5 Transformer Voltage Regulation AC voltage controllers can be used in controlled AC power applications that involve transformers. Multistage arrangements of AC voltage controllers can deliver output voltage levels. 11.6 Industrial Power Control AC voltage controllers are used to manage power, in industrial equipment, furnaces and other AC loads. == 12. Advantages of AC Voltage Controllers == The main advantages of AC voltage controllers are :- Basic configurations of power electronic circuits. Semiconductor switching leads to high efficiency. RMS smooth regulation of output voltage. Smaller than some conventional voltage control arrangements. Needs little maintenance. Quick electronic control response. Suitable for various resistive and inductive loads. == 13. Disadvantages and Limitations == Although AC voltage controllers have advantages, there are some limitations also :- They cause harmonic distortion of the waveforms of supply and load. Phase angle control can result in a poor input power factor, especially for large firing angles. Electromagnetic interference may be caused by switching operations. The output voltage waveform is not sinusoidal in general. The controller performance depends on the nature of the load. In sensitive applications, additional filtering and protection circuits may be needed. == 14. Future Scope of AC Voltage Controllers == The power electronic technology is still evolving and offers new possibilities for better AC voltage control systems. Modern controllers can use digital control circuits, microcontrollers and sophisticated triggering techniques to improve the switching accuracy. Application of intelligent control system may maximise the regulation effect of industrial power. Possible areas for future development include :- Better methods for harmonic reduction. Control of digital ignition angle. Smart power management Better power factor. Better semiconductor switching devices. Integration with automated industrial equipment. Such developments can enhance reliability and applicability of AC voltage controllers in modern electrical applications. == 15. Conclusion == AC Voltage Controllers play a vital role of power electronic converter, which controls the RMS value of AC voltage applied to loads. The working principle of these AC Voltage Controllers relies on the controlled switching of the semiconductor switches such as SCR and TRIAC. Two control methods of the AC voltage control are phase angle control and integral cycle control. Single phase and Three Phase systems provide more choice for application in domestic and industrial sectors. The AC Voltage Controller adds harmonics and reduces the power factor of the input side, but still, they provide a cost effective way to control AC Power. Due to improvement in the semiconductor switch and digital control system, AC Voltage Controller is widely used today. == 16. References == P.S. Bimbhra, Power Electronics, Khanna Publishers. Refer to the section on AC Voltage Controllers from the book used for this article. M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications, Pearson. NPTEL – Power Electronics course: <nowiki>https://nptel.ac.in/</nowiki> IEEE Xplore – Technical research articles related to AC voltage controllers and power electronics: <nowiki>https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/</nowiki> All About Circuits – Learn electronics and power electronics: <nowiki>https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/</nowiki> f27m57r2b5re9zay0iav9ev683hhnrt 4681658 4681655 2026-11-11T16:57:46Z Abhaypal2005 3626134 4681658 wikitext text/x-wiki == AC Voltage Controllers: Working Principles, Types and Applications == == 1. Abstract == An AC voltage controller is a power device. It controls the RMS value of an alternating voltage. The controller sends power to a load. It does not change the frequency of the supply. It regulates voltage by adjusting the conduction time of semiconductor switches. Common switches include Silicon Controlled Rectifiers and TRIACs. These controllers are often used in industries. They help control heating systems. They also regulate lighting levels. They control the speed of induction motors. They adjust output voltage. AC voltage controllers are used in industrial setups. The main way they work is through phase angle control and integral cycle control. Phase-angle control changes the point at which the switch turns on during each AC cycle. Integral cycle control turns the switch on for cycles and off for full cycles. Both methods adjust power delivery. The article explains the working of AC voltage controllers. It describes the circuit setups used. It covers control techniques. It includes expressions, for voltage and power. It also looks at real-world applications. The article lists the benefits and drawbacks of using AC voltage controllers. == 2. Introduction == Electrical power control is a part of modern power electronic systems. Many industrial and domestic uses need adjustable AC voltage to manage how electrical devices work. An AC voltage controller is a type of power device that takes a fixed AC input voltage and turns it into a variable AC output voltage. The output voltage changes depending on the firing angle of the thyristors. By adjusting how many AC cycles reach the load. Unlike an AC to DC converter an AC voltage controller keeps the output frequency the same as the input supply frequency. For instance when connected to a heating element an AC voltage controller can change the voltage to control how much heat is produced. It can also adjust the voltage going to an induction motor helping to manage its speed and performance. The main goals of AC voltage controllers are :- To regulate the RMS output voltage. To control the amount of power sent to the load. To increase the flexibility of how electrical equipment operates. To offer electronic control, over AC loads. == 3. Basic Principle of AC Voltage Control == The operation of an AC voltage controller works by using power semiconductor devices to switch on and off. The input supply is typically an AC voltage that can be written as :- Vs(t) = Vm sin(ωt) Where :- Vm = Maximum value of input voltage. Ω = Angular frequency of the supply. T = Time. Vs = Instantaneous supply voltage. The output voltage is managed by adjusting the firing angle of the thyristors. The firing angle is the angle that starts from the natural turn on point of a thyristor and goes up, to the moment when the gate pulse is sent. When the firing angle is small the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be higher. When the firing angle is larger the thyristor stays on for a time, which causes the RMS output voltage to be lower. So the output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. [[File:AC Voltage Controller.png|681x681px]] Figure 1. Basic Block Diagram of an AC Voltage Controller. == 4. Main Components of an AC Voltage Controller == An AC voltage controller generally consists of the following components :- 4.1 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) An SCR is a three semiconductor switching device. It has an anode, a cathode and a gate. It begins to conduct when it is forward biased and receives a gate pulse. SCRs are often used in AC voltage controllers because they can handle voltage and high current levels. 4.2 TRIAC A TRIAC is a bidirectional semiconductor switching device. It can allow current to flow in both directions. It can be triggered during both the negative half cycles of an AC supply. It is widely used in low and medium power AC voltage control applications. 4.3 Gate Triggering Circuit The gate triggering circuit creates pulses that control the switching of the SCRs. It sets the firing angle. Helps adjust the output voltage. 4.4 Load The load is the equipment that receives the controlled AC power. Common examples include heating elements, lighting systems and motors. == 5. Types of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers can be grouped by how phases they use and by their control methods. 5.1 Single Phase AC Voltage Controller A single phase AC voltage controller is used to regulate the RMS voltage that is supplied to a single phase AC load. I find that it helps to keep the voltage steady. It usually uses two SCRs set up in antiparallel. It may use one TRIAC. The two SCRs conduct during half cycles of the AC supply :- SCR T1 conducts during the positive half cycle. SCR T2 conducts, during the half cycle. The output voltage is controlled by changing the firing angle of the SCRs. Single phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in appliances, heating systems and lighting control. [[File:Single Phase Full Wave Controller.png|413x413px]] Figure 2. Single Phase Full Wave AC Voltage Controller Circuit. 5.2 Three Phase AC Voltage Controller A three phase AC voltage controller is used to control the RMS voltage supplied to three phase loads. It generally uses six SCRs or an equivalent semiconductor switching arrangement. Three phase AC voltage controllers are commonly used in: heating systems. Three phase induction motor control. Industrial power regulation. Large electrical equipment. Three phase AC voltage controllers provide controlled power to three phase loads. == 6. Control Techniques of AC Voltage Controllers == There are two control techniques used in AC voltage controllers :- Phase angle control. Integral cycle control. 6.1 Phase Angle Control Phase angle control is a method in which the output voltage is regulated by varying the firing angle of the thyristors during each AC cycle. In this method the SCR is triggered after a delay from the zero crossing of the supply voltage. During the half cycle SCR T1 is triggered at firing angle alpha. During the half cycle SCR T2 is triggered at pi plus alpha. For a resistive load the SCR conducts from alpha to pi in the positive half cycle and from pi plus alpha to 2 pi in the negative half cycle. The RMS output voltage can be controlled by changing the firing angle. RMS output voltage for a phase full wave AC voltage controller with a resistive load: Vo = Vs √[(1/pi)(pi − alpha + sin 2 alpha / 2)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage. Vs = RMS input supply voltage. alpha = Firing angle in radians. Important observations: At alpha = 0 degrees the output voltage is equal, to the input voltage. As alpha increases the RMS output voltage decreases. At alpha = 180 degrees the output voltage becomes zero. Phase angle control is commonly used in AC power regulation applications. 6.2 Integral Cycle Control Integral cycle control is a method used to control AC voltage. In this method the AC supply is connected to the load for a number of full cycles and then disconnected for the remaining cycles. This technique is also called on off control or burst firing control. For example if the load gets power for six cycles and is turned off for four cycles the system works with six ON cycles and four OFF cycles. The RMS output voltage can be calculated using the formula :- Vo = Vs √[n/(n + m)] Where: Vo = RMS output voltage Vs = RMS input voltage n = Number of ON cycles m = Number of OFF cycles Integral cycle control is mostly used for loads that respond slowly like heating systems. It reduces the number of switching actions, per unit time compared to phase angle control. However it may cause low frequency fluctuations and flicker in some applications. [[File:Integral-Cycle Control.png|679x679px]] Figure 3. Voltage Waveforms under Integral Cycle Control. == 7. Single Phase AC Voltage Controller with Resistive Load == A single phase AC voltage controller with a load uses two SCRs connected in antiparallel. The resistive load is connected in series with the AC supply. During the half cycle of the input voltage SCR T1 becomes forward biased. When a gate pulse is applied at a firing angle α SCR T1 starts conducting. The load voltage follows the input voltage from angle α to π. In the half cycle SCR T2 becomes forward biased. It begins to conduct when triggered at angle π. Α. The output voltage then follows the half cycle of the supply from π + α to 2π. Because the load is purely resistive the load current remains in phase with the load voltage. There is no phase shift. The RMS load current is calculated as: Io = Vo / R Where :- Io is the RMS load Vo is the RMS output voltage. R is the load resistance. The power delivered to the load is: P = Io²R P = Vo² / R This type of circuit is commonly used in heating applications and lighting control. It allows control of power delivered to resistive loads by adjusting the firing angle α. Changing the firing angle changes the amount of power delivered making it ideal, for applications where variable power is needed. == 8. Single Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load == An RL load is made up of resistance written as R and inductance written as L that are connected one after another in series. In this kind of load the current does not follow the voltage away because the inductance holds energy inside its magnetic field. The load current falls behind the load voltage by a phase angle. The load phase angle is given by : φ = tan⁻¹(ωL/R) Where :- φ equals the load phase angle. R equals resistance. L equals inductance. Ω equals frequency. When SCR T1 is triggered at the firing angle α the current begins to flow through the RL load. Nevertheless because of the inductance the current keeps flowing after the supply voltage crosses zero at π. The SCR stops conducting when the load current drops to zero at the extinction angle β. The conduction angle is defined as: γ = β − α Where :- β equals the extinction angle. Α equals the firing angle. Γ equals the conduction angle. Thus the inductive load changes both the waveform and the conduction period of the thyristors. AC voltage controllers that use RL loads are commonly found in motor control and, in industrial applications that involve inductive loads. [[File:Single-Phase AC Voltage Controller with RL Load.png|654x654px]] Figure 4. Voltage and Current Waveforms for an RL Load. == 9. Harmonics in AC Voltage Controllers == Harmonics are parts of the frequency that exist in waveforms. These parts are at number multiples of the main supply frequency. In AC voltage controllers the output voltage and current waveforms are usually not shaped like a wave. This is because the thyristors turn on and off at times during the AC cycle. These waveforms that are not shaped like a wave have harmonic parts inside them. Harmonics can lead to :- Heating in electrical equipment. More losses in motors and transformers. Electromagnetic interference. Worse power quality. For a wave supply the main frequency is usually 50 Hz, in India. Harmonics appear at multiples of this frequency like 150 Hz, 250 Hz and 350 Hz. Harmonic analysis is important when building AC voltage controllers because much harmonic distortion can hurt how electrical equipment works. == 10. Sequence Control of AC Voltage Controllers == Sequence control is a method where two or more AC voltage controller stages are connected side by side and used in an order to get a controlled output voltage. The main goal of sequence control is to make the power factor better and to cut down the distortions, in the input and output signals. In multistage sequence control each controller stage is turned on at the moment to get the voltage that is needed. This method works well in places where better power quality and managed AC power are needed. == 11. Applications of AC Voltage Controllers == AC voltage controllers are used in industrial and domestic settings. 11.1 Industrial Heating AC voltage controllers manage the power that electric heating elements receive. By changing the RMS voltage AC voltage controllers can control how hot the heating becomes. 11.2 Lighting Control AC voltage controllers are used in lighting systems to set lamp brightness by controlling the AC voltage supplied. 11.3 Induction Motor Control AC voltage controllers can manage the stator voltage of induction motors. AC voltage controllers enable speed control and soft starting for such motors. 11.4 Fan Speed Control AC voltage controllers are used in some AC fan speed regulators to change the voltage that the motor receives. 11.5 Transformer Voltage Regulation AC voltage controllers can be used in controlled AC power applications that involve transformers. Multistage arrangements of AC voltage controllers can deliver output voltage levels. 11.6 Industrial Power Control AC voltage controllers are used to manage power, in industrial equipment, furnaces and other AC loads. == 12. Advantages of AC Voltage Controllers == The main advantages of AC voltage controllers are :- Basic configurations of power electronic circuits. Semiconductor switching leads to high efficiency. RMS smooth regulation of output voltage. Smaller than some conventional voltage control arrangements. Needs little maintenance. Quick electronic control response. Suitable for various resistive and inductive loads. == 13. Disadvantages and Limitations == Although AC voltage controllers have advantages, there are some limitations also :- They cause harmonic distortion of the waveforms of supply and load. Phase angle control can result in a poor input power factor, especially for large firing angles. Electromagnetic interference may be caused by switching operations. The output voltage waveform is not sinusoidal in general. The controller performance depends on the nature of the load. In sensitive applications, additional filtering and protection circuits may be needed. == 14. Future Scope of AC Voltage Controllers == The power electronic technology is still evolving and offers new possibilities for better AC voltage control systems. Modern controllers can use digital control circuits, microcontrollers and sophisticated triggering techniques to improve the switching accuracy. Application of intelligent control system may maximise the regulation effect of industrial power. Possible areas for future development include :- Better methods for harmonic reduction. Control of digital ignition angle. Smart power management Better power factor. Better semiconductor switching devices. Integration with automated industrial equipment. Such developments can enhance reliability and applicability of AC voltage controllers in modern electrical applications. == 15. Conclusion == AC Voltage Controllers play a vital role of power electronic converter, which controls the RMS value of AC voltage applied to loads. The working principle of these AC Voltage Controllers relies on the controlled switching of the semiconductor switches such as SCR and TRIAC. Two control methods of the AC voltage control are phase angle control and integral cycle control. Single phase and Three Phase systems provide more choice for application in domestic and industrial sectors. The AC Voltage Controller adds harmonics and reduces the power factor of the input side, but still, they provide a cost effective way to control AC Power. Due to improvement in the semiconductor switch and digital control system, AC Voltage Controller is widely used today. == 16. References == P.S. Bimbhra, Power Electronics, Khanna Publishers. Refer to the section on AC Voltage Controllers from the book used for this article. M.H. Rashid, Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications, Pearson. NPTEL – Power Electronics course: <nowiki>https://nptel.ac.in/</nowiki> IEEE Xplore – Technical research articles related to AC voltage controllers and power electronics: <nowiki>https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/</nowiki> All About Circuits – Learn electronics and power electronics: <nowiki>https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/</nowiki> b9m9f2nxnjhdebic1j3x1lrtvozo8a4 2 486815 4681696 4679887 2026-11-11T18:06:48Z Ninja100R 3629842 First change 4681696 wikitext text/x-wiki ===Working Principle of Mobile Communication Engineering=== ===Mobile Communication Introduction=== It is a subfield of wireless communication where two or more devices can communicate without physically connected wires, using electromagnetic waves, particularly radio frequency (RF) signals, instead of wires to communicate between the communicating devices. Operating on a very basic level, the transmission can be broken down as follows: Data is converted into electrical or digital signals and then sent as modulations over a carrier signal and transmitted by antennas. The cellular base stations receive these signals and pass the data on via the communication network. Mobile communications enable services including voice communications, text messaging, video conferencing, web browsing, and the sending of multimedia. Mobile communications have uses in healthcare, education, transportation, banking, industrial automation, and the Internet of Things (IoT). Mobile communication has evolved from the first generation (1G) to the fifth generation (5G) to offer faster data speeds, increased network capacity, higher coverage, and more reliable and higher quality communication. Current 6G research is being conducted toward intelligent networks, expanded connectivity, and higher communication efficiency. '''Working Principle and Architecture of Mobile Communication''' In mobile communication, information is transmitted between mobile devices using radio frequency (RF) signals, without the need for physical cables. When a user makes a call or accesses the internet, the mobile device converts the information into digital signals and transmits them through its antenna. The nearest base station receives these signals and forwards them through the mobile communication network to the intended destination. The Mobile Station (MS) is the user's device, such as a smartphone. The Base Transceiver Station (BTS) handles radio communication with mobile devices. The Base Station Controller (BSC) manages multiple BTSs and controls radio resources in traditional cellular networks. The Mobile Switching Centre (MSC) takes care of call connections, mobility, and communication between different networks. Databases such as the Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR) store subscriber information and location details. In modern 4G and 5G networks, the eNodeB, gNodeB, and various core network functions manage connectivity and data services. Together, these components provide efficient communication, mobility support, and reliable connectivity. '''Cellular Concept''' The cellular concept is a fundamental principle of mobile communication. It divides a large geographical area into smaller regions called cells, each served by a base station that provides wireless communication to the mobile users within its coverage area. This approach allows many users to communicate at the same time while making efficient use of the available radio frequency spectrum. In traditional network planning, cells are often drawn as hexagons because this shape gives a convenient way to visualize continuous coverage without gaps or overlaps. This allows the eye to see a diagram that provides "seamless" and gapless coverage and also shows a relatively easy pattern to understand. A group of shared radio frequencies is allocated to each of these cells, and the same frequencies are used in distant cells that are far away enough to minimize interference. If you're on a call or data session and a mobile user is crossing from one cell to the next, the network hands the current connection off to the following base station in order to maintain service – this is called handover. Overall, the cellular concept improves network coverage, capacity, and frequency utilization, and it supports a large number of users across cities, towns, and rural areas. For this reason, it forms the foundation of modern cellular technologies, including 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G networks. '''Frequency Reuse''' Frequency reuse is a technique which permits reuse of a radio frequency in different cells which are separated geographically. In cellular mobile communication, the entire service coverage is divided into cells of smaller sizes. The network is designed such that the frequency used by one cell is not used in the neighboring cells helping use of the spectrum efficiently. In this method, one frequency is used for a number of cells which are geographically located far away. To reduce interference, a collection of cells that are close to each other but have different sets of frequencies is called a cluster. After one cluster has been established, it can be repeated throughout the system. The higher number of cells in a cluster, the lower frequency reuse factor will be. The greater the number of cells in a cluster, the less frequently frequencies can be re-used. this reduces spectral efficiency but increases the co-channel interference. Frequency reuse is a popular technique that is employed by cellular networks, like GSM and 4G LTE, to accommodate millions of users. This allows for the efficient utilization of spectrum, greater system capacity, and the ability to communicate over large distances. '''Signal Transfer and Synchronization''' In mobile communications, the transmission and synchronization of signals are imperative processes that enable mobile stations to communicate with base stations. The data is converted to electrical signals, which are modulated onto the carrier wave and transmitted via the antenna. Synchronization ensures that the transmitter and receiver work with the correct timing and frequency. Synchronization in cellular networks helps to coordinate communication when there are a lot of users, filter out interference, and minimize data loss. There are two types of synchronization, and these include frequency synchronization and time synchronization. Transportation and synchronization are two important processes in mobile communication. They refer to the process of reliable transmission and reception of data between mobile stations and base stations. Synchronization is essential for coordination of cellular networks as it limits interference and data loss. GSM, 4G LTE and 5G all use synchronization methods to ensure efficient communication. '''Future of Mobile Communication''' Mobile communications will be faster, smarter and more reliable in the future. With 5G now in use, research is already moving toward 6G networks, which aim to offer extremely high data speeds, ultra-low latency, and greater network capacity. And they would help to foster new technologies like Artificial Intelligence (AI), Internet of Things (IoT), Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR). Future mobile networks will enable smart devices, self-driving cars, healthcare and industry to talk to each other more effectively. Satellite communications and new antenna technologies will make it possible to connect more remote and rural locations. Another benefit of intelligent network management is increased power efficiency, decreased communication latency, and a better end-user experience. The development of 6G is also expected to introduce technologies such as intelligent reflecting surfaces, integrated sensing and communication, and AI-driven networks. However, these innovations could transform applications in smart cities, remote surgery, education, transportation and automation. Nevertheless, there are still hurdles to overcome such as cybersecurity, data privacy, costs of infrastructure and spectrum access. In general, the future of mobile communications will be an essential part of the creation of an ultra-connected digital world. rze9euu6l1acxhz4w8akilncvzygy35 2 486926 4681779 4681324 2026-11-12T07:49:46Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681779 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = ARM based processor An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution [[model]], the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature. Figure 1 clearly shows the relation between a Cortex-M3 based MCU and its Cortex-M3 core.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STM32 Microcontrollers (MCUs) - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32-32-bit-arm-cortex-mcus.html |access-date=2026-11-12 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. About STM32 Microcontrollers [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. Figure 12 shows the internal die of an STM32F103 MCU, one of the most widespread STM32 MCUs¹⁴. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. Interrupts Managements Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System, if any GPIO Management The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. • The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. • The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. • The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. NVIC Controller NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Figure 1 shows the relation between the NVIC unit, the Processor Core and peripherals. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller, as we will see next. STM32f103 Pin diagram [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]] dmsmbdqk1rkl7dekz9zynr3glc06puk 4681782 4681779 2026-11-12T08:07:15Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681782 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution [[model]], the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature. STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. Figure 12 shows the internal die of an STM32F103 MCU, one of the most widespread STM32 MCUs¹⁴. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. Interrupts Managements Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System, if any GPIO Management The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. • The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. • The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. • The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Figure 1 shows the relation between the NVIC unit, the Processor Core and peripherals. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller, as we will see next. == STM32f103 Pin diagram == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]] 1a4wmcx50hifwhqpkm0cojx6h1qr4kp 4681783 4681782 2026-11-12T08:08:26Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681783 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution [[model]], the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature. STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. Figure 12 shows the internal die of an STM32F103 MCU, one of the most widespread STM32 MCUs¹⁴. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. Interrupts Managements Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System, if any GPIO Management The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. • The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. • The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. • The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Figure 1 shows the relation between the NVIC unit, the Processor Core and peripherals. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller, as we will see next. == STM32f103 Pin diagram == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]] pvgvw5bis0syd1t9ckxmi3yehq638t7 4681784 4681783 2026-11-12T08:09:11Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681784 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution [[model]], the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature. STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. Figure 12 shows the internal die of an STM32F103 MCU, one of the most widespread STM32 MCUs¹⁴. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. Interrupts Managements Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System, if any GPIO Management The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. • The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. • The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. • The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Figure 1 shows the relation between the NVIC unit, the Processor Core and peripherals. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller, as we will see next. == STM32f103 Pin diagram == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]] b5v8usmeh9rtzpy9fdnz8dyx9xn8hb6 4681785 4681784 2026-11-12T08:10:18Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681785 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution [[model]], the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature. STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. Figure 12 shows the internal die of an STM32F103 MCU, one of the most widespread STM32 MCUs¹⁴. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. == Interrupts Managements == Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System, if any == GPIO Management == The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. • The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. • The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. • The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Figure 1 shows the relation between the NVIC unit, the Processor Core and peripherals. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller, as we will see next. == STM32f103 Pin diagram == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]] com6jpyw22g9trj8vhc52rtkegxfehu 4681795 4681785 2026-11-12T08:26:18Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681795 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution model, the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature. STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. == Interrupts Managements == Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System. == GPIO Management == The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller. == STM32f103 Pin diagram == == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]]References == ht84p95ioffh0xsx3slol2wl87atwih 4681797 4681795 2026-11-12T08:29:30Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681797 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution model, the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STM32 Microcontrollers (MCUs) - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32-32-bit-arm-cortex-mcus.html |access-date=2026-11-12 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. == Interrupts Managements == Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System. == GPIO Management == The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller. == STM32f103 Pin diagram == == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]]References == https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32-32-bit-arm-cortex-mcus.html 1qf4sjz9t8cksxxhqtrney9axwd65hv 4681798 4681797 2026-11-12T08:30:51Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681798 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution model, the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STM32 Microcontrollers (MCUs) - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32-32-bit-arm-cortex-mcus.html |access-date=2026-11-12 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing. == Interrupts Managements == Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System. == GPIO Management == The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller. == STM32f103 Pin diagram == == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]]References == ejhb30ki0j8k4qmhuwm2fqnxupdnl17 4681803 4681798 2026-11-12T08:51:38Z Urwashi01 3630528 4681803 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32 = == ARM based processor == An ARM architecture is a set of specifications regarding the instruction set, the execution model, the memory organization and layout, the instruction cycles and more, which describes precisely a machine that will implement said architecture. If your compiler is able to generate assembly instructions for that architecture, it is able to generate machine code for all those actual machines (aka, processors) implementing that given architecture. Cortex-M is a family of physical cores designed to be further integrated with vendor-specific silicon devices to form a finished microcontroller. The way a core works is not only defined by its related ARM architecture (eg. ARMv7-M), but also by the integrated peripherals and hardware capabilities defined by the silicon manufacturer. For example, the Cortex-M4 core architecture is designed to support bit-data access operations in two specific memory regions using a feature called bit-banding, but it is up to the actual implementation to add such feature or not. The STM32F4 is a family of MCUs based on the Cortex-M4 core that implements this bit-banding feature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=STM32 Microcontrollers (MCUs) - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32-32-bit-arm-cortex-mcus.html |access-date=2026-11-12 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> STM32 32-bit and 64-bit microprocessors extend this range with Arm Cortex-A and Cortex-M architectures for applications that need higher-level processing, Linux-based software environments, graphics, connectivity, and real-time control. == About STM32 Microcontrollers: == [[File:STM32nucleoF303KB.svg|STM32nucleoF303KB]] STM32 is a broad range of microcontrollers divided in nine sub-families, each one with its features. ST started the market production of this portfolio in 2007, beginning with the STM32F1 series, which is still under development. All STM32 microcontrollers have a Cortex-M core, plus some distinctive ST features (like the ARTTM accelerator). Internally, each microcontroller consists of the processor core, static RAM, flash memory, debugging interface, and various other peripherals. Some MCUs provide additional types of memory (EEPROM, CCM, etc.), and a whole line of devices targeting low-power applications is continuously growing.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=NOVIELLO |first=CARMINE |url=https://www.embedic.com/uploads/files/20201008/Mastering%20STM32.pdf?srsltid=AYCX9vKhXa_1wK8p1p4nI8e3vO8bKAVdyhukPvkGg9u3-fqP7qbS6kpb |title=Mastering STM32}}</ref> == Interrupts Managements == Interrupts and Exceptions Handling Interrupts and exception management is one of the most powerful features of Cortex-M based processors. Interrupts and exceptions are asynchronous events that alter the program flow. When an exception or an interrupt occurs, the CPU suspends the execution of the current task, saves its context (that is, its stack pointer) and starts the execution of a routine designed to handle the interrupting event. This routine is called Exception Handler in case of exceptions and Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) in case of an interrupt. After the exception or interrupt has been handled, the CPU resumes the previous execution flow, and the previous task can continue its execution¹¹. In the ARM architecture, interrupts are one type of exception. Interrupts are usually generated from on-chip peripherals (e.g., a timer) or external inputs (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a GPIO), and in some cases they can be triggered by software. Exceptions are, instead, related to software execution, and the CPU itself can be a source of exceptions. These could be fault events such as an attempt to access an invalid memory location, or events generated by the Operating System.<ref name=":1" /> == Clock Distribution == In the world of embedded processors, power consumption is critical; hence, most sophisticated embedded processors provide mechanisms to power down any resources that are not required for a particular application. The STM32 has a complex clock distribution network which ensures that only those peripherals that are actually needed are powered. This system, called Reset and Clock Control (RCC) is supported by the firmware module stm32f10x_rcc.[ch]. While this module can be used to control the main system clocks and PLLs, any required configuration of those is handled by the startup code provided with the examples in this book. Our concern here is simply with enabling the peripheral clocks.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Geoffrey |url=https://users.fmf.uni-lj.si/ponikvar/PDFji/Discovering%20the%20STM32%20Microcontroller%20-%20Geoffrey%20Brown%20-%202012.pdf |title=Discovering the STM32 Microcontroller}}</ref> == GPIO Management == The System bus connects the system bus of the Cortex-M core to a BusMatrix, which manages the arbitration between the core and the DMA. Both the core and the the DMA act as masters. The DMA bus connects the Advanced High-performance Bus(AHB) master interface of the DMA to the BusMatrix, which manages the access of CPU and DMA to SRAM, flash memory and peripherals. The BusMatrix manages the access arbitration between the core system bus and the DMA master bus. The arbitration uses a Round Robin algorithm. The BusMatrix is composed of two masters (CPU, DMA) and four slaves (flash memory interface, SRAM, AHB1 with AHB to Advanced Peripheral Bus(APB) bridge and AHB2). AHB peripherals are connected on system bus through a BusMatrix to allow DMA access. The AHB to APB bridge provides full synchronous connections between the AHB and the APB bus, where the most of peripherals are connected. == NVIC Controller == NVIC is a dedicated hardware unit inside the Cortex-M based microcontrollers that is responsible of the exceptions handling. Here we have to distinguish two types of peripherals: those external to the Cortex-M core, but internal to the STM32 MCU (e.g. timers, UARTS, and so on), and those peripherals external to the MCU at all. The source of the interrupts coming from the last kind of peripherals are the MCU I/O, which can be both configured as general purpose I/O (e.g. a tactile switch connected to a pin configured as input) or to drive an external advanced peripheral (e.g. I/Os configured to exchange data with an ethernet phyther through the RMII interface). A dedicated programmable controller, named External Interrupt/Event Controller (EXTI), is responsible of the interconnection between the external I/O signals and the NVIC controller.<ref name=":1" /> == STM32f103 Pin diagram == == [[File:Stm32f103_pinout_diagram.png|Stm32f103_pinout_diagram]]References == rkwntnfybkmh2ot7d1095axfnctr6tq 2 486929 4681770 4680333 2026-11-12T05:33:36Z Nihalnityam 3630576 4681770 wikitext text/x-wiki The '''STM32''' is a family of 32-bit microcontrollers developed by [[wikipedia:STMicroelectronics|STMicroelectronics]]. These microcontrollers are based on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_Cortex-M?utm_source=chatgpt.com Arm Cortex-M] processor cores and are designed for use in [[Embedded Systems/Atmel AVR|embedded systems]]. The '''STM32''' family includes different microcontrollers with various processing speeds, memory capacities and peripheral features. These microcontrollers are used to control electronic devices, process sensor information and communicate with other hardware components. '''STM32''' microcontrollers are available in several series, including '''STM32F0, STM32F1, STM32F4, STM32G0, STM32H7 and STM32L4.''' Each series is designed for different requirements, such as general-purpose control, high-performance processing and low-power applications. == History == The '''STM32''' family was introduced by [[wikipedia:STMicroelectronics|STMicroelectronics]] as a range of '''32-bit''' microcontrollers based on '''Arm Cortex-M''' processor architecture. The family was developed to provide microcontrollers with higher processing capabilities, memory capacity and peripheral integration for embedded applications. Over time, [[wikipedia:STMicroelectronics|STMicroelectronics]] expanded the '''STM32''' product range by introducing different series. These included microcontrollers designed for general-purpose applications, digital signal processing, low-power operation and wireless communication. The development of the '''STM32''' family also included software development tools and hardware platforms to help engineers and developers design embedded systems. == Architecture == '''STM32''' [[Microcontroller|microcontrollers]] use a '''32-bit Arm Cortex-M''' processor architecture. The processor core depends on the particular '''STM32''' series and device. Different '''STM32''' models use processor cores such as '''Cortex-M0, Cortex-M0+, Cortex-M3, Cortex-M4, Cortex-M7 and Cortex-M33.''' The processor executes instructions and controls the operations of the microcontroller. STM32 devices also contain memory units, [[wikipedia:Port_(disambiguation)#Computing_and_engineering|input/output ports]], timers and communication peripherals. Many '''STM32''' microcontrollers support hardware multiplication, interrupts and direct memory access (DMA). Some models also include digital signal processing instructions and floating-point units. The architecture allows '''STM32''' microcontrollers to perform real-time control and data-processing operations in embedded applications. == Technical specifications == The technical specifications of '''STM32''' microcontrollers depend on the selected series and model. The following table shows some specifications of the '''STM32F103C8''', which is a member of the '''STM32F1''' series. {| class="wikitable" !Parameter !Specification |- |Microcontroller family |STM32 |- |Series |STM32F1 |- |Processor architecture |32-bit Arm Cortex-M3 |- |Maximum CPU frequency |72 MHz |- |Flash memory |64 KB |- |SRAM |20 KB |- |ADC resolution |12-bit |- |ADC units |2 |- |General-purpose I/O |Up to 37 |- |USART interfaces |3 |- |SPI interfaces |2 |- |I²C interfaces |Up to 2 |- |Operating voltage |2.0–3.6 V |- |USB interface |USB 2.0 Full-Speed |- |CAN interface |CAN 2.0B |} == Memory organisation == '''STM32''' microcontrollers contain different types of memory for storing program instructions and data. The memory capacity depends on the particular STM32 model. The main types of memory include: <u>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory?utm_source=chatgpt.com '''Flash memory''']</u> Flash memory is used to store program instructions and firmware. It is non-volatile memory, which means that the stored information remains available even when the power supply is disconnected. <u>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Static_random-access_memory?utm_source=chatgpt.com '''SRAM''']</u> Static random-access memory is used to store temporary data during program execution. It stores variables, buffers and stack information. SRAM loses its stored data when the power supply is disconnected. <u>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EEPROM?utm_source=chatgpt.com '''EEPROM''']</u> Some STM32 models provide EEPROM or EEPROM-emulation features. EEPROM emulation allows applications to store data that must remain available after the microcontroller is switched off. The availability and implementation depend on the device. == Input / Output peripherals == '''STM32''' microcontrollers provide general-purpose input/output (GPIO) pins for connecting external electronic components. The number of available pins depends on the model and package. Some of the main peripherals include: - '''Digital I/O''': GPIO pins are used to receive digital signals and control external devices such as LEDs, switches and relays. - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog-to-digital_converter?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>Analog-to-Digital Converter</u>]: ADC converts analog signals from sensors into digital values. The resolution and number of ADC channels depend on the STM32 model. - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>Pulse Width Modulation</u>]: PWM is used to control the power supplied to devices such as motors and LEDs. - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timer?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>Timers and Counters</u>]: Timers are used to measure time intervals, generate delays and control periodic operations. - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>Interrupts</u>]: Interrupts allow the processor to respond to internal or external events without continuously checking for them. - '''Direct Memory Access''': DMA transfers data between memory and peripherals without requiring the processor to handle every individual data transfer. - '''Watchdog Timer:''' The watchdog timer monitors program execution and can reset the microcontroller if the software stops operating correctly. == Communication interfaces == '''STM32''' microcontrollers support different communication interfaces for exchanging information with external devices. Some commonly available interfaces include: - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_synchronous_and_asynchronous_receiver-transmitter?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>USART</u>]: USART is used for serial communication between the microcontroller and external devices such as computers and communication modules. - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>SPI</u>]: Serial Peripheral Interface is used for transferring data between the microcontroller and peripheral devices such as displays, sensors and memory chips. - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2C?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>I²C</u>]: I²C is a two-wire communication protocol used to connect multiple devices through a shared data and clock line. - [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>USB</u>]: Some STM32 models include USB interfaces for communication with computers and other USB devices. - '''CAN''': Controller Area Network is used for communication between electronic control units, particularly in automotive and industrial applications. Not all '''STM32''' models support every communication interface. == STM32 development boards == '''STM32''' development boards provide a platform for programming, testing and developing applications using '''STM32''' [[Microcontroller|microcontrollers.]] Some commonly used development boards include: * '''STM32 Nucleo''': These boards provide an affordable platform for developing and testing embedded applications. They include debugging and programming support. * '''STM32 Discovery''': These development boards provide additional hardware components for testing the features of STM32 microcontrollers. * '''STM32 Blue Pill''': This is a compact development board commonly based on the STM32F103C8T6 microcontroller. It is used for learning microcontroller programming and developing small embedded projects. STM32 boards are used for developing applications involving sensors, motor control, displays and communication modules. == Applications == STM32 microcontrollers are used in different embedded system applications. Some examples include: * [[Robotics]] and motor [[Control Systems|control systems]]. * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_automation?utm_source=chatgpt.com Industrial automation]. * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_automation?utm_source=chatgpt.com Home automation] systems. * Sensor monitoring and data acquisition. * Electronic measurement and instrumentation. * Automotive electronic control systems. * Medical and portable electronic equipment. * [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_of_things?utm_source=chatgpt.com Internet of Things] devices. * Consumer electronic products. The processing capabilities, memory options and communication interfaces of STM32 microcontrollers make them suitable for applications requiring real-time control and data processing. == Advantages and limitations == Advantages * 32-bit processing architecture. * Different processor options based on '''Arm Cortex-M''' cores. * Wide range of Flash and [[wikipedia:Serial_Peripheral_Interface|SRAM]] memory configurations. * Multiple communication interfaces. * Built-in [[ADC]], timers and PWM capabilities. * Support for low-power operating modes in selected models. * Suitable for industrial and [[Embedded Systems/Atmel AVR|embedded]] applications. Limitations * Programming and peripheral configuration can be more complex for beginners than simpler microcontroller platforms. * Different '''STM32''' series have different peripheral configurations and programming requirements. * Some models require external hardware for wireless connectivity. * Debugging and development may require additional tools and configuration. * Power consumption and processing performance vary between models. == References == # STMicroelectronics – [https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32-32-bit-arm-cortex-mcus.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>STM32 32-bit Arm Cortex-M microcontrollers</u>] # STMicroelectronics – [https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f103c8.html?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>STM32F103C8 product documentation</u>] # STMicroelectronics – [https://www.st.com/resource/en/datasheet/stm32f103c8.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>STM32F103x8/xB datasheet</u>] # STMicroelectronics – [https://www.st.com/resource/en/product_presentation/microcontrollers-stm32-family-overview.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>STM32 family overview</u>] # Arm – [https://www.arm.com/products/silicon-ip-cpu/cortex-m?utm_source=chatgpt.com <u>Cortex-M processor family</u>] s1t5gvh5xxw046e1t9faqv10icb65d2 2 486935 4681771 4680372 2026-11-12T05:44:13Z Gundhu mama 3629909 4681771 wikitext text/x-wiki = '''How Communication Systems Help in Smart Irrigation''' = <big>Agriculture is a part of human life and water is one of the basic requirements for growing crops. Farmers need to provide the amount of water to their fields to maintain healthy crop growth. In irrigation methods farmers usually control the water supply manually. This process takes time. Can sometimes result in unnecessary water wastage.</big> <big>Smart irrigation is a method of watering crops with the help of electronic devices and communication technologies. It uses sensors to measure soil moisture and collect information about conditions. This information is sent to a controller, which helps manage the water supply according to the needs of the crops.</big> <big>Communication systems play a role in smart irrigation because they allow different devices to share information, with each other. They help farmers monitor their fields control water pumps and manage irrigation using phones or computers.</big> <big>By using irrigation farmers can save water reduce manual work and improve the management of agricultural fields. It is a technology that connects agriculture with modern communication and automation systems</big>. == '''<big>Meaning of Smart Irrigation</big>''' == <big>I find Smart irrigation to be a way of watering plants and crops that uses technology. Smart irrigation uses sensors to find out how much water is, in the soil. These sensors send the data to a computer, which then controls the water flow.</big> <big>When the soil becomes dry Smart irrigation will automatically turn on the water pump. When the soil has water Smart irrigation turns the pump off. Smart irrigation helps farmers save water cut down on manual work and give the crops just the right amount of water.</big> <big>'''Example:''' If the soil is dry Smart irrigation sensors detect it and send a signal to the controller and Smart irrigation starts watering the plants.</big> == '''Need for Communication Systems in Agriculture''' == <big>Communication systems are important in farming because they let different devices talk to each other. In irrigation sensors gather data about how wet the soil is and send that data to a controller.</big> <big>This data helps farmers know when their crops need water. Communication systems also let farmers watch their fields and turn on water pumps using their phones or computers.</big> <big>Points to cover:</big> # <big>'''Monitoring:''' Looking at soil moisture and temperature.</big> # <big>'''Data Sharing:''' Passing information from sensors to controllers.</big> # <big>'''Remote Control:''' Turning on water pumps from away.</big> # <big>'''Water Saving:''' Giving water only when crops really need it.</big> # <big>'''Time Saving:''' Cutting down on the need to check things by hand.</big> # <big>'''Automation:''' Letting the irrigation system work, on its own.</big> == '''Main Components of Smart Irrigation''' == <big>A smart irrigation system includes electronic parts that work together to provide water to plants and crops. Each part has its job. These parts help farmers check soil conditions and manage the water supply automatically.</big> '''<big>1. Soil Moisture Sensor</big>''' '''<big>:</big>''' <big>A soil moisture sensor is used to check how much water is in the soil. When the soil gets dry the sensor notices the water level and passes the details to the microcontroller.</big> '''<big>2. Temperature Sensor</big><big>:</big>''' <big>A temperature sensor checks the temperature around the area. It helps farmers learn about the temperature in the farming area.</big> '''<big>3. Microcontroller</big><big>:</big>''' <big>A microcontroller is the part that controls the smart irrigation system. It gets info from sensors looks at the data. Manages the water pump based on the soil condition.</big> '''<big>4. Communication Module</big><big>:</big>''' <big>A communication module is used to send information between devices. It lets the microcontroller send data to phones or computers using ways like Wi-Fi, GSM or Bluetooth.</big> '''<big>5. Water Pump</big><big>:</big>''' <big>A water pump is used to give water to the crops. When the soil moisture is low the controller turns the pump on. When the soil has water the pump is turned off.</big> '''<big>6. Power Supply</big><big>:</big>''' <big>A power supply gives the electricity needed to run the sensors, microcontroller and other parts. Solar power or a regular electric supply can be used to power the system.</big> '''<big>7. Mobile. Computer</big><big>:</big>''' <big>A mobile phone or computer helps farmers watch the irrigation system. They can look at the data, from sensors. Manage the system from a distance when the right communication and control options are there.</big> '''<big>Working Example</big>''' <big>When the soil gets dry the soil moisture sensor notices the moisture and sends the details to the microcontroller. The microcontroller looks at the details. Turns on the water pump. The pump gives water to the crops. When the soil has water the microcontroller turns the pump off.</big> == '''Working Procedure of Smart Irrigation''' == <big>A smart irrigation system relies on sensors, a microcontroller, a communication module and a water pump. These components work together to give water to crops based on the moisture level of the soil.</big> <big>Steps involved in the working procedure</big> # <big>'''Checking Soil Moisture'''</big><big>''':''' The soil moisture sensor measures how much water is in the soil. The soil moisture sensor tells whether the soil is wet or dry.</big> # <big>'''Sending Information'''</big><big>''':''' When the soil becomes dry the soil moisture sensor sends the collected data to the microcontroller.</big> # <big>'''Processing Information'''</big><big>''':''' The microcontroller receives the data from the soil moisture sensor. Checks the moisture level of the soil.</big> # <big>'''Starting the Water Pump'''</big><big>''':''' If the moisture level is low the microcontroller sends a signal to turn on the water pump.</big> # <big>'''Supplying Water'''</big><big>''':''' The water pump then supplies water to the crops through pipes or irrigation systems.</big> # <big>'''Stopping the Water Pump'''</big><big>''':''' When the soil gets water the soil moisture sensor sends updated data to the microcontroller. The microcontroller then turns off the water pump.</big> # <big>'''Remote Monitoring'''</big><big>''':''' Using communication technologies such, as Wi‑Fi or GSM farmers can monitor the irrigation system from their mobile phones or computers.</big> == '''Communication Technologies Used in Smart Irrigation''' == <big>Communication technologies are used in irrigation to share information between sensors, microcontrollers and mobile devices. They help farmers check their fields and manage the irrigation system from away.</big> <big>Some common communication technologies used in irrigation are:</big> <big>1. Wi-Fi</big> <big>Wi-Fi is a communication technology that lets devices share information through a network. In irrigation it helps send data from sensors to phones or computers. It works well when there is an internet connection to the farm.</big> <big>2. Bluetooth</big> <big>Bluetooth is used for range wireless communication between electronic devices. Farmers can use it to link a phone with an irrigation controller when they're close to the system.</big> <big>3. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)</big> <big>GSM is a mobile communication technology that uses cell networks to send information. It lets farmers get updates and watch over irrigation systems from away.</big> <big>4. Zigbee</big> <big>Zigbee is a low-power wireless communication technology. It lets different sensors and electronic devices talk to each other. It is good for systems that need power.</big> <big>5. LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network)</big> <big>LoRaWAN is a communication technology made for sending data over long distances with low power use. It is helpful, for checking sensors that are spread out across farms.</big> ^{<u><big>Comparison of Communication Technologies</big></u>} {| class="wikitable" |+ !Technology !Main use !Communication range |- |Wi-Fi |Internet-based monitoring |Short to medium |- |Bluetooth |Nearby device connection |Short |- |Zigbee |Communication between sensors |Short to medium |- |LoRaWAN |Long-distance sensor communication |Long |- |GSM |Remote communication |Cellular coverage area |} == '''Advantages of Smart Irrigation''' == <big>Smart irrigation is a technology in agriculture. It allows farmers to control water supply using sensors, microcontrollers and communication systems. This technology also cuts down the need for irrigation.</big> <big>The main advantages of irrigation are:</big> <big>'''1. Saves Water'''</big> <big>Smart irrigation gives water when needed, based on the soil moisture level. It prevents wasting water by avoiding, over-irrigation.</big> <big>'''2. Saves Time'''</big> <big>Farmers do not have to check the soil or run the water pump every day. The system handles everything automatically saving a lot of time.</big> <big>'''3. Reduces Manual Work'''</big> <big>The system uses sensors and controllers to manage irrigation. This means farmers don’t have to do the work themselves.</big> <big>'''4. Remote Monitoring'''</big> <big>Farmers can use phones or computers to check soil moisture and irrigation status. They can keep an eye on things from anywhere.</big> <big>'''5. Automatic Water Supply'''</big> <big>The water pump turns on when the soil is too dry and turns off when the soil has moisture. No need to press any buttons.</big> <big>'''6. Better Crop Management'''</big> <big>Giving the amount of water at the right time helps keep the soil in good condition. This supports crop growth.</big> <big>'''7. Saves Energy'''</big> <big>Since the pump only runs when needed energy use goes down. This reduces electricity bills. Helps save power.</big> <big>'''Conclusion'''</big> <big>Smart irrigation makes farming easier and smarter. It helps farmers save water reduce effort and manage irrigation better using modern tools and devices.</big> == '''Challenges of Smart Irrigation''' == <big>Smart irrigation is a technology in agriculture but it also has some challenges. Farmers may face difficulties while installing, operating and maintaining the system.</big> <big>The main challenges of irrigation are:</big> <big>'''1. High Installation Cost'''</big> <big>Smart irrigation requires sensors, microcontrollers, communication modules and water pumps. Buying and installing these devices can be expensive for some farmers.</big> <big>'''2. Internet Connectivity'''</big> <big>Some agricultural areas do not have internet or mobile network coverage. This can create problems in transferring information between devices.</big> <big>'''3. Power Supply'''</big> <big>Smart irrigation systems need electricity to operate sensors, controllers and communication devices. Power failures can affect the working of the system.</big> <big>'''4. Sensor Problems'''</big> <big>Sensors may sometimes give readings because of dust, damage or improper installation. Regular checking and calibration are required.</big> <big>'''5. Maintenance'''</big> <big>Electronic devices need maintenance to work correctly. Damaged sensors, wires or communication modules may affect the irrigation process.</big> <big>'''6. Technical Knowledge'''</big> <big>Farmers may need technical knowledge to install, operate and manage smart irrigation systems. Some farmers may find it difficult to use these technologies.</big> <big>'''7. Weather Conditions'''</big> <big>Heavy rain, extreme heat and other environmental conditions may affect devices installed in agricultural fields.</big> <big>'''Conclusion'''</big> <big>Smart irrigation has benefits but problems such, as installation cost, network connectivity, power supply and maintenance need to be considered. Proper planning and regular maintenance can help improve the performance of the system.</big> snppdvtyt9f63rvxnge4mj2jfnlz133 2 486940 4681604 4681116 2026-11-11T13:11:54Z Krish.rk88 3630581 Expanded RTOS chapter with operating system fundamentals, processes, threads, multitasking, and scheduling algorithms 4681604 wikitext text/x-wiki = Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) Based Embedded System Design = == Introduction == An embedded system is designed to perform specific functions using a combination of hardware and software. Many embedded applications require multiple operations to be performed while responding to external events within a specified time. An Operating System (OS) provides an interface between application programs and the hardware resources of a computer system. It manages resources such as the processor, memory, storage devices and input/output devices. In embedded systems, certain operations must be completed within specific time limits. For example, an automobile airbag controller must respond quickly when an accident is detected. A delay in its response may result in serious consequences. A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) is designed to manage time-critical tasks and provide predictable execution behaviour. It uses task scheduling, interrupt handling and time management mechanisms to ensure that tasks receive the required processor time. This chapter explains operating system fundamentals, kernel architecture, processes, threads, multitasking and task scheduling algorithms used in embedded system design. == Learning Objectives == After studying this chapter, readers should be able to: * Understand the basic functions and architecture of an operating system. * Explain the role of a kernel and its services. * Differentiate between kernel space and user space. * Understand monolithic kernel and microkernel architectures. * Classify operating systems into different categories. * Explain the characteristics of Real-Time Operating Systems. * Understand processes, tasks, threads and their execution. * Describe process states and state transitions. * Explain multiprocessing, multitasking and context switching. * Understand different task scheduling algorithms. * Calculate waiting time and turnaround time for different scheduling algorithms. * Explain starvation and aging in process scheduling. == 1. Fundamentals of Operating Systems == === 1.1 What is an Operating System? === An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages the hardware and software resources of a computing system. It acts as an interface between user applications and the underlying hardware. A computer system consists of different components, including: * Central Processing Unit (CPU) * Primary memory (RAM) * Secondary storage * Input/output devices * Communication interfaces The operating system coordinates these resources and provides services to application programs. The primary objectives of an operating system are: * To make the computer system convenient for users and applications. * To manage hardware resources efficiently and correctly. * To provide a controlled environment for executing programs. * To coordinate the execution of multiple processes and tasks. ==== Basic Architecture of an Operating System ==== An operating system generally contains several kernel services that communicate with user applications and hardware. Important components include: * Memory management * Process management * Time management * File system management * Input/output system management * Device drivers User applications access operating system services through Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). Device drivers provide communication between the operating system and hardware devices. === 1.2 Kernel === The kernel is the central component of an operating system. It manages system resources and provides communication between hardware and other software components. It acts as an abstraction layer between the hardware and user applications. The kernel provides several important services. ==== Process Management ==== Process management is responsible for controlling the execution of processes and tasks. Its functions include: * Creating and terminating processes. * Allocating memory to processes. * Allocating system resources. * Scheduling processes for CPU execution. * Maintaining Process Control Blocks (PCBs). * Supporting communication and synchronization between processes. ==== Primary Memory Management ==== Primary memory refers to the main working memory of the system, generally RAM. The Memory Management Unit (MMU) and associated operating system services manage memory allocation. Their responsibilities include: * Tracking which memory regions are being used by different processes. * Allocating memory when required. * Releasing memory when it is no longer needed. * Managing the memory occupied by program code, variables and shared data. ==== File System Management ==== A file is a collection of related information. It may contain program code, documents, images, audio or video data. File system management provides services such as: * Creating, deleting and modifying files. * Creating and deleting directories. * Storing files in secondary storage. * Allocating available storage space. * Providing file naming and organization mechanisms. The supported file operations depend on the operating system. ==== Input/Output System Management ==== The kernel manages communication between applications and input/output devices. Applications generally access devices through operating system interfaces rather than directly controlling the hardware. Device drivers provide the low-level communication required to operate specific devices or classes of devices. The Device Manager is responsible for operations such as: * Loading and unloading device drivers. * Sending control information to devices. * Receiving information from devices. * Managing the availability of input/output devices. ==== Secondary Storage Management ==== Secondary storage is used to store programs and data permanently because primary memory is volatile. The operating system manages secondary storage through services such as: * Disk storage allocation. * Disk scheduling. * Free-space management. ==== Protection Systems ==== Protection mechanisms control access to system resources. Modern operating systems may support multiple users and applications with different permission levels. These mechanisms prevent unauthorized access to data, memory and hardware resources. ==== Interrupt Handler ==== An interrupt handler is responsible for responding to interrupts generated by internal or external system events. Interrupts allow the processor to respond to events that require attention. Other kernel services may include network communication, timer services, graphical user interfaces, error handling and database management. Applications generally access these services through APIs provided by the operating system. === 1.3 Kernel Space and User Space === Operating systems may divide memory into two main areas: kernel space and user space. ==== Kernel Space ==== Kernel space is the memory region in which the operating system kernel and its privileged services execute. It contains code responsible for managing hardware, memory, processes and other system resources. Access to kernel space is restricted to prevent unauthorized modification of important operating system components. ==== User Space ==== User space is the memory area in which user applications execute. Applications generally operate with restricted privileges and request operating system services through system calls or APIs. ==== Virtual Memory and Swapping ==== In systems supporting virtual memory, each process may operate within its own virtual address space. Demand paging allows portions of a program to be loaded into primary memory when they are required rather than loading the entire program at once. Swapping refers to transferring memory contents between primary memory and secondary storage. Virtual memory and process isolation help protect applications from directly accessing the memory of other processes. === 1.4 Monolithic Kernel and Microkernel === Kernels can be designed using different architectural approaches. Two important approaches are monolithic kernels and microkernels. ==== Monolithic Kernel ==== In a monolithic kernel architecture, most operating system services execute within kernel space. The different kernel modules operate within a common kernel address space. Advantages: * Kernel services can communicate directly. * The architecture provides efficient interaction between kernel components. * It can make effective use of hardware-level features. Disadvantage: * A serious error in one kernel component may affect the entire kernel and cause system failure. Examples mentioned in the study material include Linux and Solaris. ==== Microkernel ==== A microkernel contains only the essential operating system services inside the kernel. Other services are implemented as separate server processes running in user space. Essential microkernel services may include: * Basic memory management. * Process management. * Timer management. * Interrupt handling. Examples include Mach, QNX and MINIX 3. Advantages of a microkernel architecture: * Robustness: A failure in a separate service may be handled without restarting the entire operating system. * Configurability: Individual services can be modified or replaced more independently. * Modularity: Services are separated into different components. == 2. Types of Operating Systems == === 2.1 General Purpose Operating System (GPOS) === A General Purpose Operating System is designed for general computing applications. It provides a broad range of services for running different types of programs. Examples include desktop and personal computer operating systems. A GPOS generally focuses on providing functionality, resource sharing and convenience rather than guaranteeing a precise response time for every operation. Its execution behaviour may be non-deterministic. This means that an application may experience unexpected delays due to other system activities or operating system services. === 2.2 Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) === A Real-Time Operating System is designed to manage tasks that have timing requirements. The term real-time refers to predictable timing behaviour. In an RTOS, the system is designed to provide known and controlled response times for important operations. An RTOS determines: * Which task should execute. * The order in which tasks should execute. * How processor time should be allocated. * How time-critical tasks should be handled. Predictable performance is an important characteristic of a well-designed RTOS. Examples mentioned in the study material include: * Windows Embedded Compact * QNX * VxWorks * MicroC/OS-II === 2.3 Real-Time Kernel === The kernel of an RTOS is called a real-time kernel. Unlike a general-purpose operating system kernel, a real-time kernel is designed to provide the essential services required for predictable task execution. Its major functions include: * Task and process management. * Task and process scheduling. * Task synchronization. * Error and exception handling. * Memory management. * Interrupt handling. * Time management. ==== Task/Process Management ==== Task management creates, controls and terminates tasks. When a task is created, the kernel allocates the required resources and maintains its information in a structure called the Task Control Block (TCB). A TCB may contain: * Task ID: Unique identification of the task. * Task State: Current state, such as Ready or Running. * Task Type: Type of task, such as hard real-time, soft real-time or background task. * Task Priority: Priority assigned to the task. * Task Context Pointer: Information required for saving and restoring task context. * Task Memory Pointers: Pointers to code, data and stack memory. * System Resource Pointers: References to resources such as semaphores and mutexes. * Task Pointers: References to other task control blocks. * Other Parameters: Additional information required by the kernel. The kernel uses the TCB to create tasks, update their states, modify priorities and remove tasks when they terminate. ==== Task/Process Scheduling ==== Task scheduling determines which task receives CPU time. A kernel component called the scheduler selects tasks according to a scheduling algorithm. The scheduler helps manage processor allocation and supports predictable task execution. ==== Task/Process Synchronization ==== Synchronization coordinates the execution of multiple tasks that access shared resources. It helps prevent conflicts when different tasks attempt to use the same resource. It also supports communication between tasks. ==== Error and Exception Handling ==== The kernel detects and handles errors and exceptional conditions that occur during task execution. It may provide mechanisms for identifying faults and responding to abnormal system behaviour. ==== Memory Management ==== The kernel allocates and manages memory required by different tasks. In embedded systems, memory is often limited. Therefore, memory allocation must be managed carefully. Some real-time systems use fixed memory allocation techniques to reduce unpredictable delays caused by dynamic memory operations. ==== Interrupt Handling ==== Interrupts notify the processor that an event requires attention. Two important categories are: * Synchronous interrupts: These occur in association with the currently executing instruction or task. Examples include divide-by-zero errors and memory access faults. * Asynchronous interrupts: These may occur independently of the currently executing task. Examples include external device interrupts, timer interrupts and serial communication interrupts. An Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) handles an interrupt. Some RTOS kernels support nested interrupts. In this approach, a higher-priority interrupt can interrupt the handling of a lower-priority interrupt. ==== Time Management ==== Accurate time management is important for real-time applications. A hardware timer or Real-Time Clock (RTC) provides timing information to the kernel. The timer may generate periodic interrupts called timer ticks. The kernel uses timer ticks to: * Update system time. * Maintain software timers. * Activate periodic tasks. * Invoke the scheduler. * Save and restore task contexts. * Remove terminated tasks and associated data structures. The interval between timer ticks depends on the hardware and kernel configuration. Some RTOS implementations also provide optional services such as file management and network communication. === 2.4 Hard Real-Time and Soft Real-Time Systems === Real-time systems can be classified according to how strictly they must satisfy their timing constraints. ==== Hard Real-Time Systems ==== A hard real-time system must meet its specified deadlines. Missing a deadline may result in serious consequences, including system damage, data loss or threats to human safety. The main principle is that a late response may be considered an incorrect response. Examples include: * Automotive airbag control systems. * Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS). For example, an airbag controller must respond within the required time when an accident is detected. The relevant task must receive processor attention quickly enough to meet its deadline. ==== Soft Real-Time Systems ==== A soft real-time system attempts to meet deadlines but may tolerate occasional deadline misses. The quality of service may decrease when a response is delayed, but the system does not necessarily fail. Examples include: * Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs). * Audio and video playback systems. For example, a delayed audio or video sample may temporarily affect playback quality without causing a complete system failure. == 3. Processes and Tasks == === 3.1 Process === A task refers to an operation that needs to be performed. In operating system terminology, a task or job generally refers to a program in execution and the information maintained by the operating system for that program. A process is a program, or a part of a program, that is currently executing. It is also described as an instance of a program in execution. Multiple instances of the same program may execute at the same time. A process requires resources such as: * CPU time for execution. * Memory for storing program code and data. * Input/output devices for exchanging information. * Other system resources required by the application. A process follows a sequence of instructions during execution. ==== 3.1.1 Structure of a Process ==== A process contains the information required to maintain its execution state. Its structure generally includes: * Working registers. * Status registers. * Program Counter (PC). * Stack. * Program code. * Associated data. The Program Counter identifies the next instruction to be executed. The registers maintain the current execution information. The stack stores temporary information associated with the process. A process can be considered a virtual processor because it maintains execution information similar to that of a physical CPU. When the processor switches to a process, the process's saved execution information is restored to the CPU. ==== Memory Organization of a Process ==== The memory associated with a process is commonly divided into three regions: '''1. Code Memory''' Contains the executable instructions of the process. '''2. Data Memory''' Stores global variables and other data associated with the process. '''3. Stack Memory''' Stores temporary information, including local variables and function-related information. In a common memory arrangement, the stack grows towards lower memory addresses while the data region grows towards higher addresses. The exact arrangement depends on the system architecture and operating system. === 3.2 Process States and Transitions === A process passes through different states from creation to termination. This sequence is called the process life cycle. The common process states are: ==== Created State ==== A process enters the Created state when it is first created. The operating system recognizes the process, but it may not yet have received all the resources required for execution. ==== Ready State ==== A process enters the Ready state when it is prepared to execute and is waiting for CPU allocation. Ready processes are maintained in a ready queue or ready list. ==== Running State ==== A process enters the Running state when the CPU executes its instructions. ==== Blocked or Waiting State ==== A process enters the Blocked state when it cannot continue execution until an event occurs or a required resource becomes available. For example, a process may wait for keyboard input or access to a shared resource. ==== Completed State ==== A process enters the Completed state after finishing its execution. ==== State Transitions ==== A process may move between states during its life cycle. Typical transitions include: * Created to Ready: The process is admitted into memory and becomes ready for execution. * Ready to Running: The scheduler allocates CPU time to the process. * Running to Ready: The process is interrupted or preempted. * Running to Blocked: The process waits for an event or resource. * Blocked to Ready: The required event occurs or resource becomes available. * Running to Completed: The process finishes execution. The exact state names and number of states may vary between operating systems. For example, VxWorks uses states such as READY, PEND, DELAY and SUSPEND. MicroC/OS-II uses states such as DORMANT, READY, RUNNING, WAITING and INTERRUPTED. === 3.3 Process Management === Process management is the operating system function responsible for controlling processes throughout their execution. Its responsibilities include: * Creating processes. * Allocating memory. * Loading program code. * Allocating system resources. * Maintaining Process Control Blocks. * Managing process execution. * Terminating or deleting processes. A Process Control Block (PCB) stores information required by the operating system to manage a process. === 3.4 Tasks in RTOS === In an RTOS, a task is a unit of execution managed by the kernel. Each task has its own execution context and associated information maintained in a Task Control Block. Tasks may have different priorities and timing requirements. The scheduler selects tasks according to the scheduling policy implemented by the RTOS. == 4. Threads and Multithreading == === 4.1 Introduction to Threads === A thread is a single sequential flow of control within a process. It is also known as a lightweight process. A process may contain multiple threads that execute different parts of the same application. Threads belonging to the same process generally share: * Code memory. * Data memory. * Heap memory. * Process address space. However, each thread maintains its own: * Stack. * Program Counter. * CPU register information. * Execution state. This arrangement allows multiple threads to operate within a common process. === 4.2 Multithreading === Multithreading is the technique of dividing a process into multiple threads that perform different operations. An embedded application may contain several suboperations, such as: * Receiving information from input devices. * Performing calculations. * Processing received data. * Updating output devices. If all operations are executed sequentially, the CPU may remain unused while one operation waits for an external event. Multithreading allows another thread to execute when one thread is waiting. For example, a thread waiting for input from a device may enter a waiting state while another thread performs calculations. This improves processor utilization and can improve the responsiveness of an application. === 4.3 Process vs Thread === {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! Process !! Thread |- | Definition || A program in execution || A sequential execution flow within a process |- | Memory || Has its own process memory space || Shares the address space of its process |- | Stack || Has a process stack arrangement || Each thread has its own stack |- | Registers || Maintains process execution context || Maintains its own execution context |- | Communication || May require inter-process communication mechanisms || Can communicate through shared process data |- | Resource usage || Generally requires more resources || Generally requires fewer resources |} == 5. Multiprocessing and Multitasking == === 5.1 Multiprocessing === Multiprocessing refers to the use of multiple processing units to execute tasks. A system containing multiple processors or CPU cores can execute more than one process at the same time, depending on its architecture and operating system support. Multiprocessing can improve processing capacity by distributing work across available processing units. === 5.2 Multitasking === Multitasking is the ability of an operating system to manage multiple tasks or processes. In a single-processor system, multitasking is generally achieved by switching the CPU between processes. The operating system gives each task an opportunity to execute according to the scheduling policy. Rapid switching creates the appearance that multiple tasks are executing simultaneously, even when only one CPU core is available. === 5.3 Context Switching === Context switching is the process of changing the CPU execution from one process or task to another. Each process maintains its own execution context, including register values, Program Counter and other information. When the CPU switches from one process to another, the operating system must preserve the current process's context. The main steps are: 1. Save the context of the currently executing process. 2. Perform the required operating system operations. 3. Select the next process for execution. 4. Restore the saved context of the selected process. 5. Resume execution from the saved position. The saved information allows a process to continue from the point where it was interrupted. Context switching is essential for multitasking, but it introduces overhead because the CPU spends time saving and restoring execution information instead of executing application instructions. === 5.4 Types of Multitasking === ==== 5.4.1 Cooperative Multitasking ==== In cooperative multitasking, the currently executing process voluntarily gives up the CPU. Other processes receive an opportunity to execute only when the current process relinquishes processor control. If a process does not voluntarily release the CPU, other processes may experience long delays. ==== 5.4.2 Preemptive Multitasking ==== In preemptive multitasking, the operating system can interrupt a currently executing process and allocate the CPU to another process. Preemption may occur based on: * Time allocation. * Process priority. * Scheduling policy. This approach helps ensure that other processes receive opportunities to execute. ==== 5.4.3 Non-preemptive Multitasking ==== In non-preemptive multitasking, a process continues executing until it completes or voluntarily enters a waiting or blocked state. The operating system does not forcibly interrupt the running process simply because another process becomes ready. Cooperative and non-preemptive multitasking are closely related, but their handling of voluntary CPU release and waiting conditions may differ according to the implementation. == 6. Task Scheduling == === 6.1 Introduction to Task Scheduling === In a multitasking operating system, multiple processes may be waiting for CPU time. Task scheduling is the mechanism used to determine which process should execute at a particular time. The operating system uses scheduling policies to decide the order in which processes receive CPU time. A kernel component called the scheduler implements the scheduling algorithm. Scheduling decisions may occur when: * A running process is moved to the Ready state through preemption. * A running process enters the Blocked or Waiting state. * A blocked process becomes Ready. * A process completes execution. Scheduling algorithms may be classified into non-preemptive and preemptive approaches. ==== Important Scheduling Terms ==== '''Arrival Time:''' The time at which a process enters the ready queue or becomes available for scheduling. '''Burst Time / Execution Time:''' The amount of CPU time required by a process to complete its execution. '''Waiting Time:''' The total time a process spends waiting in the ready queue. '''Turnaround Time (TAT):''' The total time between a process's arrival and its completion. For a process that completes execution: Turnaround Time = Completion Time − Arrival Time Waiting Time = Turnaround Time − CPU Burst Time Average Waiting Time = Total Waiting Time / Number of Processes Average Turnaround Time = Total Turnaround Time / Number of Processes === 6.2 First Come First Served (FCFS) Scheduling === First Come First Served scheduling allocates CPU time according to the order in which processes enter the Ready queue. The process that arrives first is executed first. FCFS follows the First In First Out (FIFO) principle. It is a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm. Once a process receives the CPU, it continues until it completes or voluntarily releases the CPU. ==== Example ==== Consider three processes with the following execution times: {| class="wikitable" ! Process !! Execution Time |- | P1 || 10 ms |- | P2 || 5 ms |- | P3 || 7 ms |} Assume all processes enter the Ready queue together in the order P1, P2 and P3. Execution sequence: P1 → P2 → P3 The Gantt chart is: <pre> 0 10 15 22 | P1 | P2 | P3 | </pre> Waiting times: * P1 = 0 ms * P2 = 10 ms * P3 = 15 ms Average Waiting Time: (0 + 10 + 15) / 3 = 25 / 3 Average Waiting Time = 8.33 ms Turnaround times: * P1 = 10 ms * P2 = 15 ms * P3 = 22 ms Average Turnaround Time: (10 + 15 + 22) / 3 = 47 / 3 Average Turnaround Time = 15.67 ms ==== Advantages and Limitations ==== Advantages: * Simple to implement. * Processes are served in arrival order. * Easy to maintain using a FIFO queue. Limitations: * A long process can delay shorter processes. * It may lead to poor waiting times. * CPU-bound processes may affect the responsiveness of I/O-bound processes. * The average waiting time is not necessarily minimum. === 6.3 Last Come First Served (LCFS) / LIFO Scheduling === Last Come First Served scheduling allocates CPU time to the process that entered the Ready queue most recently. It follows the Last In First Out (LIFO) principle. It is a non-preemptive scheduling approach in which the most recently arrived process is selected first whenever the scheduler selects a new process. ==== Example ==== Consider the following processes: {| class="wikitable" ! Process !! Execution Time |- | P1 || 10 ms |- | P2 || 5 ms |- | P3 || 7 ms |} Assume P1 is the only process initially available. P2 and P3 enter afterward, in that order. P4, requiring 6 ms, arrives after 5 ms of P1's execution. The resulting execution order is: P1 → P4 → P3 → P2 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 10 16 23 28 | P1 | P4 | P3 | P2 | </pre> Waiting times: * P1 = 0 ms * P4 = 10 − 5 = 5 ms * P3 = 16 ms * P2 = 23 ms Average Waiting Time: (0 + 5 + 16 + 23) / 4 = 11 ms Turnaround times: * P1 = 10 ms * P4 = 11 ms * P3 = 23 ms * P2 = 28 ms Average Turnaround Time: (10 + 11 + 23 + 28) / 4 = 18 ms LCFS is not generally optimal for minimizing waiting time. It can also cause some processes to wait for long periods. === 6.4 Shortest Job First (SJF) Scheduling === Shortest Job First scheduling selects the process with the shortest estimated execution time from the Ready queue. The scheduler sorts the available processes according to their estimated CPU execution time. SJF is generally implemented as a non-preemptive scheduling algorithm in this context. ==== Example 1 ==== Consider three processes: {| class="wikitable" ! Process !! Execution Time |- | P1 || 10 ms |- | P2 || 5 ms |- | P3 || 7 ms |} All processes enter the Ready queue together. The shortest execution time belongs to P2, followed by P3 and P1. Execution order: P2 → P3 → P1 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 5 12 22 | P2 | P3 | P1 | </pre> Waiting times: * P2 = 0 ms * P3 = 5 ms * P1 = 12 ms Average Waiting Time: (0 + 5 + 12) / 3 = 5.67 ms Turnaround times: * P2 = 5 ms * P3 = 12 ms * P1 = 22 ms Average Turnaround Time: (5 + 12 + 22) / 3 = 13 ms ==== Example 2: A New Process Arrives ==== Assume a new process P4, with an execution time of 2 ms, enters the Ready queue after 2 ms of P2's execution. Since the algorithm is non-preemptive, P2 continues until it completes. After P2 finishes, the scheduler selects P4 because it has the shortest execution time among the waiting processes. Execution order: P2 → P4 → P3 → P1 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 5 7 14 24 | P2 | P4 | P3 | P1 | </pre> Waiting times: * P2 = 0 ms * P4 = 5 − 2 = 3 ms * P3 = 7 ms * P1 = 14 ms Average Waiting Time: (0 + 3 + 7 + 14) / 4 = 6 ms Turnaround times: * P2 = 5 ms * P4 = 5 ms * P3 = 14 ms * P1 = 24 ms Average Turnaround Time: (5 + 5 + 14 + 24) / 4 = 12 ms ==== Advantages and Limitations ==== SJF can provide a low average waiting time when the execution times are known. However, it has limitations: * It is difficult to know the exact execution time of a process in advance. * A process with a long execution time may wait for a long period. * Continuous arrival of shorter processes may cause starvation. === 6.5 Shortest Remaining Time (SRT) Scheduling === Shortest Remaining Time scheduling is the preemptive version of Shortest Job First scheduling. The scheduler compares the remaining execution time of the currently running process with the execution time of a newly arriving process. If the new process has a shorter remaining execution time, the current process is preempted and the new process receives the CPU. ==== Example ==== Consider the following processes: {| class="wikitable" ! Process !! Execution Time !! Arrival Time |- | P1 || 10 ms || 0 ms |- | P2 || 5 ms || 0 ms |- | P3 || 7 ms || 0 ms |- | P4 || 2 ms || 2 ms |} Initially, P2 is selected because it has the shortest execution time. After P2 executes for 2 ms, P4 arrives. At that point: * Remaining time of P2 = 3 ms. * Execution time of P4 = 2 ms. Since P4 requires less time, P2 is preempted and P4 is executed. After P4 completes, P2 resumes because it has the shortest remaining time among the waiting processes. Execution sequence: P2 → P4 → P2 → P3 → P1 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 2 4 7 14 24 | P2 | P4 | P2 | P3 | P1 | </pre> Waiting times: * P2 = 2 ms * P4 = 0 ms * P3 = 7 ms * P1 = 14 ms Average Waiting Time: (2 + 0 + 7 + 14) / 4 = 5.75 ms Turnaround times: * P2 = 7 ms * P4 = 2 ms * P3 = 14 ms * P1 = 24 ms Average Turnaround Time: (7 + 2 + 14 + 24) / 4 = 11.75 ms This example shows how preemptive SJF can reduce average waiting and turnaround times compared with the corresponding non-preemptive example. === 6.6 Priority-Based Scheduling === Priority-based scheduling assigns a priority level to each process. The scheduler selects the process with the highest priority from the Ready queue. The way priority numbers represent priority depends on the operating system. In some systems, a smaller number represents a higher priority. In the examples below, priority 0 represents the highest priority. ==== Non-Preemptive Priority Scheduling ==== In non-preemptive priority scheduling, a running process continues until it completes or voluntarily releases the CPU. A newly arriving high-priority process must wait until the currently executing process releases the processor. ==== Example 1 ==== Consider the following processes: {| class="wikitable" ! Process !! Execution Time !! Priority |- | P1 || 10 ms || 0 |- | P2 || 5 ms || 3 |- | P3 || 7 ms || 2 |} Priority 0 is the highest priority. Execution order: P1 → P3 → P2 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 10 17 22 | P1 | P3 | P2 | </pre> Waiting times: * P1 = 0 ms * P3 = 10 ms * P2 = 17 ms Average Waiting Time: (0 + 10 + 17) / 3 = 9 ms Turnaround times: * P1 = 10 ms * P3 = 17 ms * P2 = 22 ms Average Turnaround Time: (10 + 17 + 22) / 3 = 16.33 ms ==== Example 2: A New High-Priority Process Arrives ==== Assume P4 has an execution time of 6 ms and priority 1. It arrives after 5 ms of P1's execution. Since the algorithm is non-preemptive, P1 continues until it finishes. After P1 completes, P4 is selected because it has a higher priority than P3 and P2. Execution order: P1 → P4 → P3 → P2 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 10 16 23 28 | P1 | P4 | P3 | P2 | </pre> Waiting times: * P1 = 0 ms * P4 = 10 − 5 = 5 ms * P3 = 16 ms * P2 = 23 ms Average Waiting Time: (0 + 5 + 16 + 23) / 4 = 11 ms Turnaround times: * P1 = 10 ms * P4 = 11 ms * P3 = 23 ms * P2 = 28 ms Average Turnaround Time: (10 + 11 + 23 + 28) / 4 = 18 ms ==== Starvation and Aging ==== Starvation occurs when a process waits for a very long time because other processes with higher priority continue to receive CPU time. Aging is a technique used to reduce starvation. In aging, the priority of a process is gradually increased as its waiting time grows. This allows processes that have waited for a long time to eventually receive CPU time. === 6.7 Round Robin Scheduling === Round Robin scheduling gives each process an equal opportunity to use the CPU. Each process receives a fixed amount of CPU time called a time slice or time quantum. The scheduler selects processes in Ready queue order and executes each process for one time slice. When the time slice expires: * The currently running process is preempted if it has not completed. * The process is moved to the end of the Ready queue. * The next process is selected. The Ready queue behaves like a circular queue. If a process completes before its time slice expires, the next process is selected immediately. ==== Example ==== Consider three processes: {| class="wikitable" ! Process !! Execution Time |- | P1 || 6 ms |- | P2 || 4 ms |- | P3 || 2 ms |} Assume all processes arrive together in the order P1, P2 and P3. Time quantum = 2 ms. Execution sequence: P1 → P2 → P3 → P1 → P2 → P1 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 | P1 | P2 | P3 | P1 | P2 | P1 | </pre> Waiting times: * P1 = (6 − 2) + (10 − 8) = 6 ms * P2 = (2 − 0) + (8 − 4) = 6 ms * P3 = 4 ms Average Waiting Time: (6 + 6 + 4) / 3 = 5.33 ms Turnaround times: * P1 = 12 ms * P2 = 10 ms * P3 = 6 ms Average Turnaround Time: (12 + 10 + 6) / 3 = 9.33 ms ==== Advantages and Limitations ==== Advantages: * Each process receives a fixed opportunity to execute. * It prevents one process from continuously occupying the CPU. * It provides fair sharing of processor time. Limitations: * The scheduler must maintain time-slice information. * Frequent context switching can introduce overhead. * Performance depends on the selected time quantum. === 6.8 Preemptive Priority-Based Scheduling === Preemptive priority-based scheduling is similar to non-preemptive priority scheduling, but it allows a higher-priority process to interrupt a currently executing lower-priority process. When a higher-priority process enters the Ready queue, the scheduler may immediately select it for execution. ==== Example ==== Consider the following processes: {| class="wikitable" ! Process !! Execution Time !! Priority !! Arrival Time |- | P1 || 10 ms || 1 || 0 ms |- | P2 || 5 ms || 3 || 0 ms |- | P3 || 7 ms || 2 || 0 ms |- | P4 || 6 ms || 0 || 5 ms |} Priority 0 is the highest priority. Initially, P1 is selected because it has the highest priority among the available processes. After P1 executes for 5 ms, P4 arrives with priority 0. P1 is preempted, and P4 receives the CPU. After P4 completes, P1 resumes because it has the next-highest priority among the remaining processes. Execution sequence: P1 → P4 → P1 → P3 → P2 Gantt chart: <pre> 0 5 11 16 23 28 | P1 | P4 | P1 | P3 | P2 | </pre> Waiting times: * P1 = 0 + (11 − 5) = 6 ms * P4 = 0 ms * P3 = 16 ms * P2 = 23 ms Average Waiting Time: (6 + 0 + 16 + 23) / 4 = 11.25 ms Turnaround times: * P1 = 16 ms * P4 = 6 ms * P3 = 23 ms * P2 = 28 ms Average Turnaround Time: (16 + 6 + 23 + 28) / 4 = 18.25 ms Preemptive priority scheduling is useful in systems where high-priority tasks must receive CPU attention quickly. Many RTOS implementations use priority-based preemptive scheduling. However, this approach can also cause starvation. Aging can be used to reduce this problem. == 7. Scheduling Examples and Calculations == The performance of scheduling algorithms can be compared using waiting time and turnaround time. The following formulas are useful: '''Waiting Time''' Waiting Time = Turnaround Time − Execution Time '''Turnaround Time''' Turnaround Time = Completion Time − Arrival Time '''Average Waiting Time''' Average Waiting Time = Sum of Waiting Times / Number of Processes '''Average Turnaround Time''' Average Turnaround Time = Sum of Turnaround Times / Number of Processes When a process arrives after the beginning of execution, its arrival time must be considered while calculating waiting time and turnaround time. A Gantt chart is useful for representing the order and duration of process execution. == Conclusion == An operating system manages hardware resources and provides services required for application execution. Its kernel performs important functions such as process management, memory management, device management and interrupt handling. A Real-Time Operating System is designed for applications that require predictable execution behaviour and controlled response times. Processes and threads provide the basic execution structures used by operating systems. Multitasking allows multiple tasks to share processor time, while context switching enables the CPU to move between different tasks. Task scheduling determines the order in which processes receive CPU time. Algorithms such as FCFS, LCFS, SJF, SRT, Priority-Based Scheduling and Round Robin use different methods to allocate processor time. Understanding these concepts is important when designing embedded systems that must perform operations efficiently and satisfy their timing requirements. == References == * Module 5: Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) Based Embedded System Design, provided study material. * Additional references and bibliographic details should be added after verifying the original textbook title, author, publisher and edition. st2ykfbj1dqb1a5fpa6jzoee0bsi9hr 0 486953 4681623 4680559 2026-11-11T14:35:46Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681623 wikitext text/x-wiki == Monsters And Science == [[File:Architeuthis dux specimen F 88555.jpg|thumb|Architeuthis dux specimen F 88555]] Science has confirmed the existence of animals once thought to be mythical monsters. '''The Giant Squid:''' The giant squid may have been mistaken for the Kraken, a mythical monster early mariners believed had the power to shipwreck an entire ship! <br> <br> [[File:Colossal octopus by Pierre Denys de Montfort.jpg|thumb|The Kraken]] The giant squid was formally named by Japetus Steenstrup, a Danish zoologist in 1856. Previously, whenever body parts washed up ashore, they were attributed to the Kraken. [1] <br> <br> In 1753, in ''The Natural History of Norway'' by Erik Pontoppidan, the Kraken was brought to popular attention. <br> <br> Sailors claimed to have encountered monstrous sea creatures with tentacles so massive and powerful, they were able to embrace ships in their tentacles, dragging them under the sea to their doom. [1] <br> <br> '''The Komodo Dragon:''' <br> Western Scientist first recorded Komodo dragons in 1910. The Komodo dragons are found only on the islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores, Gili Dasami, and Gili Motang in Indonesia. It is the largest species of lizard, with the males growing to a maximum length of 3 m (10 ft) and weighing up to 150 kg (330 lb). [2] <br> <br> [[File:At Chester Zoo 2023 019 - Komodo Dragon (cropped).jpg|thumb|At Chester Zoo 2023 019 - Komodo Dragon (cropped)]][[File:WingedDragon.jpg|thumb|dragon illustration from old book]] The people on the islands where the Komodo dragons are found, have shared stories and myths for centuries. The Komodo dragon is more than just a lizard, it is a protector, and even a spiritual ancestor to the people. One popular myth associated with Komodo dragons is the story of Putri Naga, the Dragon Princess, a woman who became pregnant with twins, one was born a human boy, the other a dragon child named Ora. A protective attitude has developed between the island people and the Komodo dragons, in part because they are viewed not as animals, but as distant kin. [3] <br> <br> The Komodo dragons are seen as the spiritual guardians of their land. They are its protectors and are believed to possess special powers against evil. They bring good luck to the people who respect them. <br> <br> '''Queston:''' Are Komodo dragons descendants of dinosaurs? <br><br> '''Answer:''' No. They are close to the order Squamata (snakes and lizards). Dinosaurs belong to the order '''Archosauria''', a group that includes crocodiles and modern birds. <br> <br> <br> '''The Coelacanth:''' <br> A prehistoric fish, well-represented in freshwater and marine deposits from as early as the Devonian period (more than 410 million years ago), it was thought to have become extinct in the Late Cretaceous, around 66 million years ago, until it was caught alive in 1938. [4] <br> <br> This former cryptid, may have existed alongside the T-Rex! The discovery of this ancient fish directly inspired Hollywood's creation of the Gill-man in the classic monster movie ''Creature from the Black Lagoon'' in 1954. <br> <br> {| class="wikitable" |+ |- ! Pre-historic fish !! Gill-Man |- | [[File:201704 Coelacanth.svg|thumb|Coelacanth]] || [[File:Ginger Stanley in the grip of the Gill-Man for promo still at Silver Springs.jpg|thumb|Ginger Stanley in the grip of the Gill-Man for promo still at Silver Springs]] |} <br> Currently, there is no credible peer-reviewed scientific evidence supporting the existence of mythological or popular monsters. What people call "monsters" are usually a combination of folklore, deliberate hoaxes, misidentified known animals, or real animal species that were discovered in the modern era. <br> <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. Estep, Richard. Monsters: Myths, Legends, and Real Encounters. Visible Ink Press, 2026 <br> <br> 2. "Komodo dragon." Wikipedia. Wikimedia foundation, November 4, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komodo_dragon <br> <br> 3. Komodo Dragon Mythology and Folklore: Unearthing the Legends of Flores and Beyond. November 11, 2026, https://www.komodoislandtour.com/komodo-dragon-mythology-and-folklore.html <br> <br> 4. "Coelacanth." Wikipedia. Wikimedia foundation, November 1, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coelacanth <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Three|Chapter Five|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} o8cvbkqwwzhq7g3mv4sbgo84lzvf3ga 2 486961 4681618 4680627 2026-11-11T13:58:47Z User-jagan 3629883 Updated 4681618 wikitext text/x-wiki = NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano: A Closer Look at Edge AI Hardware = == 1. Introduction: A Compact Platform for Edge AI == Robots, autonomous vehicles, and smart cameras often need to process AI workloads locally rather than send every bit of data to the cloud. This is where the NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Series comes in. It brings an NVIDIA Orin System-on-Chip (SoC) onto a compact System-on-Module (SOM) measuring '''69.6 mm × 45 mm''' and weighing '''0.028 kg (28 grams)''' (Jetson Download Center). The module uses a '''260-pin SO-DIMM connector''' and combines an NVIDIA Ampere architecture GPU, a six-core 64-bit Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU complex, high-speed '''LPDDR5 DRAM''', and dedicated multimedia and sensor accelerators (Jetson Orin Nano User Guide). A major update to the series is the <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> operating profile, introduced in revisions v1.5–v1.7 of the Jetson Orin Nano Series Data Sheet and supported by the Jetson Orin Nano Super Developer Kit. It uses software-enabled clock and power scaling to increase sparse 8-bit integer (<code>INT8</code>) performance by nearly 1.7×. In this mode, the 8GB module can reach '''67 INT8 TOPS''', while the 4GB module can reach '''34 INT8 TOPS''', within a '''25W''' power envelope. Along with its range of I/O interfaces and compact size, this makes the Orin Nano a useful option for running AI applications directly on embedded devices (NVIDIA Embedded Systems). == 2. Module Variants: Jetson Orin Nano 8GB vs. 4GB == The NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Series is available in two module configurations: '''Jetson Orin Nano 8GB''' and '''Jetson Orin Nano 4GB'''. The main differences are memory capacity, memory bandwidth, and AI compute performance, so the choice depends on the size of the workload and the system's power requirements (Jetson Download Center). {| class="wikitable" !Specification !Jetson Orin Nano 8GB !Jetson Orin Nano 4GB !Primary Technical Reference |- |'''AI Performance (Sparse INT8)''' |<nowiki>40 TOPS (Standard) | 67 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>20 TOPS (Standard) | 34 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''AI Performance (Dense INT8)''' |<nowiki>20 TOPS (Standard) | 33 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>10 TOPS (Standard) | 17 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''GPU Architecture & Cores''' |Ampere GPU: 1024 CUDA Cores, 32 Tensor Cores |Ampere GPU: 512 CUDA Cores, 16 Tensor Cores |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''GPU Max Frequency''' |<nowiki>625 MHz (Standard) | 1020 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>625 MHz (Standard) | 1020 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''FP32 Compute Throughput''' |<nowiki>1.28 TFLOPS | 2.08 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>0.64 TFLOPS | 1.04 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''FP16 Compute Throughput''' |<nowiki>2.56 TFLOPS | 4.16 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>1.28 TFLOPS | 2.08 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''CPU Complex''' |6-core Arm Cortex-A78AE (1×4-core + 1×2-core) |6-core Arm Cortex-A78AE (1×4-core + 1×2-core) |Arm Cortex-A78AE Overview |- |'''CPU Max Frequency & Spec_Int''' |<nowiki>1.5 GHz (106) | 1.7 GHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>, 118) |<nowiki>1.5 GHz (106) | 1.7 GHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>, 118) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''System Memory (DRAM)''' |8 GB 128-bit LPDDR5 |4 GB 64-bit LPDDR5 |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''Memory Clock Frequency''' |<nowiki>2133 MHz (Standard) | 3199 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>2133 MHz (Standard) | 3199 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''Peak Memory Bandwidth''' |<nowiki>68 GB/s (Standard) | 102 GB/s (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>34 GB/s (Standard) | 51 GB/s (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''Power Modes''' |<nowiki>7W | 15W | 25W (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>7W | 10W | 25W (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''Dimensions & Connector''' |69.6 mm × 45 mm, 260-pin SO-DIMM (0.028 kg) |69.6 mm × 45 mm, 260-pin SO-DIMM (0.028 kg) |Jetson Carrier Board Spec |} == 3. Core Compute & Memory Architecture == === 3.1 NVIDIA Ampere GPU and Third-Generation Tensor Cores === The NVIDIA Ampere GPU handles the module's parallel computing and graphics work. Its architecture is arranged into Graphics Processing Clusters (GPCs) and Texture Processing Clusters (TPCs) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Each TPC contains two Streaming Multiprocessors (SMs), a PolyMorph Engine for tasks such as vertex fetch and tessellation, two Texture Units, and a Ray Tracing core (<code>RTcore</code>) for accelerating Bounding Volume Hierarchy (BVH) traversal. Each SM is further divided into four processing blocks, with each block having its own instruction buffer, scheduler, and '''128 CUDA cores''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Key architectural advancements in the Jetson Orin Nano Ampere GPU include: * '''Multi-Precision Third-Generation Tensor Cores:''' Accelerates matrix multiplication across '''TensorFloat-32 (<code>TF32</code>)''', '''<code>bfloat16</code>''', '''<code>FP16</code>''', and '''<code>INT8</code>''' data types, where <code>TF32</code> combines the 8-bit exponent range of <code>FP32</code> with the 10-bit mantissa precision of <code>FP16</code> (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Fine-Grained Structured Sparsity:''' Prunes redundant neural network weights to zeros without sacrificing model accuracy, doubling Tensor Core inference throughput up to '''67 INT8 TOPS''' on the 8GB module in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode (Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs). * '''L2 Compute Data Compression:''' Compresses unstructured sparse data and compressible patterns in hardware, delivering up to a '''4× improvement in DRAM read/write bandwidth''', a '''4× improvement in L2 read bandwidth''', and a '''2× increase in effective L2 cache capacity''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Modern Graphics & Compute APIs:''' Supports '''CUDA 11.4+''', '''OpenGL 4.6+''', '''OpenGL ES 3.2''', and '''Vulkan 1.2''' (with conformance tracking maintained via the Khronos Conformance Process), alongside Variable Rate Shading, Mesh Shaders, and Adaptive Scalable Texture Compression (ASTC) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 3.2 Six-Core Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU Complex === The CPU is responsible for general operating-system tasks, application logic, and real-time control loops. The Orin Nano uses a six-core 64-bit Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU complex, arranged in two clusters: '''one quad-core cluster''' and '''one dual-core cluster''' (Arm Cortex-A78AE Technical Reference Manual). It supports the '''Armv8.2-A''' instruction set, along with selected '''Armv8.3-A, Armv8.4-A, and Armv8.5-A''' extensions. Other architectural features include a superscalar out-of-order pipeline, a 1.5K-entry 4-way skewed associative L0 Macro-OP (MOP) cache, and a 40-bit Physical Address (PA) space (Arm Cortex-A78AE Features). To reduce the time the CPU spends waiting for data from main memory, the processor uses a multi-level cache hierarchy (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''L1 Cache:''' '''128 KB per core''', split into a '''64 KB instruction cache (I-cache)''' and a '''64 KB data cache (D-cache)''' backed by 32-entry fully associative L1 TLBs (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''L2 Cache:''' '''256 KB unified, 8-way set-associative cache per core''' with a 4-way set-associative 1024-entry L2 TLB (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Cluster L3 & System Cache:''' '''2 MB L3 cache per cluster''' (4 MB total across both clusters) managed via a Snoop Control Unit (SCU), paired with a '''4 MB shared System Cache''' across all clusters (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 3.3 High-Bandwidth LPDDR5 Memory Subsystem (MSS) === Memory bandwidth matters for edge AI, particularly when running vision transformers or large language models. To support these workloads, the Jetson Orin Nano Memory Subsystem (MSS) uses '''LPDDR5 DRAM''' running at up to '''2133 MHz''' in standard modes and '''3199 MHz''' in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode (Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs). With its 128-bit memory bus, the 8GB module reaches a peak bandwidth of '''102 GB/s''' in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode, compared with '''68 GB/s''' in standard mode. The 4GB module's 64-bit bus provides up to '''51 GB/s''', compared with '''34 GB/s''' in standard mode (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Inside the MSS, data requests pass through the '''MSS Data Backbone''' and '''MSS Hub'''. The hub handles address translation using an '''Arm SMMU-500 System Memory-Management Unit''', while the '''Memory Controller Fabric (MCF)''' connects to the '''Scalable Coherence Fabric (SCF)''' to support I/O coherence (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). The subsystem also includes hardware-backed memory protection through '''TrustZone (TZ)''' secure regions and inline '''128-bit AES-XTS encryption''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). == 4. Vision, Imaging, and Multimedia Pipeline == Camera-based systems often need to capture data from several sensors and process video at the same time. The Jetson Orin Nano Series includes dedicated hardware for many of these tasks, reducing the amount of work that would otherwise fall on the CPU and GPU (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''MIPI CSI-2 Camera Interface (<code>NVCSI 2.0</code> & <code>VI 5.0</code>):''' Implements the fifth-generation NVIDIA camera pipeline over '''8 lanes of MIPI CSI-2 (v3.0 protocol stack)''' using a '''MIPI D-PHY v2.1 physical layer''' rated at up to '''2.5 Gbps per pair''' for '''20 Gbps aggregate bandwidth''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Designers can configure two 4-lane or four 2-lane camera links (supporting up to '''6 active camera streams''' and '''16 Virtual Channels''' via six pixel parsers) across <code>RAW6/7/8/10/12/14/16</code>, <code>RGB</code>, and <code>YUV420</code> formats (Jetson Carrier Board Spec). * '''Image Signal Processor (<code>ISP 6.x</code>):''' Operates at up to '''704 MHz''' (processing 2 pixels per clock, equivalent to approximately '''1408 MPixels/s''') and supports raw Bayer CMOS sensors up to '''10 megapixels''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Hardware ISP blocks execute noise reduction, black-level compensation, lens-shading compensation (up to 30-degree Chief Ray Angle), bad pixel correction, edge enhancement, and global/local tone mapping (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Video Image Compositor (<code>VIC</code>):''' Performs power-efficient 2D image and video post-processing, including high-quality deinterlacing, scaling, rotation, color conversion, '''Temporal Noise Reduction (<code>TNR3</code>)''' with a spatial bilateral filter, and a '''9-point controlled warp patch engine''' for correcting pincushion, barrel, and 180°/360° wide-FOV lens distortion (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Display Controller & Audio Subsystem:''' Drives a single display output supporting '''HDMI 1.4''' (compatible with HDMI 2.1 features), '''DisplayPort 1.2''' (compatible with DP 1.4a and Multi-Stream Transport <code>MST</code> for '''2× 1080p60'''), and '''eDP 1.4''' up to '''3840 × 2160 at 30 Hz (<code>4K30</code>)''' within a '''388 MHz maximum pixel clock (<code>PCLK</code>)''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Audio processing is handled by an Ultra-Low-Power '''Audio Processing Engine (<code>APE</code>)''' built around an '''Arm Cortex-A9 with NEON''' and '''96 KB Audio RAM''' (featuring a 10-in/5-out digital mixer and 12-band parametric equalizer), paired with an industry-standard '''High-Definition Audio (<code>HDA</code>) Rev 1.0a''' controller (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === Multi-Standard Video Decoder (<code>NVDEC</code>) Capabilities === The module handles <code>1080p30</code> video encoding in software using its CPU cores. Video decoding, however, can be offloaded to the hardware '''Multi-Standard Video Decoder (<code>NVDEC</code>)'''. It supports several formats, including <code>H.265 (HEVC)</code>, <code>AV1</code>, <code>VP9</code>, <code>H.264</code>, <code>VP8</code>, <code>MPEG-4</code>, <code>MPEG-2</code>, and <code>VC-1</code> (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" |Video Standard ! align="left" |Supported Profiles ! align="left" |Maximum Concurrent Decode Streams ! align="left" |Peak Throughput (MPix/s) ! align="left" |Max Cumulative Bitrate (Mbps) ! align="left" |Source Reference |- | align="left" |'''H.265 (HEVC)''' | align="left" |Main, Main10 | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K60 | 2× 4K30 | 5× 1080p60 | 11× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |690 MPix/s | align="left" |150 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''H.265 (HEVC)''' | align="left" |Main 444, Main 444 10, MV | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K30 | 2× 1080p60 | 5× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |340 MPix/s | align="left" |100 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''AV1''' | align="left" |Main Profile | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K60 | 2× 4K30 | 5× 1080p60 | 10× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |625 MPix/s | align="left" |75 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''VP9''' | align="left" |Profile 0, Profile 2 | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K60 | 2× 4K30 | 5× 1080p60 | 10× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |625 MPix/s | align="left" |100 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''H.264''' | align="left" |Baseline, Main, High | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K30 | 3× 1080p60 | 7× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |450 MPix/s | align="left" |115 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''H.264''' | align="left" |High 444, High 444 Predictive, MVC | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 1080p60 | 3× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |225 MPix/s | align="left" |100 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |} == 5. High-Speed Storage, Networking, and Embedded I/O == For storage, the Jetson Orin Nano Series Modules use external devices rather than relying on onboard eMMC or microSD storage. A system can boot from, or store data on, an '''NVMe SSD connected over PCIe''' or a '''USB 3.2 storage device''' (Jetson Linux Developer Guide). {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" |Interface Category ! align="left" |Controller & Lane / Port Configuration ! align="left" |Key Signaling & Throughput Specifications ! align="left" |Reference Documentation |- | align="left" |'''PCI Express (PCIe)''' | align="left" |4 Controllers, up to 7 lanes (<code>1×4</code> + <code>3×1</code> or <code>1×2 + 1×1</code>) | align="left" |PCIe Gen3 (8 GT/s per lane, 56 GT/s total); Ctrl #0 (<code>x4</code>) supports Root Port or Endpoint mode | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''USB 3.2 & USB 2.0''' | align="left" |<code>XUSB</code> xHCI controller: up to 3× USB 3.2 + 3× USB 2.0 | align="left" |USB 3.2 Gen2 SuperSpeed+ (10 Gbps; Ports 0 & 1 share an internal 10 Gbps hub); USB 2.0 High-Speed (480 Mbps; Port 0 supports Device & USB Recovery <code>RCM</code>) | align="left" |Jetson Carrier Board Spec |- | align="left" |'''Gigabit Ethernet''' | align="left" |On-module IEEE 802.3ab / 802.3u MAC + PHY | align="left" |10/100/1000 Mbps Base-T MDI interface with dedicated Link (Green) and Activity (Yellow) LED outputs | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Controller Area Network (CAN)''' | align="left" |1× Independent CAN channel (<code>Bosch M_TTCAN v3.2.0</code>) | align="left" |ISO 11898-1:2015 CAN FD up to 15 Mbps; 32 message buffers; wakes within 10 ms (RX) / 50 ms (TX) | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)''' | align="left" |2× Duplex SPI controllers (<code>SPI0</code>, <code>SPI1</code> with 2 CS each) | align="left" |Up to 81.6 MHz in Initiator (Master) mode and 51 MHz in Target (Slave) mode; 64 × 32-bit FIFO | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''UART Serial''' | align="left" |3× UART controllers (<code>UART0</code>, <code>UART1</code>, <code>UART2</code>) | align="left" |16450/16550-compatible; up to 4.25 Mbps baud rate (68 MHz clock); requires 2 stop bits on receiver input | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)''' | align="left" |4× General/Camera I2C controllers | align="left" |Standard (100 kbps), Fast (400 kbps), and Fast-mode Plus (<code>Fm+</code>, 1 Mbit/s); on-module 3.3V/1.8V pull-ups | align="left" |NXP I2C Specification |- | align="left" |'''Digital Audio (I2S)''' | align="left" |2× I2S / PCM ports (<code>I2S0</code>, <code>I2S1</code>) | align="left" |Bidirectional Master/Slave I2S, RJM, LJM, DSP, PCM, and TDM modes at clock rates up to 24.5760 MHz | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''PWM, Fan & GPIO''' | align="left" |4× PWM outputs, Tachometer, 15× Dedicated GPIOs | align="left" |PWM clocks from 38.4 MHz <code>OSC</code> or 408 MHz <code>PLLP</code> (up to 1.6 MHz output); 1.8V CMOS GPIOs with level/edge interrupts | align="left" |Jetson Module Adaptation Guide |- | align="left" |'''Always-On Sensor Engine (<code>SPE</code>)''' | align="left" |<code>Arm Cortex-R5</code> (<code>Armv7-R</code> ISA) in Always-On (<code>AON</code>) block | align="left" |Tightly Coupled Memory (<code>TCM</code>) SRAM and DMA for ultra-low-power sensor monitoring and system wake | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |} == 6. Hardware Security, Power Management, and Environmental Reliability == === 6.1 Platform Security Controller (<code>PSC</code>) and Security Engines (<code>SE</code>) === Security is important for edge devices, especially when they are installed in public places or industrial environments. The Jetson Orin Nano Security Subsystem includes a dedicated '''Platform Security Controller (<code>PSC</code>)''' and two '''NIST-compliant Security Engines (<code>SE</code>)'''. Together, these components help protect the device and manage cryptographic operations (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''Root-of-Trust & Physical Attack Countermeasures:''' The <code>PSC</code> isolates critical cryptographic keys and fuses, manages secure boot authentication and trusted time reporting, and actively monitors clock, voltage, and thermal sensors to detect and mitigate hardware glitching attacks (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Hardware Cryptographic Acceleration:''' Two Security Engines (<code>TZ-SE</code> for TrustZone-only software and <code>NS/TZ-SE</code> for configurable access) provide '''16× AES key slots''' and '''4× RSA/ECC key slots''' with side-channel countermeasures, hardware Key Access Control (KAC), key derivation (KDF), and a hardware random number generator (RNG) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 6.2 Power Rails, Sequencing, and Operating Envelopes === Power is supplied to the module through the '''<code>VDD_IN</code>''' pins (pins 251–260). An internal three-channel INA power monitor measures the combined <code>CPU_GPU_CV</code> rail, the <code>Core</code> rail, and the module's total input power (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''Input Voltage & <code>MODULE_ID</code> Strapping:''' When pin #217 (<code>MODULE_ID</code>) is tied to <code>GND</code> (identifying a legacy/Nano module type), <code>VDD_IN</code> operates at a nominal '''5V''' ('''4.75V to 5.25V''', with an absolute maximum of '''5.5V''' and '''5A <code>IDDMAX</code>''') (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). When <code>MODULE_ID</code> is left floating (advanced/NX mode), <code>VDD_IN</code> supports '''4.75V to 20V''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Real-Time Clock Backup (<code>PMIC_BBAT</code>):''' Pin #235 accepts a non-rechargeable lithium coin cell ('''1.85V to 5.5V'''), drawing just '''12 to 50 μA''' during power-off backup while maintaining RTC accuracy within '''-11 to +20 seconds/day''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Strict Power Up/Down Sequencing:''' During boot, the carrier board asserts <code>POWER_EN</code> high once <code>VDD_IN</code> stabilizes, and must keep all carrier I/O pins at or below '''0.5V''' until the module deasserts <code>SYS_RESET*</code> (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). During power down (triggered by hardware, software, or thermal limits via <code>SHUTDOWN_REQ*</code>), the carrier board deasserts <code>POWER_EN</code>, the module asserts <code>SYS_RESET*</code>, and 3.3V / 1.8V I/O rails must discharge to '''≤0.5V within 1.5 ms and 4 ms''', respectively (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Low-Power Sleep (<code>SC7</code>):''' The Power Management Controller (<code>PMC</code>) transitions the SoC between <code>ON</code>, <code>OFF</code>, and <code>SLEEP</code> (including <code>SC7</code> deep sleep, where Multi-Purpose I/O pads enter Deep Power Down <code>DPD</code> while maintaining logic states or listening for wake events from USB VBUS, thermal thresholds, or wake pins) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 6.3 Thermal Design and Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) === The module is designed for '''5 years of continuous 24×7 operation''', with an operating junction temperature range (<code>TJ</code>) of '''-25°C to 105°C'''. It is also tested under several environmental conditions, including '''85°C / 85% RH biased humidity''' (<code>JESD22-A101</code>), '''-40°C to 105°C temperature cycling''' (<code>JESD22-A104</code>), '''50G operational mechanical shock''' (<code>IEC 60068-2-27</code>), and '''1G operational random vibration''' (<code>IEC 60068-2-64</code>) (Thermal Design Guide). The data sheet estimates Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) using '''Telcordia SR-332 Issue 4 (Parts Count Method 1, 90% UCL, Quality Level II)'''. The figures below show the estimates for different operating modes and environmental conditions (Jetson Orin Nano Series Data Sheet v1.7): {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" |Module Variant & Operating Mode ! align="left" |Controlled Environment (<code>GB</code>, 35°C) ! align="left" |Controlled Environment (<code>GB</code>, 50°C) ! align="left" |Uncontrolled Environment (<code>GF</code>, 35°C) ! align="left" |Uncontrolled Environment (<code>GF</code>, 50°C) ! align="left" |Source Reference |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 8GB (Original Modes: 7W/15W)''' | align="left" |3,911,708 hours | align="left" |2,107,458 hours | align="left" |2,888,137 hours | align="left" |1,468,031 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 8GB (<code>MAXN_SUPER</code>: 25W)''' | align="left" |2,264,808 hours | align="left" |1,568,844 hours | align="left" |1,900,096 hours | align="left" |1,199,042 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 4GB (Original Modes: 7W/10W)''' | align="left" |4,558,489 hours | align="left" |2,250,633 hours | align="left" |3,210,552 hours | align="left" |1,535,375 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 4GB (<code>MAXN_SUPER</code>: 25W)''' | align="left" |2,427,311 hours | align="left" |1,643,362 hours | align="left" |2,016,380 hours | align="left" |1,242,796 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |} == 7. Real-World Edge AI Applications == The hardware is only one part of the platform. The Jetson Orin Nano Series also works with the NVIDIA JetPack and Jetson Linux software stack, making it suitable for several types of edge AI projects. Three examples are: * '''Generative AI at the Edge:''' The 8GB module offers '''102 GB/s of LPDDR5 bandwidth''' and up to '''67 INT8 TOPS''' in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode. This can be useful for running quantized Small Language Models (SLMs), Vision-Language Models (VLMs), and transformer-based perception models locally, without depending on a cloud connection for inference (Jetson Orin Nano Super Developer Kit). * '''Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) and Drones:''' The available interfaces are useful in robotics projects. For example, '''8-lane MIPI CSI-2''' can connect camera systems used for stereo depth and visual SLAM, '''PCIe Gen3''' can support high-speed LiDAR or Wi-Fi 6E/5G modules, and '''Bosch M_TTCAN FD''' can be used with motor controllers. The '''Always-On Cortex-R5 SPE''' also supports sensor-related tasks (Jetson Orin Robotics Platform). * '''Smart City & Industrial Vision Analytics:''' The hardware '''NVDEC engine''' can decode up to '''11 concurrent 1080p30 H.265 streams''' or '''10 concurrent AV1/VP9 streams'''. Combined with the '''VIC distortion-correction engine''', this can support applications such as manufacturing-line inspection and multi-camera monitoring in retail spaces or at traffic intersections (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). == 8. References == # '''NVIDIA Corporation (February 2026).''' ''NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Series Modules Data Sheet (Ampere GPU + Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU + LPDDR5)'', Document <code>DS-11105-001_v1.7</code>. Available at the NVIDIA Jetson Download Center. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2026).''' ''NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Super Developer Kit — Product Specifications & Generative AI Overview''. Available at NVIDIA Embedded Systems — Jetson Orin Nano Super. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2026).''' ''Jetson Orin Nano Developer Kit User Guide & Quick Start Documentation''. Available at NVIDIA Docs Hub — Orin Nano Developer Kit User Guide. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2023).''' ''Jetson Orin Nano Developer Kit Carrier Board Specification''. Available at NVIDIA Developer Carrier Board PDF. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2023).''' ''Jetson Orin NX Series and Jetson Orin Nano Series Modules Thermal Design Guide''. Available at NVIDIA Developer Thermal Design Guide. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2025).''' ''Jetson Orin NX Series and Jetson Orin Nano Series Tuning and Compliance Guide''. Available at NVIDIA Developer Tuning and Compliance Guide. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2026).''' ''NVIDIA Jetson Linux Developer Guide (L4T Development Guide)''. Available at NVIDIA Jetson Linux Developer Guide. # '''Arm Limited (2023).''' ''Arm Cortex-A78AE Core Technical Reference Manual & Processor Architecture Specification''. Available at Arm Product Overview — Cortex-A78AE and Arm Support Documentation. # '''MIPI Alliance (2026).''' ''MIPI Camera Serial Interface 2 (MIPI CSI-2) and MIPI D-PHY Physical Layer Specifications''. Available at MIPI CSI-2 Specification and MIPI D-PHY Specification. # '''Khronos Group (2026).''' ''Khronos API Conformance Process (Vulkan 1.2, OpenGL 4.6, OpenGL ES 3.2)''. Available at Khronos Conformance Portal. # '''NXP Semiconductors / I2C Info (2026).''' ''Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) Bus Specification''. Available at I2C Bus Specification. # '''Wikimedia Foundation (2026).''' ''Using Wikibooks: Editing and Structuring Open-Content Textbooks''. Available at [[Using Wikibooks|Using Wikibooks Guide]]. lz89hxxkvesunqko8kie1seyvyk81vg 4681619 4681618 2026-11-11T13:59:42Z User-jagan 3629883 minor changes 4681619 wikitext text/x-wiki = NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano: A Closer Look at Edge AI Hardware = == 1. Introduction: A Compact Platform for Edge AI == Robots, autonomous vehicles, and smart cameras often need to process AI workloads locally rather than send every bit of data to the cloud. This is where the NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Series comes in. It brings an NVIDIA Orin System-on-Chip (SoC) onto a compact System-on-Module (SOM) measuring '''69.6 mm × 45 mm''' and weighing '''0.028 kg (28 grams)''' (Jetson Download Center). The module uses a '''260-pin SO-DIMM connector''' and combines an NVIDIA Ampere architecture GPU, a six-core 64-bit Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU complex, high-speed '''LPDDR5 DRAM''', and dedicated multimedia and sensor accelerators (Jetson Orin Nano User Guide). A major update to the series is the <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> operating profile, introduced in revisions v1.5–v1.7 of the Jetson Orin Nano Series Data Sheet and supported by the Jetson Orin Nano Super Developer Kit. It uses software-enabled clock and power scaling to increase sparse 8-bit integer (<code>INT8</code>) performance by nearly 1.7×. In this mode, the 8GB module can reach '''67 INT8 TOPS''', while the 4GB module can reach '''34 INT8 TOPS''', within a '''25W''' power envelope. Along with its range of I/O interfaces and compact size, this makes the Orin Nano a useful option for running AI applications directly on embedded devices (NVIDIA Embedded Systems). == 2. Module Variants: Jetson Orin Nano 8GB vs. 4GB == The NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Series is available in two module configurations: '''Jetson Orin Nano 8GB''' and '''Jetson Orin Nano 4GB'''. The main differences are memory capacity, memory bandwidth, and AI compute performance, so the choice depends on the size of the workload and the system's power requirements (Jetson Download Center). {| class="wikitable" !Specification !Jetson Orin Nano 8GB !Jetson Orin Nano 4GB !Primary Technical Reference |- |'''AI Performance (Sparse INT8)''' |<nowiki>40 TOPS (Standard) | 67 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>20 TOPS (Standard) | 34 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''AI Performance (Dense INT8)''' |<nowiki>20 TOPS (Standard) | 33 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>10 TOPS (Standard) | 17 TOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''GPU Architecture & Cores''' |Ampere GPU: 1024 CUDA Cores, 32 Tensor Cores |Ampere GPU: 512 CUDA Cores, 16 Tensor Cores |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''GPU Max Frequency''' |<nowiki>625 MHz (Standard) | 1020 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>625 MHz (Standard) | 1020 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''FP32 Compute Throughput''' |<nowiki>1.28 TFLOPS | 2.08 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>0.64 TFLOPS | 1.04 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''FP16 Compute Throughput''' |<nowiki>2.56 TFLOPS | 4.16 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>1.28 TFLOPS | 2.08 TFLOPS (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''CPU Complex''' |6-core Arm Cortex-A78AE (1×4-core + 1×2-core) |6-core Arm Cortex-A78AE (1×4-core + 1×2-core) |Arm Cortex-A78AE Overview |- |'''CPU Max Frequency & Spec_Int''' |<nowiki>1.5 GHz (106) | 1.7 GHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>, 118) |<nowiki>1.5 GHz (106) | 1.7 GHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>, 118) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''System Memory (DRAM)''' |8 GB 128-bit LPDDR5 |4 GB 64-bit LPDDR5 |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''Memory Clock Frequency''' |<nowiki>2133 MHz (Standard) | 3199 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>2133 MHz (Standard) | 3199 MHz (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''Peak Memory Bandwidth''' |<nowiki>68 GB/s (Standard) | 102 GB/s (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>34 GB/s (Standard) | 51 GB/s (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs |- |'''Power Modes''' |<nowiki>7W | 15W | 25W (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |<nowiki>7W | 10W | 25W (</nowiki><code>MAXN_SUPER</code>) |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- |'''Dimensions & Connector''' |69.6 mm × 45 mm, 260-pin SO-DIMM (0.028 kg) |69.6 mm × 45 mm, 260-pin SO-DIMM (0.028 kg) |Jetson Carrier Board Spec |} == 3. Core Compute & Memory Architecture == === 3.1 NVIDIA Ampere GPU and Third-Generation Tensor Cores === The NVIDIA Ampere GPU handles the module's parallel computing and graphics work. Its architecture is arranged into Graphics Processing Clusters (GPCs) and Texture Processing Clusters (TPCs) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Each TPC contains two Streaming Multiprocessors (SMs), a PolyMorph Engine for tasks such as vertex fetch and tessellation, two Texture Units, and a Ray Tracing core (<code>RTcore</code>) for accelerating Bounding Volume Hierarchy (BVH) traversal. Each SM is further divided into four processing blocks, with each block having its own instruction buffer, scheduler, and '''128 CUDA cores''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Key architectural advancements in the Jetson Orin Nano Ampere GPU include: * '''Multi-Precision Third-Generation Tensor Cores:''' Accelerates matrix multiplication across '''TensorFloat-32 (<code>TF32</code>)''', '''<code>bfloat16</code>''', '''<code>FP16</code>''', and '''<code>INT8</code>''' data types, where <code>TF32</code> combines the 8-bit exponent range of <code>FP32</code> with the 10-bit mantissa precision of <code>FP16</code> (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Fine-Grained Structured Sparsity:''' Prunes redundant neural network weights to zeros without sacrificing model accuracy, doubling Tensor Core inference throughput up to '''67 INT8 TOPS''' on the 8GB module in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode (Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs). * '''L2 Compute Data Compression:''' Compresses unstructured sparse data and compressible patterns in hardware, delivering up to a '''4× improvement in DRAM read/write bandwidth''', a '''4× improvement in L2 read bandwidth''', and a '''2× increase in effective L2 cache capacity''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Modern Graphics & Compute APIs:''' Supports '''CUDA 11.4+''', '''OpenGL 4.6+''', '''OpenGL ES 3.2''', and '''Vulkan 1.2''' (with conformance tracking maintained via the Khronos Conformance Process), alongside Variable Rate Shading, Mesh Shaders, and Adaptive Scalable Texture Compression (ASTC) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 3.2 Six-Core Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU Complex === The CPU is responsible for general operating-system tasks, application logic, and real-time control loops. The Orin Nano uses a six-core 64-bit Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU complex, arranged in two clusters: '''one quad-core cluster''' and '''one dual-core cluster''' (Arm Cortex-A78AE Technical Reference Manual). It supports the '''Armv8.2-A''' instruction set, along with selected '''Armv8.3-A, Armv8.4-A, and Armv8.5-A''' extensions. Other architectural features include a superscalar out-of-order pipeline, a 1.5K-entry 4-way skewed associative L0 Macro-OP (MOP) cache, and a 40-bit Physical Address (PA) space (Arm Cortex-A78AE Features). To reduce the time the CPU spends waiting for data from main memory, the processor uses a multi-level cache hierarchy (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''L1 Cache:''' '''128 KB per core''', split into a '''64 KB instruction cache (I-cache)''' and a '''64 KB data cache (D-cache)''' backed by 32-entry fully associative L1 TLBs (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''L2 Cache:''' '''256 KB unified, 8-way set-associative cache per core''' with a 4-way set-associative 1024-entry L2 TLB (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Cluster L3 & System Cache:''' '''2 MB L3 cache per cluster''' (4 MB total across both clusters) managed via a Snoop Control Unit (SCU), paired with a '''4 MB shared System Cache''' across all clusters (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 3.3 High-Bandwidth LPDDR5 Memory Subsystem (MSS) === Memory bandwidth matters for edge AI, particularly when running vision transformers or large language models. To support these workloads, the Jetson Orin Nano Memory Subsystem (MSS) uses '''LPDDR5 DRAM''' running at up to '''2133 MHz''' in standard modes and '''3199 MHz''' in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode (Jetson Orin Nano Super Specs). With its 128-bit memory bus, the 8GB module reaches a peak bandwidth of '''102 GB/s''' in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode, compared with '''68 GB/s''' in standard mode. The 4GB module's 64-bit bus provides up to '''51 GB/s''', compared with '''34 GB/s''' in standard mode (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Inside the MSS, data requests pass through the '''MSS Data Backbone''' and '''MSS Hub'''. The hub handles address translation using an '''Arm SMMU-500 System Memory-Management Unit''', while the '''Memory Controller Fabric (MCF)''' connects to the '''Scalable Coherence Fabric (SCF)''' to support I/O coherence (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). The subsystem also includes hardware-backed memory protection through '''TrustZone (TZ)''' secure regions and inline '''128-bit AES-XTS encryption''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). == 4. Vision, Imaging, and Multimedia Pipeline == Camera-based systems often need to capture data from several sensors and process video at the same time. The Jetson Orin Nano Series includes dedicated hardware for many of these tasks, reducing the amount of work that would otherwise fall on the CPU and GPU (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''MIPI CSI-2 Camera Interface (<code>NVCSI 2.0</code> & <code>VI 5.0</code>):''' Implements the fifth-generation NVIDIA camera pipeline over '''8 lanes of MIPI CSI-2 (v3.0 protocol stack)''' using a '''MIPI D-PHY v2.1 physical layer''' rated at up to '''2.5 Gbps per pair''' for '''20 Gbps aggregate bandwidth''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Designers can configure two 4-lane or four 2-lane camera links (supporting up to '''6 active camera streams''' and '''16 Virtual Channels''' via six pixel parsers) across <code>RAW6/7/8/10/12/14/16</code>, <code>RGB</code>, and <code>YUV420</code> formats (Jetson Carrier Board Spec). * '''Image Signal Processor (<code>ISP 6.x</code>):''' Operates at up to '''704 MHz''' (processing 2 pixels per clock, equivalent to approximately '''1408 MPixels/s''') and supports raw Bayer CMOS sensors up to '''10 megapixels''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Hardware ISP blocks execute noise reduction, black-level compensation, lens-shading compensation (up to 30-degree Chief Ray Angle), bad pixel correction, edge enhancement, and global/local tone mapping (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Video Image Compositor (<code>VIC</code>):''' Performs power-efficient 2D image and video post-processing, including high-quality deinterlacing, scaling, rotation, color conversion, '''Temporal Noise Reduction (<code>TNR3</code>)''' with a spatial bilateral filter, and a '''9-point controlled warp patch engine''' for correcting pincushion, barrel, and 180°/360° wide-FOV lens distortion (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Display Controller & Audio Subsystem:''' Drives a single display output supporting '''HDMI 1.4''' (compatible with HDMI 2.1 features), '''DisplayPort 1.2''' (compatible with DP 1.4a and Multi-Stream Transport <code>MST</code> for '''2× 1080p60'''), and '''eDP 1.4''' up to '''3840 × 2160 at 30 Hz (<code>4K30</code>)''' within a '''388 MHz maximum pixel clock (<code>PCLK</code>)''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). Audio processing is handled by an Ultra-Low-Power '''Audio Processing Engine (<code>APE</code>)''' built around an '''Arm Cortex-A9 with NEON''' and '''96 KB Audio RAM''' (featuring a 10-in/5-out digital mixer and 12-band parametric equalizer), paired with an industry-standard '''High-Definition Audio (<code>HDA</code>) Rev 1.0a''' controller (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === Multi-Standard Video Decoder (<code>NVDEC</code>) Capabilities === The module handles <code>1080p30</code> video encoding in software using its CPU cores. Video decoding, however, can be offloaded to the hardware '''Multi-Standard Video Decoder (<code>NVDEC</code>)'''. It supports several formats, including <code>H.265 (HEVC)</code>, <code>AV1</code>, <code>VP9</code>, <code>H.264</code>, <code>VP8</code>, <code>MPEG-4</code>, <code>MPEG-2</code>, and <code>VC-1</code> (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" |Video Standard ! align="left" |Supported Profiles ! align="left" |Maximum Concurrent Decode Streams ! align="left" |Peak Throughput (MPix/s) ! align="left" |Max Cumulative Bitrate (Mbps) ! align="left" |Source Reference |- | align="left" |'''H.265 (HEVC)''' | align="left" |Main, Main10 | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K60 | 2× 4K30 | 5× 1080p60 | 11× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |690 MPix/s | align="left" |150 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''H.265 (HEVC)''' | align="left" |Main 444, Main 444 10, MV | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K30 | 2× 1080p60 | 5× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |340 MPix/s | align="left" |100 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''AV1''' | align="left" |Main Profile | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K60 | 2× 4K30 | 5× 1080p60 | 10× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |625 MPix/s | align="left" |75 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''VP9''' | align="left" |Profile 0, Profile 2 | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K60 | 2× 4K30 | 5× 1080p60 | 10× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |625 MPix/s | align="left" |100 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''H.264''' | align="left" |Baseline, Main, High | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 4K30 | 3× 1080p60 | 7× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |450 MPix/s | align="left" |115 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''H.264''' | align="left" |High 444, High 444 Predictive, MVC | align="left" |<nowiki>1× 1080p60 | 3× 1080p30</nowiki> | align="left" |225 MPix/s | align="left" |100 Mbps | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |} == 5. High-Speed Storage, Networking, and Embedded I/O == For storage, the Jetson Orin Nano Series Modules use external devices rather than relying on onboard eMMC or microSD storage. A system can boot from, or store data on, an '''NVMe SSD connected over PCIe''' or a '''USB 3.2 storage device''' (Jetson Linux Developer Guide). {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" |Interface Category ! align="left" |Controller & Lane / Port Configuration ! align="left" |Key Signaling & Throughput Specifications ! align="left" |Reference Documentation |- | align="left" |'''PCI Express (PCIe)''' | align="left" |4 Controllers, up to 7 lanes (<code>1×4</code> + <code>3×1</code> or <code>1×2 + 1×1</code>) | align="left" |PCIe Gen3 (8 GT/s per lane, 56 GT/s total); Ctrl #0 (<code>x4</code>) supports Root Port or Endpoint mode | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''USB 3.2 & USB 2.0''' | align="left" |<code>XUSB</code> xHCI controller: up to 3× USB 3.2 + 3× USB 2.0 | align="left" |USB 3.2 Gen2 SuperSpeed+ (10 Gbps; Ports 0 & 1 share an internal 10 Gbps hub); USB 2.0 High-Speed (480 Mbps; Port 0 supports Device & USB Recovery <code>RCM</code>) | align="left" |Jetson Carrier Board Spec |- | align="left" |'''Gigabit Ethernet''' | align="left" |On-module IEEE 802.3ab / 802.3u MAC + PHY | align="left" |10/100/1000 Mbps Base-T MDI interface with dedicated Link (Green) and Activity (Yellow) LED outputs | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Controller Area Network (CAN)''' | align="left" |1× Independent CAN channel (<code>Bosch M_TTCAN v3.2.0</code>) | align="left" |ISO 11898-1:2015 CAN FD up to 15 Mbps; 32 message buffers; wakes within 10 ms (RX) / 50 ms (TX) | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)''' | align="left" |2× Duplex SPI controllers (<code>SPI0</code>, <code>SPI1</code> with 2 CS each) | align="left" |Up to 81.6 MHz in Initiator (Master) mode and 51 MHz in Target (Slave) mode; 64 × 32-bit FIFO | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''UART Serial''' | align="left" |3× UART controllers (<code>UART0</code>, <code>UART1</code>, <code>UART2</code>) | align="left" |16450/16550-compatible; up to 4.25 Mbps baud rate (68 MHz clock); requires 2 stop bits on receiver input | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)''' | align="left" |4× General/Camera I2C controllers | align="left" |Standard (100 kbps), Fast (400 kbps), and Fast-mode Plus (<code>Fm+</code>, 1 Mbit/s); on-module 3.3V/1.8V pull-ups | align="left" |NXP I2C Specification |- | align="left" |'''Digital Audio (I2S)''' | align="left" |2× I2S / PCM ports (<code>I2S0</code>, <code>I2S1</code>) | align="left" |Bidirectional Master/Slave I2S, RJM, LJM, DSP, PCM, and TDM modes at clock rates up to 24.5760 MHz | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''PWM, Fan & GPIO''' | align="left" |4× PWM outputs, Tachometer, 15× Dedicated GPIOs | align="left" |PWM clocks from 38.4 MHz <code>OSC</code> or 408 MHz <code>PLLP</code> (up to 1.6 MHz output); 1.8V CMOS GPIOs with level/edge interrupts | align="left" |Jetson Module Adaptation Guide |- | align="left" |'''Always-On Sensor Engine (<code>SPE</code>)''' | align="left" |<code>Arm Cortex-R5</code> (<code>Armv7-R</code> ISA) in Always-On (<code>AON</code>) block | align="left" |Tightly Coupled Memory (<code>TCM</code>) SRAM and DMA for ultra-low-power sensor monitoring and system wake | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |} == 6. Hardware Security, Power Management, and Environmental Reliability == === 6.1 Platform Security Controller (<code>PSC</code>) and Security Engines (<code>SE</code>) === Security is important for edge devices, especially when they are installed in public places or industrial environments. The Jetson Orin Nano Security Subsystem includes a dedicated '''Platform Security Controller (<code>PSC</code>)''' and two '''NIST-compliant Security Engines (<code>SE</code>)'''. Together, these components help protect the device and manage cryptographic operations (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''Root-of-Trust & Physical Attack Countermeasures:''' The <code>PSC</code> isolates critical cryptographic keys and fuses, manages secure boot authentication and trusted time reporting, and actively monitors clock, voltage, and thermal sensors to detect and mitigate hardware glitching attacks (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Hardware Cryptographic Acceleration:''' Two Security Engines (<code>TZ-SE</code> for TrustZone-only software and <code>NS/TZ-SE</code> for configurable access) provide '''16× AES key slots''' and '''4× RSA/ECC key slots''' with side-channel countermeasures, hardware Key Access Control (KAC), key derivation (KDF), and a hardware random number generator (RNG) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 6.2 Power Rails, Sequencing, and Operating Envelopes === Power is supplied to the module through the '''<code>VDD_IN</code>''' pins (pins 251–260). An internal three-channel INA power monitor measures the combined <code>CPU_GPU_CV</code> rail, the <code>Core</code> rail, and the module's total input power (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7): * '''Input Voltage & <code>MODULE_ID</code> Strapping:''' When pin #217 (<code>MODULE_ID</code>) is tied to <code>GND</code> (identifying a legacy/Nano module type), <code>VDD_IN</code> operates at a nominal '''5V''' ('''4.75V to 5.25V''', with an absolute maximum of '''5.5V''' and '''5A <code>IDDMAX</code>''') (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). When <code>MODULE_ID</code> is left floating (advanced/NX mode), <code>VDD_IN</code> supports '''4.75V to 20V''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Real-Time Clock Backup (<code>PMIC_BBAT</code>):''' Pin #235 accepts a non-rechargeable lithium coin cell ('''1.85V to 5.5V'''), drawing just '''12 to 50 μA''' during power-off backup while maintaining RTC accuracy within '''-11 to +20 seconds/day''' (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Strict Power Up/Down Sequencing:''' During boot, the carrier board asserts <code>POWER_EN</code> high once <code>VDD_IN</code> stabilizes, and must keep all carrier I/O pins at or below '''0.5V''' until the module deasserts <code>SYS_RESET*</code> (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). During power down (triggered by hardware, software, or thermal limits via <code>SHUTDOWN_REQ*</code>), the carrier board deasserts <code>POWER_EN</code>, the module asserts <code>SYS_RESET*</code>, and 3.3V / 1.8V I/O rails must discharge to '''≤0.5V within 1.5 ms and 4 ms''', respectively (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). * '''Low-Power Sleep (<code>SC7</code>):''' The Power Management Controller (<code>PMC</code>) transitions the SoC between <code>ON</code>, <code>OFF</code>, and <code>SLEEP</code> (including <code>SC7</code> deep sleep, where Multi-Purpose I/O pads enter Deep Power Down <code>DPD</code> while maintaining logic states or listening for wake events from USB VBUS, thermal thresholds, or wake pins) (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). === 6.3 Thermal Design and Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) === The module is designed for '''5 years of continuous 24×7 operation''', with an operating junction temperature range (<code>TJ</code>) of '''-25°C to 105°C'''. It is also tested under several environmental conditions, including '''85°C / 85% RH biased humidity''' (<code>JESD22-A101</code>), '''-40°C to 105°C temperature cycling''' (<code>JESD22-A104</code>), '''50G operational mechanical shock''' (<code>IEC 60068-2-27</code>), and '''1G operational random vibration''' (<code>IEC 60068-2-64</code>) (Thermal Design Guide). The data sheet estimates Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) using '''Telcordia SR-332 Issue 4 (Parts Count Method 1, 90% UCL, Quality Level II)'''. The figures below show the estimates for different operating modes and environmental conditions (Jetson Orin Nano Series Data Sheet v1.7): {| class="wikitable" ! align="left" |Module Variant & Operating Mode ! align="left" |Controlled Environment (<code>GB</code>, 35°C) ! align="left" |Controlled Environment (<code>GB</code>, 50°C) ! align="left" |Uncontrolled Environment (<code>GF</code>, 35°C) ! align="left" |Uncontrolled Environment (<code>GF</code>, 50°C) ! align="left" |Source Reference |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 8GB (Original Modes: 7W/15W)''' | align="left" |3,911,708 hours | align="left" |2,107,458 hours | align="left" |2,888,137 hours | align="left" |1,468,031 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 8GB (<code>MAXN_SUPER</code>: 25W)''' | align="left" |2,264,808 hours | align="left" |1,568,844 hours | align="left" |1,900,096 hours | align="left" |1,199,042 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 4GB (Original Modes: 7W/10W)''' | align="left" |4,558,489 hours | align="left" |2,250,633 hours | align="left" |3,210,552 hours | align="left" |1,535,375 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |- | align="left" |'''Orin Nano 4GB (<code>MAXN_SUPER</code>: 25W)''' | align="left" |2,427,311 hours | align="left" |1,643,362 hours | align="left" |2,016,380 hours | align="left" |1,242,796 hours | align="left" |Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7 |} == 7. Real-World Edge AI Applications == The hardware is only one part of the platform. The Jetson Orin Nano Series also works with the NVIDIA JetPack and Jetson Linux software stack, making it suitable for several types of edge AI projects. Three examples are: * '''Generative AI at the Edge:''' The 8GB module offers '''102 GB/s of LPDDR5 bandwidth''' and up to '''67 INT8 TOPS''' in <code>MAXN_SUPER</code> mode. This can be useful for running quantized Small Language Models (SLMs), Vision-Language Models (VLMs), and transformer-based perception models locally, without depending on a cloud connection for inference (Jetson Orin Nano Super Developer Kit). * '''Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) and Drones:''' The available interfaces are useful in robotics projects. For example, '''8-lane MIPI CSI-2''' can connect camera systems used for stereo depth and visual SLAM, '''PCIe Gen3''' can support high-speed LiDAR or Wi-Fi 6E/5G modules, and '''Bosch M_TTCAN FD''' can be used with motor controllers. The '''Always-On Cortex-R5 SPE''' also supports sensor-related tasks (Jetson Orin Robotics Platform). * '''Smart City & Industrial Vision Analytics:''' The hardware '''NVDEC engine''' can decode up to '''11 concurrent 1080p30 H.265 streams''' or '''10 concurrent AV1/VP9 streams'''. Combined with the '''VIC distortion-correction engine''', this can support applications such as manufacturing-line inspection and multi-camera monitoring in retail spaces or at traffic intersections (Jetson Module Data Sheet v1.7). == 8. References == # '''NVIDIA Corporation (February 2026).''' ''NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Series Modules Data Sheet (Ampere GPU + Arm Cortex-A78AE CPU + LPDDR5)'', Document <code>DS-11105-001_v1.7</code>. Available at the NVIDIA Jetson Download Center. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2026).''' ''NVIDIA Jetson Orin Nano Super Developer Kit — Product Specifications & Generative AI Overview''. Available at NVIDIA Embedded Systems — Jetson Orin Nano Super. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2026).''' ''Jetson Orin Nano Developer Kit User Guide & Quick Start Documentation''. Available at NVIDIA Docs Hub — Orin Nano Developer Kit User Guide. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2023).''' ''Jetson Orin Nano Developer Kit Carrier Board Specification''. Available at NVIDIA Developer Carrier Board PDF. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2023).''' ''Jetson Orin NX Series and Jetson Orin Nano Series Modules Thermal Design Guide''. Available at NVIDIA Developer Thermal Design Guide. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2025).''' ''Jetson Orin NX Series and Jetson Orin Nano Series Tuning and Compliance Guide''. Available at NVIDIA Developer Tuning and Compliance Guide. # '''NVIDIA Corporation (2026).''' ''NVIDIA Jetson Linux Developer Guide (L4T Development Guide)''. Available at NVIDIA Jetson Linux Developer Guide. # '''Arm Limited (2023).''' ''Arm Cortex-A78AE Core Technical Reference Manual & Processor Architecture Specification''. Available at Arm Product Overview — Cortex-A78AE and Arm Support Documentation. # '''MIPI Alliance (2026).''' ''MIPI Camera Serial Interface 2 (MIPI CSI-2) and MIPI D-PHY Physical Layer Specifications''. Available at MIPI CSI-2 Specification and MIPI D-PHY Specification. # '''Khronos Group (2026).''' ''Khronos API Conformance Process (Vulkan 1.2, OpenGL 4.6, OpenGL ES 3.2)''. Available at Khronos Conformance Portal. # '''NXP Semiconductors / I2C Info (2026).''' ''Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C) Bus Specification''. Available at I2C Bus Specification. cjkp63ck4nz1upb9ou0ijgxbrgc4q9w 2 486988 4681630 4681173 2026-11-11T15:03:25Z BHARGAV SEELAM 3630459 4681630 wikitext text/x-wiki = Chapter: 5G Technology = == 1. Introduction == Communication technology has become an important part of our daily lives. We use it for making phone calls, sending messages, attending online classes, watching videos and sharing information. Over the years, mobile communication has developed through different generations, starting ,with 1G and progressing to 5G. 5G stands for Fifth Generation of Mobile Network Technology. It is designed to provide faster data communication, reduce network delays and support a large number of connected devices. Unlike earlier generations, which mainly focused on improving voice calls and mobile internet, 5G also supports smart machines, connected vehicles, medical equipment and industrial applications. The development of 5G is closely related to the progress of analog and digital communication. It uses radio waves to transmit information, while digital signal processing techniques help convert, process and receive the information efficiently. == 2. What Is 5G Technology? == 5G is the fifth generation of wireless mobile communication technology. It allows users to access the internet with higher data speeds, lower latency and improved network performance. The main purpose of 5G is to make wireless communication faster and more efficient. It also supports the Internet of Things (IoT), in which different devices communicate and exchange information through the internet. [[File:04 11 2021 Leilão 5G (51655543910).jpg|thumb]] For example, a person can control smart home appliances such as lights, fans and security systems using a mobile phone. Similarly, industries can connect machines and sensors to monitor their operations. 5G is not limited to smartphones. It is designed to support many types of devices that need wireless communication. == 3. Evolution of Mobile Network Technologies == Mobile communication has developed gradually to meet the increasing demand for better communication and internet services. === 3.1 First Generation (1G) === 1G was the first generation of mobile communication. It used analog signals to transmit voice information. Its main purpose was to provide wireless voice calls. However, 1G had limited voice quality, low security and no support for modern data services. === 3.2 Second Generation (2G) === 2G introduced digital communication in mobile networks. It improved voice quality and provided better security compared with 1G. It also introduced services such as SMS and basic mobile data. === 3.3 Third Generation (3G) === 3G improved mobile internet services. Users could browse websites, send emails and make video calls. It made mobile communication more useful for accessing online information. === 3.4 Fourth Generation (4G) === 4G introduced high-speed mobile broadband. It made services such as online video streaming, video calling and online gaming more convenient. LTE became an important technology used in 4G networks. === 3.5 Fifth Generation (5G) === 5G is the latest generation in this development. It provides higher potential data speeds, lower latency and greater network capacity. It also supports applications such as smart cities, industrial automation and connected vehicles. == 4. Key Features of 5G Technology == === 4.1 High Data Speed === 5G is designed to provide higher data speeds than earlier mobile network generations. It allows users to download files, watch high-quality videos and access online services more quickly. === 4.2 Low Latency === Latency refers to the time taken for information to travel from one point to another. 5G is designed to reduce this delay. Low latency is especially useful in applications that require quick responses, such as industrial control and connected transportation. === 4.3 Large Network Capacity === 5G can support a large number of connected devices in a particular area. This is useful in places where many people and machines need network access at the same time. === 4.4 Improved Connectivity === It supports communication between smartphones, computers, sensors, machines and other smart devices. This makes it useful for IoT applications. === 4.5 Network Reliability === 5G can support applications that require stable communication. The actual reliability depends on the network design, coverage and service configuration. == 5. Working Principle of 5G Technology == 5G works through wireless communication between mobile devices and cellular base stations. It uses radio waves to transfer information from one place to another. The working process can be explained in the following steps: # A user sends a request using a 5G-enabled mobile phone. # The mobile phone converts the information into a digital signal for transmission. # The transmitter processes and converts the signal into radio-frequency form. # The antenna sends the radio signal to a nearby 5G base station. # The base station transfers the information through the mobile network. # [[File:Modulation categorization.svg|thumb]]The network connects to the internet or the required service. # The requested information is transmitted back to the mobile phone. This process allows users to communicate, browse the internet and access different online services. == 6. Relationship Between Analog Communication and 5G Technology == Analog communication is one of the basic concepts in communication engineering. It is a method of transmitting information using continuously varying signals. In analog communication, information such as voice or sound is represented by an electrical signal that changes continuously with time. This signal is transmitted through a communication channel to the receiver. For example, when a person speaks into a microphone, the microphone converts the sound into an electrical signal. === 6.1 Analog Signals in Communication === An analog signal has continuously changing values. It can represent information such as sound, temperature and other physical quantities. Some important characteristics of analog signals are: * Amplitude: The strength or height of the signal. * Frequency: The number of cycles completed in one second. * Phase: The position of a waveform at a particular time. === 6.2 Role of Analog Communication in 5G === Although 5G mainly uses digital communication, analog technology is still important in its operation. The wireless signal transmitted through the air is an electromagnetic wave. The radio-frequency circuits and antennas handle these physical signals. For example, a 5G mobile phone uses radio-frequency components to transmit and receive signals through the antenna. These components perform operations such as signal amplification, filtering and frequency conversion. Therefore, analog circuits remain an important part of modern digital communication systems. == 7. Relationship Between Digital Communication and 5G Technology == Digital communication is a method of transmitting information in the form of binary data, represented by 0s and 1s. Unlike analog communication, which uses continuously varying signals, digital communication represents information using discrete values. 5G mainly uses digital communication techniques to transmit voice, video, messages and other types of data. === 7.1 Basic Process of Digital Communication === Digital communication generally involves the following stages: # Information source: Produces information such as voice, images or video. # Source encoding: Converts information into a suitable digital representation.[[File:9632AX face panel.jpg|thumb]] # Channel encoding: Adds information that helps detect or correct transmission errors. # Modulation: Converts digital data into symbols suitable for transmission over a communication channel. # Transmission: Sends the signal through the communication medium. # Reception: Receives the transmitted signal. # Demodulation and decoding: Recovers the original digital information. === 7.2 Role of Digital Communication in 5G === 5G uses advanced digital communication techniques to provide efficient and high-speed data transmission. For example, when a person makes a video call using a 5G network, the voice and video are processed as digital data. This data is transmitted through the wireless network and reconstructed at the receiving device. Digital communication helps 5G provide better data handling, error correction and efficient use of available network resources. == 8. Analog Communication vs Digital Communication in 5G == Analog and digital communication both play important roles in a 5G system, but they perform different functions. {| class="wikitable" !Analog Communication !Digital Communication |- |Uses continuously varying signals |Uses digital information represented by bits |- |Represents physical signals such as sound |Represents information using binary data |- |Uses analog electronic circuits |Uses digital processing circuits |- |Important in radio-frequency transmission and reception |Important in data processing and wireless communication |- |More affected by accumulated noise in many systems |Supports error detection and correction techniques |} In 5G, digital processing is used to prepare and recover information, while analog radio-frequency circuits help transmit and receive the wireless signals. == 9. Modulation Techniques Used in 5G == Modulation is an important concept in communication engineering. It is the process of changing a property of a carrier signal according to the information being transmitted. In wireless communication, modulation helps transfer information through radio waves. Some important digital modulation techniques include: === 9.1 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) === Phase Shift Keying is a digital modulation technique in which the phase of a carrier signal is changed to represent digital information. === 9.2 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) === QAM is a digital modulation technique that changes both the amplitude and phase of a carrier signal. 5G uses different QAM schemes, including 64-QAM and 256-QAM, depending on the radio conditions and network configuration. Higher-order QAM can carry more bits per symbol but generally requires a better signal quality. === 9.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) === OFDM is an important technology used in 5G New Radio (5G NR). It divides a high-speed data stream into multiple lower-speed streams and transmits them over several closely spaced subcarriers. This helps use the available frequency spectrum efficiently and manage communication in environments where signals may arrive through different paths. == 10. Important Technologies Used in 5G == === 10.1 Massive MIMO === Massive Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) uses multiple antennas at a base station to improve network capacity and communication performance. === 10.2 Beamforming === Beamforming is a technique that directs radio signals towards particular devices. It helps improve signal strength and communication efficiency. === 10.3 Millimetre Waves === Millimetre waves are high-frequency radio waves that can provide high data capacity over relatively short distances. They are one of the frequency options used in some 5G deployments. === 10.4 Network Slicing === Network slicing allows a physical network to be divided into separate virtual network environments. Different environments can be configured for different service requirements. === 10.5 Small Cells === Small cells are low-power cellular base stations used to improve network coverage and capacity in specific areas. == 11. Applications of 5G Technology == === 11.1 Healthcare === 5G supports remote patient monitoring, communication between hospitals and the transfer of medical information. It can also support certain remote medical applications where suitable network conditions are available. === 11.2 Education === Students and teachers can use 5G for online classes, video conferences, digital learning materials and virtual learning environments. === 11.3 Transportation === 5G can support connected vehicles, traffic monitoring and intelligent transportation systems. It allows communication between vehicles and network infrastructure. === 11.4 Industrial Automation === Industries can use 5G to connect machines, sensors and robots. This helps monitor production processes and supports smart manufacturing. === 11.5 Smart Cities === 5G can connect traffic signals, streetlights, environmental sensors and other city infrastructure. These connected systems can help improve the management of urban services. === 11.6 Entertainment === 5G supports online gaming, high-quality video streaming, virtual reality and augmented reality applications. == 12. Advantages of 5G Technology == # Provides higher potential internet speeds. # Reduces communication delays. # Supports a large number of connected devices. # Improves wireless network capacity. # Supports IoT applications. # Helps develop smart industries and automated systems. # Improves the possibilities for advanced digital services. == 13. Limitations of 5G Technology == Although 5G provides many advantages, it also has some limitations. # '''High Infrastructure Cost:''' Establishing 5G networks requires investment in new equipment and infrastructure. # '''Coverage Limitations:''' Some high-frequency signals have shorter coverage ranges and may be affected by buildings and other obstacles. # '''Device Compatibility:''' Users need 5G-compatible devices to access 5G services.[[File:Internet-problems.svg|thumb]] # '''Network Deployment:''' Expanding 5G coverage takes time, especially in rural and remote areas. # '''Security Challenges:''' Connecting a large number of devices increases the importance of network security and data protection. == 14. Future Scope of 5G Technology == 5G is expected to play an important role in the future of wireless communication. As network infrastructure improves, its applications may expand in areas such as smart transportation, healthcare, education and industrial automation. It can also support technologies involving artificial intelligence, robotics, connected vehicles and smart infrastructure. The development of 5G is an important step towards building a more connected digital society. == 15. Conclusion == 5G technology is an important development in the field of wireless communication. It provides higher potential data speeds, lower latency and improved network capacity compared with earlier mobile network generations. Its development is closely connected to the principles of analog and digital communication. Digital techniques are used to process and transmit information, while analog radio-frequency circuits and antennas help send and receive wireless signals. 5G has applications in healthcare, education, transportation, industries and smart cities. Although challenges such as infrastructure cost, coverage and security remain, it provides a strong foundation for many future communication technologies. == 16. References and Further Reading == # International Telecommunication Union (ITU), IMT-2020 and 5G technology. # 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), 5G New Radio (NR) specifications. # GSMA, reports and educational resources on 5G mobile technology. # Standard textbooks on Analog and Digital Communication. # Educational resources on wireless communication and digital modulation. t9c0q21wigmyp1v1uj2e1veojgks5e8 4681632 4681630 2026-11-11T15:31:38Z RISHILPU 3629676 4681632 wikitext text/x-wiki = Chapter: 5G Technology = == 1. Introduction == Communication technology has become an important part of our daily lives. We use it for making phone calls, sending messages, attending online classes, watching videos and sharing information. Over the years, mobile communication has developed through different generations, starting ,with 1G and progressing to 5G. 5G stands for Fifth Generation of Mobile Network Technology. It is designed to provide faster data communication, reduce network delays and support a large number of connected devices. Unlike earlier generations, which mainly focused on improving voice calls and mobile internet, 5G also supports smart machines, connected vehicles, medical equipment and industrial applications. The development of 5G is closely related to the progress of analog and digital communication. It uses radio waves to transmit information, while digital signal processing techniques help convert, process and receive the information efficiently.<ref>{{Cite web |title=IMT-2020 (a.k.a. “5G”) |url=https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-R/study-groups/rsg5/rwp5d/imt-2020/Pages/default.aspx |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=ITU |language=en-US}}</ref> == 2. What Is 5G Technology? == 5G is the fifth generation of wireless mobile communication technology. It allows users to access the internet with higher data speeds, lower latency and improved network performance. The main purpose of 5G is to make wireless communication faster and more efficient. It also supports the Internet of Things (IoT), in which different devices communicate and exchange information through the internet. [[File:04 11 2021 Leilão 5G (51655543910).jpg|thumb]] For example, a person can control smart home appliances such as lights, fans and security systems using a mobile phone. Similarly, industries can connect machines and sensors to monitor their operations. 5G is not limited to smartphones. It is designed to support many types of devices that need wireless communication.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 1: Introduction — Private 5G: A Systems Approach Version 1.1-dev documentation |url=https://5g.systemsapproach.org/intro.html |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=5g.systemsapproach.org}}</ref> == 3. Evolution of Mobile Network Technologies == Mobile communication has developed gradually to meet the increasing demand for better communication and internet services. === 3.1 First Generation (1G) === 1G was the first generation of mobile communication. It used analog signals to transmit voice information. Its main purpose was to provide wireless voice calls. However, 1G had limited voice quality, low security and no support for modern data services. === 3.2 Second Generation (2G) === 2G introduced digital communication in mobile networks. It improved voice quality and provided better security compared with 1G. It also introduced services such as SMS and basic mobile data. === 3.3 Third Generation (3G) === 3G improved mobile internet services. Users could browse websites, send emails and make video calls. It made mobile communication more useful for accessing online information. === 3.4 Fourth Generation (4G) === 4G introduced high-speed mobile broadband. It made services such as online video streaming, video calling and online gaming more convenient. LTE became an important technology used in 4G networks. === 3.5 Fifth Generation (5G) === 5G is the latest generation in this development. It provides higher potential data speeds, lower latency and greater network capacity. It also supports applications such as smart cities, industrial automation and connected vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding 5G |url=https://www.redhat.com/en/topics/5g-networks |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.redhat.com |language=en}}</ref> == 4. Key Features of 5G Technology == === 4.1 High Data Speed === 5G is designed to provide higher data speeds than earlier mobile network generations. It allows users to download files, watch high-quality videos and access online services more quickly. === 4.2 Low Latency === Latency refers to the time taken for information to travel from one point to another. 5G is designed to reduce this delay. Low latency is especially useful in applications that require quick responses, such as industrial control and connected transportation. === 4.3 Large Network Capacity === 5G can support a large number of connected devices in a particular area. This is useful in places where many people and machines need network access at the same time. === 4.4 Improved Connectivity === It supports communication between smartphones, computers, sensors, machines and other smart devices. This makes it useful for IoT applications. === 4.5 Network Reliability === 5G can support applications that require stable communication. The actual reliability depends on the network design, coverage and service configuration.<ref>{{Cite web |title=5G Technology |url=https://www.slideshare.net/slideshow/5g-technology-44833300/44833300 |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=Slideshare}}</ref> == 5. Working Principle of 5G Technology == 5G works through wireless communication between mobile devices and cellular base stations. It uses radio waves to transfer information from one place to another. The working process can be explained in the following steps: # A user sends a request using a 5G-enabled mobile phone. # The mobile phone converts the information into a digital signal for transmission. # The transmitter processes and converts the signal into radio-frequency form. # The antenna sends the radio signal to a nearby 5G base station. # The base station transfers the information through the mobile network. # [[File:Modulation categorization.svg|thumb|Modulation Categorization]]The network connects to the internet or the required service. # The requested information is transmitted back to the mobile phone. This process allows users to communicate, browse the internet and access different online services. == 6. Relationship Between Analog Communication and 5G Technology == Analog communication is one of the basic concepts in communication engineering. It is a method of transmitting information using continuously varying signals. In analog communication, information such as voice or sound is represented by an electrical signal that changes continuously with time. This signal is transmitted through a communication channel to the receiver. For example, when a person speaks into a microphone, the microphone converts the sound into an electrical signal. === 6.1 Analog Signals in Communication === An analog signal has continuously changing values. It can represent information such as sound, temperature and other physical quantities. Some important characteristics of analog signals are: * Amplitude: The strength or height of the signal. * Frequency: The number of cycles completed in one second. * Phase: The position of a waveform at a particular time. === 6.2 Role of Analog Communication in 5G === Although 5G mainly uses digital communication, analog technology is still important in its operation. The wireless signal transmitted through the air is an electromagnetic wave. The radio-frequency circuits and antennas handle these physical signals. For example, a 5G mobile phone uses radio-frequency components to transmit and receive signals through the antenna. These components perform operations such as signal amplification, filtering and frequency conversion. Therefore, analog circuits remain an important part of modern digital communication systems. == 7. Relationship Between Digital Communication and 5G Technology == Digital communication is a method of transmitting information in the form of binary data, represented by 0s and 1s. Unlike analog communication, which uses continuously varying signals, digital communication represents information using discrete values. 5G mainly uses digital communication techniques to transmit voice, video, messages and other types of data. === 7.1 Basic Process of Digital Communication === Digital communication generally involves the following stages: # Information source: Produces information such as voice, images or video. # Source encoding: Converts information into a suitable digital representation.[[File:9632AX face panel.jpg|thumb]] # Channel encoding: Adds information that helps detect or correct transmission errors. # Modulation: Converts digital data into symbols suitable for transmission over a communication channel. # Transmission: Sends the signal through the communication medium. # Reception: Receives the transmitted signal. # Demodulation and decoding: Recovers the original digital information. === 7.2 Role of Digital Communication in 5G === 5G uses advanced digital communication techniques to provide efficient and high-speed data transmission. For example, when a person makes a video call using a 5G network, the voice and video are processed as digital data. This data is transmitted through the wireless network and reconstructed at the receiving device. Digital communication helps 5G provide better data handling, error correction and efficient use of available network resources. == 8. Analog Communication vs Digital Communication in 5G == Analog and digital communication both play important roles in a 5G system, but they perform different functions. {| class="wikitable" !Analog Communication !Digital Communication |- |Uses continuously varying signals |Uses digital information represented by bits |- |Represents physical signals such as sound |Represents information using binary data |- |Uses analog electronic circuits |Uses digital processing circuits |- |Important in radio-frequency transmission and reception |Important in data processing and wireless communication |- |More affected by accumulated noise in many systems |Supports error detection and correction techniques |} In 5G, digital processing is used to prepare and recover information, while analog radio-frequency circuits help transmit and receive the wireless signals. == 9. Modulation Techniques Used in 5G == Modulation is an important concept in communication engineering. It is the process of changing a property of a carrier signal according to the information being transmitted. In wireless communication, modulation helps transfer information through radio waves.<ref>{{Citation |last=Mishra |first=Ajay R. |title=5G Network Planning |date=2018 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10520005 |work=Fundamentals of Network Planning and Optimisation 2G/3G/4G: Evolution to 5G |pages=295–313 |access-date=2026-11-11 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.1002/9781119331797.ch10 |isbn=978-1-119-33170-4}}</ref> Some important digital modulation techniques include: === 9.1 Phase Shift Keying (PSK) === Phase Shift Keying is a digital modulation technique in which the phase of a carrier signal is changed to represent digital information. === 9.2 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) === QAM is a digital modulation technique that changes both the amplitude and phase of a carrier signal. 5G uses different QAM schemes, including 64-QAM and 256-QAM, depending on the radio conditions and network configuration. Higher-order QAM can carry more bits per symbol but generally requires a better signal quality. === 9.3 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) === OFDM is an important technology used in 5G New Radio (5G NR). It divides a high-speed data stream into multiple lower-speed streams and transmits them over several closely spaced subcarriers. This helps use the available frequency spectrum efficiently and manage communication in environments where signals may arrive through different paths. == 10. Important Technologies Used in 5G == === 10.1 Massive MIMO === Massive Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) uses multiple antennas at a base station to improve network capacity and communication performance. === 10.2 Beamforming === Beamforming is a technique that directs radio signals towards particular devices. It helps improve signal strength and communication efficiency. === 10.3 Millimetre Waves === Millimetre waves are high-frequency radio waves that can provide high data capacity over relatively short distances. They are one of the frequency options used in some 5G deployments. === 10.4 Network Slicing === Network slicing allows a physical network to be divided into separate virtual network environments. Different environments can be configured for different service requirements. === 10.5 Small Cells === Small cells are low-power cellular base stations used to improve network coverage and capacity in specific areas. == 11. Applications of 5G Technology == === 11.1 Healthcare === 5G supports remote patient monitoring, communication between hospitals and the transfer of medical information. It can also support certain remote medical applications where suitable network conditions are available. === 11.2 Education === Students and teachers can use 5G for online classes, video conferences, digital learning materials and virtual learning environments. === 11.3 Transportation === 5G can support connected vehicles, traffic monitoring and intelligent transportation systems. It allows communication between vehicles and network infrastructure. === 11.4 Industrial Automation === Industries can use 5G to connect machines, sensors and robots. This helps monitor production processes and supports smart manufacturing. === 11.5 Smart Cities === 5G can connect traffic signals, streetlights, environmental sensors and other city infrastructure. These connected systems can help improve the management of urban services. === 11.6 Entertainment === 5G supports online gaming, high-quality video streaming, virtual reality and augmented reality applications. == 12. Advantages of 5G Technology == # Provides higher potential internet speeds. # Reduces communication delays. # Supports a large number of connected devices. # Improves wireless network capacity. # Supports IoT applications. # Helps develop smart industries and automated systems. # Improves the possibilities for advanced digital services. == 13. Limitations of 5G Technology == Although 5G provides many advantages, it also has some limitations. # '''High Infrastructure Cost:''' Establishing 5G networks requires investment in new equipment and infrastructure. # '''Coverage Limitations:''' Some high-frequency signals have shorter coverage ranges and may be affected by buildings and other obstacles. # '''Device Compatibility:''' Users need 5G-compatible devices to access 5G services.[[File:Internet-problems.svg|thumb]] # '''Network Deployment:''' Expanding 5G coverage takes time, especially in rural and remote areas. # '''Security Challenges:''' Connecting a large number of devices increases the importance of network security and data protection. == 14. Future Scope of 5G Technology == 5G is expected to play an important role in the future of wireless communication. As network infrastructure improves, its applications may expand in areas such as smart transportation, healthcare, education and industrial automation. It can also support technologies involving artificial intelligence, robotics, connected vehicles and smart infrastructure. The development of 5G is an important step towards building a more connected digital society. == 15. Conclusion == 5G technology is an important development in the field of wireless communication. It provides higher potential data speeds, lower latency and improved network capacity compared with earlier mobile network generations. Its development is closely connected to the principles of analog and digital communication. Digital techniques are used to process and transmit information, while analog radio-frequency circuits and antennas help send and receive wireless signals. 5G has applications in healthcare, education, transportation, industries and smart cities. Although challenges such as infrastructure cost, coverage and security remain, it provides a strong foundation for many future communication technologies.<ref>{{Citation |last=Adu-Manu |first=Kofi Sarpong |title=Perspective Chapter: 5G Enabling Technologies – Revolutionizing Transport, Environment, and Health |date=2023-06-15 |url=https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/87181 |work=Edge Computing - Technology, Management and Integration |access-date=2026-11-11 |publisher=IntechOpen |language=en |doi=10.5772/intechopen.111671 |isbn=978-1-83768-862-3 |last2=Koranteng |first2=Gabriel Amponsa |last3=Brown |first3=Samuel Nii Adotei}}</ref> == 16. References == osl7ikaodyhcmuyjq89air4n74yb07e 5 486998 4681819 4681444 2026-11-12T09:33:10Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 /* Purpose of page? */ Reply 4681819 wikitext text/x-wiki == Purpose of page? == @[[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] I see that you just made this draft policy. Out of curiosity, why did you do so? What are you covering here that is not already covered in other policy and guideline pages? Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:10, 7 November 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks doesn't have a proper ''''editing guidelines'''<nowiki/>'—all of the policies are kind of just mixed up and not put together properly. I saw another draft policy for [[Wikibooks:Editing guideline|Wikibooks' editing guidelines]]. It was good, but it was hard to understand for my friend (he's a newcomer) and it didn't contain the core parts of Wikibooks' editing guidelines. On top of that, I didn't know what book to write. I thought of writing about [[Renewable Sources of Energy Explained]], but there was already a book on that. Also gives me a chance to improve my skills. [[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] ([[User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]]) 06:07, 8 November 2026 (UTC) ::Got it. When you're done drafting it, make sure to bring it to the reading room so the community can weigh in on whether it should be enacted/kept. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:51, 10 November 2026 (UTC) :::Okay, will do. :) [[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] ([[User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]]) 09:33, 12 November 2026 (UTC) cu7hnpo2upf8ic558e68wm1baxsk8ut 4681828 4681819 2026-11-12T09:52:57Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 /* Purpose of page? */ Reply 4681828 wikitext text/x-wiki == Purpose of page? == @[[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] I see that you just made this draft policy. Out of curiosity, why did you do so? What are you covering here that is not already covered in other policy and guideline pages? Thank you! —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 20:10, 7 November 2026 (UTC) :Wikibooks doesn't have a proper ''''editing guidelines'''<nowiki/>'—all of the policies are kind of just mixed up and not put together properly. I saw another draft policy for [[Wikibooks:Editing guideline|Wikibooks' editing guidelines]]. It was good, but it was hard to understand for my friend (he's a newcomer) and it didn't contain the core parts of Wikibooks' editing guidelines. On top of that, I didn't know what book to write. I thought of writing about [[Renewable Sources of Energy Explained]], but there was already a book on that. Also gives me a chance to improve my skills. [[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] ([[User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]]) 06:07, 8 November 2026 (UTC) ::Got it. When you're done drafting it, make sure to bring it to the reading room so the community can weigh in on whether it should be enacted/kept. —[[User:Kittycataclysm|Kittycataclysm]] ([[User talk:Kittycataclysm|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kittycataclysm|contribs]]) 17:51, 10 November 2026 (UTC) :::Okay, will do. :) [[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] ([[User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]]) 09:33, 12 November 2026 (UTC) ::::Done, you can find it '''[[Wikibooks:Reading room/Proposals#Approve Wikibooks:Editing Guidelines?|here]]'''. [[User:ActStuffOGWiki|ActStuffOGWiki]] ([[User talk:ActStuffOGWiki|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/ActStuffOGWiki|contribs]]) 09:52, 12 November 2026 (UTC) k3ce760zkb73es0w1a9s07pcpthgqlz 2 487061 4681661 4681190 2026-11-11T17:23:40Z Jasmitha Devarasetty 3625981 4681661 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32F411 = The STM32F411 is a 32-bit microcontroller in the STM32F4 family, manufactured by STMicroelectronics. The MCU is a high-performance ARM Cortex-M4 with an FPU and runs at 100 MHz. This chip is part of the dynamic efficiency family. The chip contains a new feature named Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM), designed for low power consumption while batching data. This chip has 256 to 512 Kbytes of Flash memory and up to 128 Kbytes of SRAM. The operating temperature range of the device is from -40 to 125°C, and the operating voltage is from 1.7 V to 3.6 V.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=STM32F411 - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f411.html |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+<ref>{{Cite web |title=STM32F411 - Products - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f411/products.html |access-date=2026-11-09 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Features ! colspan="3" |STM32F411xC ! colspan="3" |STM32F411xE |- !STM32F411CC !STM32F411RC !STM32F411VC !STM32F411CE !STM32F411RE !STM32F411VE |- | colspan="2" |Flash Memory | colspan="3" |256 KB | colspan="3" |512 KB |- | colspan="2" |SRAM | colspan="6" |128 KBytes |- | rowspan="2" |Timers |General -purpose | colspan="6" |7 |- |Advanced- control | colspan="6" |1 |- | rowspan="5" |communication interfaces |SPI / I2S | colspan="6" |2 full duplex |- |I2C | colspan="6" |3 |- |USART | colspan="6" |3 |- |SDIO | colspan="6" |1 |- |USB OTG FS | colspan="6" |1 |- | colspan="2" |GPIOs |36 |50 |81 |36 |50 |81 |- | colspan="2" |No.of channels of 12-bit ADC |10 | colspan="2" |16 |10 | colspan="2" |16 |- | colspan="2" |Maximum frequency | colspan="6" |100 MHz |- | colspan="2" |Power supply | colspan="6" |1.7 to 3.6 V |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Operating temperature | colspan="6" |Ambient temperature: -40 to +125°C |- | colspan="6" |Junction temperature: -40 to +130°C |- | colspan="2" |Pin count |48/49 pins |64 pins |100 pins |48/49 pins |64 pins |100 pins |- | colspan="2" |Package |UFQFPN / WLCSP |LQFP |UFBGA / LQFP |UFQFPN / WLCSP |LQFP |UFBGA / LQFP |} == Architecture == === Processor core: === The STM32F411 microcontroller is made using ARM Cortex-M4 processor that works with Armv7-M architecture. This microcontroller is designed for control purposes as well as digital signal processing capability. It has a low gate count processor core and restoring for fast interrupt Service Routine (ISR) entry and exit by NVIC. It supports a subset of Thumb instructions like SDIV, UDIV, PUSH, POP and so forth, handler and thread modes. It also has a banked stack pointer. It consists of a floating-point unit, memory protection unit, Nested Vectored Interrupt Controller, advanced high-performance bus lite, CPU Armv7-M processor, trace port interface, DSP, data watchpoint, wake-up interrupt controller, serial wire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cortex-M4 Product Support |url=https://support.arm.com/compute-ip/cortex-m4#Technical-Specifications |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com |language=en}}</ref> The Cortex-M4F processor includes a Floating Point Unit (FPU) that accelerates mathematical operations involving floating-point numbers. It supports 32-bit single-precision floating-point data processing using C language float data types. The FPU provides hardware-based operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, square-root calculation, and data-type conversion. It also supports fused multiply-accumulate (FMA) instructions, which combine multiplication and addition into a single operation to improve computational accuracy. In addition, the FPU supports denormalized numbers and all IEEE-defined rounding modes. It contains 32 dedicated 32-bit single-precision registers, which can also be accessed as 16 double-word registers. Its decoupled three-stage pipeline helps execute floating-point instructions efficiently. === Nested vectored interrupt controller (NVIC): === The NVIC that handles interrupt requests from different peripherals and external devices. It can manage up to 240 external interrupts, and each interrupt with up to 256 levels of priority using 3 to 8 configurable bits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Documentation – Arm Developer |url=https://support.arm.com/documentation/100166/0001/Nested-Vectored-Interrupt-Controller/NVIC-functional-description/NVIC-interrupts |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com}}</ref> These priorities can also be changed while the processor is running. Priority grouping helps determine which interrupts can interrupt the execution of other interrupt routines. When several interrupts occur close together, features such as tail-chaining and late arrival help the processor handle them efficiently. The processor also saves its current operating state when an interrupt is received and restores it after the interrupt routine finishes. This process reduces the extra instructions needed for interrupt handling. For applications requiring low power consumption, an optional Wake-up Interrupt Controller (WIC) can detect interrupts and wake the processor from sleep mode.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Documentation – Arm Developer |url=https://support.arm.com/documentation/100166/0001/Nested-Vectored-Interrupt-Controller/NVIC-functional-description/Low-power-modes |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com}}</ref> === ART Accelerator: === The Adaptive real-time memory accelerator (ART Accelerator) is a memory accelerator, which is for STM32. It balances the inherent performance advantage of the Arm® Cortex®-M4 with FPU over flash memory technologies, which normally requires the processor to wait for the flash memory at higher frequencies. To release the processor full 105 DMIPS performance at this frequency, the accelerator implements an instruction prefetch queue and branch cache, which increases program execution speed from the -bit flash memory. Based on CoreMark benchmark, the performance achieved thanks to the ART Accelerator is equivalent to 0 wait state program execution from flash memory at a CPU frequency up to 100 MHz.<ref name=":1" /> === Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM) : === The Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM) optimizes the power consumption for data batching. It allows exchanging batches of data through communication peripherals while the rest of the device (including the CPU) is in low-power mode. Only the needed DMA streams are enabled and running to transfer data from communication interfaces to internal RAM. Routine execution from RAM allows switching off the Flash memory and stopping the Flash Interface clock. The MCU core is put in Sleep mode waiting for an interrupt/event to wake up .For example in an audio system, a smart combination of PDM audio sample acquisition and processing from the I2S directly to RAM (flash and ART™ stopped) with the DMA using BAM followed by some very short processing from flash allows to drastically reduce the power consumption of the application. A dedicated application note (AN4515) describes how to implement the BAM to allow the best power efficiency.<ref name=":2">https://www.st.com/resource/en/application_note/an4515-using-batch-acquisition-mode-bam-to-maximize-power-efficiency-on-stm32f410-stm32f411-stm32f412-stm32f413-microcontroller-lines-stmicroelectronics.pdf</ref> === Memory protection unit (MPU): === The memory protection unit (MPU) enables the user to divide the memory into different regions and set memory access permissions (privileged access only or full access, etc.) and memory attributes to each of these regions. This memory area is organized into up to eight protected areas that can in turn be divided up into eight subareas. The protection area sizes are between 32 bytes and the whole 4 gigabytes of addressable memory. The MPU is especially helpful for applications where some critical or certified code has to be protected against the misbehavior of other tasks. It is usually managed by an RTOS (real time operating system). If a program accesses a memory location that is prohibited by the MPU, the RTOS can detect it and take action. In an RTOS environment, the kernel can dynamically update the MPU area setting, based on the process to be executed. The MPU is optional and can be bypassed for applications that do not need it.  === Flash memory: === The devices embed up to 512 Kbytes of flash memory available for storing programs and data.<ref name=":1" /> To optimize the power consumption the flash memory can also be switched off in Run or in Sleep mode . Two modes are available: Flash in Stop mode or in Deep Sleep mode. Before disabling the flash memory, the code must be executed from the internal RAM. One-time programmable bytes A one-time programmable area is available with 16 OTP blocks of 32 bytes. Each block can be individually locked. The Flash memory is organized as follows: A main memory block divided into 4 sectors of 16 KBytes, 1 sector of 64 KBytes, 3 sectors of 128 Kbytes (STM32F411xC/E). – System memory from which the device boots in System memory boot mode. 512 OTP (one-time programmable) bytes for user data. The OTP area contains 16 additional bytes used to lock the corresponding OTP data block. Option bytes to configure read and write protection, BOR level, watchdog software/hardware and reset when the device is in Standby or Stop mode.<ref name=":3">https://www.st.com/resource/en/reference_manual/rm0383-stm32f411xce-advanced-armbased-32bit-mcus-stmicroelectronics.pdf</ref> === SRAM: === 128 Kbytes of system SRAM, which can be accessed (read/write) at CPU clock speed with 0 wait states.<ref name=":1" /> === CRC registers: === The CRC calculation unit contains two data registers and a control register. The peripheral The CRC registers have to be accessed by words (32 bits).<ref name=":3" /> The CRC calculation unit helps compute a software signature during runtime, to be compared with a reference signature generated at link-time and stored at a given memory location. === Multi-AHB bus matrix: === A 32-bit multi-AHB bus matrix interconnects all the masters (CPU, LPDMA1, LPDMA2) and the slave peripherals (flash memory, SRAMs, AHB, and APB). It also ensures a seamless and efficient operation even when several high-speed peripherals work simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peripheral interconnect matrix {{!}} DS14927 |url=https://www.st.com/content/st_com/en/technical-documents/stm32c562ce_asset/chunk-003-topic-stm32c5-db-ds-functional-overview-peripheral-interconnect-matrix.html#topic-stm32-ds-functional-overview |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.st.com}}</ref> === DMA controller (DMA): === The devices feature two general-purpose dual-port DMAs (DMA1 and DMA2) with 8 streams each. They are able to manage memory-to-memory, peripheral-to-memory, and memory-to-peripheral transfers. They feature dedicated FIFOs for APB/AHB peripherals, support burst transfer and are designed to provide the maximum peripheral bandwidth (AHB/APB). The two DMA controllers support circular buffer management, so that no specific code is needed when the controller reaches the end of the buffer. The two DMA controllers also have a double buffering feature, which automates the use and switching of two memory buffers without requiring any special code. Each stream is connected to dedicated hardware DMA requests, with support for software trigger on each stream. Configuration is made by software and transfer sizes between source and destination are independent.The DMA can be used with the main peripherals: * SPI and I2 * I2C * USART * General-purpose, basic and advanced-control timers TIMx • * SD/SDIO/MMC/eMMC host interface • * ADC<ref name=":3" /> === Clock and Reset: === On reset the 16 MHz internal RC oscillator is selected as the default CPU clock. The 16 MHz internal RC oscillator is factory-trimmed to offer 1% accuracy at 25 °C. The application can then select as system clock either the RC oscillator or an external 4-26 MHz clock source. This clock can be monitored for failure. If a failure is detected, the system automatically switches back to the internal RC oscillator and a software interrupt is generated (if enabled). This clock source is input to a PLL thus allowing to increase the frequency up to 100 MHz. Similarly, full interrupt management of the PLL clock entry is available when necessary (for example if an indirectly used external oscillator fails). Several prescalers allow the configuration of the two AHB buses, the high-speed APB (APB2) and the low-speed APB (APB1) domains. The maximum frequency of the two AHB buses is 100 MHz while the maximum frequency of the high-speed APB domains is 100 MHz. The maximum allowed frequency of the low-speed APB domain is 50 MHz. The devices embed a dedicated PLL (PLLI2S), which allows to achieve audio class performance. In this case, the I2S master clock can generate all standard sampling frequencies from 8 kHz to 192 kHz.<ref name=":2" /> === Power supply: === There are two main power supply schemes: * VDD = 1.7 to 3.6 V: external power supply for I/Os with the internal regulator disabled, provided externally through VDD pins. Requires the use of an external power supply supervisor connected to the VDD and PDR_ON pins. * VDD = 1.8 to 3.6 V: external power supply for I/Os and the internal regulator (when enabled), provided externally through VDD pins<ref name=":3" /> == Reference == <references /> == External links == f4j2wa1bizu12jiq1hchagk8kkfkuzz 4681667 4681661 2026-11-11T17:51:32Z Jasmitha Devarasetty 3625981 /* Power supply: */ 4681667 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32F411 = The STM32F411 is a 32-bit microcontroller in the STM32F4 family, manufactured by STMicroelectronics. The MCU is a high-performance ARM Cortex-M4 with an FPU and runs at 100 MHz. This chip is part of the dynamic efficiency family. The chip contains a new feature named Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM), designed for low power consumption while batching data. This chip has 256 to 512 Kbytes of Flash memory and up to 128 Kbytes of SRAM. The operating temperature range of the device is from -40 to 125°C, and the operating voltage is from 1.7 V to 3.6 V.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=STM32F411 - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f411.html |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+<ref>{{Cite web |title=STM32F411 - Products - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f411/products.html |access-date=2026-11-09 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Features ! colspan="3" |STM32F411xC ! colspan="3" |STM32F411xE |- !STM32F411CC !STM32F411RC !STM32F411VC !STM32F411CE !STM32F411RE !STM32F411VE |- | colspan="2" |Flash Memory | colspan="3" |256 KB | colspan="3" |512 KB |- | colspan="2" |SRAM | colspan="6" |128 KBytes |- | rowspan="2" |Timers |General -purpose | colspan="6" |7 |- |Advanced- control | colspan="6" |1 |- | rowspan="5" |communication interfaces |SPI / I2S | colspan="6" |2 full duplex |- |I2C | colspan="6" |3 |- |USART | colspan="6" |3 |- |SDIO | colspan="6" |1 |- |USB OTG FS | colspan="6" |1 |- | colspan="2" |GPIOs |36 |50 |81 |36 |50 |81 |- | colspan="2" |No.of channels of 12-bit ADC |10 | colspan="2" |16 |10 | colspan="2" |16 |- | colspan="2" |Maximum frequency | colspan="6" |100 MHz |- | colspan="2" |Power supply | colspan="6" |1.7 to 3.6 V |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Operating temperature | colspan="6" |Ambient temperature: -40 to +125°C |- | colspan="6" |Junction temperature: -40 to +130°C |- | colspan="2" |Pin count |48/49 pins |64 pins |100 pins |48/49 pins |64 pins |100 pins |- | colspan="2" |Package |UFQFPN / WLCSP |LQFP |UFBGA / LQFP |UFQFPN / WLCSP |LQFP |UFBGA / LQFP |} == Architecture == [[File:STM32F411 Architecture.png|thumb|STM32F411 Architecture]] === Processor core: === The STM32F411 microcontroller is made using ARM Cortex-M4 processor that works with Armv7-M architecture. This microcontroller is designed for control purposes as well as digital signal processing capability. It has a low gate count processor core and restoring for fast interrupt Service Routine (ISR) entry and exit by NVIC. It supports a subset of Thumb instructions like SDIV, UDIV, PUSH, POP and so forth, handler and thread modes. It also has a banked stack pointer. It consists of a floating-point unit, memory protection unit, Nested Vectored Interrupt Controller, advanced high-performance bus lite, CPU Armv7-M processor, trace port interface, DSP, data watchpoint, wake-up interrupt controller, serial wire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cortex-M4 Product Support |url=https://support.arm.com/compute-ip/cortex-m4#Technical-Specifications |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com |language=en}}</ref> The Cortex-M4F processor includes a Floating Point Unit (FPU) that accelerates mathematical operations involving floating-point numbers. It supports 32-bit single-precision floating-point data processing using C language float data types. The FPU provides hardware-based operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, square-root calculation, and data-type conversion. It also supports fused multiply-accumulate (FMA) instructions, which combine multiplication and addition into a single operation to improve computational accuracy. In addition, the FPU supports denormalized numbers and all IEEE-defined rounding modes. It contains 32 dedicated 32-bit single-precision registers, which can also be accessed as 16 double-word registers. Its decoupled three-stage pipeline helps execute floating-point instructions efficiently. === Nested vectored interrupt controller (NVIC): === The NVIC that handles interrupt requests from different peripherals and external devices. It can manage up to 240 external interrupts, and each interrupt with up to 256 levels of priority using 3 to 8 configurable bits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Documentation – Arm Developer |url=https://support.arm.com/documentation/100166/0001/Nested-Vectored-Interrupt-Controller/NVIC-functional-description/NVIC-interrupts |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com}}</ref> These priorities can also be changed while the processor is running. Priority grouping helps determine which interrupts can interrupt the execution of other interrupt routines. When several interrupts occur close together, features such as tail-chaining and late arrival help the processor handle them efficiently. The processor also saves its current operating state when an interrupt is received and restores it after the interrupt routine finishes. This process reduces the extra instructions needed for interrupt handling. For applications requiring low power consumption, an optional Wake-up Interrupt Controller (WIC) can detect interrupts and wake the processor from sleep mode.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Documentation – Arm Developer |url=https://support.arm.com/documentation/100166/0001/Nested-Vectored-Interrupt-Controller/NVIC-functional-description/Low-power-modes |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com}}</ref> === ART Accelerator: === The Adaptive real-time memory accelerator (ART Accelerator) is a memory accelerator, which is for STM32. It balances the inherent performance advantage of the Arm® Cortex®-M4 with FPU over flash memory technologies, which normally requires the processor to wait for the flash memory at higher frequencies. To release the processor full 105 DMIPS performance at this frequency, the accelerator implements an instruction prefetch queue and branch cache, which increases program execution speed from the -bit flash memory. Based on CoreMark benchmark, the performance achieved thanks to the ART Accelerator is equivalent to 0 wait state program execution from flash memory at a CPU frequency up to 100 MHz.<ref name=":1" /> === Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM) : === The Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM) optimizes the power consumption for data batching. It allows exchanging batches of data through communication peripherals while the rest of the device (including the CPU) is in low-power mode. Only the needed DMA streams are enabled and running to transfer data from communication interfaces to internal RAM. Routine execution from RAM allows switching off the Flash memory and stopping the Flash Interface clock. The MCU core is put in Sleep mode waiting for an interrupt/event to wake up .For example in an audio system, a smart combination of PDM audio sample acquisition and processing from the I2S directly to RAM (flash and ART™ stopped) with the DMA using BAM followed by some very short processing from flash allows to drastically reduce the power consumption of the application. A dedicated application note (AN4515) describes how to implement the BAM to allow the best power efficiency.<ref name=":2">https://www.st.com/resource/en/application_note/an4515-using-batch-acquisition-mode-bam-to-maximize-power-efficiency-on-stm32f410-stm32f411-stm32f412-stm32f413-microcontroller-lines-stmicroelectronics.pdf</ref> === Memory protection unit (MPU): === The memory protection unit (MPU) enables the user to divide the memory into different regions and set memory access permissions (privileged access only or full access, etc.) and memory attributes to each of these regions. This memory area is organized into up to eight protected areas that can in turn be divided up into eight subareas. The protection area sizes are between 32 bytes and the whole 4 gigabytes of addressable memory. The MPU is especially helpful for applications where some critical or certified code has to be protected against the misbehavior of other tasks. It is usually managed by an RTOS (real time operating system). If a program accesses a memory location that is prohibited by the MPU, the RTOS can detect it and take action. In an RTOS environment, the kernel can dynamically update the MPU area setting, based on the process to be executed. The MPU is optional and can be bypassed for applications that do not need it.  === Flash memory: === The devices embed up to 512 Kbytes of flash memory available for storing programs and data.<ref name=":1" /> To optimize the power consumption the flash memory can also be switched off in Run or in Sleep mode . Two modes are available: Flash in Stop mode or in Deep Sleep mode. Before disabling the flash memory, the code must be executed from the internal RAM. One-time programmable bytes A one-time programmable area is available with 16 OTP blocks of 32 bytes. Each block can be individually locked. The Flash memory is organized as follows: A main memory block divided into 4 sectors of 16 KBytes, 1 sector of 64 KBytes, 3 sectors of 128 Kbytes (STM32F411xC/E). – System memory from which the device boots in System memory boot mode. 512 OTP (one-time programmable) bytes for user data. The OTP area contains 16 additional bytes used to lock the corresponding OTP data block. Option bytes to configure read and write protection, BOR level, watchdog software/hardware and reset when the device is in Standby or Stop mode.<ref name=":3">https://www.st.com/resource/en/reference_manual/rm0383-stm32f411xce-advanced-armbased-32bit-mcus-stmicroelectronics.pdf</ref> === SRAM: === 128 Kbytes of system SRAM, which can be accessed (read/write) at CPU clock speed with 0 wait states.<ref name=":1" /> === CRC registers: === The CRC calculation unit contains two data registers and a control register. The peripheral The CRC registers have to be accessed by words (32 bits).<ref name=":3" /> The CRC calculation unit helps compute a software signature during runtime, to be compared with a reference signature generated at link-time and stored at a given memory location. === Multi-AHB bus matrix: === A 32-bit multi-AHB bus matrix interconnects all the masters (CPU, LPDMA1, LPDMA2) and the slave peripherals (flash memory, SRAMs, AHB, and APB). It also ensures a seamless and efficient operation even when several high-speed peripherals work simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peripheral interconnect matrix {{!}} DS14927 |url=https://www.st.com/content/st_com/en/technical-documents/stm32c562ce_asset/chunk-003-topic-stm32c5-db-ds-functional-overview-peripheral-interconnect-matrix.html#topic-stm32-ds-functional-overview |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.st.com}}</ref> === DMA controller (DMA): === The devices feature two general-purpose dual-port DMAs (DMA1 and DMA2) with 8 streams each. They are able to manage memory-to-memory, peripheral-to-memory, and memory-to-peripheral transfers. They feature dedicated FIFOs for APB/AHB peripherals, support burst transfer and are designed to provide the maximum peripheral bandwidth (AHB/APB). The two DMA controllers support circular buffer management, so that no specific code is needed when the controller reaches the end of the buffer. The two DMA controllers also have a double buffering feature, which automates the use and switching of two memory buffers without requiring any special code. Each stream is connected to dedicated hardware DMA requests, with support for software trigger on each stream. Configuration is made by software and transfer sizes between source and destination are independent. The DMA can be used with the main peripherals: * SPI and I2S * I2C * USART * General-purpose, basic and advanced-control timers TIMx * SD/SDIO/MMC/eMMC host interface * ADC<ref name=":3" /> === Clock and Reset: === On reset the 16 MHz internal RC oscillator is selected as the default CPU clock. The 16 MHz internal RC oscillator is factory-trimmed to offer 1% accuracy at 25 °C. The application can then select as system clock either the RC oscillator or an external 4-26 MHz clock source. This clock can be monitored for failure. If a failure is detected, the system automatically switches back to the internal RC oscillator and a software interrupt is generated (if enabled). This clock source is input to a PLL thus allowing to increase the frequency up to 100 MHz. Similarly, full interrupt management of the PLL clock entry is available when necessary (for example if an indirectly used external oscillator fails). Several prescalers allow the configuration of the two AHB buses, the high-speed APB (APB2) and the low-speed APB (APB1) domains. The maximum frequency of the two AHB buses is 100 MHz while the maximum frequency of the high-speed APB domains is 100 MHz. The maximum allowed frequency of the low-speed APB domain is 50 MHz. The devices embed a dedicated PLL (PLLI2S), which allows to achieve audio class performance. In this case, the I2S master clock can generate all standard sampling frequencies from 8 kHz to 192 kHz.<ref name=":2" /> === Power supply: === There are two main power supply schemes: * VDD = 1.7 to 3.6 V: external power supply for I/Os with the internal regulator disabled, provided externally through VDD pins. Requires the use of an external power supply supervisor connected to the VDD and PDR_ON pins. * VDD = 1.8 to 3.6 V: external power supply for I/Os and the internal regulator (when enabled), provided externally through VDD pins<ref name=":3" /> == Reference == <references /> == External links == i8f4breel59rc66vxnfnm8t75irmbep 4681676 4681667 2026-11-11T18:01:44Z Jasmitha Devarasetty 3625981 4681676 wikitext text/x-wiki = STM32F411 = The STM32F411 is a 32-bit [[wikipedia:Microcontroller|microcontroller]] in the [[wikipedia:STM32|STM32]]F4 family, manufactured by [[wikipedia:STMicroelectronics|STMicroelectronics]]. The MCU is a high-performance [[wikipedia:ARM_Cortex-M#Cortex-M4|ARM Cortex-M4]] with an FPU and runs at 100 MHz. This chip is part of the dynamic efficiency family. The chip contains a new feature named Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM), designed for low power consumption while batching data. This chip has 256 to 512 Kbytes of [[wikipedia:Flash_memory|Flash memory]] and up to 128 Kbytes of SRAM. The operating temperature range of the device is from -40 to 125°C, and the operating voltage is from 1.7 V to 3.6 V.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=STM32F411 - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f411.html |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+<ref>{{Cite web |title=STM32F411 - Products - STMicroelectronics |url=https://www.st.com/en/microcontrollers-microprocessors/stm32f411/products.html |access-date=2026-11-09 |website=www.st.com |language=en}}</ref> ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Features ! colspan="3" |STM32F411xC ! colspan="3" |STM32F411xE |- !STM32F411CC !STM32F411RC !STM32F411VC !STM32F411CE !STM32F411RE !STM32F411VE |- | colspan="2" |Flash Memory | colspan="3" |256 KB | colspan="3" |512 KB |- | colspan="2" |SRAM | colspan="6" |128 KBytes |- | rowspan="2" |Timers |General -purpose | colspan="6" |7 |- |Advanced- control | colspan="6" |1 |- | rowspan="5" |communication interfaces |SPI / I2S | colspan="6" |2 full duplex |- |I2C | colspan="6" |3 |- |USART | colspan="6" |3 |- |SDIO | colspan="6" |1 |- |USB OTG FS | colspan="6" |1 |- | colspan="2" |GPIOs |36 |50 |81 |36 |50 |81 |- | colspan="2" |No.of channels of 12-bit ADC |10 | colspan="2" |16 |10 | colspan="2" |16 |- | colspan="2" |Maximum frequency | colspan="6" |100 MHz |- | colspan="2" |Power supply | colspan="6" |1.7 to 3.6 V |- | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Operating temperature | colspan="6" |Ambient temperature: -40 to +125°C |- | colspan="6" |Junction temperature: -40 to +130°C |- | colspan="2" |Pin count |48/49 pins |64 pins |100 pins |48/49 pins |64 pins |100 pins |- | colspan="2" |Package |UFQFPN / WLCSP |LQFP |UFBGA / LQFP |UFQFPN / WLCSP |LQFP |UFBGA / LQFP |} == Architecture == [[File:STM32F411 Architecture.png|thumb|STM32F411 Architecture]] === Processor core: === The STM32F411 microcontroller is made using ARM Cortex-M4 processor that works with Armv7-M architecture. This microcontroller is designed for control purposes as well as digital signal processing capability. It has a low gate count processor core and restoring for fast interrupt Service Routine (ISR) entry and exit by NVIC. It supports a subset of Thumb instructions like SDIV, UDIV, PUSH, POP and so forth, handler and thread modes. It also has a banked stack pointer. It consists of a floating-point unit, memory protection unit, Nested Vectored Interrupt Controller, advanced high-performance bus lite, CPU Armv7-M processor, trace port interface, DSP, data watchpoint, wake-up interrupt controller, serial wire.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cortex-M4 Product Support |url=https://support.arm.com/compute-ip/cortex-m4#Technical-Specifications |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com |language=en}}</ref> The Cortex-M4F processor includes a Floating Point Unit (FPU) that accelerates mathematical operations involving floating-point numbers. It supports 32-bit single-precision floating-point data processing using C language float data types. The FPU provides hardware-based operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, square-root calculation, and data-type conversion. It also supports fused multiply-accumulate (FMA) instructions, which combine multiplication and addition into a single operation to improve computational accuracy. In addition, the FPU supports denormalized numbers and all IEEE-defined rounding modes. It contains 32 dedicated 32-bit single-precision registers, which can also be accessed as 16 double-word registers. Its decoupled three-stage pipeline helps execute floating-point instructions efficiently. === Nested vectored interrupt controller (NVIC): === The NVIC that handles interrupt requests from different peripherals and external devices. It can manage up to 240 external interrupts, and each interrupt with up to 256 levels of priority using 3 to 8 configurable bits.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Documentation – Arm Developer |url=https://support.arm.com/documentation/100166/0001/Nested-Vectored-Interrupt-Controller/NVIC-functional-description/NVIC-interrupts |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com}}</ref> These priorities can also be changed while the processor is running. Priority grouping helps determine which interrupts can interrupt the execution of other interrupt routines. When several interrupts occur close together, features such as tail-chaining and late arrival help the processor handle them efficiently. The processor also saves its current operating state when an interrupt is received and restores it after the interrupt routine finishes. This process reduces the extra instructions needed for interrupt handling. For applications requiring low power consumption, an optional Wake-up Interrupt Controller (WIC) can detect interrupts and wake the processor from sleep mode.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Documentation – Arm Developer |url=https://support.arm.com/documentation/100166/0001/Nested-Vectored-Interrupt-Controller/NVIC-functional-description/Low-power-modes |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=support.arm.com}}</ref> === ART Accelerator: === The Adaptive real-time memory accelerator (ART Accelerator) is a memory accelerator, which is for STM32. It balances the inherent performance advantage of the Arm® Cortex®-M4 with FPU over flash memory technologies, which normally requires the processor to wait for the flash memory at higher frequencies. To release the processor full 105 DMIPS performance at this frequency, the accelerator implements an instruction prefetch queue and branch cache, which increases program execution speed from the -bit flash memory. Based on CoreMark benchmark, the performance achieved thanks to the ART Accelerator is equivalent to 0 wait state program execution from flash memory at a CPU frequency up to 100 MHz.<ref name=":1" /> === Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM) : === The Batch Acquisition Mode (BAM) optimizes the power consumption for data batching. It allows exchanging batches of data through communication peripherals while the rest of the device (including the CPU) is in low-power mode. Only the needed DMA streams are enabled and running to transfer data from communication interfaces to internal RAM. Routine execution from RAM allows switching off the Flash memory and stopping the Flash Interface clock. The MCU core is put in Sleep mode waiting for an interrupt/event to wake up .For example in an audio system, a smart combination of PDM audio sample acquisition and processing from the I2S directly to RAM (flash and ART™ stopped) with the DMA using BAM followed by some very short processing from flash allows to drastically reduce the power consumption of the application. A dedicated application note (AN4515) describes how to implement the BAM to allow the best power efficiency.<ref name=":2">https://www.st.com/resource/en/application_note/an4515-using-batch-acquisition-mode-bam-to-maximize-power-efficiency-on-stm32f410-stm32f411-stm32f412-stm32f413-microcontroller-lines-stmicroelectronics.pdf</ref> === Memory protection unit (MPU): === The memory protection unit (MPU) enables the user to divide the memory into different regions and set memory access permissions (privileged access only or full access, etc.) and memory attributes to each of these regions. This memory area is organized into up to eight protected areas that can in turn be divided up into eight subareas. The protection area sizes are between 32 bytes and the whole 4 gigabytes of addressable memory. The MPU is especially helpful for applications where some critical or certified code has to be protected against the misbehavior of other tasks. It is usually managed by an RTOS (real time operating system). If a program accesses a memory location that is prohibited by the MPU, the RTOS can detect it and take action. In an RTOS environment, the kernel can dynamically update the MPU area setting, based on the process to be executed. The MPU is optional and can be bypassed for applications that do not need it.  === Flash memory: === The devices embed up to 512 Kbytes of flash memory available for storing programs and data.<ref name=":1" /> To optimize the power consumption the flash memory can also be switched off in Run or in Sleep mode . Two modes are available: Flash in Stop mode or in Deep Sleep mode. Before disabling the flash memory, the code must be executed from the internal RAM. One-time programmable bytes A one-time programmable area is available with 16 OTP blocks of 32 bytes. Each block can be individually locked. The Flash memory is organized as follows: A main memory block divided into 4 sectors of 16 KBytes, 1 sector of 64 KBytes, 3 sectors of 128 Kbytes (STM32F411xC/E). – System memory from which the device boots in System memory boot mode. 512 OTP (one-time programmable) bytes for user data. The OTP area contains 16 additional bytes used to lock the corresponding OTP data block. Option bytes to configure read and write protection, BOR level, watchdog software/hardware and reset when the device is in Standby or Stop mode.<ref name=":3">https://www.st.com/resource/en/reference_manual/rm0383-stm32f411xce-advanced-armbased-32bit-mcus-stmicroelectronics.pdf</ref> === SRAM: === 128 Kbytes of system SRAM, which can be accessed (read/write) at CPU clock speed with 0 wait states.<ref name=":1" /> === CRC registers: === The CRC calculation unit contains two data registers and a control register. The peripheral The CRC registers have to be accessed by words (32 bits).<ref name=":3" /> The CRC calculation unit helps compute a software signature during runtime, to be compared with a reference signature generated at link-time and stored at a given memory location. === Multi-AHB bus matrix: === A 32-bit multi-AHB bus matrix interconnects all the masters (CPU, LPDMA1, LPDMA2) and the slave peripherals (flash memory, SRAMs, AHB, and APB). It also ensures a seamless and efficient operation even when several high-speed peripherals work simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Peripheral interconnect matrix {{!}} DS14927 |url=https://www.st.com/content/st_com/en/technical-documents/stm32c562ce_asset/chunk-003-topic-stm32c5-db-ds-functional-overview-peripheral-interconnect-matrix.html#topic-stm32-ds-functional-overview |access-date=2026-11-11 |website=www.st.com}}</ref> === DMA controller (DMA): === The devices feature two general-purpose dual-port DMAs (DMA1 and DMA2) with 8 streams each. They are able to manage memory-to-memory, peripheral-to-memory, and memory-to-peripheral transfers. They feature dedicated FIFOs for APB/AHB peripherals, support burst transfer and are designed to provide the maximum peripheral bandwidth (AHB/APB). The two DMA controllers support circular buffer management, so that no specific code is needed when the controller reaches the end of the buffer. The two DMA controllers also have a double buffering feature, which automates the use and switching of two memory buffers without requiring any special code. Each stream is connected to dedicated hardware DMA requests, with support for software trigger on each stream. Configuration is made by software and transfer sizes between source and destination are independent. The DMA can be used with the main peripherals: * SPI and I2S * I2C * USART * General-purpose, basic and advanced-control timers TIMx * SD/SDIO/MMC/eMMC host interface * ADC<ref name=":3" /> === Clock and Reset: === On reset the 16 MHz internal RC oscillator is selected as the default CPU clock. The 16 MHz internal RC oscillator is factory-trimmed to offer 1% accuracy at 25 °C. The application can then select as system clock either the RC oscillator or an external 4-26 MHz clock source. This clock can be monitored for failure. If a failure is detected, the system automatically switches back to the internal RC oscillator and a software interrupt is generated (if enabled). This clock source is input to a PLL thus allowing to increase the frequency up to 100 MHz. Similarly, full interrupt management of the PLL clock entry is available when necessary (for example if an indirectly used external oscillator fails). Several prescalers allow the configuration of the two AHB buses, the high-speed APB (APB2) and the low-speed APB (APB1) domains. The maximum frequency of the two AHB buses is 100 MHz while the maximum frequency of the high-speed APB domains is 100 MHz. The maximum allowed frequency of the low-speed APB domain is 50 MHz. The devices embed a dedicated PLL (PLLI2S), which allows to achieve audio class performance. In this case, the I2S master clock can generate all standard sampling frequencies from 8 kHz to 192 kHz.<ref name=":2" /> === Power supply: === There are two main power supply schemes: * VDD = 1.7 to 3.6 V: external power supply for I/Os with the internal regulator disabled, provided externally through VDD pins. Requires the use of an external power supply supervisor connected to the VDD and PDR_ON pins. * VDD = 1.8 to 3.6 V: external power supply for I/Os and the internal regulator (when enabled), provided externally through VDD pins<ref name=":3" /> == Reference == <references /> tpa4n9df73ot26o0f9z6a1xky166isz 2 487062 4681800 4681120 2026-11-12T08:39:37Z Veera549 3626063 /* Circuit and design */ 4681800 wikitext text/x-wiki = Line Following Robots: Concept and Application = The line following robot is an autonomous vehicle capable of identifying a line on the ground and following it by itself without any kind of manual intervention. Such kind of robots is considered one of the best beginners' project in robotics field since it incorporates a sensor, a decision-making process, and an actuator within a single design. The concept of such vehicles is also applicable in manufacturing facilities and warehouses where automatic guided vehicles use guide paths for materials handling purposes. == 1. How a line-following robot works == The robot follows a repeating cycle: '''sense, decide, act'''. * '''Sense:''' The infrared (IR) sensors attached to the bottom of the robot scan the ground. A black line does not reflect as much IR light as a white floor; thus, the signal generated from the sensors is affected when positioned on the line.<ref name="github">{{cite web |title=Line Following Robot (Arduino UNO and PID) |url=https://github.com/phurin-git/line-following-robot |access-date=9 November 2026 |website=GitHub}}</ref> * '''Decide:''' An algorithm within the microcontroller, such as the Arduino board, determines the robot's position – whether it is centered on the line, drifting off to the left or drifting off to the right. * '''Act:''' The microcontroller instructs a motor driver to vary the speed of the left and right wheels. Reducing the speed of one wheel turns the robot towards the line. This method of steering by running the two wheels at different speeds is called differential drive. == 2. Main components == {| class="wikitable" !Component !Purpose |- |Arduino Uno or Nano |Reads sensors and runs the control program |- |IR sensors (for example TCRT5000) |Detect the line by measuring reflected infrared light |- |Motor driver (for example L298N) |Lets the low-power microcontroller drive the motors |- |Two DC gear motors with wheels |Move and steer the robot |- |Caster wheel and chassis |Support the robot and hold the parts |- |Battery pack |Powers the motors and electronics |} Published student-level designs commonly use this exact kind of hardware. One design uses an Arduino Uno R3 with an L298N motor driver and IR sensors.<ref name="ijae">{{cite journal |title=Design and Implementation of an Intelligent Path-Finding Robot with Line-Following and Obstacle-Avoidance Capabilities |url=https://railway.iust.ac.ir/ijae/article-1-727-en.html |journal=Automotive Science and Engineering}}</ref> Another low-cost design uses an Arduino Nano with two TCRT5000 IR sensors and an HC-SR04 ultrasonic sensor for obstacle detection.<ref name="linemaster">{{cite arXiv|last1=Shahi|first1=Jeni|last2=Shah|first2=Abhishek|last3=Akib|first3=A. S. M. Ahsanul Sarkar|title=LineMaster Pro: A Low-Cost Intelligent Line Following Robot with PID Control and Ultrasonic Obstacle Avoidance for Educational Robotics|eprint=2603.13907|class=cs.RO|year=2026}}</ref> == 3. Circuit and design == The common two-sensor arrangement has the IR sensors mounted such that there is an IR sensor on either side of the line. When both of the sensors detect the white surface on either sides of the line, then the robot will be aligned. # The two IR sensors should be mounted near the front and near the surface (a few millimetres away), and should be separated by just a little more than the width of the line. # Connect the IR sensors to the input ports of the Arduino. # Connect the Arduino output pins to the input ports of the motor driver, and connect the motor driver output pins to the motors. # Power the motors using the battery pack via the motor driver, and ensure that the Arduino and the motor driver grounds are common. Good mechanical design matters as much as the electronics. A low centre of gravity, equal wheel traction on both sides, and sensors shielded from strong ambient light all improve reliability. Research on low-cost robots notes that simple designs often become unreliable when lighting changes, which is why calibration is important.<ref name="linemaster" /> == 4. Basic control logic == The simplest approach is '''on-off (bang-bang) control'''. The robot checks both sensors and picks one of a few fixed actions: {| class="wikitable" !Left sensor !Right sensor !Action |- |Off the line |Off the line |Move forward |- |On the line |Off the line |Turn left |- |Off the line |On the line |Turn right |- |On the line |On the line |Stop (or handle a junction) |} Below is a simple example sketch for an Arduino with two digital IR sensors and an L298N driver. The pin numbers are only examples, so match them to your own wiring, and test the code on your own hardware before relying on it.<syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> // Example pins - change to match your wiring const int leftSensor = 2; const int rightSensor = 3; const int leftFwd = 5, leftBack = 6; const int rightFwd = 9, rightBack = 10; void setup() { pinMode(leftSensor, INPUT); pinMode(rightSensor, INPUT); pinMode(leftFwd, OUTPUT); pinMode(leftBack, OUTPUT); pinMode(rightFwd, OUTPUT); pinMode(rightBack, OUTPUT); } void drive(int lf, int lb, int rf, int rb) { analogWrite(leftFwd, lf); analogWrite(leftBack, lb); analogWrite(rightFwd, rf); analogWrite(rightBack, rb); } void loop() { // Assumes the sensor outputs HIGH when it sees the black line bool left = digitalRead(leftSensor); bool right = digitalRead(rightSensor); if (!left && !right) drive(150, 0, 150, 0); // forward else if (left && !right) drive(0, 0, 150, 0); // turn left else if (!left && right) drive(150, 0, 0, 0); // turn right else drive(0, 0, 0, 0); // stop } </syntaxhighlight> == 5. Enhancing performance through PID Control == On/Off control causes the robot to wobble from side to side, particularly when following a curved path. The review of earlier designs reveals that the basic comparator circuit caused an oscillatory motion as well as an error of a few centimetres, and that the two-sensor on/off system was oscillatory even in curvilinear paths.<ref name="linemaster" /> The PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative) controller is better for steering. It monitors how far the robot is from the desired path (or the error), and controls the speed of the wheels through three components: * '''Proportional (P):''' responds to the present error. * '''Integral (I):''' compensates for the accumulated error. * '''Derivative (D):''' responds to changes in error and thus minimizes overshoot. The Line Master Pro study reports that its PID implementation gave a 43% improvement over conventional on-off control in its tests.<ref name="linemaster" /> Another published design formulates a PID path-following controller on the kinematic model of the robot and uses an IR sensor array for feedback.<ref name="ijae" /> More sensors generally give a better estimate of the line position, which helps PID work well. == 6. Applications of AGVs in real life == The same concept that applies to the classroom robot applies to industrial applications. An automated guided vehicle (AGV) refers to a load carrying vehicle that travels inside a facility without a driver, controlled by software and guidance sensors.<ref name="mhi">{{cite web |title=Automatic Guided Vehicles |url=https://og.mhi.org/fundamentals/automatic-guided-vehicles |website=MHI}}</ref> The applications may include: * '''Factories:''' where the vehicles move materials within an assembly line or in the facility.<ref name="wiki">{{cite web |title=Automated guided vehicle |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_guided_vehicle |website=Wikipedia}}</ref> * '''Warehouses:''' where the vehicle retrieves, transports, and delivers the loads.<ref name="mhi2">{{cite web |title=Three Key AGV Functions Controlled By Variety Of Technologies |url=https://www.mhi.org/blog/125888/three-key-agv-functions-controlled-by-variety-of-technologies |website=MHI}}</ref> * '''Hospitals:''' where the vehicle moves materials such as food, linen, and medication.<ref name="wiki" /> There are different methods of guiding AGVs along a line. Magnetic tape that runs below the floor is detected by a sensor fitted at the bottom of the vehicle while others use optical guidance where the optical sensors detect painted or taped line.<ref name="mhi2" /> The cheaper AGVs referred to as AGCs are usually guided by magnetic lines.<ref name="wiki" /> The optical guidance is flexible since the line may be easily removed or installed.<ref name="machinebuilding">{{cite web |title=Latest developments in AGV positioning technologies |url=https://machinebuilding.net/latest-developments-in-agv-positioning-technologies |website=MachineBuilding.net}}</ref> == 7. Challenges and limitations == * '''Lighting and surfaces:''' Optical sensors can be sensitive to lighting conditions, and calibration is required.<ref name="linemaster" /> * '''Deterioration and contamination:''' Painted lines and tape may wear out and become contaminated in heavily trafficked areas, reducing reliability.<ref name="machinebuilding" /> * '''Fixed paths:''' Robots can only travel along lines, and if the path configuration is changed, the lines need to be altered as well. Newer mobile robots that navigate without the use of floor markings are referred to as AMRs as opposed to AGVs.<ref name="wiki" /> * '''Tight turns and speed:''' Simple controllers have difficulties making tight turns at high speeds, and this is one of the reasons why PID and multi-sensor arrays are often used. == 8. Conclusion == The concept of line-following robots demonstrates basic concepts of robotics in a miniaturized and inexpensive form: sensors gather information, the controller processes it, and the actuators perform actions based on the decision. Moving from simple binary controls to PID control is an excellent method of teaching students about feedback control systems, which can be scaled up into guided vehicles used in factories, warehouses, and hospitals. == 9. References == <references /> sle36v5yn4f0200t073epnz1wt0qs34 0 487075 4681649 4681535 2026-11-11T16:41:39Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 /* Exercise */ Added Tigre Example sentence 4681649 wikitext text/x-wiki == Lesson 1: Colors == In Tigre, we use colors to describe things. Look at the table, read the Tigre word, and repeat it. Example: The sky is blue. In Tigre: ሕብር ሰመ ህርዲ ቱ ። ሰመ = sky ህርዲ = blue {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ሕብር || لون || Color || Couleur || Farbe || Цвет || Cor || Color || Renk || Färg |- | ቀይሕ || أحمر || Red || Rouge || Rot || Красный || Vermelho || Rojo || Kırmızı || Röd |- | ሰዐርሰዐሮ || أخضر || Green || Vert || Grün || Зелёный || Verde || Verde || Yeşil || Grön |- | ህርዲ || أزرق || Blue || Bleu || Blau || Синий || Azul || Azul || Mavi || Blå |- | ሸግራይ || أصفر || Yellow || Jaune || Gelb || Жёлтый || Amarelo || Amarillo || Sarı || Gul |- | ጸዕደ || أبيض || White || Blanc || Weiß || Белый || Branco || Blanco || Beyaz || Vit |- | ጸሊም || أسود || Black || Noir || Schwarz || Чёрный || Preto || Negro || Siyah || Svart |- | ዘህሪ || وردي || Pink || Rose || Rosa || Розовый || Rosa || Rosa || Pembe || Rosa |- | ቡናይ || بني || Brown || Marron || Braun || Коричневый || Marrom || Marrón || Kahverengi || Brun |- | ጨብላይ || رمادي || Gray || Gris || Grau || Серый || Cinza || Gris || Gri || Grå |- | ብርትቃሊ || برتقالي || Orange || Orange || Orange || Оранжевый || Laranja || Naranja || Turuncu || Orange |- | ሕልዉይ || بنفسجي || Purple || Violet || Lila || Фиолетовый || Roxo || Morado || Mor || Lila |- | ደህባይ || ذهبي || Golden || Doré || Golden || Золотой || Dourado || Dorado || Altın || Gyllene |- | ወርቅ || فضي || Silver || Argenté || Silber || Серебряный || Prateado || Plateado || Gümüş || Silver |} === Exercise === 1. What is the color of the sun in Tigre? ሸግራይ 2. Say in Tigre: This book is red. እሊ ክታብ ቀይሕ ቱ ። 3. Say in Tigre: The door is white. እሊ ባብ ጸዕደ ቱ ። == Lesson 2: Weather == In Tigre, we talk about the weather every day. Learn these words and use them to describe today. Example: Today is sunny. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ሓለት ጅው || الطقس || Weather || Météo || Wetter || Погода || Clima || Clima || Hava Durumu || Väder |- | ሕፉን || حار || Hot || Chaud || Heiß || Жаркий || Quente || Caliente || Sıcak || Varm |- | ብሩድ || بارد || Cold || Froid || Kalt || Холодный || Frio || Frío || Soğuk || Kall |- | ቃውዕ || مشمس || Sunny || Ensoleillé || Sonnig || Солнечный || Ensolarado || Soleado || Güneşli || Solig |- | ጉዩም || غائم || Cloudy || Nuageux || Bewölkt || Облачный || Nublado || Nublado || Bulutlu || Molnig |- | ዘልም || ممطر || Rainy || Pluvieux || Regnerisch || Дождливый || Chuvoso || Lluvioso || Yağmurlu || Regnig |- | በረድ || ثلج || Snow || Neige || Schnee || Снег || Neve || Nieve || Kar || Snö |- | ወልወል || ريح || Wind || Vent || Wind || Ветер || Vento || Viento || Rüzgar || Vind |- | ሰረፍሪፈት || عاصفة || Storm || Tempête || Sturm || Шторм || Tempestade || Tormenta || Fırtına || Storm |- | ሀዱድ || رعد || Thunder || Tonnerre || Donner || Гром || Trovão || Trueno || Gök Gürültüsü || Åska |- | በርቅ || برق || Lightning || Éclair || Blitz || Молния || Relâmpago || Relâmpago || Şimşek || Blixt |- | ቀሽ / ክራር ፋጥነ ነቢ || قوس قزح || Rainbow || Arc-en-ciel || Regenbogen || Радуга || Arco-íris || Arcoíris || Gökkuşağı || Regnbåge |- | ጥሉል || رطب || Wet || Humide || Nass || Влажный || Úmido || Húmedo || Islak || Våt |- | ያብስ || جاف || Dry || Sec || Trocken || Сухой || Seco || Seco || Kuru || Torr |} === Exercise === 1. How do you say "It is hot today" in Tigre? 2. Say in Tigre: Today is cloudy. 3. What is the Tigre word for rain? == Lesson 3: Nature == In this lesson, we learn words for nature. Trees, rivers, mountains, and the sky. Example: The mountain is big. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ጠቢዐት || طبيعة || Nature || Nature || Natur || Природа || Natureza || Naturaleza || Doğa || Natur |- | ዕጨት || شجرة || Tree || Arbre || Baum || Дерево || Árvore || Árbol || Ağaç || Träd |- | ቀጥፈት || ورقة || Leaf || Feuille || Blatt || Лист || Folha || Hoja || Yaprak || Blad |- | ዕንቦበ / ፍዮሪተት / ፍርሄ || زهرة || Flower || Fleur || Blume || Цветок || Flor || Flor || Çiçek || Blomma |- | ሰዐር || عشب || Grass || Herbe || Gras || Трава || Grama || Hierba || Ot || Gräs |- | ደብዐት || غابة || Forest || Forêt || Wald || Лес || Floresta || Bosque || Orman || Skog |- | ደብር || جبل || Mountain || Montagne || Berg || Гора || Montanha || Montaña || Dağ || Berg |- | ወደግ || وادي || Valley || Vallée || Tal || Долина || Vale || Valle || Vadi || Dal |- | መሓዝ || نهر || River || Rivière || Fluss || Река || Rio || Río || Nehir || Flod |- | በሐር || بحر || Sea || Mer || Meer || Море || Mar || Mar || Deniz || Hav |- | መራት || بحيرة || Lake || Lac || See || Озеро || Lago || Lago || Göl || Sjö |- | ጀዚረት || جزيرة || Island || Île || Insel || Остров || Ilha || Isla || Ada || Ö |- | ባዶግ / ባዶብ || صحراء || Desert || Désert || Wüste || Пустыня || Deserto || Desierto || Çöl || Öken |- | ጨበል || تراب || Soil || Terre || Erde || Почва || Terra || Tierra || Toprak || Jord |- | እበን / እመን || حجر || Stone || Pierre || Stein || Камень || Pedra || Piedra || Taş || Sten |- | ሖጸ || رمل || Sand || Sable || Sand || Песок || Areia || Arena || Kum || Sand |- | ሰመ / ዐስተር || سماء || Sky || Ciel || Himmel || Небо || Céu || Cielo || Gökyüzü || Himmel |- | ምድር/አርድ || أرض || Earth || Terre || Erde || Земля || Terra || Tierra || Yeryüzü || Jord |- | ወርሕ || قمر || Moon || Lune || Mond || Луна || Lua || Luna || Ay || Måne |- | ጸሓይ || شمس || Sun || Soleil || Sonne || Солнце || Sol || Sol || Güneş || Sol |- | ኮከብ || نجمة || Star || Étoile || Stern || Звезда || Estrela || Estrella || Yıldız || Stjärna |} === Exercise === 1. Say in Tigre: The tree is green. 2. What is the Tigre word for river? 3. Say in Tigre: The sun is yellow. == Lesson 4: The Body == Learn the parts of the body in Tigre. Point to each part and say the word. Example: This is my head.እሊ ረአሼ ቱ ። {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ገሮብ || الجسم || Body || Corps || Körper || Тело || Corpo || Cuerpo || Vücut || Kropp |- | ረአስ || رأس || Head || Tête || Kopf || Голова || Cabeça || Cabeza || Baş || Huvud |- | ገጽ || وجه || Face || Visage || Gesicht || Лицо || Rosto || Cara || Yüz || Ansikte |- | ዕን || عين || Eye || Oeil || Auge || Глаз || Olho || Ojo || Göz || Öga |- | እዝን || أذن || Ear || Oreille || Ohr || Ухо || Orelha || Oreja || Kulak || Öra |- | ኣንፍ || أنف || Nose || Nez || Nase || Нос || Nariz || Nariz || Burun || Näsa |- | አፍ || فم || Mouth || Bouche || Mund || Рот || Boca || Boca || Ağız || Mun |- | አንያብ / አንጃብ || أسنان || Teeth || Dents || Zähne || Зубы || Dentes || Dientes || Dişler || Tänder |- | ንሳል / ልሳን || لسان || Tongue || Langue || Zunge || Язык || Língua || Lengua || Dil || Tunga |- | ጭገር || شعر || Hair || Cheveux || Haare || Волосы || Cabelo || Pelo || Saç || Hår |- | ስጋድ / ጽጋድ / ዐረድ / ወሪድ || رقبة || Neck || Cou || Hals || Шея || Pescoço || Cuello || Boyun || Hals |- | ፎቃይ / መርከብ || كتف || Shoulder || Épaule || Schulter || Плечо || Ombro || Hombro || Omuz || Axel |- | እዴ || يد || Hand || Main || Hand || Рука || Mão || Mano || El || Hand |- | ጭብዕት || إصبع || Finger || Doigt || Finger || Палец || Dedo || Dedo || Parmak || Finger |- | ድርጽ / ከብድ || بطن || Belly || Ventre || Bauch || Живот || Barriga || Barriga || Karın || Mage |- | ዔጻት / || ظهر || Back || Dos || Rücken || Спина || Costas || Espalda || Sırt || Rygg |- | ዕቅብ || رجل || Leg || Jambe || Bein || Нога || Perna || Pierna || Bacak || Ben |- | እግር || قدم || Foot || Pied || Fuß || Стопа || Pé || Pie || Ayak || Fot |- | ልብ || قلب || Heart || Coeur || Herz || Сердце || Coração || Corazón || Kalp || Hjärta |- | ደም || دم || Blood || Sang || Blut || Кровь || Sangue || Sangre || Kan || Blod |- | ዓጭም / ዐጽም || عظم || Bone || Os || Knochen || Кость || Osso || Hueso || Kemik || Ben |- | ቀርበት / ገኖበት || جلد || Skin || Peau || Haut || Кожа || Pele || Piel || Deri || Hud |} === Exercise === 1. Say in Tigre: This is my eye. እለ ዕንቼ ተ ። 2. What is the Tigre word for hand? እዴ 3. Say in Tigre: My heart is happy.ልብዬ ፋርሕ ሀለ ። == Lesson 5: Feelings == Learn how to say how you feel in Tigre. Example: I am happy today. አነ ዮመቴ ፋርሕ ህሌኮ ። {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | አሓሲስ || مشاعر || Feelings || Sentiments || Gefühle || Чувства || Sentimentos || Sentimientos || Duygular || Känslor |- | ፍቲ / ሻም || حب || Love || Amour || Liebe || Любовь || Amor || Amor || Sevgi || Kärlek |- | አበ / አ'በ || كره || Hate || Haine || Hass || Ненависть || Ódio || Odio || Nefret || Hat |- | ፈርሐት || فرح || Joy || Joie || Freude || Радость || Alegria || Alegría || Sevinç || Glädje |- | ቀጡብ / ቀጽብ || غضب || Anger || Colère || Wut || Гнев || Raiva || Ira || Öfke || Ilska |- | ፈርሀት || خوف || Fear || Peur || Angst || Страх || Medo || Miedo || Korku || Rädsla |- | ክጅል || خجل || Shame || Honte || Scham || Стыд || Vergonha || Vergüenza || Utanç || Blyghet |- | ሰእየት || أمل || Hope || Espoir || Hoffnung || Надежда || Esperança || Esperanza || Umut || Hopp |- | ሕልም || حلم || Dream || Rêve || Traum || Мечта || Sonho || Sueño || Rüya || Dröm |} === Exercise === 1. How do you say "I love you" in Tigre? "አነ እፈቴከ M አነ እፈቴኪ F 2. Say in Tigre: I am afraid. አነ እፈርህ ህሌኮ ። 3. What is the Tigre word for dream? ሕልም == Lesson 6: Daily Actions == In this lesson, we learn what we do every day. Use these verbs to talk about yesterday and today. Example: Yesterday I ate. ማሌ በልዐኮ ። Today I drink. ዮም ሰቴኮ ። {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | አምዕላይ ውዳይ || أفعال يومية || Daily Actions || Actions Quotidiennes || Tägliche Handlungen || Ежедневные Действия || Ações Diárias || Acciones Diarias || Günlük Eylemler || Dagliga Handlingar |- | በልዐ || أكل || Ate || A Mangé || Aß || Ел || Comeu || Comió || Yedi || Åt |- | ሰተ || شرب || Drank || A Bu || Trank || Пил || Bebeu || Bebió || İçti || Drack |- | ሰክበ || نام || Slept || A Dormi || Schlief || Спал || Dormiu || Durmió || Uyudu || Sov |- | ፈዝዐ || استيقظ || Woke Up || S'est Réveillé || Wachte Auf || Проснулся || Acordou || Despertó || Uyandı || Vaknade |- | ጌሰ || مشى || Walked || A Marché || Ging || Шёл || Caminhou || Caminó || Yürüdü || Gick |- | ሰዐ || جرى || Ran || A Couru || Rannte || Бежал || Correu || Corrió || Koştu || Sprang |- | ትገሰ || جلس || Sat || S'est Assis || Saß || Сидел || Sentou || Se Sentó || Oturdu || Satt |- | በጥረ || وقف || Stood || S'est Levé || Stand || Стоял || Ficou Em Pé || Se Puso De Pie || Ayakta Durdu || Stod |- | ተሃገ || تكلم || Spoke || A Parlé || Sprach || Говорил || Falou || Habló || Konuştu || Talade |- | ሰምዐ || سمع || Heard || A Entendu || Hörte || Слышал || Ouviu || Oyó || Duydu || Hörde |- | ረአ || رأى || Saw || A Vu || Sah || Видел || Viu || Vio || Gördü || Såg |- | ቀርአ || قرأ || Read || A Lu || Las || Читал || Leu || Leyó || Okudu || Läste |- | ከትበ || كتب || Wrote || A Écrit || Schrieb || Писал || Escreveu || Escribió || Yazdı || Skrev |- | ትሰቀ || ضحك || Laughed || A Ri || Lachte || Смеялся || Riu || Rió || Güldü || Skrattade |- | በከ || بكى || Cried || A Pleuré || Weinte || Плакал || Chorou || Lloró || Ağladı || Grät |- | ተልሀ || لعب || Played || A Joué || Spielte || Играл || Jogou || Jugó || Oynadı || Lekde |- | ሸቀ || عمل || Worked || A Travaillé || Arbeitete || Работал || Trabalhou || Trabajó || Çalıştı || Arbetade |- | ፈተ || أحب || Loved || A Aimé || Liebte || Любил || Amou || Amó || Sevdi || Älskade |- | ሰደ || ساعد || Helped || A Aidé || Half || Помог || Ajudou || Ayudó || Yardım Etti || Hjälpte |} === Exercise === 1. Say in Tigre: Yesterday I walked. ማሌ ጊስኮ ። 2. What is the Tigre word for "I read"? እቀርእ ። 3. Say in Tigre: Today I work. ዮም እሸቄ ህሌኮ ። {{shelves}} ofxwgei0uokywbpx8pb8myzfas3n47u 4681650 4681649 2026-11-11T16:42:46Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 /* Lesson 2: Weather */ Added Tigre Example sentence 4681650 wikitext text/x-wiki == Lesson 1: Colors == In Tigre, we use colors to describe things. Look at the table, read the Tigre word, and repeat it. Example: The sky is blue. In Tigre: ሕብር ሰመ ህርዲ ቱ ። ሰመ = sky ህርዲ = blue {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ሕብር || لون || Color || Couleur || Farbe || Цвет || Cor || Color || Renk || Färg |- | ቀይሕ || أحمر || Red || Rouge || Rot || Красный || Vermelho || Rojo || Kırmızı || Röd |- | ሰዐርሰዐሮ || أخضر || Green || Vert || Grün || Зелёный || Verde || Verde || Yeşil || Grön |- | ህርዲ || أزرق || Blue || Bleu || Blau || Синий || Azul || Azul || Mavi || Blå |- | ሸግራይ || أصفر || Yellow || Jaune || Gelb || Жёлтый || Amarelo || Amarillo || Sarı || Gul |- | ጸዕደ || أبيض || White || Blanc || Weiß || Белый || Branco || Blanco || Beyaz || Vit |- | ጸሊም || أسود || Black || Noir || Schwarz || Чёрный || Preto || Negro || Siyah || Svart |- | ዘህሪ || وردي || Pink || Rose || Rosa || Розовый || Rosa || Rosa || Pembe || Rosa |- | ቡናይ || بني || Brown || Marron || Braun || Коричневый || Marrom || Marrón || Kahverengi || Brun |- | ጨብላይ || رمادي || Gray || Gris || Grau || Серый || Cinza || Gris || Gri || Grå |- | ብርትቃሊ || برتقالي || Orange || Orange || Orange || Оранжевый || Laranja || Naranja || Turuncu || Orange |- | ሕልዉይ || بنفسجي || Purple || Violet || Lila || Фиолетовый || Roxo || Morado || Mor || Lila |- | ደህባይ || ذهبي || Golden || Doré || Golden || Золотой || Dourado || Dorado || Altın || Gyllene |- | ወርቅ || فضي || Silver || Argenté || Silber || Серебряный || Prateado || Plateado || Gümüş || Silver |} === Exercise === 1. What is the color of the sun in Tigre? ሸግራይ 2. Say in Tigre: This book is red. እሊ ክታብ ቀይሕ ቱ ። 3. Say in Tigre: The door is white. እሊ ባብ ጸዕደ ቱ ። == Lesson 2: Weather == In Tigre, we talk about the weather every day. Learn these words and use them to describe today. Example: Today is sunny. ዮም ቃውዐት ህሌት ። {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ሓለት ጅው || الطقس || Weather || Météo || Wetter || Погода || Clima || Clima || Hava Durumu || Väder |- | ሕፉን || حار || Hot || Chaud || Heiß || Жаркий || Quente || Caliente || Sıcak || Varm |- | ብሩድ || بارد || Cold || Froid || Kalt || Холодный || Frio || Frío || Soğuk || Kall |- | ቃውዕ || مشمس || Sunny || Ensoleillé || Sonnig || Солнечный || Ensolarado || Soleado || Güneşli || Solig |- | ጉዩም || غائم || Cloudy || Nuageux || Bewölkt || Облачный || Nublado || Nublado || Bulutlu || Molnig |- | ዘልም || ممطر || Rainy || Pluvieux || Regnerisch || Дождливый || Chuvoso || Lluvioso || Yağmurlu || Regnig |- | በረድ || ثلج || Snow || Neige || Schnee || Снег || Neve || Nieve || Kar || Snö |- | ወልወል || ريح || Wind || Vent || Wind || Ветер || Vento || Viento || Rüzgar || Vind |- | ሰረፍሪፈት || عاصفة || Storm || Tempête || Sturm || Шторм || Tempestade || Tormenta || Fırtına || Storm |- | ሀዱድ || رعد || Thunder || Tonnerre || Donner || Гром || Trovão || Trueno || Gök Gürültüsü || Åska |- | በርቅ || برق || Lightning || Éclair || Blitz || Молния || Relâmpago || Relâmpago || Şimşek || Blixt |- | ቀሽ / ክራር ፋጥነ ነቢ || قوس قزح || Rainbow || Arc-en-ciel || Regenbogen || Радуга || Arco-íris || Arcoíris || Gökkuşağı || Regnbåge |- | ጥሉል || رطب || Wet || Humide || Nass || Влажный || Úmido || Húmedo || Islak || Våt |- | ያብስ || جاف || Dry || Sec || Trocken || Сухой || Seco || Seco || Kuru || Torr |} === Exercise === 1. How do you say "It is hot today" in Tigre? 2. Say in Tigre: Today is cloudy. 3. What is the Tigre word for rain? == Lesson 3: Nature == In this lesson, we learn words for nature. Trees, rivers, mountains, and the sky. Example: The mountain is big. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ጠቢዐት || طبيعة || Nature || Nature || Natur || Природа || Natureza || Naturaleza || Doğa || Natur |- | ዕጨት || شجرة || Tree || Arbre || Baum || Дерево || Árvore || Árbol || Ağaç || Träd |- | ቀጥፈት || ورقة || Leaf || Feuille || Blatt || Лист || Folha || Hoja || Yaprak || Blad |- | ዕንቦበ / ፍዮሪተት / ፍርሄ || زهرة || Flower || Fleur || Blume || Цветок || Flor || Flor || Çiçek || Blomma |- | ሰዐር || عشب || Grass || Herbe || Gras || Трава || Grama || Hierba || Ot || Gräs |- | ደብዐት || غابة || Forest || Forêt || Wald || Лес || Floresta || Bosque || Orman || Skog |- | ደብር || جبل || Mountain || Montagne || Berg || Гора || Montanha || Montaña || Dağ || Berg |- | ወደግ || وادي || Valley || Vallée || Tal || Долина || Vale || Valle || Vadi || Dal |- | መሓዝ || نهر || River || Rivière || Fluss || Река || Rio || Río || Nehir || Flod |- | በሐር || بحر || Sea || Mer || Meer || Море || Mar || Mar || Deniz || Hav |- | መራት || بحيرة || Lake || Lac || See || Озеро || Lago || Lago || Göl || Sjö |- | ጀዚረት || جزيرة || Island || Île || Insel || Остров || Ilha || Isla || Ada || Ö |- | ባዶግ / ባዶብ || صحراء || Desert || Désert || Wüste || Пустыня || Deserto || Desierto || Çöl || Öken |- | ጨበል || تراب || Soil || Terre || Erde || Почва || Terra || Tierra || Toprak || Jord |- | እበን / እመን || حجر || Stone || Pierre || Stein || Камень || Pedra || Piedra || Taş || Sten |- | ሖጸ || رمل || Sand || Sable || Sand || Песок || Areia || Arena || Kum || Sand |- | ሰመ / ዐስተር || سماء || Sky || Ciel || Himmel || Небо || Céu || Cielo || Gökyüzü || Himmel |- | ምድር/አርድ || أرض || Earth || Terre || Erde || Земля || Terra || Tierra || Yeryüzü || Jord |- | ወርሕ || قمر || Moon || Lune || Mond || Луна || Lua || Luna || Ay || Måne |- | ጸሓይ || شمس || Sun || Soleil || Sonne || Солнце || Sol || Sol || Güneş || Sol |- | ኮከብ || نجمة || Star || Étoile || Stern || Звезда || Estrela || Estrella || Yıldız || Stjärna |} === Exercise === 1. Say in Tigre: The tree is green. 2. What is the Tigre word for river? 3. Say in Tigre: The sun is yellow. == Lesson 4: The Body == Learn the parts of the body in Tigre. Point to each part and say the word. Example: This is my head.እሊ ረአሼ ቱ ። {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | ገሮብ || الجسم || Body || Corps || Körper || Тело || Corpo || Cuerpo || Vücut || Kropp |- | ረአስ || رأس || Head || Tête || Kopf || Голова || Cabeça || Cabeza || Baş || Huvud |- | ገጽ || وجه || Face || Visage || Gesicht || Лицо || Rosto || Cara || Yüz || Ansikte |- | ዕን || عين || Eye || Oeil || Auge || Глаз || Olho || Ojo || Göz || Öga |- | እዝን || أذن || Ear || Oreille || Ohr || Ухо || Orelha || Oreja || Kulak || Öra |- | ኣንፍ || أنف || Nose || Nez || Nase || Нос || Nariz || Nariz || Burun || Näsa |- | አፍ || فم || Mouth || Bouche || Mund || Рот || Boca || Boca || Ağız || Mun |- | አንያብ / አንጃብ || أسنان || Teeth || Dents || Zähne || Зубы || Dentes || Dientes || Dişler || Tänder |- | ንሳል / ልሳን || لسان || Tongue || Langue || Zunge || Язык || Língua || Lengua || Dil || Tunga |- | ጭገር || شعر || Hair || Cheveux || Haare || Волосы || Cabelo || Pelo || Saç || Hår |- | ስጋድ / ጽጋድ / ዐረድ / ወሪድ || رقبة || Neck || Cou || Hals || Шея || Pescoço || Cuello || Boyun || Hals |- | ፎቃይ / መርከብ || كتف || Shoulder || Épaule || Schulter || Плечо || Ombro || Hombro || Omuz || Axel |- | እዴ || يد || Hand || Main || Hand || Рука || Mão || Mano || El || Hand |- | ጭብዕት || إصبع || Finger || Doigt || Finger || Палец || Dedo || Dedo || Parmak || Finger |- | ድርጽ / ከብድ || بطن || Belly || Ventre || Bauch || Живот || Barriga || Barriga || Karın || Mage |- | ዔጻት / || ظهر || Back || Dos || Rücken || Спина || Costas || Espalda || Sırt || Rygg |- | ዕቅብ || رجل || Leg || Jambe || Bein || Нога || Perna || Pierna || Bacak || Ben |- | እግር || قدم || Foot || Pied || Fuß || Стопа || Pé || Pie || Ayak || Fot |- | ልብ || قلب || Heart || Coeur || Herz || Сердце || Coração || Corazón || Kalp || Hjärta |- | ደም || دم || Blood || Sang || Blut || Кровь || Sangue || Sangre || Kan || Blod |- | ዓጭም / ዐጽም || عظم || Bone || Os || Knochen || Кость || Osso || Hueso || Kemik || Ben |- | ቀርበት / ገኖበት || جلد || Skin || Peau || Haut || Кожа || Pele || Piel || Deri || Hud |} === Exercise === 1. Say in Tigre: This is my eye. እለ ዕንቼ ተ ። 2. What is the Tigre word for hand? እዴ 3. Say in Tigre: My heart is happy.ልብዬ ፋርሕ ሀለ ። == Lesson 5: Feelings == Learn how to say how you feel in Tigre. Example: I am happy today. አነ ዮመቴ ፋርሕ ህሌኮ ። {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | አሓሲስ || مشاعر || Feelings || Sentiments || Gefühle || Чувства || Sentimentos || Sentimientos || Duygular || Känslor |- | ፍቲ / ሻም || حب || Love || Amour || Liebe || Любовь || Amor || Amor || Sevgi || Kärlek |- | አበ / አ'በ || كره || Hate || Haine || Hass || Ненависть || Ódio || Odio || Nefret || Hat |- | ፈርሐት || فرح || Joy || Joie || Freude || Радость || Alegria || Alegría || Sevinç || Glädje |- | ቀጡብ / ቀጽብ || غضب || Anger || Colère || Wut || Гнев || Raiva || Ira || Öfke || Ilska |- | ፈርሀት || خوف || Fear || Peur || Angst || Страх || Medo || Miedo || Korku || Rädsla |- | ክጅል || خجل || Shame || Honte || Scham || Стыд || Vergonha || Vergüenza || Utanç || Blyghet |- | ሰእየት || أمل || Hope || Espoir || Hoffnung || Надежда || Esperança || Esperanza || Umut || Hopp |- | ሕልም || حلم || Dream || Rêve || Traum || Мечта || Sonho || Sueño || Rüya || Dröm |} === Exercise === 1. How do you say "I love you" in Tigre? "አነ እፈቴከ M አነ እፈቴኪ F 2. Say in Tigre: I am afraid. አነ እፈርህ ህሌኮ ። 3. What is the Tigre word for dream? ሕልም == Lesson 6: Daily Actions == In this lesson, we learn what we do every day. Use these verbs to talk about yesterday and today. Example: Yesterday I ate. ማሌ በልዐኮ ። Today I drink. ዮም ሰቴኮ ። {| class="wikitable" |- ! Tigre !! العربية !! English !! Français !! Deutsch !! Русский !! Português !! Español !! Türkçe !! Svenska |- | አምዕላይ ውዳይ || أفعال يومية || Daily Actions || Actions Quotidiennes || Tägliche Handlungen || Ежедневные Действия || Ações Diárias || Acciones Diarias || Günlük Eylemler || Dagliga Handlingar |- | በልዐ || أكل || Ate || A Mangé || Aß || Ел || Comeu || Comió || Yedi || Åt |- | ሰተ || شرب || Drank || A Bu || Trank || Пил || Bebeu || Bebió || İçti || Drack |- | ሰክበ || نام || Slept || A Dormi || Schlief || Спал || Dormiu || Durmió || Uyudu || Sov |- | ፈዝዐ || استيقظ || Woke Up || S'est Réveillé || Wachte Auf || Проснулся || Acordou || Despertó || Uyandı || Vaknade |- | ጌሰ || مشى || Walked || A Marché || Ging || Шёл || Caminhou || Caminó || Yürüdü || Gick |- | ሰዐ || جرى || Ran || A Couru || Rannte || Бежал || Correu || Corrió || Koştu || Sprang |- | ትገሰ || جلس || Sat || S'est Assis || Saß || Сидел || Sentou || Se Sentó || Oturdu || Satt |- | በጥረ || وقف || Stood || S'est Levé || Stand || Стоял || Ficou Em Pé || Se Puso De Pie || Ayakta Durdu || Stod |- | ተሃገ || تكلم || Spoke || A Parlé || Sprach || Говорил || Falou || Habló || Konuştu || Talade |- | ሰምዐ || سمع || Heard || A Entendu || Hörte || Слышал || Ouviu || Oyó || Duydu || Hörde |- | ረአ || رأى || Saw || A Vu || Sah || Видел || Viu || Vio || Gördü || Såg |- | ቀርአ || قرأ || Read || A Lu || Las || Читал || Leu || Leyó || Okudu || Läste |- | ከትበ || كتب || Wrote || A Écrit || Schrieb || Писал || Escreveu || Escribió || Yazdı || Skrev |- | ትሰቀ || ضحك || Laughed || A Ri || Lachte || Смеялся || Riu || Rió || Güldü || Skrattade |- | በከ || بكى || Cried || A Pleuré || Weinte || Плакал || Chorou || Lloró || Ağladı || Grät |- | ተልሀ || لعب || Played || A Joué || Spielte || Играл || Jogou || Jugó || Oynadı || Lekde |- | ሸቀ || عمل || Worked || A Travaillé || Arbeitete || Работал || Trabalhou || Trabajó || Çalıştı || Arbetade |- | ፈተ || أحب || Loved || A Aimé || Liebte || Любил || Amou || Amó || Sevdi || Älskade |- | ሰደ || ساعد || Helped || A Aidé || Half || Помог || Ajudou || Ayudó || Yardım Etti || Hjälpte |} === Exercise === 1. Say in Tigre: Yesterday I walked. ማሌ ጊስኮ ። 2. What is the Tigre word for "I read"? እቀርእ ። 3. Say in Tigre: Today I work. ዮም እሸቄ ህሌኮ ። {{shelves}} sun422sva4jvhy8twkgp5riug3lyo6j 2 487079 4681644 4681207 2026-11-11T16:29:51Z Narasimham Hanumanthu 3630160 4681644 wikitext text/x-wiki = Embedded Systems in Automotive Technology = Embedded system is a computer based electronic system designed to perform a specific function with a larger system. It generally consists of hardware and software working together to monitor ,control, and perform specific operations. Unlike general purpose computers, embedded systems are designed dedicated applications and often need to operate reliably in real time. [Figure: A typical embedded system, made of sensors, a controller and actuators] Automobiles are one of the major applications of embedded systems. Modern vehicles contain numerous electronic systems the controls and monitor different functions of the vehicles. These systems are used in engine management ,braking, airbags, transmission, lighting, climate control, parking assistance, infotainment, and many other applications. Modern automobiles have evolved from mechanical into software driven systems powered by Electronic Control Units (ECUs),sensors, and communication networks. With the rise of electric, connected and autonomous vehicles, embedded systems are now the primary driver of automotive safety, efficiency, and intelligence. \\ image This chapter explains what embedded systems are, how they are built into automotive technology, which hardware, software and networks they use, the mathematics behind their control and sensing, and whare the field is heading . === What to expect from this page: === * Define embedded systems, ECU real time system and RTOS. * Express the Sense, Process, Act architecture of a vehicle ECU. * Compare microcontrollers, microprocessors, DSPs, FPGs, SoCS and AI accelerators. * Explain common automotive sensors, actuators and in vehicle networks(LIN, CAN, FlexRay, Ethernet). * Apply the key formulas: PWM, ADC resolution, wheel speed, fuel injection, ABS slip, CAN bus load, PID , Kalman filtering, radar ranging, real time schedulable and EV range . * Describe AUTOSAR, functional safety (ISO 26262), cybersecurity and power constraints, and future trends. === Introduction to Embedded Systems in Automotive Technology === Embedded systems In automotive technology refers to the combination of dedicated Computing hardware and specialized software built into vehicles To perform sensing data, processing, decision making, communication And control in real time. Picture a car barking on a wet road. Within a few milliseconds the car notices that a wheel is about to lock, reduces the brake pressure on the that and restores it again dozen of times per second, While the driver simply presses the pedal. Now the question arises: how does a vehicle perform these actions faster than any human, and without anyone control It manually? The answer is the integration of embedded systems sensors, processors, control algorithms and intelligence software. Modern cars are no longer just mechanical structures with an engine, they are complex electronic system that collects information from their surroundings, process it make decisions and perform physical actions. An automatic embedded system continuously performs for fundamental operations: * Sensing: Collecting information from the vehicles and its environment using sensors. * Processing: Analysing the collected data information using an embedded processor. * Decision making: Selecting the right action based on algorithms and the current conditions * Actuation: Carrying out the chosen action through injectors, waves, motar and other actuators For example: Consider a car fitted with the Automatic Emergency Braking(AEB) {| class="wikitable" |+ !S.No !Term !Definition |- |1 |Embedded systems |Dedicating computing system built into a larger device to perform specific functions usually with real time and resource constraints |- |2 |ECU(Electronic Control Unit) |An embedded computer in a vehicle that controls one function or a group of functions |- |3 |Microcontroller(MCU) |Small chip containing a CPU Memory peripherals suggest timers ADC and CAN controller |- |4 |Microprocessors (MPU) |A CPU that needs external memory and peripherals and can run a full operating system such as Linux |- |5 |Firmware |Software stored in non volatile memory that runs directly on the embedded hardware. |- |6 |Real Time System |A system proves correctness depends on both the result and the time at which it is produced |- |7 |Hard Real Time |Missing a deadline is a system failure(e.g. Airbag firing, Ignition timing) |- |8 |Soft Real Time |Missing a deadline Digrades quality but it's tolerable(e.g. Infotainment video) |- |9 |RTOS |Real time operating systems that guarantees bounded, predictable task response |- |10 |Sensor |He defies that converts her physical quantity into an electrical signal. |- |11 |Actuator |A device that converts a control signal and energy into physical action. |- |12 |CAN |Controller Area Network, The most widely used in vehicle serial bus |- |13 |AUTOSAR |Automotive Open System Architecture, a Standard software architecture for ECUs |- |14 |ASIL |Automotive Safety integrity level That is risk rating()A to D) defined by ISO 26262 |- |15 |ADAS |Advanced Driver Assistance System Such as An adaptive cruise control and Lane keeping |- |16 |Sebsur fusion |Combining data from several sensors to get a more reliable estimate than any one gives alone |- |17 |OBD |On Board Diagnostics, the standard interferes for reading vehicle fault codes |- |18 |OTA |Over the air Software update delivered wirelessly |- |19 |BMS |Battery management system, that monitors and protects an EV battery pack |- |20 |Latency |Delay between an event (a sensor change) and the system response |- |21 |Jitter |Small variation in the timing of a task that is supposed to repeat at exact intervals |- |22 |HIL |Hardware in the loop testing a real ECU against a simulated vehicle |} Question arises: why do we use embedded systems instead of general PC? To answer this we need to understand the vehicles need low power, Small size low cost Deterministic timings, direct hardware access And the ability to survive heat, Vibration and electrical noises. A desktop operating system cannot guarantee that an ignition or brake control loop runs exactly every millisecond. An embedded controller with RTDS can meet this requirements at low cost. ====== Relationship Between Embedded Systems and Automotive Technology ====== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Embedded Systems !Automotive Technology |- |Process sensor input |Understand the state of engine, vehicles and surroundings |- |Execute firmware |home vehicle functions such as braking and fuel control |- |Control electronic hardware |Control Injectors, valves, motor and lamps |- |Manage communication |Change data between ECUs Over CAN, LIN and Ethernet |- |Handle real time operations |Respond instantly to driver and road conditions |} Embedded system provide the computational intelligence that lets a vehicle turns sensor information into physical actions. ===== The Sense, Process, Act Architecture ===== Almost every automat ECU works in a repeating cycle. It first senses the vehicle and its surroundings, then process the information using stored software and finally acts on it by actuators. \\image The controller is the core of everything. Signals from the sensors are filtered and converted into numbers which the controller processes using its control software to stop the output leaves as power signals for the actuators. the actuators affect the vehicle, the sensors detect the change, and the cycle begins again. ====== <big>Hardware of the vehicle brain</big> ====== Hardware of an ECU is a mix of processor, memory, sensor, actuator and the circuits that connect them. Each part is chosen to match the speed power and cost needs of its job. <big>Processing platforms</big> No single chip is best for every task kamassoya vehicle combines several types of chips. A small MCU handles fast engine brake control, while a stronger processor or an AI chip Handles vision and planning. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Platform !Strengths !Weaknesses !Typical automotive use |- |MCU |Low power, low cost predictable, timing many built in peripheral |Limited Speed and memory |Engine break, body control |- |MPU or application processor |Runs Linux or QNX, plenty of memory |less predictable timing, more power |Infotainment, domain controller |- |DSP [digital signal processor ] |Very fasted repeated multiply and add maths |Narrow range of uses |Radar signal processing, audio, filtering |- |FPGA [field programmable gate array) |Many parallel operations, very low delay |Harder to program |Camera pipelines, Perception |- |SoC(system on chip) |CPU, GPU, and NPU on one chip |Complex and costly |ADAS and central computing platforms |} Inside a microcontroller Microcontroller is a complete small computer on one chip. It consists of a processor, memory, peripherals and input output pins, The CPU memory and peripherals are joined by an internal bus , so any of them can exchange data. \\ image ===== Three peripherals ===== * Timers and PWM: Produce precise pulses to control injectors timing ignition and motor speed * DC (analogue to digital converter): Turn says sensors changing voltage into binary numbers the CPU can process. * DMA (direct memory access): Boost data without using the CPU which leaves more time to control code. * Interrupt controller: Lets urgent events such as crankshaft tooth pulse or a crash signal, pause normal code immediately. * EAN / LIN / Ethernet controllers: Tandle communication with other ECUs. * Watchdog timer: Resets the MCU is the software stops responding ====== Memory Types ====== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Memory !Tips data without power? !Use in Vehicles |- |Flash |Yes |Firmware and calibration maps |- |SRAM |No |Variables, stacks and buffers |- |DRAM |No |Large buffers such as camera images |- |EEPROM or FRAM |YES |Fault codes, odometer, learned values |} Sensors sensors are the vehicles senses. some measures the vehicle itself (wheel speed engine temperature) and other measures the surroundings (distance, image). There are several kinds of sensors that the car has to help obtain information about the car itself and that of everything around it. Those sensors will send that information directly to the ECU that controls everything. Those would include wheel speed sensors for the speed and temperature sensors for the heat of the motor and the temperature of the cool. Throttle position sensors and oxygen sensors for the exhaust and the cars themselves. The more new cars have cameras and radars along with ultrasonic sensors and lidars. I've heard that they're designed to help with the anti lock braking of all sorts of things. Radar and camera are particularly used for the application of automatic emergency breaking. In electronic cars the sensor used to the read the current and voltage to get the battery and the motor, data to then and the car decides what to do may be that is what it is made for. The sensors simply give the system that data so that I think is what the sensors primary role is. There could well be other uses but this part is a little clouded with the range that are out there. ====== Actuators and Drivers ====== A common example of an actuator is a device that translates data into physical motion; these devices take data from the ECU (via a sensor) and then translate that piece of data into a physical action – in other words they are a key component of the automotive embedded system's 'Sense, Process, Act' element. The modern actuator will not work from the normal ECU. It is not the Amprage required to operate a modern actuator. A driver circuit is give between the controller and the modern actuator. The driver circuit is give on the wire between the ecu and the actuator. Currently, only a few of these listed automotive actuators have the digital driver context: electronic throttle control actuator motors, airbag ignitors, relays and cooling fans, the ignition coils, the engine power steering control, digital hydraulic brake control modulator, the traction motor, fuel injectors, and cooling fans. The engine control unit, for example, reduces the power needed for a fuel injector. The pump as well as the solenoid valves of the hydraulic brake modulator are controlled by the engine control unit and are supplied with the specified brake pressure. The inverter supplies the prescribed torque for the drive motor of the electric vehicle. H-Bridge It is used to drive a motor as it has four electronic switches to drive a motor. If you close either two switches on the H-bridge, you can brake the motor, reverse the motor, or free-run. PWM – power is turned off and on very quickly in the PWM. A control switch can be used to vary the percentage of time the power is on vs off for any given time. Most objects in your house with control switches such as lamps, solenoid valves, pumps, fans and motors use PWM. Where does the output side of the motor industry so noxes: what makes the output state of the ECU real? For example, applying brakes, steering, putting fuel in, cooling, driving the car. ====== Software of the Vehicle Brain ====== It's all software The entire vehicle is a super-dupper, extremely costly, processor. Software is the code that you're running on the processor, and it takes the input from the sensor and it makes a decision about what to do with it and then that decision is executed through the control of the actuators. Automotive software needs to ensure that data gets to where it should be. The apps software below the computer hardware for an automotive ECU may be grouped into several levels: The most immediate level below the hardware has been designed so that it is easy to provide a separation between the apps software and the hardware. There is a higher level of apps software, the operating-system level. === AUTOSAR === Autosar (AUTomotive Open System ARchitecture) Autosar is an open system architecture for automotive ECUs AutoSAR is a standard for software architecture it defines how software modules should interact. === Programming Languages === C and C++ in real time systems is needed. Use of python in testing and analysis and rapid prototyping of a new design. MATLAB and simulink the application of model based design in the generation of embedded c. === (Realtime) Operating System === There are some times when you might want an ECU with an RTOS, or real time operating system, enabled if you do have some timing requirements in your code. This is done by the RTOS dividing the software into a fixed number of tasks that the scheduler looks at the ready set of tasks to decide which one to run. RTOS as: Tasks, priorities, preemption, semaphore, mutex and queue addressed to the matter from the same instant in which matter is very interested to establish cooperation between two or more parts of a software within the ECU sharing the resources of the processor. === Firmware's Normal Course of Events === The majority of the routines inside the ECUs Firmware are very basic loops; switch on the ECU, run a bunch of self diagnosis / init routines, read the sensors, calc the control action, output to the actuators. Very simple to implement- with one timer/interrupt to execute the faster control functions, and another timer/interrupt to execute the slower control functions. In a fault condition the ECU could be put into a 'safe mode', DTCs recorded, and the function disabled/enabled. Therefore, automotive software acts as the brain of the embedded system. It connects sensors, processors, communication networks and actuators and ensures that vehicle functions operate correctly and within the required time. === Automobile Data Communication Networks === We've a many ECUs in the car these days and they're all communicating with one another – the engine ECU has to be talking to the transmission ECU, the transmission to the steering, to the brakes, to the aircon, to the airbags, etc. These bus networks enabled the ECUs to talk without a lot of wiring to connect all those devices. Communication network is used to minimize cost, vehicle weight and complexity of cabling. Communication technology flux, style, side and practically each design use can differ for various aims. === LIN === LINE a two wire bus PLUS a ground wire LINE Protocol a low cost communication protocol for an optional feature (if equipped) such as memory seats /mirrors/ wipers etc LINE is a one master multi slave network and is intended for low cost low bandwidth applications. === CAN === One more of the most common network within the car - we usually have several ECUs but all these are connected over one single bus that runs throughout the whole CAN network (and very commonly CAN bus runs from power train to the body and chassis controllers). === CAN FD === CAN flexible data-rate upgrade CAN, a new protocol CAN FD (Flexible Data-rate), due to the higher baud rate of the data phase. The new specifications, modern cars today require the CAN FD with data communication bandwidth increased. === Flex Ray === Flex Ray high speed bus All safety critical vehicle applications requiring high data rate communication, e.g. chassis, control. === Automotive Ethernet === Use cases have already been for Ethernet higher bandwidths as well Cameras, ADAS and Infotainment. Basic body functions are candidate for LIN More complex body functions in control are candidate for CAN or CAN FD Any high bandwidth camera for ADAS is candidate for Automotive Ethernet. The purpose of the network is to function as the communication bus between the embedded systems of a vehicle in order to exchange data and to synchronise the execution of both embedded systems. === Automobiles Depend on Embedded Devices === All main sub-systems are embedded mode in a machine. There will be embedded some of which including the devices, device is an important safety device, The vehicle systems that electric car machine, digital systems, information entertainment, Of course, some embedded devices that can accept which all about the information of Am pace, Si, the force. === Powertrain === Like mentioned with the name, an Embedded System can be used also for engine control system of your car. It can take the input from the sensors fitted in the car and then that data is used for controlling the fuel injection system, ignition system and other control of engine for more efficient use of fuel and engine. -The work aids (controllers) along with the work of the motor that show the gear and the working of the gear box. -They analyze the present condition of the machine and on off the correspondent order to operate. === Brakes & Chassis === Role of the embedded system for the supervision of the set of chassis and of the equipment of braking The ABS (Anti-lock Brake System, anti-break of drive when braking) uses sensors of the speed of wheel to know if one of the wheels is consequently of to lock when braking. This information is then communicated to the computer of the vehicle that engaged the process of braking. Knowing instances of the vehicle's disrepair is able to test and also demand as necessary. EPS (electric motor vehicle power) ready to go complying with if a home or collection of residential properties, on the run along with to the cars and truck, may be present at any moment, with a discreet electric motor. === Passive Safety === It's all about the crash sensors, seat-belt pretensioners and airbags we've fitted so they protect us if we crash. We detect the car's environment, and check for our imminent crash seconds - this information is passed to a safety controller that decides whether the vehicle should be told to deploy. Once the conditions specified by the software are met, the controller is then equipped with safety equipment. Because it is safety critical, the hardware needs to be reliable, the software thoroughly tested and the computers fast. === Body Electronics === Others, of course, are key to comfort and convenience and are controlled by these electrical control units inside the vehicle: lights, door locks, windows, seats, mirrors and air conditioning. Because the control system isn't safety critical the low cost systems would still need the links to communicate between the electronic units. Using the lowest cost network communication protocols, the protocol bodies could be implemented onto the LIN network and CAN could be used to communicate the more safety critical vehicle control units. === Advanced Driver Assistance Systems === System which can got the on-board sensors for taking the safety of Driving to next level and makes it possible for the driver to do the task of driving. For eg: Automatic Emergency Braking, Lane Control etc. The computer is then receiving the information (which was calculated from all the information from the camera, radar and sensing units (see above)), from the sensors to the computer. The computer then will process the information and act on the drivers situation. The object's range or range rate is visible on the radar but the class of object can be seen on the camera. This can then be sent to the ADAS controller which can then request a brake to try and avoid a collision. === Electric Vehicles === The other is that the EV monitor inside your systems, that system is only, that system under control supports the BMS or whatever you call that single support under charge support that battery. The human body, the inverter and the engine from the car. This is in charge of obtaining what must be achieved on the ability in an effort to get to the motor to generate the torque wanted to rotate the wheels. === Infotainment & Telematics === Powertrain, which is available in the new generation Infotainment and connectivity Infotainment is a term used to describe content and operation of hardware and software in a vehicle that entertains and informs. Third-party services e.g. enabled by a telematic system Automotive systems (e.g. Remote diagnostic function, OTA) offer the possibility of additional functions. Communication systems (e.g. High-bandwidth communication e.g. Automotive Ethernet) are increasingly gaining relevance as their use enables very large data streams to be transmitted within the vehicle. === Diagnostics === In addition to low level coding, each system also keeps track of what the other systems in the vehicle are up to, and if you can see a fault. As you've seen before, it's also possible to store a DTC for later use. The common language is the data exchange protocol with the vehicle control unit during diagnosis. Because diagnostics allows the car or vehicle technician for easier test the automobile components and also help make the scheduled maintenance feasible, diagnostics is one aspect that is crucial for developing embedded systems. This is the grand significance of employing embedded systems. Where And Why Are Embedded Systems Used in Vehicles As you might expect, each of the embedded systems are responsible for the various components of the vehicle engine, braking system, battery (for electric vehicles), ADAS, etc. === Safety, Reliability, and Security of Automotive Embedded Systems === Ever wondered what actually happens inside of your car? In the world of embedded automotive systems, automotive safety is king. Electric accidents can be fatal, and any malfunction can compromise the safety and performance of your vehicle as well as its passengers. But what makes automotive systems different from your cell phone? ====== Functional Safety ====== What do we actually need for functional safety? We want our electrical and electronic systems to perform perfectly because, well, we certainly don't want any accidents. There's ISO 26262: the automotive functional safety standard. ISO 26262 specifies the requirements for electrical and electronic systems, including the hazards and risks that need to be managed in safety-critical systems such as braking, steering, or airbags. ====== Automotive Safety Integrity Levels ====== So, let's understand what ASIL really is, and first, what is ISO 26262, which is the automotive safety integrity levels (or ASIL). A failure of a certain severity will be rated on a scale from: ASIL D (the highest safety integrity level) to A (the lowest safety integrity level). The greater the safety level, the more stringent the safety requirements, considering the level of possible injuries, exposure, and systems' ability to restrain or mitigate damage (by the system and the driver). For example: airbag and braking safety-related features tend to have a higher ASIL rating, but less critical features are assigned a lower one. If you don't specify any functional safety requirements for the feature, it will be assigned an ASIL of QM, indicating that it doesn't have one. ====== General Safety Guidelines ====== Here's the bottom line: there are many ways of detecting, and recovering from, faults in a car's ECU. For example, a watchdog timer watches the software as it loads, and if it's not happy, it restarts it. Or consider the lock-step processor approach: two cores perform exactly the same task, and if one drops out, the other will take over seamlessly. Let's talk about modes of operation. So our failsafe and fail-operational modes. Fail-safe -you go to a safe state if a dangerous fault is detected or occurs Fail-operational –the system or at least one part of the system continues to operate independently after a fault memory fault mitigation by hardware fault memory protection and or ECC memory, early stage fault detection with self-tests and diagnostics, message protection techniques (CRCs, counters), message loss detection, etc. It seems complex but in reality it is easier to do, such as when one sensor gives off a different signal than another, then the ECU can just operate with the correct sensor. ====== Reliability ====== Okay, now on to temperature and reliability. Automotive electronics must be of the highest reliability, even in harsh environments. Automotive electronic control units (ECUs) often experience extreme shock and vibration, as well as temperature changes and massive quantities of ON-OFF switching. AEC-Q100 qualified. Let us not forget the other advantages of the ECU system: Should a failure occur, an ECU can deliver a diagnostic trouble code (DTC) which can then be interpreted with any vehicle diagnostics system (OBD II, UDS etc) ====== Cybersecurity ====== Today's car is more connected than it has ever been, now equipped with everything from in-car telematics, Bluetooth, USB connections, diagnostic ports, and infotainment systems. That higher level of connectivity makes your car a hacker's dream. Automotive security is about much more than keeping your car running. It involves securing the data and applications on your car against compromised, alteration or simply by malicious actors. The principles of automotive security include message data proof and authentication. These functions can be used to sign the boot process, sign applications, or check message integrity. This is why we want a sort of automotive firewall which you are aware of, like a gateway firewall. The primary line of protection towards auto hackers makes positive there's a safe go-between within the auto. It simply truly establish limits of what every of the applications can do. When creating embedded systems for cars, take care to maintain an equilibrium of safety, security, and dependability. The safety of your vehicle involves not only its ability to function normally, but also its ability to function properly over the long term and to defend ECUs against cyberpunks. Just bear in mind: your car is all about the safety. ====== Power Management ====== What if power was part of the equation? Power = Heat. For every Watt of power you consume, you generate Heat. And if you happen to be on the electric vehicle side, you're probably losing some capacity or miles per charge. How about having your automotive ECUs be as efficient as possible? Let's break it down: Modern vehicles now have three voltage systems, depending on the technology. A 12V system drives all of the ECUs, lights, infotainment, and others. On the hybrid side, you'll also find 48V for hybrid mild systems, electric components like compressors and active suspensions, and the rest of the electric vehicles (with 400V/800V for the traction battery, inverter, and charge system). ====== Voltage Regulation ====== Let's just say your car's electronics run on a lower voltage than your outlet. Enter: voltage regulators. They ensure that every circuit in your car's electrical system receives the appropriate, consistent voltage it requires. For dropping down a high voltage, the step-down voltage buck regulators are often your best option. If you want a low noise power supply, linear regulators like the LDO are a good choice; but they do so by dissipating the energy at as heat. Why do switching regulators get such a bad rap? ====== Power Efficiency ====== Next, the efficiency. It is the percentage of the input power that makes it to the load. It's simple to calculate using: === η = Pout / Pin === Inside the vehicle, the less resistance you have the better off you are. No one wants to turn energy into waste heat, because that eats away at efficiency. And a boost in heat can stress out electronic components and increase cooling demand. ====== Low-Power Techniques ====== If you've ever seen a modern system, you've seen that there's at least a few techniques for reducing power as much as possible. For example, the ECU can go to sleep then power down after an event. The vehicle's CAN or LIN can be used to send a wake up. Wait, it gets better! Methods that work in smartphones and laptops can do the same for your design - and some tricks may surprise you! Disable sensors or switches when they're not needed. Use clever algorithms in your software, and turn your microcontroller "breathes" (processors) to remain asleep when you don't need to maintain timings and performance. ====== Parked Vehicle Power Consumption ====== Power management is not only concerned with when you switch the ignition on! What about all the items on the interior or other ECUs that use some form of power? They would remain "on", thus bleeding the battery, but most now go to sleep. Suppose the car battery is being drained at 50 mA for ten days. You can estimate the capacity of the battery consumed as follows: Amp-hour capacity used from battery = 0.05 × 24 hours × 10 days = 12 Ah This is how a slow, constant drain can really rack up if your car is parked for an extended period. ====== Dynamic Power ====== Okay, now you're ready to go into calculating the processor dynamic power consumption. And here's how you do it: P = C × V² × f Where C is the effective capacitance, V is the supply voltage, and f is the frequency. Since power varies as the square of the voltage (power = voltage x voltage), you can reduce dynamic power consumption by decreasing the supply voltage. For instance, if you want to maintain a clock frequency unchanged, then reducing the voltage by half would take the dynamic power consumption to one quarter. Each of these power control techniques is directly linked to performance, power and thermal management inside automotive embedded systems. With all of these techniques-smart voltage control, sleep modes, frequency management, low power device, and smart software-modern day vehicles will give you plenty of power with very little waste. Now that's a modern vehicle. ====== Challenges and Emerging Trends ====== Have you been thinking, "why do cars get smarter every year?" Same! With the proliferation of infotainment, modern technology, and a ton of electrics and software in the automotive embedded systems sector, it's getting more and more complex. Yes, the revolution in the automotive industry is happening, and while it seems to be a walk in the park, it isn't. There are challenges involved. === Challenges === Well, what is the major challenge? Simply put: the mad amount of software packed in modern cars. I don't just mean that there are hundreds of ECUs; those ECUs have to interact with – let's say – a mind-boggling amount of other software elements. This poses a tremendous headache to testing and verification, as well as to logistics. Moving on to drawbacks for heat, size, power, cost. Yeah, your car has some pretty spectacular computers, all running at dizzying speeds. But they have their limits. In fact, the main limiting factor is power, and with more power comes extra heat and, ta-da, more cooling costs! But now, a few words about heavy AI workloads (predictability). As an example, you run intense AI workloads such as object recognition. And you run time critical controls as well, to make sure you react quickly. That's a challenge. And then we've got the sensors. They are sensitive beasts - noisy, drifting, or even broken. And being able to read their outputs? Not always straightforward! Not all sensor outputs are reliable, can you tell when your sensors are off? Definitely a skill you'll need to learn! Testing and certification is another real rabbit hole for learning software. It's almost more straightforward with embedded software where we can set the rules of how our code works and behaves, but with the twist of data driven software and machine learning, that's a different ballgame. And we're just not there yet. Safety remains a concern. As automotive technology is getting smarter, it's also getting hackable. They're going to require increasingly sophisticated defenses on many more car modules - not an easy task! Finally, automaker-relevant auto parts have to be extremely reliable, as they need to survive a life of rain, shock, vibration, electrical noise, and fatigue. If reliability were not an important, perhaps even the most important feature to auto makers, auto parts probably wouldn't last long. === Future Trends === So what's next? Zonal architectures are not just a trend; they are definitely going to happen! Instead of each function having multiple ECUs, future vehicles will have one or more computers that connect to systems called "zonal controllers." Less wiring? Absolutely! You don't just have a marvel of hardware-you also have a software wizard on your hands! Sure, car companies are starting to do over-the-air downloads, so you can get new features or updates whenever you want. Wherever you are. Another high priority is fast data transfer. Of course, the Ethernet bus and CAN FD already provide enough bandwidth for vehicles, which is extremely important considering the countless signals and sensors. Why does this matter? This is really cool because this System-on-Chip that will be powering future cars will have CPUs, GPUs, NPUs, and even real-time safety cores to drive control, perception, and decision-making for conventional driving! Crazy right? We're also working to increase other capabilities, like silicon carbide. Recent advancements in 800 V powertrain systems and silicon carbide power electronics are helping us deliver more power in the same package. That's faster charging and more electrical capacity for your car. And don't forget Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) technology! V2X is the ability of vehicles to "talk" to one another and to the roads, creating more extensive data for every trip - with the potential to make our driving safer and smoother. And lastly, there's the AI. Artificial Intelligence is slowly working its way into driver-monitoring systems, using data from cameras and radar, and starting to perceive the road anew. This is where automotive embedded systems are going: toward centralized computing, high-bandwidth communications, software-defined functionalities and, increased dependence on AI. Moving forward, we see the automotive industry heading toward the road of efficiently high-performing, safe, secure, reliable and low-energy vehicles. Are you as excited as me? ====== Summary ====== Ever wondered whether your car can read your mind? Sorry to burst your bubble, but no! But you definitely should know about the technology that's making cars smarter than ever today, called embedded systems. Today's cars are literally full of hundreds of ECUs (embedded computers) that do what they're named for: collect sensor data, analyze it, and activate motors to get where you want to go (and hopefully in style). WORK. ACT. So, here's the plain and simple: automotive embedded systems operate in a very simple manner. They collect sensor information about the environment and the car itself, send this to a controller, and this controller then makes decisions and controls everything from the engine and brakes to driver-assist systems and electric vehicle hardware through actuators. The design (or your design now). It was once largely about software and hardware, but it is more about hardware selection and the networks through which you can connect to the hardware. Microcontrollers are perfect for accurate fast control, while processors, GPGPUs, NPUs and SoCs give you the intelligence of perception and AI systems. And software complexity is already becoming more manageable thanks to AUTOSAR platforms and RTOS. So, how do all these systems work together? Almost every electronic system in your vehicle is linked to the other ECUs in your vehicle using networks like LIN, CAN, CAN FD, Flex Ray, and Automotive Ethernet. Because these connected vehicle networks need to deliver high availability and reliability, the electronic systems are speaking not only to your vehicle, but to you, the driver. What about energy? Vehicles are high-power consumers. A specialized automotive embedded system also is applied to control dissipated heat. So pay attention to the energy efficiency of the energy used, especially for electric vehicles. There you have it! Going forward as vehicles become more autonomous and connected, embedded systems will continue to be a critical part of the world of automotive safety, intelligence, and connectivity. ==== Review Questions ==== Hey there! Want to learn more about systems in a car? Here are some review questions for you to learn some more. 1. What is a microcontroller vs microprocessor? This would be a good time to compare them as to which would be the best for a 1Khz brake control loop. 2. Q5: An ADC has a resolution of 10 bits, a 5 V reference and reads a value of 512, what is the input? 3. A wheel has a 60-tooth tone ring and a 0.32m radius. If the ECU senses 90 pulses in 0.1 sec, how fast is the vehicle travelling? 4. Let's say a cylinder of an engine consumes 0.25 g of air at 14.7 AFR. What would be the injector pulse width if the injector's flow rate is 2.5 mg/ms with 1 ms dead time? 5. May cause integral windup in a control system? How can you prevent it? 6. If you have three tasks of 0.25, 0.30 and 0.20 CPU can Rate Monotonic Scheduling guarantee these tasks? 7. Imagine you have thirty messages with 8 bytes each on the CAN bus sent 50 times a second on a 250 kbit/s bus. Do you think you know the bus load? And do you think that is good enough? 8. What does a watchdog timer do in a car ECU? 9. What ASIL D? Which vehicle operations are mandated to ASIL D safety integrity? 10. And at last, here comes the comparison table with LIN, CAN, Flex Ray and Automotive Ethernet. How do they compare in terms of communication speed, architecture, and automotive application? And that's all! These kinds of questions aren't just for car geeks; these are the questions that are important for knowledge of cars to figure out! ====== References ====== # Navet, N. and Simonot-Lion, F. (eds.), Automotive Embedded Systems Handbook, CRC Press, 2009. # Kamal, R., Embedded Systems: Architecture, Programming and Design, McGraw-Hill. # Zimmermann, W. and Schmidgall, R., Bussysteme in der Fahrzeugtechnik, Springer. # Robert Bosch GmbH, CAN Specification Version 2.0, 1991. # ISO 26262:2018, Road vehicles – Functional safety. # ISO 21448:2022, Road vehicles – Safety of the intended functionality. # ISO/SAE 21434:2021, Road vehicles – Cybersecurity engineering. # UNECE Regulations No. 155 and No. 156. # SAE J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. # AUTOSAR, Official Website, www.autosar.org. 370w5wkq4jd9ik00q8g00fe6lnom6hc 4681647 4681644 2026-11-11T16:32:41Z Narasimham Hanumanthu 3630160 4681647 wikitext text/x-wiki = Embedded Systems in Automotive Technology = Embedded system is a computer based electronic system designed to perform a specific function with a larger system. It generally consists of hardware and software working together to monitor ,control, and perform specific operations. Unlike general purpose computers, embedded systems are designed dedicated applications and often need to operate reliably in real time. [Figure: A typical embedded system, made of sensors, a controller and actuators] Automobiles are one of the major applications of embedded systems. Modern vehicles contain numerous electronic systems the controls and monitor different functions of the vehicles. These systems are used in engine management ,braking, airbags, transmission, lighting, climate control, parking assistance, infotainment, and many other applications. Modern automobiles have evolved from mechanical into software driven systems powered by Electronic Control Units (ECUs),sensors, and communication networks. With the rise of electric, connected and autonomous vehicles, embedded systems are now the primary driver of automotive safety, efficiency, and intelligence. This chapter explains what embedded systems are, how they are built into automotive technology, which hardware, software and networks they use, the mathematics behind their control and sensing, and whare the field is heading . === What to expect from this page: === * Define embedded systems, ECU real time system and RTOS. * Express the Sense, Process, Act architecture of a vehicle ECU. * Compare microcontrollers, microprocessors, DSPs, FPGs, SoCS and AI accelerators. * Explain common automotive sensors, actuators and in vehicle networks(LIN, CAN, FlexRay, Ethernet). * Apply the key formulas: PWM, ADC resolution, wheel speed, fuel injection, ABS slip, CAN bus load, PID , Kalman filtering, radar ranging, real time schedulable and EV range . * Describe AUTOSAR, functional safety (ISO 26262), cybersecurity and power constraints, and future trends. === Introduction to Embedded Systems in Automotive Technology === Embedded systems In automotive technology refers to the combination of dedicated Computing hardware and specialized software built into vehicles To perform sensing data, processing, decision making, communication And control in real time. Picture a car barking on a wet road. Within a few milliseconds the car notices that a wheel is about to lock, reduces the brake pressure on the that and restores it again dozen of times per second, While the driver simply presses the pedal. Now the question arises: how does a vehicle perform these actions faster than any human, and without anyone control It manually? The answer is the integration of embedded systems sensors, processors, control algorithms and intelligence software. Modern cars are no longer just mechanical structures with an engine, they are complex electronic system that collects information from their surroundings, process it make decisions and perform physical actions. An automatic embedded system continuously performs for fundamental operations: * Sensing: Collecting information from the vehicles and its environment using sensors. * Processing: Analysing the collected data information using an embedded processor. * Decision making: Selecting the right action based on algorithms and the current conditions * Actuation: Carrying out the chosen action through injectors, waves, motar and other actuators For example: Consider a car fitted with the Automatic Emergency Braking(AEB) {| class="wikitable" |+ !S.No !Term !Definition |- |1 |Embedded systems |Dedicating computing system built into a larger device to perform specific functions usually with real time and resource constraints |- |2 |ECU(Electronic Control Unit) |An embedded computer in a vehicle that controls one function or a group of functions |- |3 |Microcontroller(MCU) |Small chip containing a CPU Memory peripherals suggest timers ADC and CAN controller |- |4 |Microprocessors (MPU) |A CPU that needs external memory and peripherals and can run a full operating system such as Linux |- |5 |Firmware |Software stored in non volatile memory that runs directly on the embedded hardware. |- |6 |Real Time System |A system proves correctness depends on both the result and the time at which it is produced |- |7 |Hard Real Time |Missing a deadline is a system failure(e.g. Airbag firing, Ignition timing) |- |8 |Soft Real Time |Missing a deadline Digrades quality but it's tolerable(e.g. Infotainment video) |- |9 |RTOS |Real time operating systems that guarantees bounded, predictable task response |- |10 |Sensor |He defies that converts her physical quantity into an electrical signal. |- |11 |Actuator |A device that converts a control signal and energy into physical action. |- |12 |CAN |Controller Area Network, The most widely used in vehicle serial bus |- |13 |AUTOSAR |Automotive Open System Architecture, a Standard software architecture for ECUs |- |14 |ASIL |Automotive Safety integrity level That is risk rating()A to D) defined by ISO 26262 |- |15 |ADAS |Advanced Driver Assistance System Such as An adaptive cruise control and Lane keeping |- |16 |Sebsur fusion |Combining data from several sensors to get a more reliable estimate than any one gives alone |- |17 |OBD |On Board Diagnostics, the standard interferes for reading vehicle fault codes |- |18 |OTA |Over the air Software update delivered wirelessly |- |19 |BMS |Battery management system, that monitors and protects an EV battery pack |- |20 |Latency |Delay between an event (a sensor change) and the system response |- |21 |Jitter |Small variation in the timing of a task that is supposed to repeat at exact intervals |- |22 |HIL |Hardware in the loop testing a real ECU against a simulated vehicle |} Question arises: why do we use embedded systems instead of general PC? To answer this we need to understand the vehicles need low power, Small size low cost Deterministic timings, direct hardware access And the ability to survive heat, Vibration and electrical noises. A desktop operating system cannot guarantee that an ignition or brake control loop runs exactly every millisecond. An embedded controller with RTDS can meet this requirements at low cost. ====== Relationship Between Embedded Systems and Automotive Technology ====== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Embedded Systems !Automotive Technology |- |Process sensor input |Understand the state of engine, vehicles and surroundings |- |Execute firmware |home vehicle functions such as braking and fuel control |- |Control electronic hardware |Control Injectors, valves, motor and lamps |- |Manage communication |Change data between ECUs Over CAN, LIN and Ethernet |- |Handle real time operations |Respond instantly to driver and road conditions |} Embedded system provide the computational intelligence that lets a vehicle turns sensor information into physical actions. ===== The Sense, Process, Act Architecture ===== Almost every automat ECU works in a repeating cycle. It first senses the vehicle and its surroundings, then process the information using stored software and finally acts on it by actuators. The controller is the core of everything. Signals from the sensors are filtered and converted into numbers which the controller processes using its control software to stop the output leaves as power signals for the actuators. the actuators affect the vehicle, the sensors detect the change, and the cycle begins again. ====== <big>Hardware of the vehicle brain</big> ====== Hardware of an ECU is a mix of processor, memory, sensor, actuator and the circuits that connect them. Each part is chosen to match the speed power and cost needs of its job. <big>Processing platforms</big> No single chip is best for every task kamassoya vehicle combines several types of chips. A small MCU handles fast engine brake control, while a stronger processor or an AI chip Handles vision and planning. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Platform !Strengths !Weaknesses !Typical automotive use |- |MCU |Low power, low cost predictable, timing many built in peripheral |Limited Speed and memory |Engine break, body control |- |MPU or application processor |Runs Linux or QNX, plenty of memory |less predictable timing, more power |Infotainment, domain controller |- |DSP [digital signal processor ] |Very fasted repeated multiply and add maths |Narrow range of uses |Radar signal processing, audio, filtering |- |FPGA [field programmable gate array) |Many parallel operations, very low delay |Harder to program |Camera pipelines, Perception |- |SoC(system on chip) |CPU, GPU, and NPU on one chip |Complex and costly |ADAS and central computing platforms |} Inside a microcontroller Microcontroller is a complete small computer on one chip. It consists of a processor, memory, peripherals and input output pins, The CPU memory and peripherals are joined by an internal bus , so any of them can exchange data. ===== Three peripherals ===== * Timers and PWM: Produce precise pulses to control injectors timing ignition and motor speed * DC (analogue to digital converter): Turn says sensors changing voltage into binary numbers the CPU can process. * DMA (direct memory access): Boost data without using the CPU which leaves more time to control code. * Interrupt controller: Lets urgent events such as crankshaft tooth pulse or a crash signal, pause normal code immediately. * EAN / LIN / Ethernet controllers: Tandle communication with other ECUs. * Watchdog timer: Resets the MCU is the software stops responding ====== Memory Types ====== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Memory !Tips data without power? !Use in Vehicles |- |Flash |Yes |Firmware and calibration maps |- |SRAM |No |Variables, stacks and buffers |- |DRAM |No |Large buffers such as camera images |- |EEPROM or FRAM |YES |Fault codes, odometer, learned values |} Sensors sensors are the vehicles senses. some measures the vehicle itself (wheel speed engine temperature) and other measures the surroundings (distance, image). There are several kinds of sensors that the car has to help obtain information about the car itself and that of everything around it. Those sensors will send that information directly to the ECU that controls everything. Those would include wheel speed sensors for the speed and temperature sensors for the heat of the motor and the temperature of the cool. Throttle position sensors and oxygen sensors for the exhaust and the cars themselves. The more new cars have cameras and radars along with ultrasonic sensors and lidars. I've heard that they're designed to help with the anti lock braking of all sorts of things. Radar and camera are particularly used for the application of automatic emergency breaking. In electronic cars the sensor used to the read the current and voltage to get the battery and the motor, data to then and the car decides what to do may be that is what it is made for. The sensors simply give the system that data so that I think is what the sensors primary role is. There could well be other uses but this part is a little clouded with the range that are out there. ====== Actuators and Drivers ====== A common example of an actuator is a device that translates data into physical motion; these devices take data from the ECU (via a sensor) and then translate that piece of data into a physical action – in other words they are a key component of the automotive embedded system's 'Sense, Process, Act' element. The modern actuator will not work from the normal ECU. It is not the Amprage required to operate a modern actuator. A driver circuit is give between the controller and the modern actuator. The driver circuit is give on the wire between the ecu and the actuator. Currently, only a few of these listed automotive actuators have the digital driver context: electronic throttle control actuator motors, airbag ignitors, relays and cooling fans, the ignition coils, the engine power steering control, digital hydraulic brake control modulator, the traction motor, fuel injectors, and cooling fans. The engine control unit, for example, reduces the power needed for a fuel injector. The pump as well as the solenoid valves of the hydraulic brake modulator are controlled by the engine control unit and are supplied with the specified brake pressure. The inverter supplies the prescribed torque for the drive motor of the electric vehicle. H-Bridge It is used to drive a motor as it has four electronic switches to drive a motor. If you close either two switches on the H-bridge, you can brake the motor, reverse the motor, or free-run. PWM – power is turned off and on very quickly in the PWM. A control switch can be used to vary the percentage of time the power is on vs off for any given time. Most objects in your house with control switches such as lamps, solenoid valves, pumps, fans and motors use PWM. Where does the output side of the motor industry so noxes: what makes the output state of the ECU real? For example, applying brakes, steering, putting fuel in, cooling, driving the car. ====== Software of the Vehicle Brain ====== It's all software The entire vehicle is a super-dupper, extremely costly, processor. Software is the code that you're running on the processor, and it takes the input from the sensor and it makes a decision about what to do with it and then that decision is executed through the control of the actuators. Automotive software needs to ensure that data gets to where it should be. The apps software below the computer hardware for an automotive ECU may be grouped into several levels: The most immediate level below the hardware has been designed so that it is easy to provide a separation between the apps software and the hardware. There is a higher level of apps software, the operating-system level. === AUTOSAR === Autosar (AUTomotive Open System ARchitecture) Autosar is an open system architecture for automotive ECUs AutoSAR is a standard for software architecture it defines how software modules should interact. === Programming Languages === C and C++ in real time systems is needed. Use of python in testing and analysis and rapid prototyping of a new design. MATLAB and simulink the application of model based design in the generation of embedded c. === (Realtime) Operating System === There are some times when you might want an ECU with an RTOS, or real time operating system, enabled if you do have some timing requirements in your code. This is done by the RTOS dividing the software into a fixed number of tasks that the scheduler looks at the ready set of tasks to decide which one to run. RTOS as: Tasks, priorities, preemption, semaphore, mutex and queue addressed to the matter from the same instant in which matter is very interested to establish cooperation between two or more parts of a software within the ECU sharing the resources of the processor. === Firmware's Normal Course of Events === The majority of the routines inside the ECUs Firmware are very basic loops; switch on the ECU, run a bunch of self diagnosis / init routines, read the sensors, calc the control action, output to the actuators. Very simple to implement- with one timer/interrupt to execute the faster control functions, and another timer/interrupt to execute the slower control functions. In a fault condition the ECU could be put into a 'safe mode', DTCs recorded, and the function disabled/enabled. Therefore, automotive software acts as the brain of the embedded system. It connects sensors, processors, communication networks and actuators and ensures that vehicle functions operate correctly and within the required time. === Automobile Data Communication Networks === We've a many ECUs in the car these days and they're all communicating with one another – the engine ECU has to be talking to the transmission ECU, the transmission to the steering, to the brakes, to the aircon, to the airbags, etc. These bus networks enabled the ECUs to talk without a lot of wiring to connect all those devices. Communication network is used to minimize cost, vehicle weight and complexity of cabling. Communication technology flux, style, side and practically each design use can differ for various aims. === LIN === LINE a two wire bus PLUS a ground wire LINE Protocol a low cost communication protocol for an optional feature (if equipped) such as memory seats /mirrors/ wipers etc LINE is a one master multi slave network and is intended for low cost low bandwidth applications. === CAN === One more of the most common network within the car - we usually have several ECUs but all these are connected over one single bus that runs throughout the whole CAN network (and very commonly CAN bus runs from power train to the body and chassis controllers). === CAN FD === CAN flexible data-rate upgrade CAN, a new protocol CAN FD (Flexible Data-rate), due to the higher baud rate of the data phase. The new specifications, modern cars today require the CAN FD with data communication bandwidth increased. === Flex Ray === Flex Ray high speed bus All safety critical vehicle applications requiring high data rate communication, e.g. chassis, control. === Automotive Ethernet === Use cases have already been for Ethernet higher bandwidths as well Cameras, ADAS and Infotainment. Basic body functions are candidate for LIN More complex body functions in control are candidate for CAN or CAN FD Any high bandwidth camera for ADAS is candidate for Automotive Ethernet. The purpose of the network is to function as the communication bus between the embedded systems of a vehicle in order to exchange data and to synchronise the execution of both embedded systems. === Automobiles Depend on Embedded Devices === All main sub-systems are embedded mode in a machine. There will be embedded some of which including the devices, device is an important safety device, The vehicle systems that electric car machine, digital systems, information entertainment, Of course, some embedded devices that can accept which all about the information of Am pace, Si, the force. === Powertrain === Like mentioned with the name, an Embedded System can be used also for engine control system of your car. It can take the input from the sensors fitted in the car and then that data is used for controlling the fuel injection system, ignition system and other control of engine for more efficient use of fuel and engine. -The work aids (controllers) along with the work of the motor that show the gear and the working of the gear box. -They analyze the present condition of the machine and on off the correspondent order to operate. === Brakes & Chassis === Role of the embedded system for the supervision of the set of chassis and of the equipment of braking The ABS (Anti-lock Brake System, anti-break of drive when braking) uses sensors of the speed of wheel to know if one of the wheels is consequently of to lock when braking. This information is then communicated to the computer of the vehicle that engaged the process of braking. Knowing instances of the vehicle's disrepair is able to test and also demand as necessary. EPS (electric motor vehicle power) ready to go complying with if a home or collection of residential properties, on the run along with to the cars and truck, may be present at any moment, with a discreet electric motor. === Passive Safety === It's all about the crash sensors, seat-belt pretensioners and airbags we've fitted so they protect us if we crash. We detect the car's environment, and check for our imminent crash seconds - this information is passed to a safety controller that decides whether the vehicle should be told to deploy. Once the conditions specified by the software are met, the controller is then equipped with safety equipment. Because it is safety critical, the hardware needs to be reliable, the software thoroughly tested and the computers fast. === Body Electronics === Others, of course, are key to comfort and convenience and are controlled by these electrical control units inside the vehicle: lights, door locks, windows, seats, mirrors and air conditioning. Because the control system isn't safety critical the low cost systems would still need the links to communicate between the electronic units. Using the lowest cost network communication protocols, the protocol bodies could be implemented onto the LIN network and CAN could be used to communicate the more safety critical vehicle control units. === Advanced Driver Assistance Systems === System which can got the on-board sensors for taking the safety of Driving to next level and makes it possible for the driver to do the task of driving. For eg: Automatic Emergency Braking, Lane Control etc. The computer is then receiving the information (which was calculated from all the information from the camera, radar and sensing units (see above)), from the sensors to the computer. The computer then will process the information and act on the drivers situation. The object's range or range rate is visible on the radar but the class of object can be seen on the camera. This can then be sent to the ADAS controller which can then request a brake to try and avoid a collision. === Electric Vehicles === The other is that the EV monitor inside your systems, that system is only, that system under control supports the BMS or whatever you call that single support under charge support that battery. The human body, the inverter and the engine from the car. This is in charge of obtaining what must be achieved on the ability in an effort to get to the motor to generate the torque wanted to rotate the wheels. === Infotainment & Telematics === Powertrain, which is available in the new generation Infotainment and connectivity Infotainment is a term used to describe content and operation of hardware and software in a vehicle that entertains and informs. Third-party services e.g. enabled by a telematic system Automotive systems (e.g. Remote diagnostic function, OTA) offer the possibility of additional functions. Communication systems (e.g. High-bandwidth communication e.g. Automotive Ethernet) are increasingly gaining relevance as their use enables very large data streams to be transmitted within the vehicle. === Diagnostics === In addition to low level coding, each system also keeps track of what the other systems in the vehicle are up to, and if you can see a fault. As you've seen before, it's also possible to store a DTC for later use. The common language is the data exchange protocol with the vehicle control unit during diagnosis. Because diagnostics allows the car or vehicle technician for easier test the automobile components and also help make the scheduled maintenance feasible, diagnostics is one aspect that is crucial for developing embedded systems. This is the grand significance of employing embedded systems. Where And Why Are Embedded Systems Used in Vehicles As you might expect, each of the embedded systems are responsible for the various components of the vehicle engine, braking system, battery (for electric vehicles), ADAS, etc. === Safety, Reliability, and Security of Automotive Embedded Systems === Ever wondered what actually happens inside of your car? In the world of embedded automotive systems, automotive safety is king. Electric accidents can be fatal, and any malfunction can compromise the safety and performance of your vehicle as well as its passengers. But what makes automotive systems different from your cell phone? ====== Functional Safety ====== What do we actually need for functional safety? We want our electrical and electronic systems to perform perfectly because, well, we certainly don't want any accidents. There's ISO 26262: the automotive functional safety standard. ISO 26262 specifies the requirements for electrical and electronic systems, including the hazards and risks that need to be managed in safety-critical systems such as braking, steering, or airbags. ====== Automotive Safety Integrity Levels ====== So, let's understand what ASIL really is, and first, what is ISO 26262, which is the automotive safety integrity levels (or ASIL). A failure of a certain severity will be rated on a scale from: ASIL D (the highest safety integrity level) to A (the lowest safety integrity level). The greater the safety level, the more stringent the safety requirements, considering the level of possible injuries, exposure, and systems' ability to restrain or mitigate damage (by the system and the driver). For example: airbag and braking safety-related features tend to have a higher ASIL rating, but less critical features are assigned a lower one. If you don't specify any functional safety requirements for the feature, it will be assigned an ASIL of QM, indicating that it doesn't have one. ====== General Safety Guidelines ====== Here's the bottom line: there are many ways of detecting, and recovering from, faults in a car's ECU. For example, a watchdog timer watches the software as it loads, and if it's not happy, it restarts it. Or consider the lock-step processor approach: two cores perform exactly the same task, and if one drops out, the other will take over seamlessly. Let's talk about modes of operation. So our failsafe and fail-operational modes. Fail-safe -you go to a safe state if a dangerous fault is detected or occurs Fail-operational –the system or at least one part of the system continues to operate independently after a fault memory fault mitigation by hardware fault memory protection and or ECC memory, early stage fault detection with self-tests and diagnostics, message protection techniques (CRCs, counters), message loss detection, etc. It seems complex but in reality it is easier to do, such as when one sensor gives off a different signal than another, then the ECU can just operate with the correct sensor. ====== Reliability ====== Okay, now on to temperature and reliability. Automotive electronics must be of the highest reliability, even in harsh environments. Automotive electronic control units (ECUs) often experience extreme shock and vibration, as well as temperature changes and massive quantities of ON-OFF switching. AEC-Q100 qualified. Let us not forget the other advantages of the ECU system: Should a failure occur, an ECU can deliver a diagnostic trouble code (DTC) which can then be interpreted with any vehicle diagnostics system (OBD II, UDS etc) ====== Cybersecurity ====== Today's car is more connected than it has ever been, now equipped with everything from in-car telematics, Bluetooth, USB connections, diagnostic ports, and infotainment systems. That higher level of connectivity makes your car a hacker's dream. Automotive security is about much more than keeping your car running. It involves securing the data and applications on your car against compromised, alteration or simply by malicious actors. The principles of automotive security include message data proof and authentication. These functions can be used to sign the boot process, sign applications, or check message integrity. This is why we want a sort of automotive firewall which you are aware of, like a gateway firewall. The primary line of protection towards auto hackers makes positive there's a safe go-between within the auto. It simply truly establish limits of what every of the applications can do. When creating embedded systems for cars, take care to maintain an equilibrium of safety, security, and dependability. The safety of your vehicle involves not only its ability to function normally, but also its ability to function properly over the long term and to defend ECUs against cyberpunks. Just bear in mind: your car is all about the safety. ====== Power Management ====== What if power was part of the equation? Power = Heat. For every Watt of power you consume, you generate Heat. And if you happen to be on the electric vehicle side, you're probably losing some capacity or miles per charge. How about having your automotive ECUs be as efficient as possible? Let's break it down: Modern vehicles now have three voltage systems, depending on the technology. A 12V system drives all of the ECUs, lights, infotainment, and others. On the hybrid side, you'll also find 48V for hybrid mild systems, electric components like compressors and active suspensions, and the rest of the electric vehicles (with 400V/800V for the traction battery, inverter, and charge system). ====== Voltage Regulation ====== Let's just say your car's electronics run on a lower voltage than your outlet. Enter: voltage regulators. They ensure that every circuit in your car's electrical system receives the appropriate, consistent voltage it requires. For dropping down a high voltage, the step-down voltage buck regulators are often your best option. If you want a low noise power supply, linear regulators like the LDO are a good choice; but they do so by dissipating the energy at as heat. Why do switching regulators get such a bad rap? ====== Power Efficiency ====== Next, the efficiency. It is the percentage of the input power that makes it to the load. It's simple to calculate using: === η = Pout / Pin === Inside the vehicle, the less resistance you have the better off you are. No one wants to turn energy into waste heat, because that eats away at efficiency. And a boost in heat can stress out electronic components and increase cooling demand. ====== Low-Power Techniques ====== If you've ever seen a modern system, you've seen that there's at least a few techniques for reducing power as much as possible. For example, the ECU can go to sleep then power down after an event. The vehicle's CAN or LIN can be used to send a wake up. Wait, it gets better! Methods that work in smartphones and laptops can do the same for your design - and some tricks may surprise you! Disable sensors or switches when they're not needed. Use clever algorithms in your software, and turn your microcontroller "breathes" (processors) to remain asleep when you don't need to maintain timings and performance. ====== Parked Vehicle Power Consumption ====== Power management is not only concerned with when you switch the ignition on! What about all the items on the interior or other ECUs that use some form of power? They would remain "on", thus bleeding the battery, but most now go to sleep. Suppose the car battery is being drained at 50 mA for ten days. You can estimate the capacity of the battery consumed as follows: Amp-hour capacity used from battery = 0.05 × 24 hours × 10 days = 12 Ah This is how a slow, constant drain can really rack up if your car is parked for an extended period. ====== Dynamic Power ====== Okay, now you're ready to go into calculating the processor dynamic power consumption. And here's how you do it: P = C × V² × f Where C is the effective capacitance, V is the supply voltage, and f is the frequency. Since power varies as the square of the voltage (power = voltage x voltage), you can reduce dynamic power consumption by decreasing the supply voltage. For instance, if you want to maintain a clock frequency unchanged, then reducing the voltage by half would take the dynamic power consumption to one quarter. Each of these power control techniques is directly linked to performance, power and thermal management inside automotive embedded systems. With all of these techniques-smart voltage control, sleep modes, frequency management, low power device, and smart software-modern day vehicles will give you plenty of power with very little waste. Now that's a modern vehicle. ====== Challenges and Emerging Trends ====== Have you been thinking, "why do cars get smarter every year?" Same! With the proliferation of infotainment, modern technology, and a ton of electrics and software in the automotive embedded systems sector, it's getting more and more complex. Yes, the revolution in the automotive industry is happening, and while it seems to be a walk in the park, it isn't. There are challenges involved. === Challenges === Well, what is the major challenge? Simply put: the mad amount of software packed in modern cars. I don't just mean that there are hundreds of ECUs; those ECUs have to interact with – let's say – a mind-boggling amount of other software elements. This poses a tremendous headache to testing and verification, as well as to logistics. Moving on to drawbacks for heat, size, power, cost. Yeah, your car has some pretty spectacular computers, all running at dizzying speeds. But they have their limits. In fact, the main limiting factor is power, and with more power comes extra heat and, ta-da, more cooling costs! But now, a few words about heavy AI workloads (predictability). As an example, you run intense AI workloads such as object recognition. And you run time critical controls as well, to make sure you react quickly. That's a challenge. And then we've got the sensors. They are sensitive beasts - noisy, drifting, or even broken. And being able to read their outputs? Not always straightforward! Not all sensor outputs are reliable, can you tell when your sensors are off? Definitely a skill you'll need to learn! Testing and certification is another real rabbit hole for learning software. It's almost more straightforward with embedded software where we can set the rules of how our code works and behaves, but with the twist of data driven software and machine learning, that's a different ballgame. And we're just not there yet. Safety remains a concern. As automotive technology is getting smarter, it's also getting hackable. They're going to require increasingly sophisticated defenses on many more car modules - not an easy task! Finally, automaker-relevant auto parts have to be extremely reliable, as they need to survive a life of rain, shock, vibration, electrical noise, and fatigue. If reliability were not an important, perhaps even the most important feature to auto makers, auto parts probably wouldn't last long. === Future Trends === So what's next? Zonal architectures are not just a trend; they are definitely going to happen! Instead of each function having multiple ECUs, future vehicles will have one or more computers that connect to systems called "zonal controllers." Less wiring? Absolutely! You don't just have a marvel of hardware-you also have a software wizard on your hands! Sure, car companies are starting to do over-the-air downloads, so you can get new features or updates whenever you want. Wherever you are. Another high priority is fast data transfer. Of course, the Ethernet bus and CAN FD already provide enough bandwidth for vehicles, which is extremely important considering the countless signals and sensors. Why does this matter? This is really cool because this System-on-Chip that will be powering future cars will have CPUs, GPUs, NPUs, and even real-time safety cores to drive control, perception, and decision-making for conventional driving! Crazy right? We're also working to increase other capabilities, like silicon carbide. Recent advancements in 800 V powertrain systems and silicon carbide power electronics are helping us deliver more power in the same package. That's faster charging and more electrical capacity for your car. And don't forget Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) technology! V2X is the ability of vehicles to "talk" to one another and to the roads, creating more extensive data for every trip - with the potential to make our driving safer and smoother. And lastly, there's the AI. Artificial Intelligence is slowly working its way into driver-monitoring systems, using data from cameras and radar, and starting to perceive the road anew. This is where automotive embedded systems are going: toward centralized computing, high-bandwidth communications, software-defined functionalities and, increased dependence on AI. Moving forward, we see the automotive industry heading toward the road of efficiently high-performing, safe, secure, reliable and low-energy vehicles. Are you as excited as me? ====== Summary ====== Ever wondered whether your car can read your mind? Sorry to burst your bubble, but no! But you definitely should know about the technology that's making cars smarter than ever today, called embedded systems. Today's cars are literally full of hundreds of ECUs (embedded computers) that do what they're named for: collect sensor data, analyze it, and activate motors to get where you want to go (and hopefully in style). WORK. ACT. So, here's the plain and simple: automotive embedded systems operate in a very simple manner. They collect sensor information about the environment and the car itself, send this to a controller, and this controller then makes decisions and controls everything from the engine and brakes to driver-assist systems and electric vehicle hardware through actuators. The design (or your design now). It was once largely about software and hardware, but it is more about hardware selection and the networks through which you can connect to the hardware. Microcontrollers are perfect for accurate fast control, while processors, GPGPUs, NPUs and SoCs give you the intelligence of perception and AI systems. And software complexity is already becoming more manageable thanks to AUTOSAR platforms and RTOS. So, how do all these systems work together? Almost every electronic system in your vehicle is linked to the other ECUs in your vehicle using networks like LIN, CAN, CAN FD, Flex Ray, and Automotive Ethernet. Because these connected vehicle networks need to deliver high availability and reliability, the electronic systems are speaking not only to your vehicle, but to you, the driver. What about energy? Vehicles are high-power consumers. A specialized automotive embedded system also is applied to control dissipated heat. So pay attention to the energy efficiency of the energy used, especially for electric vehicles. There you have it! Going forward as vehicles become more autonomous and connected, embedded systems will continue to be a critical part of the world of automotive safety, intelligence, and connectivity. ==== Review Questions ==== Hey there! Want to learn more about systems in a car? Here are some review questions for you to learn some more. 1. What is a microcontroller vs microprocessor? This would be a good time to compare them as to which would be the best for a 1Khz brake control loop. 2. Q5: An ADC has a resolution of 10 bits, a 5 V reference and reads a value of 512, what is the input? 3. A wheel has a 60-tooth tone ring and a 0.32m radius. If the ECU senses 90 pulses in 0.1 sec, how fast is the vehicle travelling? 4. Let's say a cylinder of an engine consumes 0.25 g of air at 14.7 AFR. What would be the injector pulse width if the injector's flow rate is 2.5 mg/ms with 1 ms dead time? 5. May cause integral windup in a control system? How can you prevent it? 6. If you have three tasks of 0.25, 0.30 and 0.20 CPU can Rate Monotonic Scheduling guarantee these tasks? 7. Imagine you have thirty messages with 8 bytes each on the CAN bus sent 50 times a second on a 250 kbit/s bus. Do you think you know the bus load? And do you think that is good enough? 8. What does a watchdog timer do in a car ECU? 9. What ASIL D? Which vehicle operations are mandated to ASIL D safety integrity? 10. And at last, here comes the comparison table with LIN, CAN, Flex Ray and Automotive Ethernet. How do they compare in terms of communication speed, architecture, and automotive application? And that's all! These kinds of questions aren't just for car geeks; these are the questions that are important for knowledge of cars to figure out! ====== References ====== # Navet, N. and Simonot-Lion, F. (eds.), Automotive Embedded Systems Handbook, CRC Press, 2009. # Kamal, R., Embedded Systems: Architecture, Programming and Design, McGraw-Hill. # Zimmermann, W. and Schmidgall, R., Bussysteme in der Fahrzeugtechnik, Springer. # Robert Bosch GmbH, CAN Specification Version 2.0, 1991. # ISO 26262:2018, Road vehicles – Functional safety. # ISO 21448:2022, Road vehicles – Safety of the intended functionality. # ISO/SAE 21434:2021, Road vehicles – Cybersecurity engineering. # UNECE Regulations No. 155 and No. 156. # SAE J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. # AUTOSAR, Official Website, www.autosar.org. fxfy6uvnac3x9wlnq0qwpodq9r1ku95 4681648 4681647 2026-11-11T16:33:26Z Narasimham Hanumanthu 3630160 4681648 wikitext text/x-wiki = Embedded Systems in Automotive Technology = Embedded system is a computer based electronic system designed to perform a specific function with a larger system. It generally consists of hardware and software working together to monitor ,control, and perform specific operations. Unlike general purpose computers, embedded systems are designed dedicated applications and often need to operate reliably in real time. [Figure: A typical embedded system, made of sensors, a controller and actuators] Automobiles are one of the major applications of embedded systems. Modern vehicles contain numerous electronic systems the controls and monitor different functions of the vehicles. These systems are used in engine management ,braking, airbags, transmission, lighting, climate control, parking assistance, infotainment, and many other applications. Modern automobiles have evolved from mechanical into software driven systems powered by Electronic Control Units (ECUs),sensors, and communication networks. With the rise of electric, connected and autonomous vehicles, embedded systems are now the primary driver of automotive safety, efficiency, and intelligence. This chapter explains what embedded systems are, how they are built into automotive technology, which hardware, software and networks they use, the mathematics behind their control and sensing, and whare the field is heading . === What to expect from this page: === * Define embedded systems, ECU real time system and RTOS. * Express the Sense, Process, Act architecture of a vehicle ECU. * Compare microcontrollers, microprocessors, DSPs, FPGs, SoCS and AI accelerators. * Explain common automotive sensors, actuators and in vehicle networks(LIN, CAN, FlexRay, Ethernet). * Apply the key formulas: PWM, ADC resolution, wheel speed, fuel injection, ABS slip, CAN bus load, PID , Kalman filtering, radar ranging, real time schedulable and EV range . * Describe AUTOSAR, functional safety (ISO 26262), cybersecurity and power constraints, and future trends. === Introduction to Embedded Systems in Automotive Technology === Embedded systems In automotive technology refers to the combination of dedicated Computing hardware and specialized software built into vehicles To perform sensing data, processing, decision making, communication And control in real time. Picture a car barking on a wet road. Within a few milliseconds the car notices that a wheel is about to lock, reduces the brake pressure on the that and restores it again dozen of times per second, While the driver simply presses the pedal. Now the question arises: how does a vehicle perform these actions faster than any human, and without anyone control It manually? The answer is the integration of embedded systems sensors, processors, control algorithms and intelligence software. Modern cars are no longer just mechanical structures with an engine, they are complex electronic system that collects information from their surroundings, process it make decisions and perform physical actions. An automatic embedded system continuously performs for fundamental operations: * Sensing: Collecting information from the vehicles and its environment using sensors. * Processing: Analysing the collected data information using an embedded processor. * Decision making: Selecting the right action based on algorithms and the current conditions * Actuation: Carrying out the chosen action through injectors, waves, motar and other actuators For example: Consider a car fitted with the Automatic Emergency Braking(AEB) {| class="wikitable" |+ !S.No !Term !Definition |- |1 |Embedded systems |Dedicating computing system built into a larger device to perform specific functions usually with real time and resource constraints |- |2 |ECU(Electronic Control Unit) |An embedded computer in a vehicle that controls one function or a group of functions |- |3 |Microcontroller(MCU) |Small chip containing a CPU Memory peripherals suggest timers ADC and CAN controller |- |4 |Microprocessors (MPU) |A CPU that needs external memory and peripherals and can run a full operating system such as Linux |- |5 |Firmware |Software stored in non volatile memory that runs directly on the embedded hardware. |- |6 |Real Time System |A system proves correctness depends on both the result and the time at which it is produced |- |7 |Hard Real Time |Missing a deadline is a system failure(e.g. Airbag firing, Ignition timing) |- |8 |Soft Real Time |Missing a deadline Digrades quality but it's tolerable(e.g. Infotainment video) |- |9 |RTOS |Real time operating systems that guarantees bounded, predictable task response |- |10 |Sensor |He defies that converts her physical quantity into an electrical signal. |- |11 |Actuator |A device that converts a control signal and energy into physical action. |- |12 |CAN |Controller Area Network, The most widely used in vehicle serial bus |- |13 |AUTOSAR |Automotive Open System Architecture, a Standard software architecture for ECUs |- |14 |ASIL |Automotive Safety integrity level That is risk rating()A to D) defined by ISO 26262 |- |15 |ADAS |Advanced Driver Assistance System Such as An adaptive cruise control and Lane keeping |- |16 |Sebsur fusion |Combining data from several sensors to get a more reliable estimate than any one gives alone |- |17 |OBD |On Board Diagnostics, the standard interferes for reading vehicle fault codes |- |18 |OTA |Over the air Software update delivered wirelessly |- |19 |BMS |Battery management system, that monitors and protects an EV battery pack |- |20 |Latency |Delay between an event (a sensor change) and the system response |- |21 |Jitter |Small variation in the timing of a task that is supposed to repeat at exact intervals |- |22 |HIL |Hardware in the loop testing a real ECU against a simulated vehicle |} Question arises: why do we use embedded systems instead of general PC? To answer this we need to understand the vehicles need low power, Small size low cost Deterministic timings, direct hardware access And the ability to survive heat, Vibration and electrical noises. A desktop operating system cannot guarantee that an ignition or brake control loop runs exactly every millisecond. An embedded controller with RTDS can meet this requirements at low cost. ====== Relationship Between Embedded Systems and Automotive Technology ====== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Embedded Systems !Automotive Technology |- |Process sensor input |Understand the state of engine, vehicles and surroundings |- |Execute firmware |home vehicle functions such as braking and fuel control |- |Control electronic hardware |Control Injectors, valves, motor and lamps |- |Manage communication |Change data between ECUs Over CAN, LIN and Ethernet |- |Handle real time operations |Respond instantly to driver and road conditions |} Embedded system provide the computational intelligence that lets a vehicle turns sensor information into physical actions. ===== The Sense, Process, Act Architecture ===== Almost every automat ECU works in a repeating cycle. It first senses the vehicle and its surroundings, then process the information using stored software and finally acts on it by actuators. The controller is the core of everything. Signals from the sensors are filtered and converted into numbers which the controller processes using its control software to stop the output leaves as power signals for the actuators. the actuators affect the vehicle, the sensors detect the change, and the cycle begins again. ====== <big>Hardware of the vehicle brain</big> ====== Hardware of an ECU is a mix of processor, memory, sensor, actuator and the circuits that connect them. Each part is chosen to match the speed power and cost needs of its job. <big>Processing platforms</big> No single chip is best for every task kamassoya vehicle combines several types of chips. A small MCU handles fast engine brake control, while a stronger processor or an AI chip Handles vision and planning. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Platform !Strengths !Weaknesses !Typical automotive use |- |MCU |Low power, low cost predictable, timing many built in peripheral |Limited Speed and memory |Engine break, body control |- |MPU or application processor |Runs Linux or QNX, plenty of memory |less predictable timing, more power |Infotainment, domain controller |- |DSP [digital signal processor ] |Very fasted repeated multiply and add maths |Narrow range of uses |Radar signal processing, audio, filtering |- |FPGA [field programmable gate array) |Many parallel operations, very low delay |Harder to program |Camera pipelines, Perception |- |SoC(system on chip) |CPU, GPU, and NPU on one chip |Complex and costly |ADAS and central computing platforms |} Inside a microcontroller Microcontroller is a complete small computer on one chip. It consists of a processor, memory, peripherals and input output pins, The CPU memory and peripherals are joined by an internal bus , so any of them can exchange data. ===== Three peripherals ===== * Timers and PWM: Produce precise pulses to control injectors timing ignition and motor speed * DC (analogue to digital converter): Turn says sensors changing voltage into binary numbers the CPU can process. * DMA (direct memory access): Boost data without using the CPU which leaves more time to control code. * Interrupt controller: Lets urgent events such as crankshaft tooth pulse or a crash signal, pause normal code immediately. * EAN / LIN / Ethernet controllers: Tandle communication with other ECUs. * Watchdog timer: Resets the MCU is the software stops responding ====== Memory Types ====== {| class="wikitable" |+ !Memory !Tips data without power? !Use in Vehicles |- |Flash |Yes |Firmware and calibration maps |- |SRAM |No |Variables, stacks and buffers |- |DRAM |No |Large buffers such as camera images |- |EEPROM or FRAM |YES |Fault codes, odometer, learned values |} Sensors sensors are the vehicles senses. some measures the vehicle itself (wheel speed engine temperature) and other measures the surroundings (distance, image). There are several kinds of sensors that the car has to help obtain information about the car itself and that of everything around it. Those sensors will send that information directly to the ECU that controls everything. Those would include wheel speed sensors for the speed and temperature sensors for the heat of the motor and the temperature of the cool. Throttle position sensors and oxygen sensors for the exhaust and the cars themselves. The more new cars have cameras and radars along with ultrasonic sensors and lidars. I've heard that they're designed to help with the anti lock braking of all sorts of things. Radar and camera are particularly used for the application of automatic emergency breaking. In electronic cars the sensor used to the read the current and voltage to get the battery and the motor, data to then and the car decides what to do may be that is what it is made for. The sensors simply give the system that data so that I think is what the sensors primary role is. There could well be other uses but this part is a little clouded with the range that are out there. ====== Actuators and Drivers ====== A common example of an actuator is a device that translates data into physical motion; these devices take data from the ECU (via a sensor) and then translate that piece of data into a physical action – in other words they are a key component of the automotive embedded system's 'Sense, Process, Act' element. The modern actuator will not work from the normal ECU. It is not the Amprage required to operate a modern actuator. A driver circuit is give between the controller and the modern actuator. The driver circuit is give on the wire between the ecu and the actuator. Currently, only a few of these listed automotive actuators have the digital driver context: electronic throttle control actuator motors, airbag ignitors, relays and cooling fans, the ignition coils, the engine power steering control, digital hydraulic brake control modulator, the traction motor, fuel injectors, and cooling fans. The engine control unit, for example, reduces the power needed for a fuel injector. The pump as well as the solenoid valves of the hydraulic brake modulator are controlled by the engine control unit and are supplied with the specified brake pressure. The inverter supplies the prescribed torque for the drive motor of the electric vehicle. H-Bridge It is used to drive a motor as it has four electronic switches to drive a motor. If you close either two switches on the H-bridge, you can brake the motor, reverse the motor, or free-run. PWM – power is turned off and on very quickly in the PWM. A control switch can be used to vary the percentage of time the power is on vs off for any given time. Most objects in your house with control switches such as lamps, solenoid valves, pumps, fans and motors use PWM. Where does the output side of the motor industry so noxes: what makes the output state of the ECU real? For example, applying brakes, steering, putting fuel in, cooling, driving the car. ====== Software of the Vehicle Brain ====== It's all software The entire vehicle is a super-dupper, extremely costly, processor. Software is the code that you're running on the processor, and it takes the input from the sensor and it makes a decision about what to do with it and then that decision is executed through the control of the actuators. Automotive software needs to ensure that data gets to where it should be. The apps software below the computer hardware for an automotive ECU may be grouped into several levels: The most immediate level below the hardware has been designed so that it is easy to provide a separation between the apps software and the hardware. There is a higher level of apps software, the operating-system level. === AUTOSAR === Autosar (AUTomotive Open System ARchitecture) Autosar is an open system architecture for automotive ECUs AutoSAR is a standard for software architecture it defines how software modules should interact. === Programming Languages === C and C++ in real time systems is needed. Use of python in testing and analysis and rapid prototyping of a new design. MATLAB and simulink the application of model based design in the generation of embedded c. === (Realtime) Operating System === There are some times when you might want an ECU with an RTOS, or real time operating system, enabled if you do have some timing requirements in your code. This is done by the RTOS dividing the software into a fixed number of tasks that the scheduler looks at the ready set of tasks to decide which one to run. RTOS as: Tasks, priorities, preemption, semaphore, mutex and queue addressed to the matter from the same instant in which matter is very interested to establish cooperation between two or more parts of a software within the ECU sharing the resources of the processor. === Firmware's Normal Course of Events === The majority of the routines inside the ECUs Firmware are very basic loops; switch on the ECU, run a bunch of self diagnosis / init routines, read the sensors, calc the control action, output to the actuators. Very simple to implement- with one timer/interrupt to execute the faster control functions, and another timer/interrupt to execute the slower control functions. In a fault condition the ECU could be put into a 'safe mode', DTCs recorded, and the function disabled/enabled. Therefore, automotive software acts as the brain of the embedded system. It connects sensors, processors, communication networks and actuators and ensures that vehicle functions operate correctly and within the required time. === Automobile Data Communication Networks === We've a many ECUs in the car these days and they're all communicating with one another – the engine ECU has to be talking to the transmission ECU, the transmission to the steering, to the brakes, to the aircon, to the airbags, etc. These bus networks enabled the ECUs to talk without a lot of wiring to connect all those devices. Communication network is used to minimize cost, vehicle weight and complexity of cabling. Communication technology flux, style, side and practically each design use can differ for various aims. === LIN === LINE a two wire bus PLUS a ground wire LINE Protocol a low cost communication protocol for an optional feature (if equipped) such as memory seats /mirrors/ wipers etc LINE is a one master multi slave network and is intended for low cost low bandwidth applications. === CAN === One more of the most common network within the car - we usually have several ECUs but all these are connected over one single bus that runs throughout the whole CAN network (and very commonly CAN bus runs from power train to the body and chassis controllers). === CAN FD === CAN flexible data-rate upgrade CAN, a new protocol CAN FD (Flexible Data-rate), due to the higher baud rate of the data phase. The new specifications, modern cars today require the CAN FD with data communication bandwidth increased. === Flex Ray === Flex Ray high speed bus All safety critical vehicle applications requiring high data rate communication, e.g. chassis, control. === Automotive Ethernet === Use cases have already been for Ethernet higher bandwidths as well Cameras, ADAS and Infotainment. Basic body functions are candidate for LIN More complex body functions in control are candidate for CAN or CAN FD Any high bandwidth camera for ADAS is candidate for Automotive Ethernet. The purpose of the network is to function as the communication bus between the embedded systems of a vehicle in order to exchange data and to synchronise the execution of both embedded systems. === Automobiles Depend on Embedded Devices === All main sub-systems are embedded mode in a machine. There will be embedded some of which including the devices, device is an important safety device, The vehicle systems that electric car machine, digital systems, information entertainment, Of course, some embedded devices that can accept which all about the information of Am pace, Si, the force. === Powertrain === Like mentioned with the name, an Embedded System can be used also for engine control system of your car. It can take the input from the sensors fitted in the car and then that data is used for controlling the fuel injection system, ignition system and other control of engine for more efficient use of fuel and engine. -The work aids (controllers) along with the work of the motor that show the gear and the working of the gear box. -They analyze the present condition of the machine and on off the correspondent order to operate. === Brakes & Chassis === Role of the embedded system for the supervision of the set of chassis and of the equipment of braking The ABS (Anti-lock Brake System, anti-break of drive when braking) uses sensors of the speed of wheel to know if one of the wheels is consequently of to lock when braking. This information is then communicated to the computer of the vehicle that engaged the process of braking. Knowing instances of the vehicle's disrepair is able to test and also demand as necessary. EPS (electric motor vehicle power) ready to go complying with if a home or collection of residential properties, on the run along with to the cars and truck, may be present at any moment, with a discreet electric motor. === Passive Safety === It's all about the crash sensors, seat-belt pretensioners and airbags we've fitted so they protect us if we crash. We detect the car's environment, and check for our imminent crash seconds - this information is passed to a safety controller that decides whether the vehicle should be told to deploy. Once the conditions specified by the software are met, the controller is then equipped with safety equipment. Because it is safety critical, the hardware needs to be reliable, the software thoroughly tested and the computers fast. === Body Electronics === Others, of course, are key to comfort and convenience and are controlled by these electrical control units inside the vehicle: lights, door locks, windows, seats, mirrors and air conditioning. Because the control system isn't safety critical the low cost systems would still need the links to communicate between the electronic units. Using the lowest cost network communication protocols, the protocol bodies could be implemented onto the LIN network and CAN could be used to communicate the more safety critical vehicle control units. === Advanced Driver Assistance Systems === System which can got the on-board sensors for taking the safety of Driving to next level and makes it possible for the driver to do the task of driving. For eg: Automatic Emergency Braking, Lane Control etc. The computer is then receiving the information (which was calculated from all the information from the camera, radar and sensing units (see above)), from the sensors to the computer. The computer then will process the information and act on the drivers situation. The object's range or range rate is visible on the radar but the class of object can be seen on the camera. This can then be sent to the ADAS controller which can then request a brake to try and avoid a collision. === Electric Vehicles === The other is that the EV monitor inside your systems, that system is only, that system under control supports the BMS or whatever you call that single support under charge support that battery. The human body, the inverter and the engine from the car. This is in charge of obtaining what must be achieved on the ability in an effort to get to the motor to generate the torque wanted to rotate the wheels. === Infotainment & Telematics === Powertrain, which is available in the new generation Infotainment and connectivity Infotainment is a term used to describe content and operation of hardware and software in a vehicle that entertains and informs. Third-party services e.g. enabled by a telematic system Automotive systems (e.g. Remote diagnostic function, OTA) offer the possibility of additional functions. Communication systems (e.g. High-bandwidth communication e.g. Automotive Ethernet) are increasingly gaining relevance as their use enables very large data streams to be transmitted within the vehicle. === Diagnostics === In addition to low level coding, each system also keeps track of what the other systems in the vehicle are up to, and if you can see a fault. As you've seen before, it's also possible to store a DTC for later use. The common language is the data exchange protocol with the vehicle control unit during diagnosis. Because diagnostics allows the car or vehicle technician for easier test the automobile components and also help make the scheduled maintenance feasible, diagnostics is one aspect that is crucial for developing embedded systems. This is the grand significance of employing embedded systems. Where And Why Are Embedded Systems Used in Vehicles As you might expect, each of the embedded systems are responsible for the various components of the vehicle engine, braking system, battery (for electric vehicles), ADAS, etc. === Safety, Reliability, and Security of Automotive Embedded Systems === Ever wondered what actually happens inside of your car? In the world of embedded automotive systems, automotive safety is king. Electric accidents can be fatal, and any malfunction can compromise the safety and performance of your vehicle as well as its passengers. But what makes automotive systems different from your cell phone? ====== Functional Safety ====== What do we actually need for functional safety? We want our electrical and electronic systems to perform perfectly because, well, we certainly don't want any accidents. There's ISO 26262: the automotive functional safety standard. ISO 26262 specifies the requirements for electrical and electronic systems, including the hazards and risks that need to be managed in safety-critical systems such as braking, steering, or airbags. ====== Automotive Safety Integrity Levels ====== So, let's understand what ASIL really is, and first, what is ISO 26262, which is the automotive safety integrity levels (or ASIL). A failure of a certain severity will be rated on a scale from: ASIL D (the highest safety integrity level) to A (the lowest safety integrity level). The greater the safety level, the more stringent the safety requirements, considering the level of possible injuries, exposure, and systems' ability to restrain or mitigate damage (by the system and the driver). For example: airbag and braking safety-related features tend to have a higher ASIL rating, but less critical features are assigned a lower one. If you don't specify any functional safety requirements for the feature, it will be assigned an ASIL of QM, indicating that it doesn't have one. ====== General Safety Guidelines ====== Here's the bottom line: there are many ways of detecting, and recovering from, faults in a car's ECU. For example, a watchdog timer watches the software as it loads, and if it's not happy, it restarts it. Or consider the lock-step processor approach: two cores perform exactly the same task, and if one drops out, the other will take over seamlessly. Let's talk about modes of operation. So our failsafe and fail-operational modes. Fail-safe -you go to a safe state if a dangerous fault is detected or occurs Fail-operational –the system or at least one part of the system continues to operate independently after a fault memory fault mitigation by hardware fault memory protection and or ECC memory, early stage fault detection with self-tests and diagnostics, message protection techniques (CRCs, counters), message loss detection, etc. It seems complex but in reality it is easier to do, such as when one sensor gives off a different signal than another, then the ECU can just operate with the correct sensor. ====== Reliability ====== Okay, now on to temperature and reliability. Automotive electronics must be of the highest reliability, even in harsh environments. Automotive electronic control units (ECUs) often experience extreme shock and vibration, as well as temperature changes and massive quantities of ON-OFF switching. AEC-Q100 qualified. Let us not forget the other advantages of the ECU system: Should a failure occur, an ECU can deliver a diagnostic trouble code (DTC) which can then be interpreted with any vehicle diagnostics system (OBD II, UDS etc) ====== Cybersecurity ====== Today's car is more connected than it has ever been, now equipped with everything from in-car telematics, Bluetooth, USB connections, diagnostic ports, and infotainment systems. That higher level of connectivity makes your car a hacker's dream. Automotive security is about much more than keeping your car running. It involves securing the data and applications on your car against compromised, alteration or simply by malicious actors. The principles of automotive security include message data proof and authentication. These functions can be used to sign the boot process, sign applications, or check message integrity. This is why we want a sort of automotive firewall which you are aware of, like a gateway firewall. The primary line of protection towards auto hackers makes positive there's a safe go-between within the auto. It simply truly establish limits of what every of the applications can do. When creating embedded systems for cars, take care to maintain an equilibrium of safety, security, and dependability. The safety of your vehicle involves not only its ability to function normally, but also its ability to function properly over the long term and to defend ECUs against cyberpunks. Just bear in mind: your car is all about the safety. ====== Power Management ====== What if power was part of the equation? Power = Heat. For every Watt of power you consume, you generate Heat. And if you happen to be on the electric vehicle side, you're probably losing some capacity or miles per charge. How about having your automotive ECUs be as efficient as possible? Let's break it down: Modern vehicles now have three voltage systems, depending on the technology. A 12V system drives all of the ECUs, lights, infotainment, and others. On the hybrid side, you'll also find 48V for hybrid mild systems, electric components like compressors and active suspensions, and the rest of the electric vehicles (with 400V/800V for the traction battery, inverter, and charge system). ====== Voltage Regulation ====== Let's just say your car's electronics run on a lower voltage than your outlet. Enter: voltage regulators. They ensure that every circuit in your car's electrical system receives the appropriate, consistent voltage it requires. For dropping down a high voltage, the step-down voltage buck regulators are often your best option. If you want a low noise power supply, linear regulators like the LDO are a good choice; but they do so by dissipating the energy at as heat. Why do switching regulators get such a bad rap? ====== Power Efficiency ====== Next, the efficiency. It is the percentage of the input power that makes it to the load. It's simple to calculate using: η = Pout / Pin Inside the vehicle, the less resistance you have the better off you are. No one wants to turn energy into waste heat, because that eats away at efficiency. And a boost in heat can stress out electronic components and increase cooling demand. ====== Low-Power Techniques ====== If you've ever seen a modern system, you've seen that there's at least a few techniques for reducing power as much as possible. For example, the ECU can go to sleep then power down after an event. The vehicle's CAN or LIN can be used to send a wake up. Wait, it gets better! Methods that work in smartphones and laptops can do the same for your design - and some tricks may surprise you! Disable sensors or switches when they're not needed. Use clever algorithms in your software, and turn your microcontroller "breathes" (processors) to remain asleep when you don't need to maintain timings and performance. ====== Parked Vehicle Power Consumption ====== Power management is not only concerned with when you switch the ignition on! What about all the items on the interior or other ECUs that use some form of power? They would remain "on", thus bleeding the battery, but most now go to sleep. Suppose the car battery is being drained at 50 mA for ten days. You can estimate the capacity of the battery consumed as follows: Amp-hour capacity used from battery = 0.05 × 24 hours × 10 days = 12 Ah This is how a slow, constant drain can really rack up if your car is parked for an extended period. ====== Dynamic Power ====== Okay, now you're ready to go into calculating the processor dynamic power consumption. And here's how you do it: P = C × V² × f Where C is the effective capacitance, V is the supply voltage, and f is the frequency. Since power varies as the square of the voltage (power = voltage x voltage), you can reduce dynamic power consumption by decreasing the supply voltage. For instance, if you want to maintain a clock frequency unchanged, then reducing the voltage by half would take the dynamic power consumption to one quarter. Each of these power control techniques is directly linked to performance, power and thermal management inside automotive embedded systems. With all of these techniques-smart voltage control, sleep modes, frequency management, low power device, and smart software-modern day vehicles will give you plenty of power with very little waste. Now that's a modern vehicle. ====== Challenges and Emerging Trends ====== Have you been thinking, "why do cars get smarter every year?" Same! With the proliferation of infotainment, modern technology, and a ton of electrics and software in the automotive embedded systems sector, it's getting more and more complex. Yes, the revolution in the automotive industry is happening, and while it seems to be a walk in the park, it isn't. There are challenges involved. === Challenges === Well, what is the major challenge? Simply put: the mad amount of software packed in modern cars. I don't just mean that there are hundreds of ECUs; those ECUs have to interact with – let's say – a mind-boggling amount of other software elements. This poses a tremendous headache to testing and verification, as well as to logistics. Moving on to drawbacks for heat, size, power, cost. Yeah, your car has some pretty spectacular computers, all running at dizzying speeds. But they have their limits. In fact, the main limiting factor is power, and with more power comes extra heat and, ta-da, more cooling costs! But now, a few words about heavy AI workloads (predictability). As an example, you run intense AI workloads such as object recognition. And you run time critical controls as well, to make sure you react quickly. That's a challenge. And then we've got the sensors. They are sensitive beasts - noisy, drifting, or even broken. And being able to read their outputs? Not always straightforward! Not all sensor outputs are reliable, can you tell when your sensors are off? Definitely a skill you'll need to learn! Testing and certification is another real rabbit hole for learning software. It's almost more straightforward with embedded software where we can set the rules of how our code works and behaves, but with the twist of data driven software and machine learning, that's a different ballgame. And we're just not there yet. Safety remains a concern. As automotive technology is getting smarter, it's also getting hackable. They're going to require increasingly sophisticated defenses on many more car modules - not an easy task! Finally, automaker-relevant auto parts have to be extremely reliable, as they need to survive a life of rain, shock, vibration, electrical noise, and fatigue. If reliability were not an important, perhaps even the most important feature to auto makers, auto parts probably wouldn't last long. === Future Trends === So what's next? Zonal architectures are not just a trend; they are definitely going to happen! Instead of each function having multiple ECUs, future vehicles will have one or more computers that connect to systems called "zonal controllers." Less wiring? Absolutely! You don't just have a marvel of hardware-you also have a software wizard on your hands! Sure, car companies are starting to do over-the-air downloads, so you can get new features or updates whenever you want. Wherever you are. Another high priority is fast data transfer. Of course, the Ethernet bus and CAN FD already provide enough bandwidth for vehicles, which is extremely important considering the countless signals and sensors. Why does this matter? This is really cool because this System-on-Chip that will be powering future cars will have CPUs, GPUs, NPUs, and even real-time safety cores to drive control, perception, and decision-making for conventional driving! Crazy right? We're also working to increase other capabilities, like silicon carbide. Recent advancements in 800 V powertrain systems and silicon carbide power electronics are helping us deliver more power in the same package. That's faster charging and more electrical capacity for your car. And don't forget Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) technology! V2X is the ability of vehicles to "talk" to one another and to the roads, creating more extensive data for every trip - with the potential to make our driving safer and smoother. And lastly, there's the AI. Artificial Intelligence is slowly working its way into driver-monitoring systems, using data from cameras and radar, and starting to perceive the road anew. This is where automotive embedded systems are going: toward centralized computing, high-bandwidth communications, software-defined functionalities and, increased dependence on AI. Moving forward, we see the automotive industry heading toward the road of efficiently high-performing, safe, secure, reliable and low-energy vehicles. Are you as excited as me? ====== Summary ====== Ever wondered whether your car can read your mind? Sorry to burst your bubble, but no! But you definitely should know about the technology that's making cars smarter than ever today, called embedded systems. Today's cars are literally full of hundreds of ECUs (embedded computers) that do what they're named for: collect sensor data, analyze it, and activate motors to get where you want to go (and hopefully in style). WORK. ACT. So, here's the plain and simple: automotive embedded systems operate in a very simple manner. They collect sensor information about the environment and the car itself, send this to a controller, and this controller then makes decisions and controls everything from the engine and brakes to driver-assist systems and electric vehicle hardware through actuators. The design (or your design now). It was once largely about software and hardware, but it is more about hardware selection and the networks through which you can connect to the hardware. Microcontrollers are perfect for accurate fast control, while processors, GPGPUs, NPUs and SoCs give you the intelligence of perception and AI systems. And software complexity is already becoming more manageable thanks to AUTOSAR platforms and RTOS. So, how do all these systems work together? Almost every electronic system in your vehicle is linked to the other ECUs in your vehicle using networks like LIN, CAN, CAN FD, Flex Ray, and Automotive Ethernet. Because these connected vehicle networks need to deliver high availability and reliability, the electronic systems are speaking not only to your vehicle, but to you, the driver. What about energy? Vehicles are high-power consumers. A specialized automotive embedded system also is applied to control dissipated heat. So pay attention to the energy efficiency of the energy used, especially for electric vehicles. There you have it! Going forward as vehicles become more autonomous and connected, embedded systems will continue to be a critical part of the world of automotive safety, intelligence, and connectivity. ==== Review Questions ==== Hey there! Want to learn more about systems in a car? Here are some review questions for you to learn some more. 1. What is a microcontroller vs microprocessor? This would be a good time to compare them as to which would be the best for a 1Khz brake control loop. 2. Q5: An ADC has a resolution of 10 bits, a 5 V reference and reads a value of 512, what is the input? 3. A wheel has a 60-tooth tone ring and a 0.32m radius. If the ECU senses 90 pulses in 0.1 sec, how fast is the vehicle travelling? 4. Let's say a cylinder of an engine consumes 0.25 g of air at 14.7 AFR. What would be the injector pulse width if the injector's flow rate is 2.5 mg/ms with 1 ms dead time? 5. May cause integral windup in a control system? How can you prevent it? 6. If you have three tasks of 0.25, 0.30 and 0.20 CPU can Rate Monotonic Scheduling guarantee these tasks? 7. Imagine you have thirty messages with 8 bytes each on the CAN bus sent 50 times a second on a 250 kbit/s bus. Do you think you know the bus load? And do you think that is good enough? 8. What does a watchdog timer do in a car ECU? 9. What ASIL D? Which vehicle operations are mandated to ASIL D safety integrity? 10. And at last, here comes the comparison table with LIN, CAN, Flex Ray and Automotive Ethernet. How do they compare in terms of communication speed, architecture, and automotive application? And that's all! These kinds of questions aren't just for car geeks; these are the questions that are important for knowledge of cars to figure out! ====== References ====== # Navet, N. and Simonot-Lion, F. (eds.), Automotive Embedded Systems Handbook, CRC Press, 2009. # Kamal, R., Embedded Systems: Architecture, Programming and Design, McGraw-Hill. # Zimmermann, W. and Schmidgall, R., Bussysteme in der Fahrzeugtechnik, Springer. # Robert Bosch GmbH, CAN Specification Version 2.0, 1991. # ISO 26262:2018, Road vehicles – Functional safety. # ISO 21448:2022, Road vehicles – Safety of the intended functionality. # ISO/SAE 21434:2021, Road vehicles – Cybersecurity engineering. # UNECE Regulations No. 155 and No. 156. # SAE J3016, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. # AUTOSAR, Official Website, www.autosar.org. enpcby9jrymcbhcy9fsk5fr2ah6sbv7 102 487096 4681816 4681435 2026-11-12T09:28:04Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4681816 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''[[Cookbook:Kundru]]''', '''[[Cookbook:Tindora]]''', and '''[[Cookbook:Scarlet gourd]]''' redirect here.'' '''Ivy gourd''' (''Coccinia grandis''), also called '''kundru''', '''tindora''', or '''scarlet gourd''', is a tropical climbing vine grown for its tender green fruits, young shoots, and leaves. It is widely used in South and Southeast Asian home cooking, especially in curries, stir-fries, pickles, and vegetable dishes. Ivy gourd is also a fast-growing perennial vine in the gourd family, ''Cucurbitaceae''. It is commonly cultivated in home gardens and also grows wild in tropical regions, where its fruits and young leaves are gathered for food. == Appearance == [[File:Ivy Gourd (Coccinia grandis)scarlet gourd tindora, or kowai fruit KhaWiiTee.jpg|thumb|A picture of young '''ivy gourds''' in a basket.]] Ivy gourd is a climbing vine with slender stems, coiling tendrils, and heart- or ivy-shaped leaves. It can grow over fences, trellises, roofs, and nearby vegetation, using tendrils to attach itself as it climbs. Its fruit is small, smooth, and oval, usually about the size and shape of a small cucumber. Immature fruits are green and firm; fully ripe fruits turn bright red and may be softer and sweeter. {| class="wikitable" |+Ivy Gourd !Part !Typical appearance !Common use |- |Young fruit |Small, green, firm |Stir-fries, curries, pickles |- |Ripe fruit |Bright red, softer |Eaten raw in some varieties |- |Leaves and shoots |Tender green foilage |Boiled, fried, added to soups |- |Vines |Fast-growing climber with tendrils |Grows on supports or fences |} == Growing The Plant == Ivy gourd grows best in warm, humid tropical conditions with plenty of sunlight. It prefers well-drained soil and does not tolerate waterlogging—sandy loam with a slightly acidic to neutral pH is often considered suitable. It is commonly propagated from stem cuttings rather than seeds, because the plant is dioecious—meaning separate male and female plants are needed for fruit production. A typical planting arrangement uses one male plant for about ten female plants, with plants spaced roughly 1.5 to 2 metres apart. You can also: * Provide a trellis, fence, or other sturdy support for the climbing vines. * Keep the soil moist during dry periods, but avoid waterlogged conditions. * Prune older growth regularly to encourage fresh shoots and better production. * Harvest young fruits while they are still tender—first harvest may take up to about five months after planting. == In The Kitchen == In the kitchen, ivy gourd is valued for its mild, slightly crisp texture when young. The tender green fruits are usually cooked rather than eaten raw, and they absorb spices and sauces well. Common preparations include: * '''Stir-fries:''' Slice thinly and cook with oil, onion, garlic, chili, and spices. * '''Curries and stews:''' Add to lentil dishes, coconut-based curries, or mixed-vegetable stews. * '''Pickles:''' Use tender fruits for quick fresh pickles or longer-keeping preserved versions. * '''Stuffed dishes:''' Halve or slit the fruits and fill them with spiced mixtures before cooking. * '''Greens:''' Cook young leaves and shoot tips as a leafy vegetable or add them to soups. A simple approach is to slice tender ivy gourds, sauté them with mustard seeds, curry leaves, onion, and turmeric, then finish with salt and a little lemon. Young fruits are generally milder and more tender than mature ones. === Choosing and Storing === Choose ivy gourds that are firm, smooth, and evenly green, without soft spots, wrinkles, or visible damage. Smaller, younger fruits are usually more tender and less fibrous than larger, mature fruits. For storage, wash the fruits only shortly before cooking if possible. If they need to be stored, gently wash them, dry them thoroughly, and keep them in a breathable container in the refrigerator—one source estimates about 3–4 days at room temperature and 7–10 days refrigerated. == Value == === Nutritional Value === Ivy gourd is a low-energy vegetable: one reference lists about 72–90 kJ per 100 g of edible fruit, with roughly 94 g water, 1–2 g protein, 3.1 g carbohydrate, and 15 mg vitamin C per 100 g. The fruit also provides minerals including calcium, iron, phosphorus, and zinc, while the leaves are notably rich in vitamin A and provide protein, fibre, and minerals. === Safety Value === c6gm48989buk5po330rvydgxkumamqi 4681818 4681816 2026-11-12T09:30:27Z ActStuffOGWiki 3624203 4681818 wikitext text/x-wiki '''''[[Cookbook:Kundru]]''', '''[[Cookbook:Tindora]]''', and '''[[Cookbook:Scarlet gourd]]''' redirect here.'' '''Ivy gourd''' (''Coccinia grandis''), also called '''kundru''', '''tindora''', or '''scarlet gourd''', is a tropical climbing vine grown for its tender green fruits, young shoots, and leaves. It is widely used in South and Southeast Asian home cooking, especially in curries, stir-fries, pickles, and vegetable dishes. Ivy gourd is also a fast-growing perennial vine in the gourd family, ''Cucurbitaceae''. It is commonly cultivated in home gardens and also grows wild in tropical regions, where its fruits and young leaves are gathered for food. == Appearance == [[File:Ivy Gourd (Coccinia grandis)scarlet gourd tindora, or kowai fruit KhaWiiTee.jpg|thumb|A picture of young '''ivy gourds''' in a basket.]] Ivy gourd is a climbing vine with slender stems, coiling tendrils, and heart- or ivy-shaped leaves. It can grow over fences, trellises, roofs, and nearby vegetation, using tendrils to attach itself as it climbs. Its fruit is small, smooth, and oval, usually about the size and shape of a small cucumber. Immature fruits are green and firm; fully ripe fruits turn bright red and may be softer and sweeter. {| class="wikitable" |+Ivy Gourd !Part !Typical appearance !Common use |- |Young fruit |Small, green, firm |Stir-fries, curries, pickles |- |Ripe fruit |Bright red, softer |Eaten raw in some varieties |- |Leaves and shoots |Tender green foilage |Boiled, fried, added to soups |- |Vines |Fast-growing climber with tendrils |Grows on supports or fences |} == Growing The Plant == Ivy gourd grows best in warm, humid tropical conditions with plenty of sunlight. It prefers well-drained soil and does not tolerate waterlogging—sandy loam with a slightly acidic to neutral pH is often considered suitable. It is commonly propagated from stem cuttings rather than seeds, because the plant is dioecious—meaning separate male and female plants are needed for fruit production. A typical planting arrangement uses one male plant for about ten female plants, with plants spaced roughly 1.5 to 2 metres apart. You can also: * Provide a trellis, fence, or other sturdy support for the climbing vines. * Keep the soil moist during dry periods, but avoid waterlogged conditions. * Prune older growth regularly to encourage fresh shoots and better production. * Harvest young fruits while they are still tender—first harvest may take up to about five months after planting. == In The Kitchen == In the kitchen, ivy gourd is valued for its mild, slightly crisp texture when young. The tender green fruits are usually cooked rather than eaten raw, and they absorb spices and sauces well. Common preparations include: * '''Stir-fries:''' Slice thinly and cook with oil, onion, garlic, chili, and spices. * '''Curries and stews:''' Add to lentil dishes, coconut-based curries, or mixed-vegetable stews. * '''Pickles:''' Use tender fruits for quick fresh pickles or longer-keeping preserved versions. * '''Stuffed dishes:''' Halve or slit the fruits and fill them with spiced mixtures before cooking. * '''Greens:''' Cook young leaves and shoot tips as a leafy vegetable or add them to soups. A simple approach is to slice tender ivy gourds, sauté them with mustard seeds, curry leaves, onion, and turmeric, then finish with salt and a little lemon. Young fruits are generally milder and more tender than mature ones. === Choosing and Storing === Choose ivy gourds that are firm, smooth, and evenly green, without soft spots, wrinkles, or visible damage. Smaller, younger fruits are usually more tender and less fibrous than larger, mature fruits. For storage, wash the fruits only shortly before cooking if possible. If they need to be stored, gently wash them, dry them thoroughly, and keep them in a breathable container in the refrigerator—one source estimates about 3–4 days at room temperature and 7–10 days refrigerated. == Value == === Nutritional Value === Ivy gourd is a low-energy vegetable: one reference lists about 72–90 kJ per 100 g of edible fruit, with roughly 94 g water, 1–2 g protein, 3.1 g carbohydrate, and 15 mg vitamin C per 100 g. The fruit also provides minerals including calcium, iron, phosphorus, and zinc, while the leaves are notably rich in vitamin A and provide protein, fibre, and minerals. === Safety Value === Ivy gourd is commonly eaten as a food, but some wild or bitter varieties may contain cucurbitacins, naturally occurring compounds that can make fruit unpleasantly bitter. Avoid eating fruit that tastes strongly bitter or unusual. Traditional medicine uses ivy gourd leaves and roots for conditions such as diabetes, but these uses should not replace medical care. People who take diabetes medicines should be especially cautious about concentrated herbal preparations, since blood-sugar effects have been reported in research and traditional-use sources. The plant can also become invasive outside its native range because it spreads readily through stems, roots, and seeds. Gardeners should prevent escape into natural areas and remove root and stem fragments carefully if controlling unwanted growth. === Cultural Value === Ivy gourd has long been part of food traditions in South and Southeast Asia, particularly India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and neighbouring regions. It appears in everyday home cooking as well as regional dishes such as curries, lentil preparations, and vegetable stir-fries. In India, it is used in curries, spiced sautés, stuffed preparations, and ''sambar'', a lentil-and-vegetable dish. In East Africa, ripe fruits may be used in a stew called ''tindori'', served with bread, sorghum, or other staple foods. The plant is also significant in traditional medicine systems, including Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani traditions, where different parts of the plant have been used for a range of health concerns. Its continuing culinary and medicinal use reflects its role as both a food crop and a culturally familiar plant across tropical Asia. c5lsaptdce8n4sif3099yufc6rgsvgx 2 487111 4681836 4681425 2026-11-12T10:14:42Z Tripathi995 3630377 Added academic references and finalized the chapter on Defence Robotics 4681836 wikitext text/x-wiki = Defence Robotics and Autonomous Systems = == 1. Introduction and Evolution of Defence Robotics == Defence robotics is an important area of modern engineering. It involves the use of robotic machines for military activities such as surveillance, bomb disposal, transportation and inspection of dangerous locations. Earlier most military robots were remotely operated and had limited capabilities. With improvements in sensors, electronics, and computing the modern robots can now perform several tasks with minimal human intervention. The main purpose of using robots in defence field is to reduce risks to soldiers and improve the ability to work in difficult environments. Today robotics is becoming an important part of military research and technological development. == 2. Military Robotic Platforms and Their Applications == Different robotic platforms are developed for different military applications. Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs) are used for ground inspection, transportation and explosive disposal. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) commonly known as drones are used for aerial observation and reconnaissance. Other platforms include underwater robots used for marine inspection and specialised EOD robots designed to handle explosive hazards. For example, DRDO's Daksh is a remotely operated robotic vehicle developed for bomb disposal and hazardous material handling. == 3. Sensors, Perception and Navigation Systems == Sensors help defence robots collect information about their surroundings. RGB cameras provided normal images thermal cameras detect heat differences and LiDAR measures distances using laser pulses, radar uses electromagnetic waves to detect objects. Navigation is an another important part of robotic systems. GPS can provide location information, but satellite signals may not always be available. In such situations, robots can use IMU wheel odometry and SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) to estimate their position and create maps of their surroundings. == 4. Mechanical Design and Power Systems == The mechanical design of a defence robot depends on the application and operating environment. Wheeled robots are suitable for roads and hard surfaces and tracked robots provide better movement on mud and loose soil, while legged robots can handle certain uneven surfaces. Electric motors and actuators control the movement of these machines. Most mobile robots use rechargeable batteries, especially lithium-poly batteries. A Battery Management System (BMS) monitors battery conditions and helps prevent problems such as overcharging and overheating. == 5. Military Communication and Cybersecurity == Communication systems allow military robots to exchange information between their operators and other connected devices. Wireless communication is commonly used to transmit camera footage, sensor data and control commands. Technologies such as Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and mesh networking can help to improve communication in certain difficult condition. Cybersecurity is also important because unauthorised access or manipulated commands can affect robotic operations. Encryption, authentication and secure software are methods used to protect these type of systems. == 6. Autonomous Systems, AI and Human Control == Artificial Intelligence (AI) helps robotic systems process information, recognise objects and perform selected tasks automatically. Computer vision and machine learning are examples of technologies used in modern robotics. However, human supervision remains important in defence applications. There are three commonly discussed control models: * Human-in-the-Loop (HITL): A human must approve specified actions. * Human-on-the-Loop (HOTL): The robot performs selected tasks automatically while a human supervises it. * Human-out-of-the-Loop (HOOTL): The system performs the relevant action without human intervention at their decision stage. These models raise important questions about safety, responsibility and the proper use of autonomous military technologies. == 7. Counter-Drone Technology and Future of Defence Robotics == Counter-Unmanned Aircraft Systems (C-UAS) are designed to detect identify and respond to unauthorised drones. These systems may use radar, cameras and other sensors to monitor aerial objects. Counter-drone methods are generally classified as soft-kill and hard-kill. Soft-kill methods attempt to disrupt a drone's operation, while hard-kill methods involve physically stopping the aerial platform. In India, organisations exist such as DRDO are working on different defence robotics technologies. Future developments may include advanced surveillance robots, autonomous ground vehicles, underwater systems and improved human-robot collaboration. == Conclusion == Defence robotics is becoming an important part of modern military technology. Robots are now being used for surveillance, bomb disposal, transportation and other dangerous tasks. Technologies such as artificial intelligence, advanced sensors and autonomous navigation are making these systems more capable. In the future, defence robotics may play an even greater role in improving safety, efficiency and the technological strength of defence forces. == References == # Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). ''Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) Daksh''. Ministry of Defence, Government of India. # Singer, P. W. (2009). ''Wired for War: The Robotics Revolution and Conflict in the 21st Century''. Penguin Press. # Siciliano, B., & Khatib, O. (Eds.). (2016). ''Springer Handbook of Robotics'' (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. # Thrun, S., Burgard, W., & Fox, D. (2005). ''Probabilistic Robotics''. MIT Press. # US Department of Defense (2023). ''Directive 3000.09: Autonomy in Weapon Systems''. Office of the Under Secretary of Defense. # Lykou, G., Moustakas, D., & Gritzalis, D. (2020). "Defending Airports from UAS: A Survey on Cyber-Attacks and Counter-Drone Sensing Technologies." ''Sensors'', 20(12), 3537. 9gdfs1r8l3w2toz9dyxgsvdllwvb4gf 2 487118 4681802 4681454 2026-11-12T08:51:11Z Minato 18 3626634 4681802 wikitext text/x-wiki '''<big>EFFECT OF NOISE ON ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS</big>''' '''<big>CONTENTS</big>''' '''<big>1.Effect of Noise on Linear-Modulation Systems</big>''' 1.1 The Impact of Noise Within a Baseband Configuration 1.2 Effect of Noise on DSB-SCAM 1.3 Effect of Noise on SSB AM 1.4 Effect of Noise on Conventional AM '''<big>2.Carrier-Phase Estimation utilizing a Phase-Locked Loop</big>''' 2.1 The Phase-Locked Loop 2.2 Impact of Additive Noise on Phase Estimation '''<big>3.Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation</big>''' 3.1 Threshold Effect in Angle Modulation 3.2 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis Filtering '''<big>4.Comparison of Analog-Modulation Systems</big>''' '''<big>5.Effects of</big>''' '''<big>Transmission Losses and Noise in Analog Communication Systems</big>''' 5.1 Characterization of Thermal Noise Sources 5.2 Effective Noise temperature and Noise figure 5.3 Transmission losses 5.4 Repeaters for signal transmission '''<big>1.Effect of noise on linear modulation systems</big>''' '''<big>Introduction</big>''' In analog communication systems, linear modulation serves as a methodology wherein the amplitude of a carrier wave is modulated in direct proportion to the information-bearing signal. The primary objective of this modulation process is to facilitate the efficient transmission of data across a communication channel. In practical communication systems, transmitted signals are invariably subjected to unwanted disturbances termed noise. This interference may infiltrate the system via the transmission channel or originate from within the electronic components themselves. Upon the superposition of noise onto the transmitted signal, the receiver acquires a composite comprising both the desired signal and the intrusive noise. The efficacy of a communication system operating under noisy conditions is routinely assessed through the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR), a metric that quantifies the relative magnitude of the desired signal's power against that of interfering noise. Consequently, the performance of various amplitude-modulation schemes cannot be presumed equivalent in noisy environments, as these techniques diverge significantly in their bandwidth demands, power allocation, and receiver architecture. '''<big>1.1 Effect of Noise on a Baseband System</big>''' '''<big>Introduction to Baseband Communication</big>''' Baseband communication means sending an information signal through a communication channel. There is no shift to a higher frequency carrier. This kind of communication is used when the signal stays at its frequency range. Examples include voice signals sent over wired systems like telephone lines. Another example is data sent through baseband channels such, as Ethernet cables. A simple baseband communication system has three parts: a transmitter, a communication channel and a receiver. The transmitter creates the information signal. That signal moves through the channel. At the end the signal is processed to get back the original information. Mathematical Representation of the Received Signal In real-world situations the received signal is disturbed by noise. The noise gets added to the signal as it travels. The received signal can be written as: '''<big>r(t) = s(t)+n(t)</big>''' where: * r(t) represents the received signals. * s(t) represents the transmitted message signals. * n(t) represents the additive noise The noise part is not. Can hurt how correct the message that is found back is. Additive White Gaussian Noise Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) is a model that is often used to study noise in communication systems. It has three features: 1. Additive: Noise is put on top of the signal that was sent. 2. White: The amount of noise is the same across all the frequencies that are being looked at. 3. Gaussian: The size of the noise follows a pattern that is shaped like a bell. AWGN is a model for looking at how well communication systems work. Effect of Noise at the Receiver When the signal that is received goes into the receiver it is put through a filter that tries to cut out parts that are not needed. The receiver tries to find the message while making the noise as small as possible. Some noise inside the signal range might still be there after the filter. So the message that is found back might not be the same as the one that was sent. Signal-to-Noise Ratio The way a basic communication system works can be checked using the signal-, to-noise ratio. SNR = Ps/Pn where: * Ps is the average signal power * Pn is the average noise power The SNR expressed in decibels is: SNR(dB)=10log10(Ps/Pn) A higher SNR indicates that the useful signal power is greater compared with the noise power. This generally results in better reception quality. 1.2 Effect of noise on DSB-SC AM Double sideband suppressed carrier(DSB-SC) is an amplitude-modulation technique in which the carrier is suppressed during transmission. Only the upper and lower sidebands containing the information are transmitted. In conventional AM, the carrier consumes a significant portion of the total transmitted power. DSB-SC reduces this carrier-power wastage by transmitting only the sidebands. Mathematical representation The DSB-SC signal is represented by: s(t)=Ac m(t)cos(2piFct) Where: * Ac is the carrier amplitude. * m(t) is the message signal. * Fc is the carrier frequency. * t represents time. '''<big>Effect of noise</big>''' When the DSB-SC signal passes through a channel the signal that arrives at the receiver contains the DSB-SC modulated signal plus extra noise: r(t)=s(t)+n(t) The receiver uses a coherent detector to recover the original message. Coherent detection requires a generated carrier that matches the transmitted carrier in frequency and has the correct phase relationship. The receiver multiplies the received signal by the generated carrier and then sends the result through a low‑pass filter. This step pulls out the baseband information signal. The performance of DSB‑SC relies on carrier synchronization. If there is a mismatch in frequency or phase the recovered signal will. The quality of communication will drop. '''<big>Noise performance</big>''' DSB‑SC does not send the carrier, which makes it more power efficient than AM. Yet DSB‑SC needs a complex receiver because coherent detection is required. The output signal‑to‑noise ratio is used to judge how well the recovered message stands up against noise. '''<big>1.3 Effect of Noise on SSB AM</big>''' Single Sideband (SSB) modulation is a type of amplitude modulation that sends one of the two sidebands. In a double‑sideband system both sidebands carry related information so sending just one sideband can cut the needed bandwidth. SSB comes in two forms: - Upper Sideband (USB) - Lower Sideband (LSB) In USB transmission the upper sideband is the part sent. In LSB transmission the lower sideband is the part sent. Bandwidth requirement If the message signal peaks, at a frequency of )w the approximate bandwidth needed is: For DSB-SC: Bdsb=2W For SSB: Bssd=W Therefore SSB needs about half the bandwidth of DSB-SC when carrying the message bandwidth. '''<big>Effect of noise on SSB</big>''' As an SSB signal moves through a communication channel noise gets mixed in with the signal. The receiver then has to recover the message from this noisy signal, which contains both the wanted sideband and the unwanted noise. SSB usually relies on detection. The receiver creates a local carrier signal to rebuild the message. Precise frequency and phase alignment are needed because any mistakes in the carrier can lead to distortion in the message that is recovered. Noise performance The noise performance of SSB is measured by the output signal-to-noise ratio or SNR. Because SSB uses bandwidth efficiently it works well in systems where the available channel bandwidth's tight. SSB is often used in long-distance radio communication and, in some two-way radio systems === 1.4 Effect of Noise on Conventional AM === Conventional Amplitude Modulation is a technique in which the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier varies according to the message signal. Unlike DSB-SC, conventional AM transmits the carrier along with both sidebands. The transmitted AM signal can be represented as: s(t)=Ac[1+<math>\mu</math>Mn(t)]cos(2piFct) Where: * Ac represents the carrier amplitude. * <math>\mu</math> represents the modulation index. * Mn(t) represents a normalized message signal. * Fc represents the carrier frequency. For a sinusoidal message signal, the modulation index indicates the extent to which the carrier amplitude varies. '''<big>Envelope detection</big>''' A big benefit of AM is that the original information can be brought back by using an envelope detector. This envelope detector usually has a diode and an RC circuit. The diode cleans the AM signal while the RC circuit follows the shape of the envelope. The final output looks like the message signal. '''<big>Effect of noise</big>''' Noise that enters an AM signal can change the height of the received waveform. Because the information in AM is shown by changes, in height height noise directly changes the envelope detector output. If the noise level gets high enough the envelope can get bent. The recovered message may have strange changes. '''<big>Power distribution</big>''' The total power that is sent in AM is made up of carrier power and sideband power. For a single-tone sinusoidal AM signal: Pt=Pc(1+mu*2/2) Where: * Pt is the total transmitted power. * Pc is the carrier power. * mu is the modulation index. This equation shows that transmitted power is distributed between the carrier and the sidebands. Conventional AM is widely used in broadcasting because of its relatively simple receiver structure. However, its amplitude-based detection makes it sensitive to amplitude disturbances. '''<big>2. Carrier-Phase Estimation with a Phase-Locked Loop</big>''' Carrier-phase estimation is a part of communication systems that use coherent detection. In methods such as DSB-SC and SSB the receiver needs a reference carrier to recover the message signal. The reference carrier generated at the receiver must keep the frequency and phase relationship with the transmitted carrier. However noise and frequency variations can create synchronization errors. A Phase‑Locked Loop or PLL is commonly used to achieve and keep synchronization. The PLL is a feedback control system that changes a generated signal based on the phase difference between the input signal and the reference signal. '''<big>2.1 The Phase‑Locked Loop</big>''' A Phase‑Locked Loop is a circuit that synchronises the frequency and phase of an output signal with an incoming reference signal. It is widely used in radio receivers, frequency synthesizers, communication systems and digital electronic circuits. '''<big>Basic components of a PLL</big>''' A PLL has three main components. '''<big>1. Phase Detector</big>''' The phase detector compares the phase of the signal with the phase of the locally generated oscillator signal. It produces an error signal that matches the phase difference, between the two signals. '''<big>2. Loop Filter</big>''' The output of the phase detector contains variations and high‑frequency components. The loop filter processes this output. Gives a smoother control signal. '''<big>3. Voltage‑Controlled Oscillator (VCO)</big>''' A Voltage‑Controlled Oscillator generates an output signal whose frequency depends on the control voltage that is applied. The control signal changes the oscillator frequency to lessen the phase difference. '''<big>Working principle</big>''' When an input signal is applied to a PLL the phase detector looks at the input and the oscillator output. If there is a phase difference the phase detector creates an error signal. The loop filter takes the error signal. Passes it to the VCO. The oscillator then changes its frequency so that the phase difference becomes smaller. The loop keeps working until the PLL reaches a condition. In the state the oscillator keeps the required frequency and the phase relationship with the input signal. '''<big>Applications of PLL</big>''' * Carrier recovery in communication receivers. * Frequency synthesis. * Clock synchronization. * Radio and television receivers. * Digital communication systems. * Frequency modulation and demodulation circuits '''<big>2.2 Effect of Additive Noise on Phase Estimation</big>''' In communication systems the received carrier is affected by additive noise. This noise creates uncertainty in the phase of the received signal. A PLL still tries to estimate the carrier phase when the input signal has noise. However noise can cause rapid changes in the estimated phase. These changes are called phase errors or phase jitter. Effect of noise, on the phase detector The phase detector compares the carrier with the locally generated oscillator signal. When noise is present the phase detector gets a reference signal. Because of that the phase error signal can have fluctuations. The loop filter then tries to reduce these fluctuations before they reach the VCO. '''<big>Phase jitter</big>''' Phase jitter means changes in the phase of a signal. It can happen because of noise, unstable oscillators and problems in the synchronization circuit. Much phase jitter can hurt coherent demodulation and make the recovered information less accurate. '''<big>Effect of loop bandwidth</big>''' The loop bandwidth is a factor that affects PLL performance. * A larger loop bandwidth usually helps the PLL keep up with changes in input frequency and phase. * A larger bandwidth can also let noise into the loop. * A smaller loop bandwidth can stop noise from getting through the loop. * However a loop bandwidth that is too small can make it hard to keep up with changes in the input signal. So the loop bandwidth needs to be chosen based on how the system needs to track and how much noise is present. Importance in communication systems Getting the carrier phase right is very important, in detection systems. A designed PLL helps with synchronization and makes sure the signal can be recovered properly even when there is noise. '''<big>3. Effect of Noise on Angle Modulation</big>''' I see angle modulation as a way to send information by changing the angle of a carrier wave. The two main types of angle modulation are Frequency Modulation, known as FM and Phase Modulation, known as PM. When we talk about amplitude modulation, the size of the carrier changes with the message signal.. When we use angle modulation the carrier size stays basically the same while its instant frequency or phase moves. I think angle modulation is especially useful, in communication systems because it can give protection against some kinds of noise, particularly amplitude disturbances. '''Frequency Modulation''' In Frequency Modulation, the frequency of the carrier changes following the size of the message signal. The general FM signal can be represented as: Sfm(t)=Ae cos[2piFct+2piKf <math>\int</math>m(t)dt] Where: * Ae is the carrier amplitude. * Fc is the carrier frequency. * m(t) is the message signal. * kf is the frequency sensitivity constant. === Phase Modulation === In Phase Modulation, the instantaneous phase of the carrier varies directly according to the message signal. It can be represented as: Spm(t)=Ae cos[2piFct+Kpm(t)] Where Kp represents the phase sensitivity constant. '''<big>3.1 Threshold Effect in Angle Modulation</big>''' The threshold effect is a phenomenon seen in angle-modulation systems, especially in Frequency Modulation. FM systems usually offer noise performance when the received carrier signal is strong compared to the noise.. When the received signal strength drops below a certain point the output noise can rise quickly. This sudden drop in the quality of the recovered signal is called the threshold effect. '''<big>Operation of an FM receiver</big>''' An FM receiver typically has the following parts: 1. Radio-frequency amplifier. 2. Frequency conversion and intermediate-frequency processing. 3. Limiter. 4. FM discriminator or frequency detector. 5. Audio amplifier. The limiter takes out amplitude changes before the frequency detector works on the signal. This step helps lower the impact of amplitude noise on the information that is recovered. Why does the threshold effect happen? When the carrier-to-noise ratio is high the FM receiver can track the frequency changes of the signal properly. When the received signal is weak noise can cause changes in the way the phase and frequency of the signal look. The receiver might then make mistakes in the output it produces. As the carrier-to-noise ratio continues to drop the quality of the output can get much worse. '''Methods of reducing the threshold effect''' Some ways to make FM receivers work better include: * Keeping the received carrier power at a level. * Using the right receiver design. * Using noise-reduction methods. * Choosing the correct receiver bandwidth. * Using threshold-extension methods when needed. '''Importance''' Knowing about the threshold effect is important, in the building of FM receivers because it shows why the noise performance of FM gets worse when the received signal is very weak. '''<big>3.2 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis Filtering</big>''' Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis are filtering methods used in FM communication systems to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the message that is recovered at the receiver. In FM systems the noise at the output of the frequency discriminator tends to increase as the frequency goes up. This means that higher-frequency parts of the message signal may become more affected by noise. To deal with this pre-emphasis and de-emphasis are used together. '''Pre-emphasis''' Pre-emphasis is the step where the higher-frequency parts of the message signal are made stronger before transmission. This is done using a -emphasis filter that is placed right before the FM modulator. The filter boosts the high-frequency components so that they stand out after transmission. '''De-emphasis''' De-emphasis is the process and it happens at the receiver side. A de-emphasis filter is used after the FM demodulator. It brings down the boosted high-frequency parts. Brings the signal back, to its original shape. It also helps reduce the high-frequency noise that got added during transmission and reception. '''Working principle''' The process works in this order: 1. The original message signal goes into the -emphasis circuit. 2. The higher-frequency parts of the signal are increased in strength. 3. The boosted signal is sent to the FM modulator. 4. The modulated signal is sent through the communication channel. 5. The FM receiver picks up the signal. Recovers the message. 6. The de-emphasis filter restores the frequency balance and cuts down high-frequency noise. '''Time constant''' Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits are usually built using RC networks. The time constant is expressed as: τ = RC where R's the resistance and C is the capacitance The appropriate time constant depends on the communication standard and system design. '''Applications''' * FM radio broadcasting. * Audio transmission systems. * Wireless communication systems. * Communication receivers requiring improved high-frequency noise performance. '''<big>4. Comparison of Analog-Modulation Systems</big>''' Analog-modulation systems differ in needs, power efficiency, how complex the receiver is and how well they handle noise. The major techniques discussed in this chapter are AM DSB-SC, SSB and FM. Comparison based on modulation characteristics '''Conventional AM''' Conventional AM transmits the carrier and both sidebands. It needs a simple receiver and can use an envelope detector. However Conventional AM is sensitive to amplitude noise. '''DSB-SC''' DSB-SC transmits both sidebands while not sending the carrier. DSB-SC improves power efficiency.. Dsb-SC requires coherent detection at the receiver. '''SSB''' SSB transmits one sideband. SSB requires bandwidth than DSB-SC and conventional AM. However SSB needs carrier recovery for proper demodulation. '''FM''' FM varies the frequency of the carrier. FM provides resistance to amplitude noise when the received signal is strong enough. However FM usually needs bandwidth, than AM. '''Selection of modulation techniques.''' The selection of a modulation technique depends on the requirements of the communication system. Conventional AM is suitable for applications where simple receivers and low implementation complexity are important. I find conventional AM works well when simplicity matters. DSB‑SC is useful where carrier‑power efficiency is important and coherent detection is available. DSB‑SC shines when power efficiency counts. SSB is suitable for communication systems where bandwidth conservation is required such as long‑distance radio applications. SSB saves bandwidth for long‑haul radio. FM is widely used in broadcasting and other applications where improved resistance to amplitude noise is required. FM offers noise resistance for broadcasts. No single modulation technique is suitable, for every situation. The final choice of a modulation technique depends on bandwidth, transmitted power, receiver complexity noise conditions and application requirements. '''<big>5. Effects of Transmission Losses and Noise in Analog Communication Systems</big>''' In analog communication systems the signal has to travel through a physical channel. As it moves the signal can lose strength get distorted or pick up noise. Transmission losses make the signal weaker by the time it reaches the receiver. Noise adds unwanted signals that mix with the original message. Both of these issues affect how clear the received signal is. They directly impact the signal-to-noise ratio, which's a key measure of signal quality. Because of this understanding transmission losses and noise is essential when building communication systems that must work well over distances. '''<big>5.1 Characterization of Thermal Noise Sources</big>''' noise is a basic type of noise found in electronic communication systems. It comes from the movement of electric charges inside resistive parts like resistors and other components. This kind of noise is also called Johnson-Nyquist noise. Thermal noise happens when no signal is being sent. Long as the component is above absolute zero temperature this noise will be present. '''<big>Origin of thermal noise</big>''' Electrons inside a conductor are always moving randomly due to heat energy. This motion creates unpredictable changes in voltage and current. These small fluctuations add up. Become part of the overall noise, in a system. They can interfere with the signal being transmitted making it harder to recover the original information. '''Thermal noise power''' The available thermal noise power is expressed as: Pn=KTB Where: * Pn is the available noise power in watts. * K is Boltzmann's constant. * T is absolute temperature in kelvin. * B is noise bandwidth in hertz. The equation shows that thermal noise power is directly proportional to both temperature and bandwidth. If the temperature increases, the thermal noise power also increases. Similarly, increasing the receiver bandwidth allows more noise power to enter the system. '''Thermal noise voltage''' For a resistor R, the mean-square open-circuit thermal noise voltage over bandwidth B is: Vn*2bar= 4KTRB The root-mean-square noise voltage is: Vnrms= rootover(4KTRB) '''Importance, in communication systems''' noise sets a hard lower bound on how weak a signal a receiver can pick up. Because of that thermal noise is a consideration when we design very sensitive radio receivers, amplifiers and all kinds of communication equipment. '''<big>5.2 Effective Noise Temperature and Noise Figure</big>''' Effective Noise Temperature and noise figure are two numbers that help us describe how well communication equipment handles noise. '''Effective Noise Temperature''' Effective Noise Temperature is the temperature of a thermal noise source that would generate the same amount of noise power as the real system does. Effective Noise Temperature gives us a way to show how much noise each electronic component adds. The thermal noise power that comes from a noise temperature is: Pn=KTeB Where: * Te is effective noise temperature. * K is Boltzmann's constant. * B is the bandwidth. Noise temperature is particularly useful in satellite communication, microwave receivers and radio astronomy, where very weak signals must be detected. ==== Noise Figure ==== Noise figure describes how much an electronic device degrades the signal-to-noise ratio as the signal passes through it. The noise factor is defined as: F=SNRin/SNRout where: * SNRin is the input signal to noise ratio. * SNRout id the output signal to noise ratio. '''Importance of noise figure''' Noise figure is used to compare amplifiers and receiver components. A lower noise figure generally indicates that a device introduces additional noise and is more suitable for amplifying weak signals. '''<big>5.3 Transmission Losses</big>''' Transmission loss refers to the reduction in power as an electromagnetic signal travels through a communication medium. It is also commonly associated with attenuation. Several factors contribute to transmission losses, including: '''1. Free-Space Path Loss''' When electromagnetic waves travel through space the received power decreases as the distance, between the transmitter and receiver increases. Free-space path loss is commonly expressed in decibels as Lfs=20log10(4pid/lambda) Where: * d is the distance between transmitter and receiver. * lambda is the wavelength of the transmitted signal. This expression assumes ideal free-space propagation without additional obstacles or atmospheric losses. '''2. Cable Losses''' Signals sent through cables lose power because of resistance and other electrical traits of the cable. These losses can grow as frequency rises. As the cable gets longer. '''3. Absorption Losses''' Some electromagnetic energy may be absorbed by materials in the path, which cuts the energy that reaches the receiver. '''4. Reflection and Scattering Losses''' When electromagnetic waves hit surfaces or objects some energy can bounce back. Scatter in many directions. Reflection and scattering losses can lower the power that arrives along the intended route. Transmission loss, in decibels For a power‑based measurement transmission loss is shown in decibels as: L(dB)=10log10(Pt/Pr) Where: * Pt is transmitted power. * Pr is received power. A larger transmission loss shows a drop in the power of the signal that is received. '''Effect on communication performance''' Transmission loss lowers the strength of the received signal. If the noise level stays the same the signal-to-noise ratio goes down. This can make it harder for the receiver to recover the information accurately. '''<big>5.4 Repeaters for Signal Transmission</big>''' A repeater is a device that extends the transmission distance of a communication system. It receives a signal processes it and sends it again toward the destination. Repeaters are useful when a signal becomes weak because of transmission losses over distances. '''Working principle''' A repeater receives a signal from the transmission channel through an antenna or suitable input connection. The received signal is. Then transmitted again. Depending on the system this may involve amplification, filtering, demodulation and regeneration. '''Types of repeaters''' '''1. Amplifying Repeater''' An amplifying repeater increases the amplitude of the signal. However it also increases the noise that's already in that signal. Therefore an amplifier does not automatically improve the signal-to-noise ratio. '''2. Regenerative Repeater''' A regenerative repeater tries to recover the transmitted information and rebuild a signal. It can reduce the effect of accumulated noise and distortion when the received signal is correctly detected. '''Applications''' * Long-distance radio communication. * Communication networks. * Microwave communication links. * Optical fibre communication systems. * Wireless communication networks. '''Importance of repeaters''' Repeaters help extend the coverage of communication systems and compensate for transmission losses. Their design is important, for keeping signal quality over communication distances. '''<big>6.conclusion</big>''' There are various factors that affect the performance of analog communication systems. These include noise and transmission losses. Different modulation schemes will have different effects from noise due to the characteristics of the signal, bandwidth and receiver. Modulation schemes with linear modulation such as DSB-SC, SSB and conventional AM have a need to be carefully considered when demodulating. Phase-Locked Loops can be used to achieve carrier synchronisation. Angle modulation techniques such as FM can offer better immunity to amplitude noise. FM is affected by the threshold effect. This is why there are limits to how well FM can perform if the received carrier strength is too low. Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis filters can further improve the immunity. Thermal noise, effective noise temperature, noise figure and transmission losses are also important to consider. Repeaters can increase transmission range but depend on whether they are amplifying the signal or regenerating the information. Understanding these concepts will allow engineers to choose the correct modulation scheme, design an efficient receiver and improve reliability in analog communication systems. '''<big>7. References</big>''' # John G. Proakis and Masoud Salehi, Communication Systems Engineering, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall. # Simon Haykin, Communication Systems, 4th Edition, John Wiley & Sons. # H. Taub and D. L. Schilling, Principles of Communication Systems, McGraw-Hill. # T. L. Singal, Analog and Digital Communications, Tata McGraw-Hill. # IIT Madras, Communication Systems Engineering. c8w6pegnap7g453pgjamcp2tv0gi0m0 2 487119 4681841 4681544 2026-11-12T10:49:37Z Niidhii 3629916 4681841 wikitext text/x-wiki Low-Power Operation in ESP32 Using Deep Sleep Mode Low Power Operation- There are many applications such as in IoT and also in portable applications where batteries are used. The capacity of batteries is limited and we need to save power for extended operations. The ESP32 chip is a fantastic chip with great features. In addition to its processing power and many on-chip modules, it offers low power mode which conserves power and enables the chip to be used for a very long time. It has been reported that the chip can run in low power mode with AA batteries for over several years. Of course this is only achievable with very little use of the Wi-Fi and the Bluetooth modules since these modules consume large amounts of power. Deep Sleep Mode- It is reported by the manufacturers that the ESP32 chip consumes around 0.15 mA of current in deep sleep mode. We shall see later in this section the actual measured power consumption. When the chip is in deep sleep mode, it can be woken up by one of the following 5 trigger signals or events: • External signal using RTC_IO • External signal using RTC_CNTL • Timer • Touchpad • ULP program Remember that in deep sleep mode the CPU core, main memory, Wi-Fi module, Bluetooth module, and the peripherals are all disabled and so everything stored in the main memory are lost. The only module that works is the RTC module and its memory. Therefore, if we want to save data to survive the deep sleep mode then this data must be saved in the RTC memory. Some example projects are given in the next sections to show how the deep sleep mode can be used. cru7xb2bv30p2o9chx7h26naeaczfjv 4681842 4681841 2026-11-12T10:54:45Z Niidhii 3629916 4681842 wikitext text/x-wiki = Low-Power Operation in ESP32 Using Deep Sleep Mode = [[File:ESP32.jpg|thumb|ESP32]] Low Power Operation- There are many applications such as in IoT and also in portable applications where batteries are used. The capacity of batteries is limited and we need to save power for extended operations. The ESP32 chip is a fantastic chip with great features. In addition to its processing power and many on-chip modules, it offers low power mode which conserves power and enables the chip to be used for a very long time. It has been reported that the chip can run in low power mode with AA batteries for over several years. Of course this is only achievable with very little use of the Wi-Fi and the Bluetooth modules since these modules consume large amounts of power. Deep Sleep Mode- It is reported by the manufacturers that the ESP32 chip consumes around 0.15 mA of current in deep sleep mode. We shall see later in this section the actual measured power consumption. When the chip is in deep sleep mode, it can be woken up by one of the following 5 trigger signals or events: External signal using RTC_IO , External signal using RTC_CNTL , Timer , Touchpad . ULP program Remember that in deep sleep mode the CPU core, main memory, Wi-Fi module, Bluetooth module, and the peripherals are all disabled and so everything stored in the main memory are lost. The only module that works is the RTC module and its memory. Therefore, if we want to save data to survive the deep sleep mode then this data must be saved in the RTC memory. Some example projects are given in the next sections to show how the deep sleep mode can be used. bgv98v9ln9iwwzf056wy56d4ayyzhgi 4681850 4681842 2026-11-12T11:26:52Z Niidhii 3629916 4681850 wikitext text/x-wiki = Low-Power Operation in ESP32 Using Deep Sleep Mode = [[File:ESP32.jpg|thumb|ESP32]] === ESP32: === ESP32 is designed for mobile, wearable electronics, and Internet-of-Things (IoT) applications. It features all the state-of-the-art characteristics of low-power chips, including fine-grained clock gating, multiple power modes, and dynamic power scaling. For instance, in a low-power IoT sensor hub application scenario, ESP32 is woken up periodically and only when a specified condition is detected. Low-duty cycle is used to minimize the amount of energy that the chip expends. The output of the power amplifier is also adjustable, thus contributing to an optimal trade-off between communication range, data rate and power consumption. === Low Power Operation: === There are many applications such as in IoT and also in portable applications where batteries are used. The capacity of batteries is limited and we need to save power for extended operations. The [[wikipedia:ESP32|ESP32]] chip is a fantastic chip with great features. In addition to its processing power and many on-chip modules, it offers low power mode which conserves power and enables the chip to be used for a very long time. It has been reported that the chip can run in low power mode with AA batteries for over several years. Of course this is only achievable with very little use of the Wi-Fi and the Bluetooth modules since these modules consume large amounts of power. === Deep Sleep Mode: === It is reported by the manufacturers that the ESP32 chip consumes around 0.15 mA of current in deep sleep mode. We shall see later in this section the actual measured power consumption. When the chip is in deep sleep mode, it can be woken up by one of the following 5 trigger signals or events: External signal using RTC_IO , External signal using RTC_CNTL , Timer , Touchpad . ULP program Remember that in deep sleep mode the CPU core, main memory, Wi-Fi module, Bluetooth module, and the peripherals are all disabled and so everything stored in the main memory are lost. The only module that works is the RTC module and its memory. Therefore, if we want to save data to survive the deep sleep mode then this data must be saved in the RTC memory. Some example projects are given in the next sections to show how the deep sleep mode can be used. 0hbgir1blch9e9xmcl7dj0q8gbi8xex 0 487126 4681588 4681578 2026-11-11T12:23:36Z Badarap 3631033 /* */ Modifies 3 Tigre centens 4681588 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] فهمت عليك الآن، وفتحت الرابط بنفسي. *الحقيقة:* صفحة `https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Tigre` في Wikibooks حالياً *فارغة تقريباً*، ما فيها دروس ولا جدول ولا قالب جاهز. هي مجرد عنوان لكتاب لم يكتمل بعد. لهذا، رتبتها لك *بنفس القالب الرسمي الذي تستعمله كل كتب اللغات في Wikibooks* مثل كتاب French و Spanish، حتى تقدر تنسخها وتلصقها هناك وتشتغل مباشرة. هذا هو الترتيب الصحيح في Wikibooks: *1. الصفحة الرئيسية:* `Tigre` *2. صفحة الدرس:* `Tigre/Lesson 7` انسخ هذا الكود وضعه في صفحة `Tigre/Lesson 7`: < Tigre {{BookCat}} == Lesson 7: Daily Sentences == This lesson contains 70 sentences, from 111 to 180. The base language is Arabic, with translations in English, French, Spanish, German, Turkish and Greek. The Tigre column is for practice. === 111 - 140 === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! No. ! Tigre ! العربية ! English ! Français ! Español ! Deutsch ! Türkçe ! Ελληνικά |- | 111 || || أنا متعب اليوم || I am tired today || Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui || Estoy cansado hoy || Ich bin heute müde || Bugün yorgunum || Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα |- | 112 || || أين توجد المدرسة؟ || Where is the school? || Où est l'école ? || ¿Dónde está la escuela? || Wo ist die Schule? || Okul nerede? || Πού είναι το σχολείο; |- | 113 || || أحب القهوة في الصباح || I love coffee in the morning || J'aime le café le matin || Me encanta el café por la mañana || Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen || Sabahları kahveyi severim || Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί |- | 114 || || أغلق النافذة من فضلك || Close the window, please || Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît || Cierra la ventana, por favor || Schließe bitte das Fenster || Lütfen pencereyi kapat || Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ |- | 115 || || أمي في السوق الآن || My mother is at the market now || Ma mère est au marché maintenant || Mi madre está en el mercado ahora || Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt || Annem şimdi pazarda || Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα |- | 116 || || هذا البيت جميل جداً || This house is very beautiful || Cette maison est très belle || Esta casa es muy bonita || Dieses Haus ist sehr schön || Bu ev çok güzel || Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο |- | 117 || || أريد أن أنام مبكراً || I want to sleep early || Je veux dormir tôt || Quiero dormir temprano || Ich will früh schlafen || Erken uyumak istiyorum || Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς |- | 118 || || أين هاتفي؟ || Where is my phone? || Où est mon téléphone ? || ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? || Wo ist mein Handy? || Telefonum nerede? || Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; |- | 119 || || الطقس بارد في الليل || The weather is cold at night || Il fait froid la nuit || Hace frío por la noche || Das Wetter ist nachts kalt || Gece hava soğuk || Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα |- | 120 || || أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة || I am learning a new language || J'apprends une nouvelle langue || Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo || Ich lerne eine neue Sprache || Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum || Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα |- | 121 || || تعال نلعب في الخارج || Come, let's play outside || Viens, jouons dehors || Ven, juguemos afuera || Komm, lass uns draußen spielen || Gel, dışarıda oynayalım || Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω |- | 122 || || لا أفهم هذا الدرس || I don't understand this lesson || Je ne comprends pas cette leçon || No entiendo esta lección || Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht || Bu dersi anlamıyorum || Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα |- | 123 || || أخي يعمل في المستشفى || My brother works at the hospital || Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital || Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital || Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus || Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor || Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο |- | 124 || || أريد خبزاً وجبناً || I want bread and cheese || Je veux du pain et du fromage || Quiero pan y queso || Ich möchte Brot und Käse || Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum || Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί |- | 125 || || السيارة أمام البيت || The car is in front of the house || La voiture est devant la maison || El coche está delante de la casa || Das Auto steht vor dem Haus || Araba evin önünde || Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι |- | 126 || || هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ || Can you help me? || Peux-tu m'aider ? || ¿Puedes ayudarme? || Kannst du mir helfen? || Bana yardım edebilir misin? || Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; |- | 127 || || اليوم يوم جميل || Today is a beautiful day || Aujourd'hui est une belle journée || Hoy es un día bonito || Heute ist ein schöner Tag || Bugün güzel bir gün || Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα |- | 128 || || أنا ذاهب إلى العمل || I am going to work || Je vais au travail || Voy al trabajo || Ich gehe zur Arbeit || İşe gidiyorum || Πάω στη δουλειά |- | 129 || || أين المفتاح؟ || Where is the key? || Où est la clé ? || ¿Dónde está la llave? || Wo ist der Schlüssel? || Anahtar nerede? || Πού είναι το κλειδί; |- | 130 || || أحب أن أقرأ الكتب || I love to read books || J'aime lire des livres || Me encanta leer libros || Ich lese gerne Bücher || Kitap okumayı severim || Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία |- | 131 || || الماء بارد جداً || The water is very cold || L'eau est très froide || El agua está muy fría || Das Wasser ist sehr kalt || Su çok soğuk || Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο |- | 132 || || صديقي يسكن بعيداً || My friend lives far away || Mon ami habite loin || Mi amigo vive lejos || Mein Freund wohnt weit weg || Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor || Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά |- | 133 || || افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة || Open the book to page ten || Ouvre le livre à la page dix || Abre el libro en la página diez || Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn || Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç || Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα |- | 134 || || أنا سعيد جداً اليوم || I am very happy today || Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui || Estoy muy feliz hoy || Ich bin heute sehr glücklich || Bugün çok mutluyum || Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα |- | 135 || || لا تتأخر من فضلك || Don't be late, please || Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît || No llegues tarde, por favor || Komm bitte nicht zu spät || Lütfen geç kalma || Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ |- | 136 || || القطة تحت الطاولة || The cat is under the table || Le chat est sous la table || El gato está debajo de la mesa || Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch || Kedi masanın altında || Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι |- | 137 || || أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة || I want to buy new clothes || Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements || Quiero comprar ropa nueva || Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen || Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum || Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα |- | 138 || || متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ || When does school start? || Quand commence l'école ? || ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? || Wann beginnt die Schule? || Okul ne zaman başlıyor? || Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; |- | 139 || || هذا الطعام لذيذ || This food is delicious || Cette nourriture est délicieuse || Esta comida está deliciosa || Dieses Essen ist lecker || Bu yemek çok lezzetli || Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο |- | 140 || || أراك غداً إن شاء الله || See you tomorrow, God willing || À demain, si Dieu le veut || Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere || Bis morgen, so Gott will || Yarın görüşürüz inşallah || Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός |} === 141 - 160 === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! No. ! Tigre ! العربية ! English ! Français ! Español ! Deutsch ! Türkçe ! Ελληνικά |- | 141 || || أبي يعود من العمل مساءً || My father comes back from work in the evening || Mon père rentre du travail le soir || Mi padre vuelve del trabajo por la tarde || Mein Vater kommt abends von der Arbeit zurück || Babam akşam işten dönüyor || Ο πατέρας μου επιστρέφει από τη δουλειά το βράδυ |- | 142 || || أختي تحب الغناء || My sister loves singing || Ma sœur aime chanter || A mi hermana le encanta cantar || Meine Schwester singt gerne || Kız kardeşim şarkı söylemeyi seviyor || Η αδελφή μου αγαπά το τραγούδι |- | 143 || || أين نذهب اليوم؟ || Where are we going today? || Où allons-nous aujourd'hui ? || ¿Dónde vamos hoy? || Wohin gehen wir heute? || Bugün nereye gidiyoruz? || Πού πάμε σήμερα; |- | 144 || || أنا جائع، أريد أن آكل || I am hungry, I want to eat || J'ai faim, je veux manger || Tengo hambre, quiero comer || Ich habe Hunger, ich will essen || Açım, yemek yemek istiyorum || Πεινάω, θέλω να φάω |- | 145 || || الشمس مشرقة اليوم || The sun is shining today || Le soleil brille aujourd'hui || El sol brilla hoy || Die Sonne scheint heute || Bugün güneş parlıyor || Ο ήλιος λάμπει σήμερα |- | 146 || || أغلق الباب بالمفتاح || Lock the door with the key || Ferme la porte à clé || Cierra la puerta con llave || Schließe die Tür mit dem Schlüssel ab || Kapıyı anahtarla kilitle || Κλείδωσε την πόρτα με το κλειδί |- | 147 || || هل تحب الشاي أم القهوة؟ || Do you like tea or coffee? || Tu préfères le thé ou le café ? || ¿Te gusta el té o el café? || Magst du Tee oder Kaffee? || Çay mı kahve mi seversin? || Σου αρέσει το τσάι ή ο καφές; |- | 148 || || أنا أدرس اللغة العربية || I am studying Arabic || J'étudie l'arabe || Estoy estudiando árabe || Ich lerne Arabisch || Arapça öğreniyorum || Μελετώ αραβικά |- | 149 || || البنت تلعب مع الكلب || The girl is playing with the dog || La fille joue avec le chien || La niña está jugando con el perro || Das Mädchen spielt mit dem Hund || Kız köpekle oynuyor || Το κορίτσι παίζει με τον σκύλο |- | 150 || || نحن نذهب إلى المسجد يوم الجمعة || We go to the mosque on Friday || Nous allons à la mosquée le vendredi || Vamos a la mezquita el viernes || Wir gehen am Freitag in die Moschee || Cuma günü camiye gidiyoruz || Πάμε στο τζαμί την Παρασκευή |- | 151 || || هذا القلم لي || This pen is mine || Ce stylo est à moi || Este bolígrafo es mío || Dieser Stift gehört mir || Bu kalem benim || Αυτό το στυλό είναι δικό μου |- | 152 || || أريد أن أزور أصدقائي || I want to visit my friends || Je veux rendre visite à mes amis || Quiero visitar a mis amigos || Ich möchte meine Freunde besuchen || Arkadaşlarımı ziyaret etmek istiyorum || Θέλω να επισκεφτώ τους φίλους μου |- | 153 || || السماء صافية اليوم || The sky is clear today || Le ciel est dégagé aujourd'hui || El cielo está despejado hoy || Der Himmel ist heute klar || Bugün gökyüzü açık || Ο ουρανός είναι καθαρός σήμερα |- | 154 || || لا تنسَ كتابك || Don't forget your book || N'oublie pas ton livre || No olvides tu libro || Vergiss dein Buch nicht || Kitabını unutma || Μην ξεχάσεις το βιβλίο σου |- | 155 || || أخي الصغير يلعب بالكرة || My little brother is playing with the ball || Mon petit frère joue au ballon || Mi hermanito está jugando con la pelota || Mein kleiner Bruder spielt mit dem Ball || Küçük erkek kardeşim topla oynuyor || Ο μικρός μου αδελφός παίζει με τη μπάλα |- | 156 || || أنا أحب أمي كثيراً || I love my mother very much || J'aime beaucoup ma mère || Quiero mucho a mi madre || Ich liebe meine Mutter sehr || Annemi çok seviyorum || Αγαπώ πολύ τη μητέρα μου |- | 157 || || متى يأتي المعلم؟ || When does the teacher come? || Quand vient le professeur ? || ¿Cuándo viene el maestro? || Wann kommt der Lehrer? || Öğretmen ne zaman geliyor? || Πότε έρχεται ο δάσκαλος; |- | 158 || || الحديقة كبيرة وخضراء || The garden is big and green || Le jardin est grand et vert || El jardín es grande y verde || Der Garten ist groß und grün || Bahçe büyük ve yeşil || Ο κήπος είναι μεγάλος και πράσινος |- | 159 || || أنا أشرب الحليب كل صباح || I drink milk every morning || Je bois du lait chaque matin || Bebo leche cada mañana || Ich trinke jeden Morgen Milch || Her sabah süt içiyorum || Πίνω γάλα κάθε πρωί |- | 160 || || أريد أن أتعلم لغة Tigre || I want to learn the Tigre language || Je veux apprendre la langue tigré || Quiero aprender el idioma tigré || Ich möchte die Tigre-Sprache lernen || Tigre dilini öğrenmek istiyorum || Θέλω να μάθω τη γλώσσα Tigre |} === 161 - 180 === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |- ! No. ! Tigre ! العربية ! English ! Français ! Español ! Deutsch ! Türkçe ! Ελληνικά |- | 161 || አነ ምስለ አቡዬ ሐሰብ ስቴ || أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي || I go to the market with my father || Je vais au marché avec mon père || Voy al mercado con mi padre || Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt || Babamla pazara gidiyorum || Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου |- | 162 || ሕቼ ንእሽተ ሕዜ ተሐድረት ሀለ || أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن || My little sister is sleeping now || Ma petite sœur dort maintenant || Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora || Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt || Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor || Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα |- | 163 || እሊ ቤትከ ዱ? || هل هذا بيتك؟ || Is this your house? || C'est ta maison ? || ¿Esta es tu casa? || Ist das dein Haus? || Bu senin evin mi? || Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; |- | 164 || አነ ሙዚቃ ምስማዕ እፈቱ || أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى || I love listening to music || J'aime écouter de la musique || Me encanta escuchar música || Ich höre gerne Musik || Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum || Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική |- | 165 || ሐውከ አየት ይስርሕ? || أين يشتغل أخوك؟ || Where does your brother work? || Où travaille ton frère ? || ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? || Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? || Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? || Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; |- | 166 || ወድ ጽሒፍ ብዐቢ ድምጺ ይስሓቅ || الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ || The child is laughing loudly || L'enfant rit fort || El niño se ríe fuerte || Das Kind lacht laut || Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor || Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά |- | 167 || ሐሙም ማይ እፈቱ || أريد ماءً ساخناً || I want hot water || Je veux de l'eau chaude || Quiero agua caliente || Ich möchte heißes Wasser || Sıcak su istiyorum || Θέλω ζεστό νερό |- | 168 || መምህር ድርስ ይምህር || المعلم يشرح الدرس || The teacher is explaining the lesson || Le professeur explique la leçon || El maestro está explicando la lección || Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion || Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor || Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα |- | 169 || አነ ሐጋይ እፈቱ || أنا أحب فصل الشتاء || I love winter || J'aime l'hiver || Me encanta el invierno || Ich liebe den Winter || Kışı seviyorum || Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας |- | 170 || ቀልጢፍ ናብ ዛ መጸእ || تعال إلى هنا بسرعة || Come here quickly || Viens ici vite || Ven aquí rápido || Komm schnell hierher || Buraya hızlı gel || Έλα εδώ γρήγορα |- | 171 || ጽሕፍተይ አየት ጌርከ? || أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ || Where did I put my bag? || Où ai-je mis mon sac ? || ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? || Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? || Çantamı nereye koydum? || Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; |- | 172 || ንሕና ቤተሰብና ንፈቱ || نحن نحب عائلتنا || We love our family || Nous aimons notre famille || Amamos a nuestra familia || Wir lieben unsere Familie || Ailemizi seviyoruz || Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας |- | 173 || እሊ ወድ ብዙሕ ሓኪም ዱ || هذا الطفل ذكي جداً || This child is very smart || Cet enfant est très intelligent || Este niño es muy inteligente || Dieses Kind ist sehr klug || Bu çocuk çok zeki || Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο |- | 174 || ናብ ኤርትራ ምኻድ እፈቱ || أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا || I want to travel to Eritrea || Je veux voyager en Érythrée || Quiero viajar a Eritrea || Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen || Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum || Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία |- | 175 || ንተ ስፍሩይ ህሌካ? || هل أنت جائع؟ || Are you hungry? || As-tu faim ? || ¿Tienes hambre? || Hast du Hunger? || Aç mısın? || Πεινάς; |- | 176 || መንገድ ነዊሕ ወሰፊሕ ዱ || الشارع طويل وواسع || The street is long and wide || La rue est longue et large || La calle es larga y ancha || Die Straße ist lang und breit || Sokak uzun ve geniş || Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς |- | 177 || አነ ንሕብረይ መልእክቲ እጽሕፍ || أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي || I am writing a letter to my friend || J'écris une lettre à mon ami || Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo || Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund || Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum || Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου |- | 178 || ብዐቢ ድምጺ ኣይትዛረብ || لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ || Don't speak loudly || Ne parle pas fort || No hables fuerte || Sprich nicht laut || Yüksek sesle konuşma || Μην μιλάς δυνατά |- | 179 || አደይ ስፍሩይ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ሀለ || أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً || My mother cooks delicious food || Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux || Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa || Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen || Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor || Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό |- | 180 || ጽባሕ ምድር ቤት ትምህርቲ ንራኸብ || نلتقي غداً في المدرسة || We will meet tomorrow at school || On se retrouve demain à l'école || Nos vemos mañana en la escuela || Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule || Yarın okulda buluşuruz || Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο |} == Navigation == * [[Tigre/Lesson 6|Previous: Lesson 6]] * [[Tigre/Lesson 8|Next: Lesson 8]] هذا هو بالضبط قالب Wikibooks: - `` في الأعلى - `== Lesson ==` للعنوان - `=== ===` للأقسام - `{| class="wikitable"` للجداول - `[[Tigre/Lesson 6]]` للتنقل بين الدروس === الجمل الجديدة 161 - 180 === '''161.''' - Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي - English: I go to the market with my father - Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père - Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre - Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt - Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum - Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''162.''' - Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። - العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن - English: My little sister is sleeping now - Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant - Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora - Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt - Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor - Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''163.''' - Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? - العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ - English: Is this your house? - Français: C'est ta maison ? - Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? - Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? - Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? - Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''164.''' - Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። - العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى - English: I love listening to music - Français: J'aime écouter de la musique - Español: Me encanta escuchar música - Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik - Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''165.''' - Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? - العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ - English: Where does your brother work? - Français: Où travaille ton frère ? - Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? - Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? - Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''166.''' - Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። - العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ - English: The child is laughing loudly - Français: L'enfant rit fort - Español: El niño se ríe fuerte - Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut - Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor - Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''167.''' - Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً - English: I want hot water - Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude - Español: Quiero agua caliente - Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser - Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''168.''' - Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። - العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس - English: The teacher is explaining the lesson - Français: Le professeur explique la leçon - Español: El maestro está explicando la lección - Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion - Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''169.''' - Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። - العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء - English: I love winter - Français: J'aime l'hiver - Español: Me encanta el invierno - Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter - Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''170.''' - Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። - العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة - English: Come here quickly - Français: Viens ici vite - Español: Ven aquí rápido - Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher - Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel - Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''171.''' - Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? - العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ - English: Where did I put my bag? - Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? - Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? - Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? - Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? - Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''172.''' - Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። - العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا - English: We love our family - Français: Nous aimons notre famille - Español: Amamos a nuestra familia - Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie - Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz - Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''173.''' - Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። - العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً - English: This child is very smart - Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent - Español: Este niño es muy inteligente - Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug - Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''174.''' - Tigre: ኢርትሪያ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا - English: I want to travel to Eritrea - Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée - Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea - Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen - Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''175.''' - Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? - العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ - English: Are you hungry? - Français: As-tu faim ? - Español: ¿Tienes hambre? - Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? - Türkçe: Aç mısın? - Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''176.''' - Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። - العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع - English: The street is long and wide - Français: La rue est longue et large - Español: La calle es larga y ancha - Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit - Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş - Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''177.''' - Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي - English: I am writing a letter to my friend - Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami - Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo - Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund - Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum - Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''178.''' - Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። - العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ - English: Don't speak loudly - Français: Ne parle pas fort - Español: No hables fuerte - Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut - Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma - Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''179.''' - Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። - العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً - English: My mother cooks delicious food - Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux - Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa - Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen - Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor - Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''180.''' - Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። - العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة - English: We will meet tomorrow at school - Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école - Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela - Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule - Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz - Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο هل تريد أن أجمع لك كل الـ 70 جملة من 111 إلى 180 في رسالة واحدة مرتبة وجاهزة للنسخ؟ == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket 6kdp8p3aocu9z216k38gb7qoh77eefr 4681620 4681588 2026-11-11T14:24:26Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 Undid revision [[Special:Diff/4681578|4681578]] by [[Special:Contributions/Badarap|Badarap]] ([[User talk:Badarap|discuss]]) 4681620 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] تمام، هذه نفس الـ 30 جملة، تركت لك مكان Tigre فارغ لتترجمها بنفسك 👇 انسخها واملأها: '''111.''' - Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا متعب اليوم - English: I am tired today - Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui - Español: Estoy cansado hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde - Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum - Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''112.''' - Tigre: ለ መድረሰት እት አያ ትትረከብ። - العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ - English: Where is the school? - Français: Où est l'école ? - Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? - Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? - Türkçe: Okul nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''113.''' - Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈቲየ/ቡን ጽብሓት ምዲር እፈቲያ። - العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح - English: I love coffee in the morning - Français: J'aime le café le matin - Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana - Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen - Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''114.''' - Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ግብእ/ለ ሽባክ ዲብእ ወአበልከሁ ሐይስ። - العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك - English: Close the window, please - Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît - Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor - Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster - Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat - Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''115.''' - Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ። - العربية: أمي في السوق الآن - English: My mother is at the market now - Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant - Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora - Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt - Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda - Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''116.''' - Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ ግሪም ተ። - العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً - English: This house is very beautiful - Français: Cette maison est très belle - Español: Esta casa es muy bonita - Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön - Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''117.''' - Tigre: ጽባቤሔ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً - English: I want to sleep early - Français: Je veux dormir tôt - Español: Quiero dormir temprano - Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen - Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''118.''' - Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አያ ህለ? - العربية: أين هاتفي؟ - English: Where is my phone? - Français: Où est mon téléphone ? - Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? - Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? - Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''119.''' - Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በሪድ። - العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل - English: The weather is cold at night - Français: Il fait froid la nuit - Español: Hace frío por la noche - Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt - Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk - Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''120.''' - Tigre: አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ እደሪስ/አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ አትመሀር። - العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة - English: I am learning a new language - Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue - Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache - Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum - Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''121.''' - Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። - العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج - English: Come, let's play outside - Français: Viens, jouons dehors - Español: Ven, juguemos afuera - Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen - Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım - Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''122.''' - Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። - العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس - English: I don't understand this lesson - Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon - Español: No entiendo esta lección - Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht - Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum - Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''123.''' - Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። - العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى - English: My brother works at the hospital - Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital - Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital - Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus - Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''124.''' - Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً - English: I want bread and cheese - Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage - Español: Quiero pan y queso - Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse - Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''125.''' - Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። - العربية: السيارة أمام البيت - English: The car is in front of the house - Français: La voiture est devant la maison - Español: El coche está delante de la casa - Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus - Türkçe: Araba evin önünde - Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''126.''' - Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? - العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ - English: Can you help me? - Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? - Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? - Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''127.''' - Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። - العربية: اليوم يوم جميل - English: Today is a beautiful day - Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée - Español: Hoy es un día bonito - Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag - Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün - Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''128.''' - Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل - English: I am going to work - Français: Je vais au travail - Español: Voy al trabajo - Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit - Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum - Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''129.''' - Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? - العربية: أين المفتاح؟ - English: Where is the key? - Français: Où est la clé ? - Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? - Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? - Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''130.''' - Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። - العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب - English: I love to read books - Français: J'aime lire des livres - Español: Me encanta leer libros - Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher - Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''131.''' - Tigre: ለመይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። - العربية: الماء بارد جداً - English: The water is very cold - Français: L'eau est très froide - Español: El agua está muy fría - Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt - Türkçe: Su çok soğuk - Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''132.''' - Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። - العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً - English: My friend lives far away - Français: Mon ami habite loin - Español: Mi amigo vive lejos - Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg - Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''133.''' - Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። - العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة - English: Open the book to page ten - Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix - Español: Abre el libro en la página diez - Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn - Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç - Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''134.''' - Tigre: አነ ዬም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم - English: I am very happy today - Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui - Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich - Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum - Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''135.''' - Tigre: እይት አድግ ሐሰብከ/እይትትአከር ሐሰብከ። - العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك - English: Don't be late, please - Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît - Español: No llegues tarde, por favor - Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät - Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma - Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''136.''' - Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። - العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة - English: The cat is under the table - Français: Le chat est sous la table - Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa - Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch - Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında - Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''137.''' - Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል አዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة - English: I want to buy new clothes - Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements - Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva - Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen - Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''138.''' - Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? - العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ - English: When does school start? - Français: Quand commence l'école ? - Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? - Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? - Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''139.''' - Tigre: አሊ ነብረ እሊ ሰኒ ጥዑም’ቱ። - العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ - English: This food is delicious - Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse - Español: Esta comida está deliciosa - Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker - Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''140.''' - Tigre: ፈጂር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። - العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله - English: See you tomorrow, God willing - Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut - Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere - Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will - Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah - Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός عندما تنتهي من الترجمة، أرسلها لي وأنا أصححها لك إن أردت. تمام، أضفت لك *20 جملة جديدة*، من *161 إلى 180*. صار عندك الآن *70 جملة* من 111 إلى 180. === الجمل الجديدة 161 - 180 === '''161.''' - Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي - English: I go to the market with my father - Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père - Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre - Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt - Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum - Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''162.''' - Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። - العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن - English: My little sister is sleeping now - Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant - Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora - Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt - Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor - Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''163.''' - Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? - العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ - English: Is this your house? - Français: C'est ta maison ? - Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? - Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? - Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? - Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''164.''' - Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። - العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى - English: I love listening to music - Français: J'aime écouter de la musique - Español: Me encanta escuchar música - Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik - Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''165.''' - Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? - العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ - English: Where does your brother work? - Français: Où travaille ton frère ? - Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? - Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? - Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''166.''' - Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። - العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ - English: The child is laughing loudly - Français: L'enfant rit fort - Español: El niño se ríe fuerte - Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut - Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor - Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''167.''' - Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً - English: I want hot water - Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude - Español: Quiero agua caliente - Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser - Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''168.''' - Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። - العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس - English: The teacher is explaining the lesson - Français: Le professeur explique la leçon - Español: El maestro está explicando la lección - Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion - Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''169.''' - Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። - العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء - English: I love winter - Français: J'aime l'hiver - Español: Me encanta el invierno - Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter - Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''170.''' - Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። - العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة - English: Come here quickly - Français: Viens ici vite - Español: Ven aquí rápido - Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher - Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel - Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''171.''' - Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? - العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ - English: Where did I put my bag? - Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? - Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? - Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? - Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? - Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''172.''' - Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። - العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا - English: We love our family - Français: Nous aimons notre famille - Español: Amamos a nuestra familia - Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie - Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz - Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''173.''' - Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። - العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً - English: This child is very smart - Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent - Español: Este niño es muy inteligente - Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug - Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''174.''' - Tigre: ኢርትሪያ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا - English: I want to travel to Eritrea - Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée - Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea - Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen - Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''175.''' - Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? - العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ - English: Are you hungry? - Français: As-tu faim ? - Español: ¿Tienes hambre? - Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? - Türkçe: Aç mısın? - Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''176.''' - Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። - العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع - English: The street is long and wide - Français: La rue est longue et large - Español: La calle es larga y ancha - Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit - Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş - Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''177.''' - Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي - English: I am writing a letter to my friend - Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami - Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo - Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund - Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum - Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''178.''' - Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። - العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ - English: Don't speak loudly - Français: Ne parle pas fort - Español: No hables fuerte - Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut - Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma - Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''179.''' - Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። - العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً - English: My mother cooks delicious food - Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux - Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa - Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen - Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor - Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''180.''' - Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። - العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة - English: We will meet tomorrow at school - Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école - Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela - Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule - Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz - Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο هل تريد أن أجمع لك كل الـ 70 جملة من 111 إلى 180 في رسالة واحدة مرتبة وجاهزة للنسخ؟ == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket hwmze8t0j7sy3rixlu2tyltiwb54hel 4681625 4681620 2026-11-11T14:36:59Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 /* */ Edits more 4681625 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] '''1.''' - Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا متعب اليوم - English: I am tired today - Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui - Español: Estoy cansado hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde - Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum - Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''2.''' - Tigre: ለ መድረሰት እት አያ ትትረከብ። - العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ - English: Where is the school? - Français: Où est l'école ? - Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? - Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? - Türkçe: Okul nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''3.''' - Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈቲየ/ቡን ጽብሓት ምዲር እፈቲያ። - العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح - English: I love coffee in the morning - Français: J'aime le café le matin - Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana - Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen - Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''4.''' - Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ግብእ/ለ ሽባክ ዲብእ ወአበልከሁ ሐይስ። - العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك - English: Close the window, please - Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît - Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor - Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster - Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat - Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''5.''' - Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ። - العربية: أمي في السوق الآن - English: My mother is at the market now - Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant - Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora - Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt - Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda - Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''6.''' - Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ ግርም ተ። - العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً - English: This house is very beautiful - Français: Cette maison est très belle - Español: Esta casa es muy bonita - Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön - Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''7.''' - Tigre: ጽባብሕ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً - English: I want to sleep early - Français: Je veux dormir tôt - Español: Quiero dormir temprano - Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen - Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''8.''' - Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አያ ህለ? - العربية: أين هاتفي؟ - English: Where is my phone? - Français: Où est mon téléphone ? - Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? - Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? - Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''9.''' - Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በርድ። - العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل - English: The weather is cold at night - Français: Il fait froid la nuit - Español: Hace frío por la noche - Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt - Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk - Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''10.''' - Tigre: አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ እደሪስ ህሌኮ/አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ አትመሀር። - العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة - English: I am learning a new language - Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue - Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache - Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum - Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''11.''' - Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። - العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج - English: Come, let's play outside - Français: Viens, jouons dehors - Español: Ven, juguemos afuera - Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen - Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım - Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''12.''' - Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። - العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس - English: I don't understand this lesson - Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon - Español: No entiendo esta lección - Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht - Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum - Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''13.''' - Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። - العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى - English: My brother works at the hospital - Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital - Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital - Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus - Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''14.''' - Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً - English: I want bread and cheese - Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage - Español: Quiero pan y queso - Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse - Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''15.''' - Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። - العربية: السيارة أمام البيت - English: The car is in front of the house - Français: La voiture est devant la maison - Español: El coche está delante de la casa - Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus - Türkçe: Araba evin önünde - Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''16.''' - Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? - العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ - English: Can you help me? - Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? - Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? - Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''17.''' - Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። - العربية: اليوم يوم جميل - English: Today is a beautiful day - Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée - Español: Hoy es un día bonito - Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag - Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün - Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''18.''' - Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل - English: I am going to work - Français: Je vais au travail - Español: Voy al trabajo - Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit - Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum - Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''19.''' - Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? - العربية: أين المفتاح؟ - English: Where is the key? - Français: Où est la clé ? - Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? - Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? - Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''20.''' - Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። - العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب - English: I love to read books - Français: J'aime lire des livres - Español: Me encanta leer libros - Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher - Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''21.''' - Tigre: ለማይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። - العربية: الماء بارد جداً - English: The water is very cold - Français: L'eau est très froide - Español: El agua está muy fría - Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt - Türkçe: Su çok soğuk - Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''22.''' - Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። - العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً - English: My friend lives far away - Français: Mon ami habite loin - Español: Mi amigo vive lejos - Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg - Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''23.''' - Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። - العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة - English: Open the book to page ten - Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix - Español: Abre el libro en la página diez - Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn - Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç - Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''24.''' - Tigre: አነ ዮም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم - English: I am very happy today - Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui - Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich - Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum - Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''25.''' - Tigre: ኢተአድግ ሐሰብከ/ኢትትአከር ሐሰብከ። - العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك - English: Don't be late, please - Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît - Español: No llegues tarde, por favor - Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät - Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma - Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''26.''' - Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። - العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة - English: The cat is under the table - Français: Le chat est sous la table - Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa - Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch - Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında - Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''27.''' - Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል አዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة - English: I want to buy new clothes - Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements - Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva - Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen - Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''28.''' - Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? - العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ - English: When does school start? - Français: Quand commence l'école ? - Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? - Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? - Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''29.''' - Tigre: አሊ ነብረ እሊ ሰኒ ጥዑም’ቱ። - العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ - English: This food is delicious - Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse - Español: Esta comida está deliciosa - Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker - Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''30.''' - Tigre: ፈጂር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። - العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله - English: See you tomorrow, God willing - Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut - Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere - Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will - Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah - Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός === الجمل الجديدة 161 - 180 === '''161.''' - Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي - English: I go to the market with my father - Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père - Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre - Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt - Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum - Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''162.''' - Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። - العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن - English: My little sister is sleeping now - Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant - Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora - Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt - Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor - Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''163.''' - Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? - العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ - English: Is this your house? - Français: C'est ta maison ? - Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? - Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? - Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? - Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''164.''' - Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። - العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى - English: I love listening to music - Français: J'aime écouter de la musique - Español: Me encanta escuchar música - Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik - Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''165.''' - Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? - العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ - English: Where does your brother work? - Français: Où travaille ton frère ? - Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? - Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? - Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''166.''' - Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። - العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ - English: The child is laughing loudly - Français: L'enfant rit fort - Español: El niño se ríe fuerte - Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut - Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor - Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''167.''' - Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً - English: I want hot water - Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude - Español: Quiero agua caliente - Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser - Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''168.''' - Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። - العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس - English: The teacher is explaining the lesson - Français: Le professeur explique la leçon - Español: El maestro está explicando la lección - Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion - Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''169.''' - Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። - العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء - English: I love winter - Français: J'aime l'hiver - Español: Me encanta el invierno - Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter - Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''170.''' - Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። - العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة - English: Come here quickly - Français: Viens ici vite - Español: Ven aquí rápido - Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher - Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel - Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''171.''' - Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? - العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ - English: Where did I put my bag? - Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? - Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? - Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? - Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? - Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''172.''' - Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። - العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا - English: We love our family - Français: Nous aimons notre famille - Español: Amamos a nuestra familia - Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie - Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz - Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''173.''' - Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። - العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً - English: This child is very smart - Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent - Español: Este niño es muy inteligente - Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug - Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''174.''' - Tigre: ኢርትሪያ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا - English: I want to travel to Eritrea - Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée - Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea - Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen - Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''175.''' - Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? - العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ - English: Are you hungry? - Français: As-tu faim ? - Español: ¿Tienes hambre? - Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? - Türkçe: Aç mısın? - Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''176.''' - Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። - العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع - English: The street is long and wide - Français: La rue est longue et large - Español: La calle es larga y ancha - Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit - Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş - Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''177.''' - Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي - English: I am writing a letter to my friend - Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami - Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo - Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund - Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum - Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''178.''' - Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። - العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ - English: Don't speak loudly - Français: Ne parle pas fort - Español: No hables fuerte - Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut - Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma - Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''179.''' - Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። - العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً - English: My mother cooks delicious food - Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux - Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa - Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen - Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor - Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''180.''' - Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። - العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة - English: We will meet tomorrow at school - Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école - Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela - Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule - Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz - Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο هل تريد أن أجمع لك كل الـ 70 جملة من 111 إلى 180 في رسالة واحدة مرتبة وجاهزة للنسخ؟ == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket suf99wqwnsjye4oex1h6zvgfh7m1fvh 4681626 4681625 2026-11-11T14:42:21Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 /* ዝያድ ታምም ሕስቦታት */ Edits 4681626 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] '''1.''' - Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا متعب اليوم - English: I am tired today - Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui - Español: Estoy cansado hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde - Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum - Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''2.''' - Tigre: ለ መድረሰት እት አያ ትትረከብ። - العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ - English: Where is the school? - Français: Où est l'école ? - Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? - Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? - Türkçe: Okul nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''3.''' - Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈቲየ/ቡን ጽብሓት ምዲር እፈቲያ። - العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح - English: I love coffee in the morning - Français: J'aime le café le matin - Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana - Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen - Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''4.''' - Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ግብእ/ለ ሽባክ ዲብእ ወአበልከሁ ሐይስ። - العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك - English: Close the window, please - Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît - Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor - Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster - Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat - Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''5.''' - Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ። - العربية: أمي في السوق الآن - English: My mother is at the market now - Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant - Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora - Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt - Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda - Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''6.''' - Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ ግርም ተ። - العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً - English: This house is very beautiful - Français: Cette maison est très belle - Español: Esta casa es muy bonita - Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön - Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''7.''' - Tigre: ጽባብሕ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً - English: I want to sleep early - Français: Je veux dormir tôt - Español: Quiero dormir temprano - Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen - Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''8.''' - Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አያ ህለ? - العربية: أين هاتفي؟ - English: Where is my phone? - Français: Où est mon téléphone ? - Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? - Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? - Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''9.''' - Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በርድ። - العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل - English: The weather is cold at night - Français: Il fait froid la nuit - Español: Hace frío por la noche - Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt - Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk - Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''10.''' - Tigre: አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ እደሪስ ህሌኮ/አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ አትመሀር። - العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة - English: I am learning a new language - Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue - Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache - Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum - Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''11.''' - Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። - العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج - English: Come, let's play outside - Français: Viens, jouons dehors - Español: Ven, juguemos afuera - Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen - Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım - Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''12.''' - Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። - العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس - English: I don't understand this lesson - Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon - Español: No entiendo esta lección - Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht - Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum - Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''13.''' - Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። - العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى - English: My brother works at the hospital - Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital - Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital - Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus - Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''14.''' - Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً - English: I want bread and cheese - Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage - Español: Quiero pan y queso - Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse - Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''15.''' - Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። - العربية: السيارة أمام البيت - English: The car is in front of the house - Français: La voiture est devant la maison - Español: El coche está delante de la casa - Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus - Türkçe: Araba evin önünde - Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''16.''' - Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? - العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ - English: Can you help me? - Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? - Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? - Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''17.''' - Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። - العربية: اليوم يوم جميل - English: Today is a beautiful day - Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée - Español: Hoy es un día bonito - Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag - Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün - Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''18.''' - Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل - English: I am going to work - Français: Je vais au travail - Español: Voy al trabajo - Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit - Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum - Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''19.''' - Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? - العربية: أين المفتاح؟ - English: Where is the key? - Français: Où est la clé ? - Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? - Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? - Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? - Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''20.''' - Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። - العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب - English: I love to read books - Français: J'aime lire des livres - Español: Me encanta leer libros - Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher - Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''21.''' - Tigre: ለማይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። - العربية: الماء بارد جداً - English: The water is very cold - Français: L'eau est très froide - Español: El agua está muy fría - Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt - Türkçe: Su çok soğuk - Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''22.''' - Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። - العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً - English: My friend lives far away - Français: Mon ami habite loin - Español: Mi amigo vive lejos - Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg - Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''23.''' - Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። - العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة - English: Open the book to page ten - Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix - Español: Abre el libro en la página diez - Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn - Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç - Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''24.''' - Tigre: አነ ዮም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم - English: I am very happy today - Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui - Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich - Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum - Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''25.''' - Tigre: ኢተአድግ ሐሰብከ/ኢትትአከር ሐሰብከ። - العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك - English: Don't be late, please - Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît - Español: No llegues tarde, por favor - Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät - Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma - Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''26.''' - Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። - العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة - English: The cat is under the table - Français: Le chat est sous la table - Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa - Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch - Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında - Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''27.''' - Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል አዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة - English: I want to buy new clothes - Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements - Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva - Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen - Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''28.''' - Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? - العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ - English: When does school start? - Français: Quand commence l'école ? - Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? - Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? - Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''29.''' - Tigre: አሊ ነብረ እሊ ሰኒ ጥዑም’ቱ። - العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ - English: This food is delicious - Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse - Español: Esta comida está deliciosa - Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker - Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''30.''' - Tigre: ፈጂር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። - العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله - English: See you tomorrow, God willing - Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut - Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere - Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will - Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah - Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός === ዝያድ ታምም ሕስቦታት === '''31.''' - Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي - English: I go to the market with my father - Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père - Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre - Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt - Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum - Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''32.''' - Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። - العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن - English: My little sister is sleeping now - Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant - Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora - Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt - Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor - Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''333.''' - Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? - العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ - English: Is this your house? - Français: C'est ta maison ? - Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? - Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? - Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? - Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''34.''' - Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። - العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى - English: I love listening to music - Français: J'aime écouter de la musique - Español: Me encanta escuchar música - Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik - Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''35.''' - Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? - العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ - English: Where does your brother work? - Français: Où travaille ton frère ? - Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? - Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? - Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''36.''' - Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። - العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ - English: The child is laughing loudly - Français: L'enfant rit fort - Español: El niño se ríe fuerte - Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut - Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor - Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''37.''' - Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً - English: I want hot water - Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude - Español: Quiero agua caliente - Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser - Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''38.''' - Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። - العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس - English: The teacher is explaining the lesson - Français: Le professeur explique la leçon - Español: El maestro está explicando la lección - Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion - Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor - Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''39.''' - Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። - العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء - English: I love winter - Français: J'aime l'hiver - Español: Me encanta el invierno - Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter - Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum - Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''40.''' - Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። - العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة - English: Come here quickly - Français: Viens ici vite - Español: Ven aquí rápido - Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher - Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel - Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''41.''' - Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? - العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ - English: Where did I put my bag? - Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? - Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? - Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? - Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? - Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''42.''' - Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። - العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا - English: We love our family - Français: Nous aimons notre famille - Español: Amamos a nuestra familia - Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie - Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz - Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''43.''' - Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። - العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً - English: This child is very smart - Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent - Español: Este niño es muy inteligente - Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug - Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''44.''' - Tigre: ኢርትሪያ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا - English: I want to travel to Eritrea - Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée - Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea - Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen - Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''45.''' - Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? - العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ - English: Are you hungry? - Français: As-tu faim ? - Español: ¿Tienes hambre? - Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? - Türkçe: Aç mısın? - Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''46.''' - Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። - العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع - English: The street is long and wide - Français: La rue est longue et large - Español: La calle es larga y ancha - Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit - Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş - Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''47.''' - Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي - English: I am writing a letter to my friend - Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami - Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo - Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund - Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum - Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''48.''' - Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። - العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ - English: Don't speak loudly - Français: Ne parle pas fort - Español: No hables fuerte - Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut - Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma - Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''49.''' - Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። - العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً - English: My mother cooks delicious food - Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux - Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa - Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen - Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor - Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''50.''' - Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። - العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة - English: We will meet tomorrow at school - Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école - Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela - Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule - Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz - Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket 1yjuqjpfukdhilqyv6z9mpbehc4lkla 4681642 4681626 2026-11-11T16:19:24Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 Edits 4681642 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا متعب اليوم * English: I am tired today * Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy cansado hoy * Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde * Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''2.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት እት አያ ትትረከብ። * العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ * English: Where is the school? * Français: Où est l'école ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? * Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''3.''' * Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈቲየ/ቡን ጽብሓት ምዲር እፈቲያ። * العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح * English: I love coffee in the morning * Français: J'aime le café le matin * Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana * Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen * Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''4.''' * Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ግብእ/ለ ሽባክ ዲብእ ወአበልከሁ ሐይስ። * العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك * English: Close the window, please * Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît * Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor * Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster * Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat * Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''5.''' * Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ። * العربية: أمي في السوق الآن * English: My mother is at the market now * Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant * Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora * Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt * Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''6.''' * Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ ግርም ተ። * العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً * English: This house is very beautiful * Français: Cette maison est très belle * Español: Esta casa es muy bonita * Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön * Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''7.''' * Tigre: ጽባብሕ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً * English: I want to sleep early * Français: Je veux dormir tôt * Español: Quiero dormir temprano * Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen * Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''8.''' * Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين هاتفي؟ * English: Where is my phone? * Français: Où est mon téléphone ? * Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? * Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? * Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''9.''' * Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በርድ። * العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل * English: The weather is cold at night * Français: Il fait froid la nuit * Español: Hace frío por la noche * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt * Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk * Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''10.''' * Tigre: አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ እደሪስ ህሌኮ/አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ አትመሀር። * العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة * English: I am learning a new language * Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue * Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache * Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum * Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''11.''' * Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። * العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج * English: Come, let's play outside * Français: Viens, jouons dehors * Español: Ven, juguemos afuera * Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen * Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım * Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''12.''' * Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። * العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس * English: I don't understand this lesson * Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon * Español: No entiendo esta lección * Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht * Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum * Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''13.''' * Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። * العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى * English: My brother works at the hospital * Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital * Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital * Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus * Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''14.''' * Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً * English: I want bread and cheese * Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage * Español: Quiero pan y queso * Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse * Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''15.''' * Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። * العربية: السيارة أمام البيت * English: The car is in front of the house * Français: La voiture est devant la maison * Español: El coche está delante de la casa * Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus * Türkçe: Araba evin önünde * Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''16.''' * Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? * العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ * English: Can you help me? * Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? * Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? * Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''17.''' * Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። * العربية: اليوم يوم جميل * English: Today is a beautiful day * Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée * Español: Hoy es un día bonito * Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag * Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün * Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''18.''' * Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل * English: I am going to work * Français: Je vais au travail * Español: Voy al trabajo Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit * Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''19.''' * Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين المفتاح؟ * English: Where is the key? * Français: Où est la clé ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? * Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? * Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''20.''' * Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب * English: I love to read books * Français: J'aime lire des livres * Español: Me encanta leer libros * Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher * Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''21.''' * Tigre: ለማይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። * العربية: الماء بارد جداً * English: The water is very cold * Français: L'eau est très froide * Español: El agua está muy fría * Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt * Türkçe: Su çok soğuk * Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''22.''' * Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። * العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً * English: My friend lives far away * Français: Mon ami habite loin * Español: Mi amigo vive lejos * Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg * Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''23.''' * Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። * العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة * English: Open the book to page ten * Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix * Español: Abre el libro en la página diez * Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn * Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç * Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''24.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم * English: I am very happy today * Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich * Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''25.''' * Tigre: ኢተአድግ ሐሰብከ/ኢትትአከር ሐሰብከ። * العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك * English: Don't be late, please * Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît * Español: No llegues tarde, por favor * Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät * Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma * Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''26.''' * Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። * العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة * English: The cat is under the table * Français: Le chat est sous la table * Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa * Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch * Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında * Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''27.''' * Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል አዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة * English: I want to buy new clothes * Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements * Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva * Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen * Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''28.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? * العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ * English: When does school start? * Français: Quand commence l'école ? * Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? * Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''29.''' * Tigre: አሊ ነብረ እሊ ሰኒ ጥዑም’ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ * English: This food is delicious * Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse * Español: Esta comida está deliciosa * Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker * Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''30.''' * Tigre: ፈጂር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። * العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله * English: See you tomorrow, God willing * Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut * Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere * Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will * Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah * Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός === ዝያድ ታምም ሕስቦታት === '''31.''' * Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي * English: I go to the market with my father * Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père * Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre * Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt * Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''32.''' * Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። * العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن * English: My little sister is sleeping now * Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant * Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora * Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt * Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor * Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''333.''' * Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? * العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ * English: Is this your house? * Français: C'est ta maison ? * Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? * Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? * Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? * Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''34.''' * Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى * English: I love listening to music * Français: J'aime écouter de la musique * Español: Me encanta escuchar música * Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik * Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''35.''' * Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? * العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ * English: Where does your brother work? * Français: Où travaille ton frère ? * Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? * Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? * Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''36.''' * Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። * العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ * English: The child is laughing loudly * Français: L'enfant rit fort * Español: El niño se ríe fuerte * Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut * Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor * Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''37.''' * Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً * English: I want hot water * Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude * Español: Quiero agua caliente * Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser * Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''38.''' * Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። * العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس * English: The teacher is explaining the lesson * Français: Le professeur explique la leçon * Español: El maestro está explicando la lección * Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion * Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''39.''' * Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። * العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء * English: I love winter * Français: J'aime l'hiver * Español: Me encanta el invierno * Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter * Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''40.''' * Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። * العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة * English: Come here quickly * Français: Viens ici vite * Español: Ven aquí rápido * Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher * Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel * Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''41.''' * Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? * العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ * English: Where did I put my bag? * Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? * Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? * Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? * Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? * Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''42.''' * Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። * العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا * English: We love our family * Français: Nous aimons notre famille * Español: Amamos a nuestra familia * Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie * Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz * Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''43.''' * Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً * English: This child is very smart * Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent * Español: Este niño es muy inteligente * Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug * Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''44.''' * Tigre: እርትርየ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا * English: I want to travel to Eritrea * Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée * Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea * Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen * Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''45.''' * Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? * العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ * English: Are you hungry? * Français: As-tu faim ? * Español: ¿Tienes hambre? * Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? * Türkçe: Aç mısın? * Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''46.''' * Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። * العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع * English: The street is long and wide * Français: La rue est longue et large * Español: La calle es larga y ancha * Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit * Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş * Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''47.''' * Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي * English: I am writing a letter to my friend * Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami * Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo * Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund * Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum * Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''48.''' * Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። * العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ * English: Don't speak loudly * Français: Ne parle pas fort * Español: No hables fuerte * Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut * Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma * Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''49.''' * Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። * العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً * English: My mother cooks delicious food * Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux * Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa * Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen * Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''50.''' * Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። * العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة * English: We will meet tomorrow at school * Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école * Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela * Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule * Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz * Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket sy6nqf919vj88jjrqzkfcqosy7d9jnc 4681643 4681642 2026-11-11T16:21:54Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 Small edits 4681643 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا متعب اليوم * English: I am tired today * Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy cansado hoy * Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde * Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''2.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት እት አያ ትትረከብ። * العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ * English: Where is the school? * Français: Où est l'école ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? * Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''3.''' * Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈቲየ/ቡን ጽብሓት ምዲር እፈቲያ። * العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح * English: I love coffee in the morning * Français: J'aime le café le matin * Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana * Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen * Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''4.''' * Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ግብእ/ለ ሽባክ ዲብእ ወአበልከሁ ሐይስ። * العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك * English: Close the window, please * Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît * Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor * Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster * Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat * Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''5.''' * Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ። * العربية: أمي في السوق الآن * English: My mother is at the market now * Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant * Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora * Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt * Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''6.''' * Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ ግርም ተ። * العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً * English: This house is very beautiful * Français: Cette maison est très belle * Español: Esta casa es muy bonita * Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön * Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''7.''' * Tigre: ጽባብሕ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً * English: I want to sleep early * Français: Je veux dormir tôt * Español: Quiero dormir temprano * Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen * Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''8.''' * Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين هاتفي؟ * English: Where is my phone? * Français: Où est mon téléphone ? * Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? * Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? * Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''9.''' * Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በርድ። * العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل * English: The weather is cold at night * Français: Il fait froid la nuit * Español: Hace frío por la noche * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt * Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk * Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''10.''' * Tigre: አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ እደሪስ ህሌኮ/አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ አትመሀር። * العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة * English: I am learning a new language * Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue * Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache * Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum * Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''11.''' * Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። * العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج * English: Come, let's play outside * Français: Viens, jouons dehors * Español: Ven, juguemos afuera * Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen * Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım * Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''12.''' * Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። * العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس * English: I don't understand this lesson * Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon * Español: No entiendo esta lección * Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht * Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum * Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''13.''' * Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። * العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى * English: My brother works at the hospital * Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital * Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital * Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus * Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''14.''' * Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً * English: I want bread and cheese * Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage * Español: Quiero pan y queso * Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse * Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''15.''' * Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። * العربية: السيارة أمام البيت * English: The car is in front of the house * Français: La voiture est devant la maison * Español: El coche está delante de la casa * Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus * Türkçe: Araba evin önünde * Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''16.''' * Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? * العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ * English: Can you help me? * Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? * Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? * Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''17.''' * Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። * العربية: اليوم يوم جميل * English: Today is a beautiful day * Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée * Español: Hoy es un día bonito * Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag * Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün * Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''18.''' * Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل * English: I am going to work * Français: Je vais au travail * Español: Voy al trabajo * Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit * Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''19.''' * Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين المفتاح؟ * English: Where is the key? * Français: Où est la clé ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? * Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? * Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''20.''' * Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب * English: I love to read books * Français: J'aime lire des livres * Español: Me encanta leer libros * Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher * Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''21.''' * Tigre: ለማይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። * العربية: الماء بارد جداً * English: The water is very cold * Français: L'eau est très froide * Español: El agua está muy fría * Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt * Türkçe: Su çok soğuk * Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''22.''' * Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። * العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً * English: My friend lives far away * Français: Mon ami habite loin * Español: Mi amigo vive lejos * Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg * Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''23.''' * Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። * العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة * English: Open the book to page ten * Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix * Español: Abre el libro en la página diez * Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn * Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç * Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''24.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم * English: I am very happy today * Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich * Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''25.''' * Tigre: ኢተአድግ ሐሰብከ/ኢትትአከር ሐሰብከ። * العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك * English: Don't be late, please * Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît * Español: No llegues tarde, por favor * Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät * Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma * Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''26.''' * Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። * العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة * English: The cat is under the table * Français: Le chat est sous la table * Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa * Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch * Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında * Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''27.''' * Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል አዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة * English: I want to buy new clothes * Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements * Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva * Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen * Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''28.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? * العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ * English: When does school start? * Français: Quand commence l'école ? * Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? * Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''29.''' * Tigre: አሊ ነብረ እሊ ሰኒ ጥዑም’ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ * English: This food is delicious * Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse * Español: Esta comida está deliciosa * Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker * Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''30.''' * Tigre: ፈጂር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። * العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله * English: See you tomorrow, God willing * Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut * Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere * Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will * Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah * Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός === ዝያድ ታምም ሕስቦታት === '''31.''' * Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي * English: I go to the market with my father * Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père * Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre * Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt * Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''32.''' * Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። * العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن * English: My little sister is sleeping now * Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant * Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora * Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt * Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor * Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''333.''' * Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? * العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ * English: Is this your house? * Français: C'est ta maison ? * Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? * Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? * Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? * Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''34.''' * Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى * English: I love listening to music * Français: J'aime écouter de la musique * Español: Me encanta escuchar música * Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik * Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''35.''' * Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? * العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ * English: Where does your brother work? * Français: Où travaille ton frère ? * Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? * Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? * Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''36.''' * Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። * العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ * English: The child is laughing loudly * Français: L'enfant rit fort * Español: El niño se ríe fuerte * Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut * Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor * Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''37.''' * Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً * English: I want hot water * Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude * Español: Quiero agua caliente * Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser * Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''38.''' * Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። * العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس * English: The teacher is explaining the lesson * Français: Le professeur explique la leçon * Español: El maestro está explicando la lección * Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion * Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''39.''' * Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። * العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء * English: I love winter * Français: J'aime l'hiver * Español: Me encanta el invierno * Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter * Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''40.''' * Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። * العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة * English: Come here quickly * Français: Viens ici vite * Español: Ven aquí rápido * Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher * Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel * Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''41.''' * Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? * العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ * English: Where did I put my bag? * Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? * Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? * Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? * Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? * Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''42.''' * Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። * العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا * English: We love our family * Français: Nous aimons notre famille * Español: Amamos a nuestra familia * Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie * Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz * Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''43.''' * Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً * English: This child is very smart * Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent * Español: Este niño es muy inteligente * Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug * Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''44.''' * Tigre: እርትርየ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا * English: I want to travel to Eritrea * Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée * Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea * Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen * Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''45.''' * Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? * العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ * English: Are you hungry? * Français: As-tu faim ? * Español: ¿Tienes hambre? * Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? * Türkçe: Aç mısın? * Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''46.''' * Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። * العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع * English: The street is long and wide * Français: La rue est longue et large * Español: La calle es larga y ancha * Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit * Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş * Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''47.''' * Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي * English: I am writing a letter to my friend * Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami * Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo * Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund * Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum * Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''48.''' * Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። * العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ * English: Don't speak loudly * Français: Ne parle pas fort * Español: No hables fuerte * Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut * Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma * Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''49.''' * Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። * العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً * English: My mother cooks delicious food * Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux * Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa * Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen * Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''50.''' * Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። * العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة * English: We will meet tomorrow at school * Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école * Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela * Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule * Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz * Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket nxx5x89x52hvfe35fofs2pvk9k4qbn6 4681651 4681643 2026-11-11T16:48:18Z Badarap 3631033 /* */ Added 10 Tigre sentences 4681651 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا متعب اليوم * English: I am tired today * Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy cansado hoy * Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde * Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''2.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት እት አያ ትትረከብ። * العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ * English: Where is the school? * Français: Où est l'école ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? * Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''3.''' * Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈቲየ/ቡን ጽብሓት ምዲር እፈቲያ። * العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح * English: I love coffee in the morning * Français: J'aime le café le matin * Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana * Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen * Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''4.''' * Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ግብእ/ለ ሽባክ ዲብእ ወአበልከሁ ሐይስ። * العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك * English: Close the window, please * Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît * Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor * Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster * Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat * Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''5.''' * Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ። * العربية: أمي في السوق الآن * English: My mother is at the market now * Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant * Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora * Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt * Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''6.''' * Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ ግርም ተ። * العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً * English: This house is very beautiful * Français: Cette maison est très belle * Español: Esta casa es muy bonita * Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön * Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''7.''' * Tigre: ጽባብሕ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً * English: I want to sleep early * Français: Je veux dormir tôt * Español: Quiero dormir temprano * Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen * Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''8.''' * Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين هاتفي؟ * English: Where is my phone? * Français: Où est mon téléphone ? * Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? * Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? * Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''9.''' * Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በርድ። * العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل * English: The weather is cold at night * Français: Il fait froid la nuit * Español: Hace frío por la noche * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt * Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk * Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''10.''' * Tigre: አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ እደሪስ ህሌኮ/አነ ሉቀት ሐዳስ አትመሀር። * العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة * English: I am learning a new language * Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue * Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache * Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum * Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''11.''' * Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። * العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج * English: Come, let's play outside * Français: Viens, jouons dehors * Español: Ven, juguemos afuera * Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen * Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım * Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''12.''' * Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። * العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس * English: I don't understand this lesson * Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon * Español: No entiendo esta lección * Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht * Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum * Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''13.''' * Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። * العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى * English: My brother works at the hospital * Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital * Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital * Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus * Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''14.''' * Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً * English: I want bread and cheese * Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage * Español: Quiero pan y queso * Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse * Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''15.''' * Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። * العربية: السيارة أمام البيت * English: The car is in front of the house * Français: La voiture est devant la maison * Español: El coche está delante de la casa * Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus * Türkçe: Araba evin önünde * Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''16.''' * Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? * العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ * English: Can you help me? * Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? * Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? * Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''17.''' * Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። * العربية: اليوم يوم جميل * English: Today is a beautiful day * Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée * Español: Hoy es un día bonito * Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag * Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün * Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''18.''' * Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل * English: I am going to work * Français: Je vais au travail * Español: Voy al trabajo * Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit * Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''19.''' * Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين المفتاح؟ * English: Where is the key? * Français: Où est la clé ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? * Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? * Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''20.''' * Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب * English: I love to read books * Français: J'aime lire des livres * Español: Me encanta leer libros * Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher * Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''21.''' * Tigre: ለማይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። * العربية: الماء بارد جداً * English: The water is very cold * Français: L'eau est très froide * Español: El agua está muy fría * Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt * Türkçe: Su çok soğuk * Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''22.''' * Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። * العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً * English: My friend lives far away * Français: Mon ami habite loin * Español: Mi amigo vive lejos * Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg * Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''23.''' * Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። * العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة * English: Open the book to page ten * Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix * Español: Abre el libro en la página diez * Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn * Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç * Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''24.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم * English: I am very happy today * Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich * Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''25.''' * Tigre: ኢተአድግ ሐሰብከ/ኢትትአከር ሐሰብከ። * العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك * English: Don't be late, please * Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît * Español: No llegues tarde, por favor * Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät * Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma * Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''26.''' * Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። * العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة * English: The cat is under the table * Français: Le chat est sous la table * Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa * Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch * Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında * Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''27.''' * Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል አዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة * English: I want to buy new clothes * Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements * Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva * Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen * Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''28.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? * العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ * English: When does school start? * Français: Quand commence l'école ? * Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? * Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''29.''' * Tigre: አሊ ነብረ እሊ ሰኒ ጥዑም’ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ * English: This food is delicious * Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse * Español: Esta comida está deliciosa * Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker * Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''30.''' * Tigre: ፈጂር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። * العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله * English: See you tomorrow, God willing * Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut * Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere * Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will * Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah * Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός '''181.''' - Tigre: አቦቼ አያ ሳክነት ተ? - العربية: أين تسكن جدتي؟ - Français: Où habite ma grand-mère ? - Deutsch: Wo wohnt meine Großmutter? - Español: ¿Dónde vive mi abuela? - Türkçe: Büyükannem nerede yaşıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πού μένει η γιαγιά μου; '''182.''' - Tigre:ቀደመ ነብረ አነ እዴዬ ሐጽብ። - العربية: أنا أغسل يدي قبل الأكل - Français: Je me lave les mains avant de manger - Deutsch: Ich wasche mir vor dem Essen die Hände - Español: Me lavo las manos antes de comer - Türkçe: Yemekten önce ellerimi yıkıyorum - Ελληνικά: Πλένω τα χέρια μου πριν φάω '''183.''' - Tigre: ኮበሪት እግር እግል ትተልሄ ትፈቴ/ኩረት እግር እግል ትተልሄ ትፈቴ? - العربية: هل تحب أن تلعب كرة القدم؟ - Français: Tu aimes jouer au football ? - Deutsch: Spielst du gerne Fußball? - Español: ¿Te gusta jugar al fútbol? - Türkçe: Futbol oynamayı sever misin? - Ελληνικά: Σου αρέσει να παίζεις ποδόσφαιρο; '''184.''' - Tigre: ወሬሕ ግሩም ህለ ዬም ላሊ። - العربية: القمر جميل الليلة - Français: La lune est belle ce soir - Deutsch: Der Mond ist heute Nacht schön - Español: La luna está bonita esta noche - Türkçe: Ay bu gece çok güzel - Ελληνικά: Το φεγγάρι είναι όμορφο απόψε '''185.''' - Tigre: እግል እምዬ ህያብ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أشتري هدية لأمي - Français: Je veux acheter un cadeau pour ma mère - Deutsch: Ich möchte ein Geschenk für meine Mutter kaufen - Español: Quiero comprar un regalo para mi madre - Türkçe: Anneme hediye almak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω ένα δώρο για τη μητέρα μου '''186.''' - Tigre: ኤትለ/እንሰር እይትትገሴ, ኬን ገሴ። - العربية: لا تجلس هنا، اجلس هناك - Français: Ne t'assieds pas ici, assieds-toi là-bas - Deutsch: Setz dich nicht hierhin, setz dich dorthin - Español: No te sientes aquí, siéntate allí - Türkçe: Buraya oturma, oraya otur - Ελληνικά: Μην κάθεσαι εδώ, κάθισε εκεί '''187.''' - Tigre: ሑዬ አምዕል’ከ ጀሪደት ቀሪእ። - العربية: أخي يقرأ جريدة كل يوم - Français: Mon frère lit un journal chaque jour - Deutsch: Mein Bruder liest jeden Tag eine Zeitung - Español: Mi hermano lee un periódico cada día - Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim her gün gazete okuyor - Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου διαβάζει εφημερίδα κάθε μέρα '''188.''' - Tigre: ፈረስ ሑፉን ወ ቱሩድ ቱ እሊ። - العربية: هذا الحصان سريع وقوي - Français: Ce cheval est rapide et fort - Deutsch: Dieses Pferd ist schnell und stark - Español: Este caballo es rápido y fuerte - Türkçe: Bu at hızlı ve güçlü - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το άλογο είναι γρήγορο και δυνατό '''189.''' - Tigre: አስክ ሱቅ ምዶል እግል ትጊስ ቱ። - العربية: متى تذهب إلى السوق؟ - Français: Quand vas-tu au marché ? - Deutsch: Wann gehst du auf den Markt? - Español: ¿Cuándo vas al mercado? - Türkçe: Pazara ne zaman gidiyorsun? - Ελληνικά: Πότε πας στην αγορά; '''190.''' - Tigre: አነ ሉቀት እትመሀር/እትዐለም። - العربية: أنا أتعلم اللغةTigre من كتا Wikibooks - Français: J'apprends la langue tigré dans le livre Wikibooks - Deutsch: Ich lerne die Tigre-Sprache aus dem Wikibooks-Buch - Español: Aprendo el idioma tigré en el libro de Wikibooks - Türkçe: Tigre dilini Wikibooks kitabından öğreniyorum - Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω τη γλώσσα Tigre από το βιβλίο Wikibooks === ዝያድ ታምም ሕስቦታት === '''31.''' * Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي * English: I go to the market with my father * Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père * Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre * Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt * Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''32.''' * Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። * العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن * English: My little sister is sleeping now * Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant * Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora * Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt * Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor * Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''333.''' * Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? * العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ * English: Is this your house? * Français: C'est ta maison ? * Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? * Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? * Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? * Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''34.''' * Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى * English: I love listening to music * Français: J'aime écouter de la musique * Español: Me encanta escuchar música * Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik * Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''35.''' * Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? * العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ * English: Where does your brother work? * Français: Où travaille ton frère ? * Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? * Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? * Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''36.''' * Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። * العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ * English: The child is laughing loudly * Français: L'enfant rit fort * Español: El niño se ríe fuerte * Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut * Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor * Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''37.''' * Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً * English: I want hot water * Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude * Español: Quiero agua caliente * Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser * Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''38.''' * Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። * العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس * English: The teacher is explaining the lesson * Français: Le professeur explique la leçon * Español: El maestro está explicando la lección * Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion * Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''39.''' * Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። * العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء * English: I love winter * Français: J'aime l'hiver * Español: Me encanta el invierno * Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter * Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''40.''' * Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። * العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة * English: Come here quickly * Français: Viens ici vite * Español: Ven aquí rápido * Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher * Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel * Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''41.''' * Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? * العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ * English: Where did I put my bag? * Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? * Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? * Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? * Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? * Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''42.''' * Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። * العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا * English: We love our family * Français: Nous aimons notre famille * Español: Amamos a nuestra familia * Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie * Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz * Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''43.''' * Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً * English: This child is very smart * Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent * Español: Este niño es muy inteligente * Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug * Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''44.''' * Tigre: እርትርየ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا * English: I want to travel to Eritrea * Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée * Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea * Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen * Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''45.''' * Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? * العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ * English: Are you hungry? * Français: As-tu faim ? * Español: ¿Tienes hambre? * Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? * Türkçe: Aç mısın? * Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''46.''' * Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። * العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع * English: The street is long and wide * Français: La rue est longue et large * Español: La calle es larga y ancha * Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit * Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş * Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''47.''' * Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي * English: I am writing a letter to my friend * Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami * Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo * Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund * Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum * Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''48.''' * Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። * العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ * English: Don't speak loudly * Français: Ne parle pas fort * Español: No hables fuerte * Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut * Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma * Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''49.''' * Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። * العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً * English: My mother cooks delicious food * Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux * Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa * Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen * Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''50.''' * Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። * العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة * English: We will meet tomorrow at school * Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école * Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela * Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule * Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz * Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket a4cfozx25tyym7305s16qdg4jgiljhu 4681729 4681651 2026-11-11T20:08:03Z Mohammed Wed Nakfa 3630768 ንኢሽ አስነዮት 4681729 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ (ድዩር) ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا متعب اليوم * English: I am tired today * Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy cansado hoy * Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde * Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''2.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት (ቤት ምህሮ) እት አያ ትትረከብ፧ * العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ * English: Where is the school? * Français: Où est l'école ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? * Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''3.''' * Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈትየ/ቡን ጽቤሕ ምድር እፈትየ። * العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح * English: I love coffee in the morning * Français: J'aime le café le matin * Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana * Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen * Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''4.''' * Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ገቢእ፧/ለ ሽባክ ድብእ ወአበልካሁ ። * العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك * English: Close the window, please * Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît * Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor * Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster * Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat * Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''5.''' * Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ/ እምዬ ዲብ ዱግ ህሌት አዴ። * العربية: أمي في السوق الآن * English: My mother is at the market now * Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant * Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora * Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt * Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''6.''' * Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ/መረ/ሰኒ ግርም ተ። * العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً * English: This house is very beautiful * Français: Cette maison est très belle * Español: Esta casa es muy bonita * Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön * Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''7.''' * Tigre: ጽባብሕ/በድሪ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً * English: I want to sleep early * Français: Je veux dormir tôt * Español: Quiero dormir temprano * Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen * Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''8.''' * Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አየ ህለ፧ * العربية: أين هاتفي؟ * English: Where is my phone? * Français: Où est mon téléphone ? * Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? * Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? * Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''9.''' * Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በርድ። * العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل * English: The weather is cold at night * Français: Il fait froid la nuit * Español: Hace frío por la noche * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt * Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk * Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''10.''' * Tigre: አነ ህግየ ሐዳስ እደርስ ህሌኮ/አነ ህግየ ሐዳስ አትመሀር። * العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة * English: I am learning a new language * Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue * Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache * Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum * Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''11.''' * Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። * العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج * English: Come, let's play outside * Français: Viens, jouons dehors * Español: Ven, juguemos afuera * Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen * Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım * Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''12.''' * Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። * العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس * English: I don't understand this lesson * Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon * Español: No entiendo esta lección * Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht * Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum * Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''13.''' * Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። * العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى * English: My brother works at the hospital * Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital * Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital * Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus * Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''14.''' * Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً * English: I want bread and cheese * Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage * Español: Quiero pan y queso * Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse * Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''15.''' * Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። * العربية: السيارة أمام البيت * English: The car is in front of the house * Français: La voiture est devant la maison * Español: El coche está delante de la casa * Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus * Türkçe: Araba evin önünde * Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''16.''' * Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? * العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ * English: Can you help me? * Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? * Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? * Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''17.''' * Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። * العربية: اليوم يوم جميل * English: Today is a beautiful day * Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée * Español: Hoy es un día bonito * Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag * Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün * Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''18.''' * Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل * English: I am going to work * Français: Je vais au travail * Español: Voy al trabajo * Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit * Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''19.''' * Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين المفتاح؟ * English: Where is the key? * Français: Où est la clé ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? * Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? * Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''20.''' * Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب * English: I love to read books * Français: J'aime lire des livres * Español: Me encanta leer libros * Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher * Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''21.''' * Tigre: ለማይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። * العربية: الماء بارد جداً * English: The water is very cold * Français: L'eau est très froide * Español: El agua está muy fría * Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt * Türkçe: Su çok soğuk * Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''22.''' * Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። * العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً * English: My friend lives far away * Français: Mon ami habite loin * Español: Mi amigo vive lejos * Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg * Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''23.''' * Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። * العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة * English: Open the book to page ten * Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix * Español: Abre el libro en la página diez * Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn * Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç * Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''24.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم * English: I am very happy today * Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich * Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''25.''' * Tigre: ኢተአድግ ሐሰብከ/ኢትትአከር ሐሰብከ። * العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك * English: Don't be late, please * Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît * Español: No llegues tarde, por favor * Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät * Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma * Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''26.''' * Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። * العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة * English: The cat is under the table * Français: Le chat est sous la table * Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa * Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch * Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında * Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''27.''' * Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል አዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة * English: I want to buy new clothes * Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements * Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva * Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen * Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''28.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? * العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ * English: When does school start? * Français: Quand commence l'école ? * Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? * Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''29.''' * Tigre: አሊ ነብረ እሊ ሰኒ ጥዑም’ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ * English: This food is delicious * Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse * Español: Esta comida está deliciosa * Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker * Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''30.''' * Tigre: ፈጂር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። * العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله * English: See you tomorrow, God willing * Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut * Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere * Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will * Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah * Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός '''181.''' - Tigre: አቦቼ አያ ሳክነት ተ? - العربية: أين تسكن جدتي؟ - Français: Où habite ma grand-mère ? - Deutsch: Wo wohnt meine Großmutter? - Español: ¿Dónde vive mi abuela? - Türkçe: Büyükannem nerede yaşıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πού μένει η γιαγιά μου; '''182.''' - Tigre:ቀደመ ነብረ አነ እዴዬ ሐጽብ። - العربية: أنا أغسل يدي قبل الأكل - Français: Je me lave les mains avant de manger - Deutsch: Ich wasche mir vor dem Essen die Hände - Español: Me lavo las manos antes de comer - Türkçe: Yemekten önce ellerimi yıkıyorum - Ελληνικά: Πλένω τα χέρια μου πριν φάω '''183.''' - Tigre: ኮበሪት እግር እግል ትተልሄ ትፈቴ/ኩረት እግር እግል ትተልሄ ትፈቴ? - العربية: هل تحب أن تلعب كرة القدم؟ - Français: Tu aimes jouer au football ? - Deutsch: Spielst du gerne Fußball? - Español: ¿Te gusta jugar al fútbol? - Türkçe: Futbol oynamayı sever misin? - Ελληνικά: Σου αρέσει να παίζεις ποδόσφαιρο; '''184.''' - Tigre: ወሬሕ ግሩም ህለ ዬም ላሊ። - العربية: القمر جميل الليلة - Français: La lune est belle ce soir - Deutsch: Der Mond ist heute Nacht schön - Español: La luna está bonita esta noche - Türkçe: Ay bu gece çok güzel - Ελληνικά: Το φεγγάρι είναι όμορφο απόψε '''185.''' - Tigre: እግል እምዬ ህያብ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أشتري هدية لأمي - Français: Je veux acheter un cadeau pour ma mère - Deutsch: Ich möchte ein Geschenk für meine Mutter kaufen - Español: Quiero comprar un regalo para mi madre - Türkçe: Anneme hediye almak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω ένα δώρο για τη μητέρα μου '''186.''' - Tigre: ኤትለ/እንሰር እይትትገሴ, ኬን ገሴ። - العربية: لا تجلس هنا، اجلس هناك - Français: Ne t'assieds pas ici, assieds-toi là-bas - Deutsch: Setz dich nicht hierhin, setz dich dorthin - Español: No te sientes aquí, siéntate allí - Türkçe: Buraya oturma, oraya otur - Ελληνικά: Μην κάθεσαι εδώ, κάθισε εκεί '''187.''' - Tigre: ሑዬ አምዕል’ከ ጀሪደት ቀሪእ። - العربية: أخي يقرأ جريدة كل يوم - Français: Mon frère lit un journal chaque jour - Deutsch: Mein Bruder liest jeden Tag eine Zeitung - Español: Mi hermano lee un periódico cada día - Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim her gün gazete okuyor - Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου διαβάζει εφημερίδα κάθε μέρα '''188.''' - Tigre: ፈረስ ሑፉን ወ ቱሩድ ቱ እሊ። - العربية: هذا الحصان سريع وقوي - Français: Ce cheval est rapide et fort - Deutsch: Dieses Pferd ist schnell und stark - Español: Este caballo es rápido y fuerte - Türkçe: Bu at hızlı ve güçlü - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το άλογο είναι γρήγορο και δυνατό '''189.''' - Tigre: አስክ ሱቅ ምዶል እግል ትጊስ ቱ። - العربية: متى تذهب إلى السوق؟ - Français: Quand vas-tu au marché ? - Deutsch: Wann gehst du auf den Markt? - Español: ¿Cuándo vas al mercado? - Türkçe: Pazara ne zaman gidiyorsun? - Ελληνικά: Πότε πας στην αγορά; '''190.''' - Tigre: አነ ሉቀት እትመሀር/እትዐለም። - العربية: أنا أتعلم اللغةTigre من كتا Wikibooks - Français: J'apprends la langue tigré dans le livre Wikibooks - Deutsch: Ich lerne die Tigre-Sprache aus dem Wikibooks-Buch - Español: Aprendo el idioma tigré en el libro de Wikibooks - Türkçe: Tigre dilini Wikibooks kitabından öğreniyorum - Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω τη γλώσσα Tigre από το βιβλίο Wikibooks === ዝያድ ታምም ሕስቦታት === '''31.''' * Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي * English: I go to the market with my father * Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père * Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre * Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt * Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''32.''' * Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። * العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن * English: My little sister is sleeping now * Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant * Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora * Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt * Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor * Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''333.''' * Tigre: ቤትከ እለ'ተ? * العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ * English: Is this your house? * Français: C'est ta maison ? * Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? * Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? * Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? * Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''34.''' * Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى * English: I love listening to music * Français: J'aime écouter de la musique * Español: Me encanta escuchar música * Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik * Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''35.''' * Tigre: ሑከ እት አያ ሸቄ? * العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ * English: Where does your brother work? * Français: Où travaille ton frère ? * Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? * Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? * Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''36.''' * Tigre: ንኡሽ እብ ክሪን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ። * العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ * English: The child is laughing loudly * Français: L'enfant rit fort * Español: El niño se ríe fuerte * Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut * Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor * Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''37.''' * Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً * English: I want hot water * Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude * Español: Quiero agua caliente * Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser * Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''38.''' * Tigre: ለ እስ ታዝ ደሪስ ሽሬሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸሬሕ ህለ። * العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس * English: The teacher is explaining the lesson * Français: Le professeur explique la leçon * Español: El maestro está explicando la lección * Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion * Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''39.''' * Tigre: አነ ወክት ከረም እትረያሕ እግሉ። * العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء * English: I love winter * Français: J'aime l'hiver * Español: Me encanta el invierno * Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter * Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''40.''' * Tigre: ነዐ እትለ እንዴ ሸፈግ'ከ። * العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة * English: Come here quickly * Français: Viens ici vite * Español: Ven aquí rápido * Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher * Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel * Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''41.''' * Tigre: ሸንጠቼ አያ ከሬከሃ/እት አየ ከሬከሀ ሸንጠቼ? * العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ * English: Where did I put my bag? * Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? * Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? * Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? * Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? * Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''42.''' * Tigre: ዓይለትነ እንፈቲየ ሕነ። * العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا * English: We love our family * Français: Nous aimons notre famille * Español: Amamos a nuestra familia * Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie * Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz * Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''43.''' * Tigre: እሊ ጅነ ልቡ ዐቢ'ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً * English: This child is very smart * Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent * Español: Este niño es muy inteligente * Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug * Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''44.''' * Tigre: እርትርየ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا * English: I want to travel to Eritrea * Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée * Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea * Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen * Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''45.''' * Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? * العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ * English: Are you hungry? * Français: As-tu faim ? * Español: ¿Tienes hambre? * Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? * Türkçe: Aç mısın? * Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''46.''' * Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። * العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع * English: The street is long and wide * Français: La rue est longue et large * Español: La calle es larga y ancha * Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit * Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş * Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''47.''' * Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ሪሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي * English: I am writing a letter to my friend * Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami * Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo * Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund * Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum * Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''48.''' * Tigre: ዶል ትትሃጌ ክሪንከ እይትወቅል። * العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ * English: Don't speak loudly * Français: Ne parle pas fort * Español: No hables fuerte * Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut * Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma * Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''49.''' * Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ሰኒ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። * العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً * English: My mother cooks delicious food * Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux * Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa * Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen * Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''50.''' * Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። * العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة * English: We will meet tomorrow at school * Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école * Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela * Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule * Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz * Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket jnm5j07mbdvwerufwv1fg9atofwku8z 4681754 4681729 2026-11-11T21:08:56Z Hdad Tigre 3630695 Small edits 4681754 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to Tigre language! This book will teach you Tigre words. '''Contents:''' * [[#Lesson 1: Colors|Lesson 1: Colors - الألوان - ሓባር]] * [[#Lesson 2: Weather|Lesson 2: Weather - الطقس - ሓለት ጅው]] * [[#Lesson 3: Nature|Lesson 3: Nature - الطبيعة - ጠቢዐት]] * [[#Lesson 4: The Body|Lesson 4: The Body - الجسم - ገሮብ]] * [[#Lesson 5: Feelings|Lesson 5: Feelings - المشاعر - መሻዕር/ስምዒት]] * [[#Lesson 6: Daily Actions|Lesson 6: Daily Actions - الأفعال اليومية - አምዕላይ ውዳይ]] * [[Tigre Language/Basic Conversation|Basic Conversation - محادثة أساسية - አሳስ መትሃጋይ]] '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ትዕብ (ድዩር) ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا متعب اليوم * English: I am tired today * Français: Je suis fatigué aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy cansado hoy * Deutsch: Ich bin heute müde * Türkçe: Bugün yorgunum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι κουρασμένος σήμερα '''2.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት (ቤት ምህሮ) እት አያ ትትረከብ፧ * العربية: أين توجد المدرسة؟ * English: Where is the school? * Français: Où est l'école ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la escuela? * Deutsch: Wo ist die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το σχολείο; '''3.''' * Tigre: ቡን አስቦሕ እፈትየ/ቡን ጽቤሕ ምድር እፈትየ። * العربية: أحب القهوة في الصباح * English: I love coffee in the morning * Français: J'aime le café le matin * Español: Me encanta el café por la mañana * Deutsch: Ich liebe Kaffee am Morgen * Türkçe: Sabahları kahveyi severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο καφές το πρωί '''4.''' * Tigre: ለ ሽባክ ምን ደብኡ ወሔሰ ገቢእ፧/ለ ሽባክ ድብእ ወአበልካሁ ። * العربية: أغلق النافذة من فضلك * English: Close the window, please * Français: Ferme la fenêtre, s'il te plaît * Español: Cierra la ventana, por favor * Deutsch: Schließe bitte das Fenster * Türkçe: Lütfen pencereyi kapat * Ελληνικά: Κλείσε το παράθυρο, σε παρακαλώ '''5.''' * Tigre:እምዬ ሱግ ህሌት አዜ/ እምዬ ዲብ ዱግ ህሌት አዴ። * العربية: أمي في السوق الآن * English: My mother is at the market now * Français: Ma mère est au marché maintenant * Español: Mi madre está en el mercado ahora * Deutsch: Meine Mutter ist jetzt auf dem Markt * Türkçe: Annem şimdi pazarda * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου είναι στην αγορά τώρα '''6.''' * Tigre: እለ ቤት ብዞሕ/መረ/ሰኒ ግርም ተ። * العربية: هذا البيت جميل جداً * English: This house is very beautiful * Français: Cette maison est très belle * Español: Esta casa es muy bonita * Deutsch: Dieses Haus ist sehr schön * Türkçe: Bu ev çok güzel * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το σπίτι είναι πολύ όμορφο '''7.''' * Tigre: ጽባብሕ/በድሪ እግል እስከብ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أنام مبكراً * English: I want to sleep early * Français: Je veux dormir tôt * Español: Quiero dormir temprano * Deutsch: Ich will früh schlafen * Türkçe: Erken uyumak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να κοιμηθώ νωρίς '''8.''' * Tigre:ተለፎንዬ አየ ህለ፧ * العربية: أين هاتفي؟ * English: Where is my phone? * Français: Où est mon téléphone ? * Español: ¿Dónde está mi teléfono? * Deutsch: Wo ist mein Handy? * Türkçe: Telefonum nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το τηλέφωνό μου; '''9.''' * Tigre: ለ ምድር ላሊ በርድ። * العربية: الطقس بارد في الليل * English: The weather is cold at night * Français: Il fait froid la nuit * Español: Hace frío por la noche * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist nachts kalt * Türkçe: Gece hava soğuk * Ελληνικά: Ο καιρός είναι κρύος τη νύχτα '''10.''' * Tigre: አነ ህግየ ሐዳስ እደርስ ህሌኮ/አነ ህግየ ሐዳስ አትመሀር። * العربية: أنا أتعلم لغة جديدة * English: I am learning a new language * Français: J'apprends une nouvelle langue * Español: Estoy aprendiendo un idioma nuevo - Deutsch: Ich lerne eine neue Sprache * Türkçe: Yeni bir dil öğreniyorum * Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω μια νέα γλώσσα '''11.''' * Tigre: ነዐ ከደን ንተልሄ። * العربية: تعال نلعب في الخارج * English: Come, let's play outside * Français: Viens, jouons dehors * Español: Ven, juguemos afuera * Deutsch: Komm, lass uns draußen spielen * Türkçe: Gel, dışarıda oynayalım * Ελληνικά: Έλα, ας παίξουμε έξω '''12.''' * Tigre: እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሀምኩዉ/አነ እሊ ደሪስ እይፈሁኒ። * العربية: لا أفهم هذا الدرس * English: I don't understand this lesson * Français: Je ne comprends pas cette leçon * Español: No entiendo esta lección * Deutsch: Ich verstehe diese Lektion nicht * Türkçe: Bu dersi anlamıyorum * Ελληνικά: Δεν καταλαβαίνω αυτό το μάθημα '''13.''' * Tigre:ሑዬ ዲብ እስፒዳልየት ሸቄ/ሑዬ ዲብ ሙስተሽፈ ሸቄ። * العربية: أخي يعمل في المستشفى * English: My brother works at the hospital * Français: Mon frère travaille à l'hôpital * Español: Mi hermano trabaja en el hospital * Deutsch: Mein Bruder arbeitet im Krankenhaus * Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim hastanede çalışıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου εργάζεται στο νοσοκομείο '''14.''' * Tigre: ኹብዘት ወግብነት ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد خبزاً وجبناً * English: I want bread and cheese * Français: Je veux du pain et du fromage * Español: Quiero pan y queso * Deutsch: Ich möchte Brot und Käse * Türkçe: Ekmek ve peynir istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ψωμί και τυρί '''15.''' * Tigre: ለመኪነት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት/ለዐረበት ቀደመ ቤት ህሌት። * العربية: السيارة أمام البيت * English: The car is in front of the house * Français: La voiture est devant la maison * Español: El coche está delante de la casa * Deutsch: Das Auto steht vor dem Haus * Türkçe: Araba evin önünde * Ελληνικά: Το αυτοκίνητο είναι μπροστά από το σπίτι '''16.''' * Tigre: ገበይ ብከ እበ ትስዴኒ/ምንክብ ብከ እቡ ትስዴኒ? * العربية: هل يمكنك مساعدتي؟ * English: Can you help me? * Français: Peux-tu m'aider ? * Español: ¿Puedes ayudarme? * Deutsch: Kannst du mir helfen? - Türkçe: Bana yardım edebilir misin? - Ελληνικά: Μπορείς να με βοηθήσεις; '''17.''' * Tigre: አምዕል ዬም መዓል ግሩምቱ። * العربية: اليوم يوم جميل * English: Today is a beautiful day * Français: Aujourd'hui est une belle journée * Español: Hoy es un día bonito * Deutsch: Heute ist ein schöner Tag * Türkçe: Bugün güzel bir gün * Ελληνικά: Σήμερα είναι μια όμορφη μέρα '''18.''' * Tigre: አነ ሽቅል እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا ذاهب إلى العمل * English: I am going to work * Français: Je vais au travail * Español: Voy al trabajo * Deutsch: Ich gehe zur Arbeit * Türkçe: İşe gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στη δουλειά '''19.''' * Tigre: ለ መፍቴሕ አያ ህለ? * العربية: أين المفتاح؟ * English: Where is the key? * Français: Où est la clé ? * Español: ¿Dónde está la llave? * Deutsch: Wo ist der Schlüssel? * Türkçe: Anahtar nerede? * Ελληνικά: Πού είναι το κλειδί; '''20.''' * Tigre: አክትበት እግል እቅረእ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أقرأ الكتب * English: I love to read books * Français: J'aime lire des livres * Español: Me encanta leer libros * Deutsch: Ich lese gerne Bücher * Türkçe: Kitap okumayı severim * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να διαβάζω βιβλία '''21.''' * Tigre: ለማይ ሰኒ ብሩድ ህለ። * العربية: الماء بارد جداً * English: The water is very cold * Français: L'eau est très froide * Español: El agua está muy fría * Deutsch: Das Wasser ist sehr kalt * Türkçe: Su çok soğuk * Ελληνικά: Το νερό είναι πολύ κρύο '''22.''' * Tigre: መለሀዬ ረዪም ሳክን’ቱ። * العربية: صديقي يسكن بعيداً * English: My friend lives far away * Français: Mon ami habite loin * Español: Mi amigo vive lejos * Deutsch: Mein Freund wohnt weit weg * Türkçe: Arkadaşım uzakta yaşıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο φίλος μου μένει μακριά '''23.''' * Tigre: ዲበ ክታብ ዓስራይ ገጽ ቅለዕ። * العربية: افتح الكتاب صفحة عشرة * English: Open the book to page ten * Français: Ouvre le livre à la page dix * Español: Abre el libro en la página diez * Deutsch: Öffne das Buch auf Seite zehn * Türkçe: Kitabı onuncu sayfada aç * Ελληνικά: Άνοιξε το βιβλίο στη σελίδα δέκα '''24.''' * Tigre: አነ ዮም ሰኒ ልውቅ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا سعيد جداً اليوم * English: I am very happy today * Français: Je suis très heureux aujourd'hui * Español: Estoy muy feliz hoy - Deutsch: Ich bin heute sehr glücklich * Türkçe: Bugün çok mutluyum * Ελληνικά: Είμαι πολύ χαρούμενος σήμερα '''25.''' * Tigre: ኢተአድግ ሐሰብከ/ኢትትአከር ሐሰብከ። * العربية: لا تتأخر من فضلك * English: Don't be late, please * Français: Ne sois pas en retard, s'il te plaît * Español: No llegues tarde, por favor * Deutsch: Komm bitte nicht zu spät * Türkçe: Lütfen geç kalma * Ελληνικά: Μην αργήσεις, σε παρακαλώ '''26.''' * Tigre: ለ ዱሙ ሐንቴ’ለ ጣውለት ህሌት። * العربية: القطة تحت الطاولة * English: The cat is under the table * Français: Le chat est sous la table * Español: El gato está debajo de la mesa * Deutsch: Die Katze ist unter dem Tisch * Türkçe: Kedi masanın altında * Ελληνικά: Η γάτα είναι κάτω από το τραπέζι '''27.''' * Tigre: መላብስ ጀዲደት አግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ/በለሊት ሐዲስ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أشتري ملابس جديدة * English: I want to buy new clothes * Français: Je veux acheter de nouveaux vêtements * Español: Quiero comprar ropa nueva * Deutsch: Ich möchte neue Kleidung kaufen * Türkçe: Yeni kıyafetler almak istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω καινούρια ρούχα '''28.''' * Tigre: ለ መድረሰት ምዶል ተአሰብዴ? * العربية: متى تبدأ المدرسة؟ * English: When does school start? * Français: Quand commence l'école ? * Español: ¿Cuándo empieza la escuela? * Deutsch: Wann beginnt die Schule? * Türkçe: Okul ne zaman başlıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πότε αρχίζει το σχολείο; '''29.''' * Tigre: እለ ነብረ ጥዕም ተ ። * العربية: هذا الطعام لذيذ * English: This food is delicious * Français: Cette nourriture est délicieuse * Español: Esta comida está deliciosa * Deutsch: Dieses Essen ist lecker * Türkçe: Bu yemek çok lezzetli * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το φαγητό είναι νόστιμο '''30.''' * Tigre: ፈጅር ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ/ፈንጎሕ ንትሬኤ እብ ሰእየት ረቢ። * العربية: أراك غداً إن شاء الله * English: See you tomorrow, God willing * Français: À demain, si Dieu le veut * Español: Hasta mañana, si Dios quiere * Deutsch: Bis morgen, so Gott will * Türkçe: Yarın görüşürüz inşallah * Ελληνικά: Τα λέμε αύριο, πρώτα ο Θεός '''181.''' - Tigre: አቦቼ አየ ሳክነት ተ? - العربية: أين تسكن جدتي؟ - Français: Où habite ma grand-mère ? - Deutsch: Wo wohnt meine Großmutter? - Español: ¿Dónde vive mi abuela? - Türkçe: Büyükannem nerede yaşıyor? - Ελληνικά: Πού μένει η γιαγιά μου; '''182.''' - Tigre: አነ ቀደመ ነብረ እዴዬ ሐጽብ። - العربية: أنا أغسل يدي قبل الأكل - Français: Je me lave les mains avant de manger - Deutsch: Ich wasche mir vor dem Essen die Hände - Español: Me lavo las manos antes de comer - Türkçe: Yemekten önce ellerimi yıkıyorum - Ελληνικά: Πλένω τα χέρια μου πριν φάω '''183.''' - Tigre: ኮበሪት እግር እግል ትተልሄ ትፈቴ/ኩረት እግር እግል ትተልሄ ትፈቴ? - العربية: هل تحب أن تلعب كرة القدم؟ - Français: Tu aimes jouer au football ? - Deutsch: Spielst du gerne Fußball? - Español: ¿Te gusta jugar al fútbol? - Türkçe: Futbol oynamayı sever misin? - Ελληνικά: Σου αρέσει να παίζεις ποδόσφαιρο; '''184.''' - Tigre: ወርሕ ዮም ላሊ ግሩም ሀለ ። - العربية: القمر جميل الليلة - Français: La lune est belle ce soir - Deutsch: Der Mond ist heute Nacht schön - Español: La luna está bonita esta noche - Türkçe: Ay bu gece çok güzel - Ελληνικά: Το φεγγάρι είναι όμορφο απόψε '''185.''' - Tigre: እግል እምዬ ህያብ እግል እዛቤ ሐዜ ህሌኮ። - العربية: أريد أن أشتري هدية لأمي - Français: Je veux acheter un cadeau pour ma mère - Deutsch: Ich möchte ein Geschenk für meine Mutter kaufen - Español: Quiero comprar un regalo para mi madre - Türkçe: Anneme hediye almak istiyorum - Ελληνικά: Θέλω να αγοράσω ένα δώρο για τη μητέρα μου '''186.''' - Tigre: እንሰር ኢትትገሴ, ኬን ትገሴ። - العربية: لا تجلس هنا، اجلس هناك - Français: Ne t'assieds pas ici, assieds-toi là-bas - Deutsch: Setz dich nicht hierhin, setz dich dorthin - Español: No te sientes aquí, siéntate allí - Türkçe: Buraya oturma, oraya otur - Ελληνικά: Μην κάθεσαι εδώ, κάθισε εκεί '''187.''' - Tigre: ሑዬ አምዕል’ከ ጀሪደት ቀርእ። - العربية: أخي يقرأ جريدة كل يوم - Français: Mon frère lit un journal chaque jour - Deutsch: Mein Bruder liest jeden Tag eine Zeitung - Español: Mi hermano lee un periódico cada día - Türkçe: Erkek kardeşim her gün gazete okuyor - Ελληνικά: Ο αδελφός μου διαβάζει εφημερίδα κάθε μέρα '''188.''' - Tigre: እሊ ፈረስ ሕፉን ወ ቱሩድ ቱ ። - العربية: هذا الحصان سريع وقوي - Français: Ce cheval est rapide et fort - Deutsch: Dieses Pferd ist schnell und stark - Español: Este caballo es rápido y fuerte - Türkçe: Bu at hızlı ve güçlü - Ελληνικά: Αυτό το άλογο είναι γρήγορο και δυνατό '''189.''' - Tigre: አስክ ሱቅ ምዶል እግል ትገይስ። - العربية: متى تذهب إلى السوق؟ - Français: Quand vas-tu au marché ? - Deutsch: Wann gehst du auf den Markt? - Español: ¿Cuándo vas al mercado? - Türkçe: Pazara ne zaman gidiyorsun? - Ελληνικά: Πότε πας στην αγορά; '''190.''' - Tigre: አነ ሉቀት እትመሀር/እትዐለም። - العربية: أنا أتعلم اللغةTigre من كتا Wikibooks - Français: J'apprends la langue tigré dans le livre Wikibooks - Deutsch: Ich lerne die Tigre-Sprache aus dem Wikibooks-Buch - Español: Aprendo el idioma tigré en el libro de Wikibooks - Türkçe: Tigre dilini Wikibooks kitabından öğreniyorum - Ελληνικά: Μαθαίνω τη γλώσσα Tigre από το βιβλίο Wikibooks === ዝያድ ታምም ሕስቦታት === '''31.''' * Tigre: አነ ምስል አቡዬ ሱቅ እገይስ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أذهب إلى السوق مع أبي * English: I go to the market with my father * Français: Je vais au marché avec mon père * Español: Voy al mercado con mi padre * Deutsch: Ich gehe mit meinem Vater auf den Markt * Türkçe: Babamla pazara gidiyorum * Ελληνικά: Πάω στην αγορά με τον πατέρα μου '''32.''' * Tigr፥- ሕቼ ለ ንኢሽ አዜ ሰክብ ህሌት። * العربية: أختي الصغيرة نائمة الآن * English: My little sister is sleeping now * Français: Ma petite sœur dort maintenant * Español: Mi hermanita está durmiendo ahora * Deutsch: Meine kleine Schwester schläft jetzt * Türkçe: Küçük kız kardeşim şimdi uyuyor * Ελληνικά: Η μικρή μου αδελφή κοιμάται τώρα '''333.''' * Tigre: እለ ቤትከ ተ ? * العربية: هل هذا بيتك؟ * English: Is this your house? * Français: C'est ta maison ? * Español: ¿Esta es tu casa? * Deutsch: Ist das dein Haus? * Türkçe: Bu senin evin mi? * Ελληνικά: Αυτό είναι το σπίτι σου; '''34.''' * Tigre: ሰነቀዮት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ/ሙሲቀት አግል እስመዕ እፈቴ። * العربية: أحب أن أستمع إلى الموسيقى * English: I love listening to music * Français: J'aime écouter de la musique * Español: Me encanta escuchar música * Deutsch: Ich höre gerne Musik * Türkçe: Müzik dinlemeyi seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει να ακούω μουσική '''35.''' * Tigre: ሑከ እት አየ ሸቄ? * العربية: أين يشتغل أخوك؟ * English: Where does your brother work? * Français: Où travaille ton frère ? * Español: ¿Dónde trabaja tu hermano? * Deutsch: Wo arbeitet dein Bruder? * Türkçe: Kardeşin nerede çalışıyor? * Ελληνικά: Πού εργάζεται ο αδελφός σου; '''36.''' * Tigre: ለጅነ ንኡሽ እብ ክርን ውቅል ልትሰሐቅ ሀለ ። * العربية: الطفل يضحك بصوت عالٍ * English: The child is laughing loudly * Français: L'enfant rit fort * Español: El niño se ríe fuerte * Deutsch: Das Kind lacht laut * Türkçe: Çocuk yüksek sesle gülüyor * Ελληνικά: Το παιδί γελάει δυνατά '''37.''' * Tigre: ማይ ሕፊን ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد ماءً ساخناً * English: I want hot water * Français: Je veux de l'eau chaude * Español: Quiero agua caliente * Deutsch: Ich möchte heißes Wasser * Türkçe: Sıcak su istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω ζεστό νερό '''38.''' * Tigre: ለእስታዝ ደርስ ሽርሕ ህለ/ለ መምህር ደርስ ሸርሕ ህለ። * العربية: المعلم يشرح الدرس * English: The teacher is explaining the lesson * Français: Le professeur explique la leçon * Español: El maestro está explicando la lección * Deutsch: Der Lehrer erklärt die Lektion * Türkçe: Öğretmen dersi anlatıyor * Ελληνικά: Ο δάσκαλος εξηγεί το μάθημα '''39.''' * Tigre: አነ ሒን ከረም እፈቴ ። * العربية: أنا أحب فصل الشتاء * English: I love winter * Français: J'aime l'hiver * Español: Me encanta el invierno * Deutsch: Ich liebe den Winter * Türkçe: Kışı seviyorum * Ελληνικά: Μου αρέσει ο χειμώνας '''40.''' * Tigre: እብ ሸፋግ እንሰር ምጸእ ። * العربية: تعال إلى هنا بسرعة * English: Come here quickly * Français: Viens ici vite * Español: Ven aquí rápido * Deutsch: Komm schnell hierher * Türkçe: Buraya hızlı gel * Ελληνικά: Έλα εδώ γρήγορα '''41.''' * Tigre: ቤርሰቼ ዲብ አየ ከሬከሀ ? * العربية: أين وضعت حقيبتي؟ * English: Where did I put my bag? * Français: Où ai-je mis mon sac ? * Español: ¿Dónde puse mi bolso? * Deutsch: Wo habe ich meine Tasche hingelegt? * Türkçe: Çantamı nereye koydum? * Ελληνικά: Πού έβαλα την τσάντα μου; '''42.''' * Tigre: ሕነ ዐይለትነ እንፈቴ ። * العربية: نحن نحب عائلتنا * English: We love our family * Français: Nous aimons notre famille * Español: Amamos a nuestra familia * Deutsch: Wir lieben unsere Familie * Türkçe: Ailemizi seviyoruz * Ελληνικά: Αγαπάμε την οικογένειά μας '''43.''' * Tigre: እሊ ጅነ በሰርታይ ቱ። * العربية: هذا الطفل ذكي جداً * English: This child is very smart * Français: Cet enfant est très intelligent * Español: Este niño es muy inteligente * Deutsch: Dieses Kind ist sehr klug * Türkçe: Bu çocuk çok zeki * Ελληνικά: Αυτό το παιδί είναι πολύ έξυπνο '''44.''' * Tigre: እርትርየ እግል እሳፍር ሐዜ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أريد أن أسافر إلى إريتريا * English: I want to travel to Eritrea * Français: Je veux voyager en Érythrée * Español: Quiero viajar a Eritrea * Deutsch: Ich möchte nach Eritrea reisen * Türkçe: Eritre'ye seyahat etmek istiyorum * Ελληνικά: Θέλω να ταξιδέψω στην Ερυθραία '''45.''' * Tigre: ስፍሩይ ህሌ'ከ? * العربية: هل أنت جائع؟ * English: Are you hungry? * Français: As-tu faim ? * Español: ¿Tienes hambre? * Deutsch: Hast du Hunger? * Türkçe: Aç mısın? * Ελληνικά: Πεινάς; '''46.''' * Tigre: ለ ሻሬዕ ረዪም ወ ፋዬሕ'ቱ። * العربية: الشارع طويل وواسع * English: The street is long and wide * Français: La rue est longue et large * Español: La calle es larga y ancha * Deutsch: Die Straße ist lang und breit * Türkçe: Sokak uzun ve geniş * Ελληνικά: Ο δρόμος είναι μακρύς και φαρδύς '''47.''' * Tigre: አነ እግል መለሀዬ ልእከት እከትብ ህሌኮ/አነ እግል መለሀዬ ርሳለት እከትብ ህሌኮ። * العربية: أنا أكتب رسالة لصديقي * English: I am writing a letter to my friend * Français: J'écris une lettre à mon ami * Español: Estoy escribiendo una carta a mi amigo * Deutsch: Ich schreibe einen Brief an meinen Freund * Türkçe: Arkadaşıma mektup yazıyorum * Ελληνικά: Γράφω ένα γράμμα στον φίλο μου '''48.''' * Tigre: እብ ክርን ውቅል ኢትትሃጌ ። * العربية: لا تتكلم بصوت عالٍ * English: Don't speak loudly * Français: Ne parle pas fort * Español: No hables fuerte * Deutsch: Sprich nicht laut * Türkçe: Yüksek sesle konuşma * Ελληνικά: Μην μιλάς δυνατά '''49.''' * Tigre: እምዬ ነብረ ጥዕም ተአበሽል። * العربية: أمي تطبخ أكلاً لذيذاً * English: My mother cooks delicious food * Français: Ma mère cuisine un plat délicieux * Español: Mi madre cocina comida deliciosa * Deutsch: Meine Mutter kocht leckeres Essen * Türkçe: Annem lezzetli yemek pişiriyor * Ελληνικά: Η μητέρα μου μαγειρεύει νόστιμο φαγητό '''50.''' * Tigre: ፈንጎሕ እት ቤት ምህሮ ንትረኤ/ፈጅር ዲብ መድረሰት ንትረከብ። * العربية: نلتقي غداً في المدرسة * English: We will meet tomorrow at school * Français: On se retrouve demain à l'école * Español: Nos vemos mañana en la escuela * Deutsch: Wir treffen uns morgen in der Schule * Türkçe: Yarın okulda buluşuruz * Ελληνικά: Θα συναντηθούμε αύριο στο σχολείο == Lesson 6: New Sentences == '''1.''' * Tigre: አነ ሰኒ ስፍሩይ ህሌኮ * العربية: انا جائع جدا * English: I am very hungry * Français: J'ai très faim * Deutsch: Ich habe sehr Hunger * Русский: Я очень голоден * Português: Estou com muita fome * Español: Tengo mucha hambre * Türkçe: Çok açım * Svenska: Jag är väldigt hungrig '''2.''' * Tigre: ሐሰብከ ማይ ስቴ * العربية: اشرب الماء من فضلك * English: Drink water please * Français: Bois de l'eau s'il te plaît * Deutsch: Trink bitte Wasser * Русский: Выпей воды, пожалуйста * Português: Bebe água, por favor * Español: Bebe agua, por favor * Türkçe: Lütfen su iç * Svenska: Drick vatten, tack '''3.''' * Tigre: ምድር ዮም ሕፉን ሀለ * العربية: الجو حار اليوم * English: The weather is hot today * Français: Il fait chaud aujourd'hui * Deutsch: Das Wetter ist heute heiß * Русский: Сегодня жаркая погода * Português: O tempo está quente hoje * Español: Hoy hace calor * Türkçe: Bugün hava sıcak * Svenska: Det är varmt idag '''4.''' * Tigre: ለባብ ክሱት ሀለ * العربية: الباب مفتوح * English: The door is open * Français: La porte est ouverte * Deutsch: Die Tür ist offen * Русский: Дверь открыта * Português: A porta está aberta * Español: La puerta está abierta * Türkçe: Kapı açık * Svenska: Dörren är öppen '''5.''' * Tigre: አቡዬ አየ ጌሰ? * العربية: اين ذهب ابي؟ * English: Where did my father go? * Français: Où est allé mon père ? * Deutsch: Wohin ist mein Vater gegangen? * Русский: Куда ушел мой отец? * Português: Para onde foi meu pai? * Español: ¿Dónde fue mi padre? * Türkçe: Babam nereye gitti? * Svenska: Vart gick min pappa? '''6.''' * Tigre: ሕቼ ምሳሕ ተአበሽል ህሌት * العربية: اختي تطبخ الطعام * English: My sister is cooking food * Français: Ma sœur cuisine * Deutsch: Meine Schwester kocht Essen * Русский: Моя сестра готовит еду * Português: Minha irmã está cozinhando * Español: Mi hermana está cocinando * Türkçe: Kız kardeşim yemek pişiriyor * Svenska: Min syster lagar mat '''7.''' * Tigre: እሊ ክታብ ዐቢ ቱ * العربية: هذا الكتاب كبير * English: This book is big * Français: Ce livre est grand * Deutsch: Dieses Buch ist groß * Русский: Эта книга большая * Português: Este livro é grande * Español: Este libro es grande * Türkçe: Bu kitap büyük * Svenska: Den här boken är stor '''8.''' * Tigre: ኢሐዜ እግል እጊስ * العربية: لا اريد ان اذهب * English: I don't want to go * Français: Je ne veux pas y aller * Deutsch: Ich will nicht gehen * Русский: Я не хочу идти * Português: Não quero ir * Español: No quiero ir * Türkçe: Gitmek istemiyorum * Svenska: Jag vill inte gå '''9.''' * Tigre: አስክ ቤት ምጸእ ምስልዬ * العربية: تعال معي الى البيت * English: Come with me to the house * Français: Viens avec moi à la maison * Deutsch: Komm mit mir nach Hause * Русский: Пойдем со мной домой * Português: Vem comigo para casa * Español: Ven conmigo a casa * Türkçe: Benimle eve gel * Svenska: Kom med mig hem '''10.''' * Tigre: ብዙሕ አመስግነከ * العربية: شكرا لك كثيرا * English: Thank you very much * Français: Merci beaucoup * Deutsch: Vielen Dank * Русский: Большое спасибо * Português: Muito obrigado * Español: Muchas gracias * Türkçe: Çok teşekkür ederim * Svenska: Tack så mycket opkyx0q7e7sb3q3rx6lbbdge1k74mq7 4 487127 4681838 4681542 2026-11-12T10:18:36Z Harshit2419 3631056 Wrote about Medical Robotics 4681838 wikitext text/x-wiki = Medical Robotics = == 1. Introduction == Medical robotics is one of the important applications of robotics in the healthcare sector. It is the combination of robotics, medical science, computer technology and engineering. Medical robots are designed to help doctors and medical professionals perform different medical tasks with better accuracy, control and efficiency. In earlier times, most medical procedures were performed completely by doctors using traditional instruments. However, with the development of technology, robots are now being used in hospitals for surgeries, rehabilitation, patient care and medical diagnosis. Medical robots do not completely replace doctors. Instead, they assist doctors in performing complicated procedures and reducing human errors. These robots can perform movements with high precision, especially in operations where even a small mistake can affect the patient's health. Nowadays, medical robotics is becoming an important field because it helps improve the quality of healthcare and makes certain medical procedures easier and more effective. == 2. What is Medical Robotics? == Medical robotics refers to the use of robotic systems and automated machines in medical applications. These systems are designed to assist healthcare professionals in performing different tasks such as surgery, rehabilitation, diagnosis and patient monitoring. Medical robots generally consist of mechanical components, sensors, actuators, cameras and computer-based control systems. All these components work together to perform the required operation. For example, during robotic surgery, a surgeon can control robotic arms using a computer console. The robotic arms hold surgical instruments and perform precise movements according to the surgeon's instructions. It is important to understand that most surgical robots are not fully autonomous. They work under the supervision and control of trained medical professionals. == 3. History and Development of Medical Robotics == The development of medical robotics started when engineers and medical professionals began exploring ways to use robotic technology in healthcare. One of the earliest examples was the PUMA 560 robotic system, which was used in 1985 to assist in a brain biopsy procedure. Later, robotic technology continued to improve, and more advanced systems were developed for different medical applications. Some important developments include: * '''1985:''' PUMA 560 was used to assist in a brain biopsy. * '''1990s:''' Research and development of robotic surgical systems increased. * '''2000:''' The da Vinci Surgical System received FDA clearance for certain surgical procedures. * '''2000s onwards:''' Medical robots started being used in rehabilitation, orthopaedics, diagnostics and other healthcare applications. * '''Present:''' Artificial intelligence, advanced sensors and improved robotic systems are making medical robotics more advanced. Today, medical robotics is continuously developing and has become an important part of modern healthcare. == 4. Types of Medical Robots == Medical robots are classified into different types depending on their applications and the tasks they perform. === 4.1 Surgical Robots === Surgical robots are used to assist surgeons during medical operations. They provide better control, precision and flexibility while performing surgical procedures. These robots usually contain robotic arms equipped with surgical instruments and cameras. The surgeon controls these arms using a computer-based control system. One of the most popular examples is the da Vinci Surgical System. === 4.2 Rehabilitation Robots === Rehabilitation robots help patients recover their physical movements after injuries, accidents or neurological disorders. These robots are commonly used in physiotherapy and rehabilitation centres. They help patients practise movements repeatedly and monitor their progress. For example, a robotic exoskeleton can help a person with limited leg movement practise walking. === 4.3 Diagnostic Robots === Diagnostic robots assist medical professionals in examining patients and identifying medical conditions. They can be used with imaging systems and other medical equipment to improve the accuracy of medical examinations. Some robotic systems can also assist in collecting samples and performing laboratory-related tasks. === 4.4 Hospital Service Robots === Hospital service robots are designed to perform different support activities inside hospitals. Their applications include: * Delivering medicines to different hospital departments. * Transporting medical equipment. * Carrying food and supplies. * Disinfecting hospital rooms. * Assisting healthcare staff with routine activities. These robots reduce the workload of hospital employees and help improve hospital management. === 4.5 Assistive Robots === Assistive robots are designed to help people who have physical disabilities or difficulty performing daily activities. They can help patients in activities such as eating, moving objects and controlling different devices. These robots improve the independence of patients and make their daily lives easier. == 5. Components of Medical Robots == A medical robot consists of several components that work together to perform a particular task. The major components are: '''1. Mechanical Structure''' The mechanical structure provides the physical body of the robot. It includes links, joints and robotic arms that allow the robot to perform different movements. '''2. Sensors''' Sensors collect information from the surrounding environment. They help the robot detect position, force, pressure and movement. For example, force sensors can help a surgical robot measure the force applied by its instruments. '''3. Actuators''' Actuators are responsible for producing movement in a robot. Electric motors and other actuators are commonly used to control robotic arms and joints. '''4. Control System''' The control system manages the movement and operation of the robot. It processes information received from sensors and generates suitable commands for the actuators. '''5. Camera and Imaging System''' Cameras provide visual information to doctors and robotic systems. They are particularly important in minimally invasive surgery because they allow surgeons to observe internal body structures. '''6. Computer and Software''' Computer systems are used to operate the robot, process information and control different functions. Specialised software helps coordinate the movement of robotic components. == 6. Applications of Medical Robotics == Medical robotics has many applications in modern healthcare. === 6.1 Robotic Surgery === Robotic surgery is one of the most important applications of medical robotics. In this method, robotic systems assist surgeons in performing surgical operations. The surgeon controls the robotic instruments through a computer console. Robotic surgery can provide: * High precision in instrument movement. * Better visualisation of the surgical area. * Improved control of surgical instruments. * Smaller incisions in certain procedures. * Better access to difficult-to-reach areas. However, robotic surgery also requires proper training and careful supervision. === 6.2 Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy === Medical robots are used to help patients regain their physical abilities. For example, patients recovering from a stroke may have difficulty moving their arms or legs. Rehabilitation robots can help them perform repeated exercises and monitor their progress. These systems are useful because they provide controlled and repeatable movements. === 6.3 Patient Assistance === Assistive robots help patients who cannot perform certain activities independently. They can assist elderly people and individuals with physical disabilities by helping them move objects, perform daily activities and access essential services. === 6.4 Hospital Automation === Robots are also used to automate routine activities in hospitals. For example, autonomous mobile robots can transport medicines, laboratory samples and medical supplies from one department to another. This saves time and allows healthcare professionals to focus more on patient care. === 6.5 Medical Imaging === Robotic technology can also be integrated with medical imaging systems. It can help position imaging equipment and support certain image-guided medical procedures. This allows medical professionals to perform examinations and treatments with better control. == 7. Advantages of Medical Robotics == Medical robotics provides several advantages in the healthcare sector. # '''High Precision:''' Robots can perform controlled movements with high accuracy, which is useful in complicated medical procedures. # '''Reduced Physical Effort:''' Robotic systems can reduce the physical workload of surgeons and healthcare professionals. # '''Improved Visualisation:''' Advanced cameras provide clear and magnified views of the surgical area. # '''Better Rehabilitation:''' Rehabilitation robots help patients perform repeated exercises in a controlled manner. # '''Time Efficiency:''' Hospital service robots can automate routine transportation and delivery activities. # '''Consistency:''' Robots can perform repeated movements with a high level of consistency. == 8. Disadvantages and Challenges == Although medical robotics has many benefits, there are also some limitations. '''1. High Cost''' Medical robotic systems are expensive to purchase, install and maintain. This makes them difficult to afford for smaller hospitals. '''2. Technical Complexity''' Operating medical robots requires specialised knowledge and training. Doctors and technicians must understand how the systems work. '''3. Maintenance Requirements''' Robotic systems contain advanced mechanical and electronic components that require regular inspection and maintenance. '''4. Technical Failures''' A software error, sensor failure or mechanical problem can interrupt the working of a medical robot. Therefore, proper safety systems are necessary. '''5. Limited Accessibility''' Not all hospitals have access to advanced robotic systems because of their high cost and technical requirements. '''6. Dependence on Technology''' Excessive dependence on robotic systems can create difficulties if the equipment stops working during a medical procedure. Doctors must always be prepared to handle such situations. == 9. Examples of Medical Robots == Some well-known medical robotic systems are: === 9.1 da Vinci Surgical System === The da Vinci Surgical System is a robotic-assisted surgical platform developed by Intuitive Surgical. It allows surgeons to control robotic instruments through a specialised console. It is used in several types of minimally invasive surgical procedures. === 9.2 ROBODOC === ROBODOC is a robotic system developed for orthopaedic surgery. It assists surgeons in preparing bone structures during certain joint replacement procedures. It uses computer-based planning and robotic precision. === 9.3 Lokomat === Lokomat is a robotic gait-training system used in rehabilitation. It helps patients practise walking movements using a robotic exoskeleton and a treadmill-based system. === 9.4 CyberKnife === CyberKnife is a robotic radiosurgery system used in certain cancer treatments. It uses a robotic arm to direct radiation beams towards targeted areas of the body. It is designed to deliver highly focused radiation without requiring conventional surgical incisions. == 10. Future of Medical Robotics == The future of medical robotics is expected to be closely connected with artificial intelligence, machine learning, advanced sensors and improved automation. Researchers are working on developing robots that can perform more complex medical tasks with better accuracy and safety. Some important future developments include: * '''Artificial Intelligence:''' AI can help analyse medical images and support doctors in making medical decisions. * '''Microrobotics:''' Very small robots may be developed for targeted drug delivery and other specialised medical applications. * '''Advanced Rehabilitation:''' Future rehabilitation robots may provide more personalised treatment according to the patient's physical condition. * '''Remote Surgery:''' Improved communication networks may allow surgeons to control robotic systems from distant locations, where appropriate infrastructure and safety arrangements are available. * '''Smart Prosthetics:''' Advanced robotic prosthetic limbs may provide better movement and control by using sensors and intelligent control systems. Although these technologies have great potential, their development will require extensive research, testing and safety validation. == 11. Conclusion == Medical robotics is an important application of robotics and automation in the healthcare industry. It combines mechanical engineering, electronics, computer science and medical knowledge to develop systems that assist doctors and patients. From robotic surgery to rehabilitation and hospital automation, medical robots are helping improve different aspects of healthcare. However, these systems also have challenges such as high cost, technical complexity and maintenance requirements. Medical robots should be considered tools that assist healthcare professionals rather than complete replacements for them. With continuous improvements in artificial intelligence, sensors and robotic technology, medical robotics is expected to play an even greater role in the future of healthcare. jzo9mzc28la1523mhb3nxsbnft34uk6 2 487128 4681627 4681545 2026-11-11T14:52:51Z Bharath2924 3629891 added photes 4681627 wikitext text/x-wiki = From Blink to Bare Metal: A Practical Guide to Embedded Systems and Microcontrollers = ''This guide takes you from "what is a microcontroller?" to writing reliable, production-style firmware. It uses the ATmega328P (the chip on the Arduino Uno) as the worked example, but every concept transfers to ARM Cortex-M, ESP32, STM32, PIC and RISC-V parts.'' == What you will learn == * What an embedded system is and where it is used * How a microcontroller (MCU) is built inside * How to drive an LED safely, with the resistor calculation * How to program at register level and with the Arduino API * Interrupts, timers, ADC and communication buses (UART, I2C, SPI) * Industry practices: state machines, debouncing, watchdogs, low power, coding standards * Exercises to test yourself == 1. What is an embedded system? == An '''embedded system''' is a computer built into a larger device to do one dedicated job, usually with strict limits on cost, power, size and timing.<ref name="wp-embedded" /><ref name="ganssle" /> Unlike a laptop, it normally has no screen or keyboard, runs one program forever, and must keep working for years without a reboot. {| class="wikitable" ! Domain !! Example !! Typical requirement |- | Automotive || Anti-lock brake controller || Hard real-time, safety critical |- | Medical || Insulin pump, pulse oximeter || Reliability, certification |- | Consumer || Washing machine, TV remote || Very low cost |- | Industrial || PLC, motor drive || Noise immunity, long life |- | IoT || Smart sensor node || Ultra-low power, wireless |} === Microcontroller vs microprocessor === {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! Microcontroller (MCU) !! Microprocessor (MPU) |- | Memory || On-chip Flash and RAM || External RAM and storage |- | Peripherals || Built in (GPIO, ADC, timers, UART) || Mostly external chips |- | Operating system || None or small RTOS || Usually Linux or similar |- | Power and cost || Milliwatts, cents to a few dollars || Watts, higher cost |- | Example || ATmega328P, STM32, ESP32 || Raspberry Pi's application processor |} == 2. Inside a microcontroller == [[File:Microcontroller block diagram generic(1).svg|center|thumb|600x600px|[[File:Microcontroller block diagram generic(1).svg|thumb]]'''Figure 1: Simplified block diagram of a typical microcontroller.''' The CPU core, Flash, SRAM, timers, ADC, interrupt controller, serial peripherals and GPIO ports all sit on one chip and communicate over an internal bus. Pins at the bottom connect to the outside world (buttons, LEDs, sensors, motors). ''Original diagram created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0); a generalised illustration, not the exact layout of any one part.'']] The ATmega328P datasheet shows the exact internal architecture, memory sizes and peripheral list for that chip.<ref name="atmega-ds" /> * '''CPU core''' – fetches, decodes and executes instructions. The ATmega328P uses an 8-bit AVR core. * '''Flash memory''' – non-volatile storage for your program. It survives power loss. * '''SRAM''' – fast volatile memory for variables and the stack. * '''EEPROM''' – small non-volatile memory for settings and calibration data. * '''GPIO''' – General Purpose Input/Output pins you control from software. * '''Timers/Counters''' – measure time, generate delays and PWM signals. * '''ADC''' – converts analog voltages (sensors) to numbers. * '''Interrupt controller''' – lets hardware events pre-empt the main program. * '''Communication peripherals''' – UART, I2C, SPI, USB, CAN. * '''Clock and reset logic''' – oscillator, power-on reset, watchdog timer. [[File:Arduino Uno - R3.jpg|thumb|center|400px|'''Figure 2: An Arduino Uno R3 development board.''' The large rectangular chip is the ATmega328P microcontroller; the header sockets along the edges expose its GPIO, analog and power pins. ''Photograph from Wikimedia Commons under its own free licence; see the file's description page for author and licence details.'']] == 3. Your first circuit: driving an LED == [[File:LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit.svg|thumb|center|[[File:LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit(1).svg|thumb]]'''Figure 3: Circuit diagram of an LED driven by a microcontroller pin.''' Pin PB5 (Arduino D13) sources current through the 330 Ω resistor R1 into the LED, and the current returns to ground. HIGH (5 V) turns the LED on; LOW (0 V) turns it off. ''Original circuit diagram created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0).'']] An LED is a diode. If you connect it directly to a pin, current is limited only by the pin's tiny internal resistance and the LED (or the pin) will burn out. Always add a series resistor. '''Resistor calculation (Ohm's law)''' <math>R = \frac{V_{CC} - V_F}{I_F}</math> With V_CC = 5 V, a red LED forward voltage V_F ≈ 2 V and a target current of 10 mA: <math>R = \frac{5 - 2}{0.010} = 300\ \Omega</math> The nearest standard value is '''330 Ω''', giving I = 3 V / 330 Ω ≈ 9.1 mA. This is safe, since an AVR pin is specified for roughly 20 mA in normal use (check the datasheet's absolute maximum ratings for your chip, and never exceed the total package limit).<ref name="atmega-ds" /> The calculation is simply Ohm's law applied to the voltage left across the resistor.<ref name="wp-ohm" /> === Parts list === {| class="wikitable" ! Qty !! Part |- | 1 || Arduino Uno or any ATmega328P board |- | 1 || 5 mm red LED |- | 1 || 330 Ω resistor (orange-orange-brown) |- | 1 || Breadboard and jumper wires |} [[File:Blinking LED animation microcontroller.gif|thumb|center|[[File:Blinking LED animation microcontroller(1).gif|thumb]]'''Figure 4: Animation of the blink program.''' Each frame shows the state of pin PB5 and the LED: HIGH (5 V) lights the LED, LOW (0 V) turns it off. In the real program the state changes every 500 ms. ''Original animation created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0).'']] == 4. Programming it == === 4.1 The Arduino way === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> const uint8_t LED_PIN = 13; // PB5 on the Uno void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); } void loop() { digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(500); digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(500); } </syntaxhighlight> This is easy to read but hides what the hardware does, and <code>delay()</code> freezes the whole program. Professional firmware avoids blocking delays. === 4.2 Bare metal: talking to registers === Every peripheral is controlled by '''registers''', which are special memory locations. For port B:<ref name="atmega-ds" /><ref name="avrlibc" /> {| class="wikitable" ! Register !! Purpose |- | <code>DDRB</code> || Data Direction: 1 = output, 0 = input |- | <code>PORTB</code> || Output value (or pull-up enable for inputs) |- | <code>PINB</code> || Read the pin state; writing 1 toggles the output |} <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/io.h> #include <util/delay.h> #define F_CPU 16000000UL int main(void) { DDRB |= (1 << DDB5); // PB5 as output for (;;) { PORTB ^= (1 << PORTB5); // toggle LED _delay_ms(500); } } </syntaxhighlight> '''Bit-manipulation cheat sheet''' (you will use these every day): {| class="wikitable" ! Goal !! C idiom |- | Set bit n || <code>REG |= (1 << n);</code> |- | Clear bit n || <code>REG &= ~(1 << n);</code> |- | Toggle bit n || <code>REG ^= (1 << n);</code> |- | Test bit n || <code>if (REG & (1 << n)) { ... }</code> |} == 5. Reading a button correctly == Inputs must never be left floating. Use a pull-up resistor so the pin has a defined level. The ATmega has internal pull-ups you enable in software. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> DDRD &= ~(1 << DDD2); // PD2 as input PORTD |= (1 << PORTD2); // enable internal pull-up // Button wired between PD2 and GND: pressed = 0, released = 1 </syntaxhighlight> === Debouncing === Mechanical switches bounce for a few milliseconds, producing many false edges. A simple software fix is to accept a new state only after it has been stable for a set time (for example 20 ms). <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <stdbool.h> #include <stdint.h> #define DEBOUNCE_MS 20 bool read_button_debounced(bool raw, uint32_t now_ms) { static bool stable_state = false; static bool last_raw = false; static uint32_t last_change = 0; if (raw != last_raw) { // input changed, restart the timer last_raw = raw; last_change = now_ms; } if ((now_ms - last_change) >= DEBOUNCE_MS) { stable_state = last_raw; // stable long enough, accept it } return stable_state; } </syntaxhighlight> == 6. Timers and non-blocking time == A '''timer''' is a hardware counter driven by the clock. Instead of wasting the CPU in <code>delay()</code>, let a timer interrupt count milliseconds, then compare timestamps. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/io.h> #include <avr/interrupt.h> volatile uint32_t g_millis = 0; void timer0_init(void) { TCCR0A = (1 << WGM01); // CTC mode OCR0A = 249; // 16 MHz / 64 / 250 = 1 kHz TIMSK0 = (1 << OCIE0A); // enable compare-match interrupt TCCR0B = (1 << CS01) | (1 << CS00); // prescaler = 64 sei(); // enable global interrupts } ISR(TIMER0_COMPA_vect) { g_millis++; // runs every 1 ms } </syntaxhighlight> Now a non-blocking blinker looks like this: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> uint32_t last = 0; for (;;) { uint32_t now; cli(); now = g_millis; sei(); // atomic read of a 32-bit value on an 8-bit CPU if (now - last >= 500) { last = now; PORTB ^= (1 << PORTB5); } /* the CPU is free to do other work here */ } </syntaxhighlight> '''Interrupt rules of thumb''' * Keep an ISR short: set a flag or copy data, then return. * Variables shared with an ISR must be declared <code>volatile</code>. * Multi-byte values need atomic access, as shown above. * Never call blocking functions (delays, long prints) inside an ISR. == 7. Reading the real world: the ADC == The 10-bit ADC maps 0 – V_ref to the values 0 – 1023. <math>V_{in} = \frac{ADC \times V_{ref}}{1024}</math> Example: a reading of 512 with V_ref = 5 V gives about 2.5 V. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> const uint8_t SENSOR_PIN = A0; void setup() { Serial.begin(115200); } void loop() { int raw = analogRead(SENSOR_PIN); float volts = raw * 5.0f / 1024.0f; Serial.println(volts, 3); delay(100); } </syntaxhighlight> '''Practical tip:''' noisy readings are common. Average several samples, or use a first-order low-pass filter: <code>filtered = filtered + 0.1 * (raw - filtered);</code> == 8. Talking to other chips: UART, I2C and SPI == {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! UART !! I2C !! SPI |- | Wires || 2 (TX, RX) || 2 (SDA, SCL) + pull-ups || 4+ (MOSI, MISO, SCK, CS per device) |- | Clock || Asynchronous (agreed baud rate) || Synchronous, shared || Synchronous, shared |- | Devices || Point to point || Many, each with an address || Many, one CS line each |- | Typical speed || 9.6 kbps – 1 Mbps || 100 kHz – 1 MHz || 1 – 50+ MHz |- | Used for || Debug console, GPS, Bluetooth modules || Sensors, RTC, EEPROM || Displays, SD cards, fast ADCs |} '''Choosing:''' use I2C when you want few wires and many slow devices; SPI when you need speed; UART for simple point-to-point links and logging.<ref name="i2c" /><ref name="wp-spi" /> Speeds in the table are typical ranges; exact limits depend on the specific chips. == 9. Writing firmware the way industry does == === 9.1 Use a state machine === Instead of tangled <code>if</code> statements, model behavior as states and events. This is easy to test and reason about. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> typedef enum { ST_IDLE, ST_HEATING, ST_HOLD, ST_ERROR } state_t; state_t step(state_t s, float temp_c, bool fault) { if (fault) return ST_ERROR; // safety check wins from any state switch (s) { case ST_IDLE: return (temp_c < 60.0f) ? ST_HEATING : ST_IDLE; case ST_HEATING: return (temp_c >= 80.0f) ? ST_HOLD : ST_HEATING; case ST_HOLD: return (temp_c < 75.0f) ? ST_HEATING : ST_HOLD; case ST_ERROR: return ST_ERROR; // latched until reset } return ST_ERROR; } </syntaxhighlight> === 9.2 Layer your code === <pre> Application logic (what the product does) ------------------- Drivers / HAL (uart_send(), adc_read(), gpio_write()) ------------------- Hardware registers </pre> Application code never touches registers directly. If you change chips, only the driver layer changes. === 9.3 Protect against lock-ups: the watchdog === A '''watchdog timer''' resets the MCU if the software stops "feeding" it. This is standard practice in commercial and safety-related products.<ref name="ganssle" /><ref name="avrlibc" /> <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/wdt.h> wdt_enable(WDTO_2S); // reset if not refreshed within 2 seconds for (;;) { do_work(); wdt_reset(); // "kick the dog" only when everything is healthy } </syntaxhighlight> === 9.4 Save power === Battery products spend most of their life asleep. * Sleep between events and wake on an interrupt or timer. * Turn off unused peripherals. * Lower the clock speed when full speed is not needed. * Remember: average current × time determines battery life. A device drawing 5 mA for 10 ms once a second and 5 µA otherwise averages about 55 µA, which is roughly 4 years on a 2000 mAh cell in theory (before self-discharge). === 9.5 Quality checklist === The items below are widely recommended in industry coding guidelines.<ref name="barr" /><ref name="misra" /> {| class="wikitable" ! Practice !! Why |- | Follow a coding standard (for example MISRA C) || Fewer undefined behaviours and portable code |- | Use fixed-width types (<code>uint8_t</code>, <code>int32_t</code>) || Size is the same on every compiler |- | Avoid dynamic memory (<code>malloc</code>) || Fragmentation and failures after days of running |- | Version control (Git) and code review || Traceability and fewer bugs |- | Unit-test logic on a PC || Faster than debugging on hardware |- | Static analysis and compiler warnings on || Catches bugs before they ship |- | Read the datasheet and errata || Chips have documented quirks |- | Add decoupling capacitors (100 nF at every supply pin) || Prevents random resets and noise |} == 10. Debugging toolbox == * '''Serial prints''' – quick, but they change timing. * '''LED/GPIO toggling plus oscilloscope or logic analyzer''' – measures real timing. * '''Hardware debugger (SWD/JTAG, debugWIRE)''' – breakpoints and register view. * '''Multimeter''' – always check the supply voltage and ground first. * Common bugs: floating inputs, missing <code>volatile</code>, stack overflow, wrong baud rate, forgotten pull-ups on I2C, shared ground missing between boards. == 11. Mini project ideas == # '''Traffic light controller''' using three LEDs and a state machine. # '''Temperature logger''' with an analog sensor, ADC averaging and UART output. # '''PWM dimmer''' using a timer and a potentiometer. # '''Digital thermometer display''' using an I2C sensor and an I2C OLED. # '''Low-power door sensor''' that sleeps until a reed switch interrupt. == 12. Exercises == # Calculate the resistor needed for a blue LED (V_F = 3.0 V) from a 5 V supply at 8 mA. Which standard E12 value would you pick? # Write the C statements to set PB0 and PB3 as outputs and PB1 as an input with pull-up, without changing the other pins. # A timer runs from a 16 MHz clock with prescaler 256. What compare value gives a 100 Hz interrupt? # An ADC reads 768 on a 10-bit scale with a 3.3 V reference. What is the input voltage? # Why is <code>volatile</code> needed for <code>g_millis</code>? What bug could appear if it were missing? # Why should an ISR be short? Give two reasons. === Answers === {{hidden begin|title=Click to show answers}} # R = (5 − 3.0) / 0.008 = 250 Ω. The nearest standard E12 value is 270 Ω (≈ 7.4 mA), which is also safe. # <code>DDRB |= (1&lt;&lt;DDB0) | (1&lt;&lt;DDB3); DDRB &amp;= ~(1&lt;&lt;DDB1); PORTB |= (1&lt;&lt;PORTB1);</code> # 16 000 000 / 256 = 62 500 ticks per second. For 100 Hz, 62 500 / 100 = 625 ticks, so OCR = 625 − 1 = 624 (needs a 16-bit timer). # V = 768 × 3.3 / 1024 ≈ 2.475 V. # Without <code>volatile</code> the compiler may keep the value in a register inside the main loop and never see the ISR's updates, so the loop would behave as if time never advanced. # Long ISRs delay other interrupts (jitter, missed events), and they can overrun the stack or break the timing of the main program. {{hidden end}} == Glossary == {| class="wikitable" ! Term !! Meaning |- | GPIO || General Purpose Input/Output pin |- | ISR || Interrupt Service Routine |- | PWM || Pulse Width Modulation, a way to control average power with a duty cycle |- | ADC || Analog-to-Digital Converter |- | RTOS || Real-Time Operating System |- | SWD/JTAG || Hardware debug interfaces |- | Watchdog || Timer that resets the MCU if software hangs |- | Baud rate || Symbols per second on a serial line |} == Figure credits == {| class="wikitable" ! Figure !! File !! Author / licence |- | Figure 1 || <code>Microcontroller block diagram generic.svg</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |- | Figure 2 || <code>Arduino Uno - R3.jpg</code> || Wikimedia Commons; see the file page for author and licence |- | Figure 3 || <code>LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit.svg</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |- | Figure 4 || <code>Blinking LED animation microcontroller.gif</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |} == References == <references> <ref name="wp-embedded">{{cite web |title=Embedded system |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="ganssle">Ganssle, Jack. ''The Art of Designing Embedded Systems'', 2nd ed. Newnes, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7506-8644-0.</ref> <ref name="atmega-ds">{{cite web |title=ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P Data Sheet (DS40002061) |publisher=Microchip Technology |url=https://www.microchip.com/en-us/product/ATmega328P |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="avrlibc">{{cite web |title=AVR Libc User Manual |url=https://www.nongnu.org/avr-libc/user-manual/ |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="wp-ohm">{{cite web |title=Ohm's law |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="i2c">{{cite web |title=UM10204: I2C-bus specification and user manual |publisher=NXP Semiconductors |url=https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/user-guide/UM10204.pdf |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="wp-spi">{{cite web |title=Serial Peripheral Interface |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="barr">{{cite web |title=Embedded C Coding Standard |publisher=Barr Group |url=https://barrgroup.com/embedded-systems/books/embedded-c-coding-standard |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="misra">''MISRA C:2012 – Guidelines for the Use of the C Language in Critical Systems''. MISRA Consortium, 2012.</ref> </references> == Further reading == * The datasheet and instruction-set manual of the chip you use (always the primary source). * White, Elicia. ''Making Embedded Systems'', O'Reilly Media, 2011. * Other Wikibooks: search for "Embedded Systems", "C Programming" and "Microcontroller" books on this site. [[Category:Book:Embedded Systems]] [[Category:Computing]] <!-- Licence note: all text, code and diagrams in this page were written specifically for this page by the contributor with AI assistance and are released under CC BY-SA 4.0 and GFDL as required for Wikibooks contributions. --> atk4z6ohrczdyrc4cykpbcczorpfx3d 4681628 4681627 2026-11-11T14:54:51Z Bharath2924 3629891 added photes 4681628 wikitext text/x-wiki = From Blink to Bare Metal: A Practical Guide to Embedded Systems and Microcontrollers = ''This guide takes you from "what is a microcontroller?" to writing reliable, production-style firmware. It uses the ATmega328P (the chip on the Arduino Uno) as the worked example, but every concept transfers to ARM Cortex-M, ESP32, STM32, PIC and RISC-V parts.'' == What you will learn == * What an embedded system is and where it is used * How a microcontroller (MCU) is built inside * How to drive an LED safely, with the resistor calculation * How to program at register level and with the Arduino API * Interrupts, timers, ADC and communication buses (UART, I2C, SPI) * Industry practices: state machines, debouncing, watchdogs, low power, coding standards * Exercises to test yourself == 1. What is an embedded system? == An '''embedded system''' is a computer built into a larger device to do one dedicated job, usually with strict limits on cost, power, size and timing.<ref name="wp-embedded" /><ref name="ganssle" /> Unlike a laptop, it normally has no screen or keyboard, runs one program forever, and must keep working for years without a reboot. {| class="wikitable" ! Domain !! Example !! Typical requirement |- | Automotive || Anti-lock brake controller || Hard real-time, safety critical |- | Medical || Insulin pump, pulse oximeter || Reliability, certification |- | Consumer || Washing machine, TV remote || Very low cost |- | Industrial || PLC, motor drive || Noise immunity, long life |- | IoT || Smart sensor node || Ultra-low power, wireless |} === Microcontroller vs microprocessor === {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! Microcontroller (MCU) !! Microprocessor (MPU) |- | Memory || On-chip Flash and RAM || External RAM and storage |- | Peripherals || Built in (GPIO, ADC, timers, UART) || Mostly external chips |- | Operating system || None or small RTOS || Usually Linux or similar |- | Power and cost || Milliwatts, cents to a few dollars || Watts, higher cost |- | Example || ATmega328P, STM32, ESP32 || Raspberry Pi's application processor |} == 2. Inside a microcontroller == [[File:Microcontroller block diagram generic(1).svg|center|thumb|600x600px|'''Figure 1: Simplified block diagram of a typical microcontroller.''' The CPU core, Flash, SRAM, timers, ADC, interrupt controller, serial peripherals and GPIO ports all sit on one chip and communicate over an internal bus. Pins at the bottom connect to the outside world (buttons, LEDs, sensors, motors). ''Original diagram created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0); a generalised illustration, not the exact layout of any one part.'']] The ATmega328P datasheet shows the exact internal architecture, memory sizes and peripheral list for that chip.<ref name="atmega-ds" /> * '''CPU core''' – fetches, decodes and executes instructions. The ATmega328P uses an 8-bit AVR core. * '''Flash memory''' – non-volatile storage for your program. It survives power loss. * '''SRAM''' – fast volatile memory for variables and the stack. * '''EEPROM''' – small non-volatile memory for settings and calibration data. * '''GPIO''' – General Purpose Input/Output pins you control from software. * '''Timers/Counters''' – measure time, generate delays and PWM signals. * '''ADC''' – converts analog voltages (sensors) to numbers. * '''Interrupt controller''' – lets hardware events pre-empt the main program. * '''Communication peripherals''' – UART, I2C, SPI, USB, CAN. * '''Clock and reset logic''' – oscillator, power-on reset, watchdog timer. [[File:Arduino Uno - R3.jpg|thumb|center|400px|'''Figure 2: An Arduino Uno R3 development board.''' The large rectangular chip is the ATmega328P microcontroller; the header sockets along the edges expose its GPIO, analog and power pins. ''Photograph from Wikimedia Commons under its own free licence; see the file's description page for author and licence details.'']] == 3. Your first circuit: driving an LED == [[File:LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit.svg|thumb|center|[[File:LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit(1).svg|thumb]]'''Figure 3: Circuit diagram of an LED driven by a microcontroller pin.''' Pin PB5 (Arduino D13) sources current through the 330 Ω resistor R1 into the LED, and the current returns to ground. HIGH (5 V) turns the LED on; LOW (0 V) turns it off. ''Original circuit diagram created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0).'']] An LED is a diode. If you connect it directly to a pin, current is limited only by the pin's tiny internal resistance and the LED (or the pin) will burn out. Always add a series resistor. '''Resistor calculation (Ohm's law)''' <math>R = \frac{V_{CC} - V_F}{I_F}</math> With V_CC = 5 V, a red LED forward voltage V_F ≈ 2 V and a target current of 10 mA: <math>R = \frac{5 - 2}{0.010} = 300\ \Omega</math> The nearest standard value is '''330 Ω''', giving I = 3 V / 330 Ω ≈ 9.1 mA. This is safe, since an AVR pin is specified for roughly 20 mA in normal use (check the datasheet's absolute maximum ratings for your chip, and never exceed the total package limit).<ref name="atmega-ds" /> The calculation is simply Ohm's law applied to the voltage left across the resistor.<ref name="wp-ohm" /> === Parts list === {| class="wikitable" ! Qty !! Part |- | 1 || Arduino Uno or any ATmega328P board |- | 1 || 5 mm red LED |- | 1 || 330 Ω resistor (orange-orange-brown) |- | 1 || Breadboard and jumper wires |} [[File:Blinking LED animation microcontroller.gif|thumb|center|[[File:Blinking LED animation microcontroller(1).gif|thumb]]'''Figure 4: Animation of the blink program.''' Each frame shows the state of pin PB5 and the LED: HIGH (5 V) lights the LED, LOW (0 V) turns it off. In the real program the state changes every 500 ms. ''Original animation created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0).'']] == 4. Programming it == === 4.1 The Arduino way === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> const uint8_t LED_PIN = 13; // PB5 on the Uno void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); } void loop() { digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(500); digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(500); } </syntaxhighlight> This is easy to read but hides what the hardware does, and <code>delay()</code> freezes the whole program. Professional firmware avoids blocking delays. === 4.2 Bare metal: talking to registers === Every peripheral is controlled by '''registers''', which are special memory locations. For port B:<ref name="atmega-ds" /><ref name="avrlibc" /> {| class="wikitable" ! Register !! Purpose |- | <code>DDRB</code> || Data Direction: 1 = output, 0 = input |- | <code>PORTB</code> || Output value (or pull-up enable for inputs) |- | <code>PINB</code> || Read the pin state; writing 1 toggles the output |} <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/io.h> #include <util/delay.h> #define F_CPU 16000000UL int main(void) { DDRB |= (1 << DDB5); // PB5 as output for (;;) { PORTB ^= (1 << PORTB5); // toggle LED _delay_ms(500); } } </syntaxhighlight> '''Bit-manipulation cheat sheet''' (you will use these every day): {| class="wikitable" ! Goal !! C idiom |- | Set bit n || <code>REG |= (1 << n);</code> |- | Clear bit n || <code>REG &= ~(1 << n);</code> |- | Toggle bit n || <code>REG ^= (1 << n);</code> |- | Test bit n || <code>if (REG & (1 << n)) { ... }</code> |} == 5. Reading a button correctly == Inputs must never be left floating. Use a pull-up resistor so the pin has a defined level. The ATmega has internal pull-ups you enable in software. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> DDRD &= ~(1 << DDD2); // PD2 as input PORTD |= (1 << PORTD2); // enable internal pull-up // Button wired between PD2 and GND: pressed = 0, released = 1 </syntaxhighlight> === Debouncing === Mechanical switches bounce for a few milliseconds, producing many false edges. A simple software fix is to accept a new state only after it has been stable for a set time (for example 20 ms). <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <stdbool.h> #include <stdint.h> #define DEBOUNCE_MS 20 bool read_button_debounced(bool raw, uint32_t now_ms) { static bool stable_state = false; static bool last_raw = false; static uint32_t last_change = 0; if (raw != last_raw) { // input changed, restart the timer last_raw = raw; last_change = now_ms; } if ((now_ms - last_change) >= DEBOUNCE_MS) { stable_state = last_raw; // stable long enough, accept it } return stable_state; } </syntaxhighlight> == 6. Timers and non-blocking time == A '''timer''' is a hardware counter driven by the clock. Instead of wasting the CPU in <code>delay()</code>, let a timer interrupt count milliseconds, then compare timestamps. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/io.h> #include <avr/interrupt.h> volatile uint32_t g_millis = 0; void timer0_init(void) { TCCR0A = (1 << WGM01); // CTC mode OCR0A = 249; // 16 MHz / 64 / 250 = 1 kHz TIMSK0 = (1 << OCIE0A); // enable compare-match interrupt TCCR0B = (1 << CS01) | (1 << CS00); // prescaler = 64 sei(); // enable global interrupts } ISR(TIMER0_COMPA_vect) { g_millis++; // runs every 1 ms } </syntaxhighlight> Now a non-blocking blinker looks like this: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> uint32_t last = 0; for (;;) { uint32_t now; cli(); now = g_millis; sei(); // atomic read of a 32-bit value on an 8-bit CPU if (now - last >= 500) { last = now; PORTB ^= (1 << PORTB5); } /* the CPU is free to do other work here */ } </syntaxhighlight> '''Interrupt rules of thumb''' * Keep an ISR short: set a flag or copy data, then return. * Variables shared with an ISR must be declared <code>volatile</code>. * Multi-byte values need atomic access, as shown above. * Never call blocking functions (delays, long prints) inside an ISR. == 7. Reading the real world: the ADC == The 10-bit ADC maps 0 – V_ref to the values 0 – 1023. <math>V_{in} = \frac{ADC \times V_{ref}}{1024}</math> Example: a reading of 512 with V_ref = 5 V gives about 2.5 V. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> const uint8_t SENSOR_PIN = A0; void setup() { Serial.begin(115200); } void loop() { int raw = analogRead(SENSOR_PIN); float volts = raw * 5.0f / 1024.0f; Serial.println(volts, 3); delay(100); } </syntaxhighlight> '''Practical tip:''' noisy readings are common. Average several samples, or use a first-order low-pass filter: <code>filtered = filtered + 0.1 * (raw - filtered);</code> == 8. Talking to other chips: UART, I2C and SPI == {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! UART !! I2C !! SPI |- | Wires || 2 (TX, RX) || 2 (SDA, SCL) + pull-ups || 4+ (MOSI, MISO, SCK, CS per device) |- | Clock || Asynchronous (agreed baud rate) || Synchronous, shared || Synchronous, shared |- | Devices || Point to point || Many, each with an address || Many, one CS line each |- | Typical speed || 9.6 kbps – 1 Mbps || 100 kHz – 1 MHz || 1 – 50+ MHz |- | Used for || Debug console, GPS, Bluetooth modules || Sensors, RTC, EEPROM || Displays, SD cards, fast ADCs |} '''Choosing:''' use I2C when you want few wires and many slow devices; SPI when you need speed; UART for simple point-to-point links and logging.<ref name="i2c" /><ref name="wp-spi" /> Speeds in the table are typical ranges; exact limits depend on the specific chips. == 9. Writing firmware the way industry does == === 9.1 Use a state machine === Instead of tangled <code>if</code> statements, model behavior as states and events. This is easy to test and reason about. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> typedef enum { ST_IDLE, ST_HEATING, ST_HOLD, ST_ERROR } state_t; state_t step(state_t s, float temp_c, bool fault) { if (fault) return ST_ERROR; // safety check wins from any state switch (s) { case ST_IDLE: return (temp_c < 60.0f) ? ST_HEATING : ST_IDLE; case ST_HEATING: return (temp_c >= 80.0f) ? ST_HOLD : ST_HEATING; case ST_HOLD: return (temp_c < 75.0f) ? ST_HEATING : ST_HOLD; case ST_ERROR: return ST_ERROR; // latched until reset } return ST_ERROR; } </syntaxhighlight> === 9.2 Layer your code === <pre> Application logic (what the product does) ------------------- Drivers / HAL (uart_send(), adc_read(), gpio_write()) ------------------- Hardware registers </pre> Application code never touches registers directly. If you change chips, only the driver layer changes. === 9.3 Protect against lock-ups: the watchdog === A '''watchdog timer''' resets the MCU if the software stops "feeding" it. This is standard practice in commercial and safety-related products.<ref name="ganssle" /><ref name="avrlibc" /> <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/wdt.h> wdt_enable(WDTO_2S); // reset if not refreshed within 2 seconds for (;;) { do_work(); wdt_reset(); // "kick the dog" only when everything is healthy } </syntaxhighlight> === 9.4 Save power === Battery products spend most of their life asleep. * Sleep between events and wake on an interrupt or timer. * Turn off unused peripherals. * Lower the clock speed when full speed is not needed. * Remember: average current × time determines battery life. A device drawing 5 mA for 10 ms once a second and 5 µA otherwise averages about 55 µA, which is roughly 4 years on a 2000 mAh cell in theory (before self-discharge). === 9.5 Quality checklist === The items below are widely recommended in industry coding guidelines.<ref name="barr" /><ref name="misra" /> {| class="wikitable" ! Practice !! Why |- | Follow a coding standard (for example MISRA C) || Fewer undefined behaviours and portable code |- | Use fixed-width types (<code>uint8_t</code>, <code>int32_t</code>) || Size is the same on every compiler |- | Avoid dynamic memory (<code>malloc</code>) || Fragmentation and failures after days of running |- | Version control (Git) and code review || Traceability and fewer bugs |- | Unit-test logic on a PC || Faster than debugging on hardware |- | Static analysis and compiler warnings on || Catches bugs before they ship |- | Read the datasheet and errata || Chips have documented quirks |- | Add decoupling capacitors (100 nF at every supply pin) || Prevents random resets and noise |} == 10. Debugging toolbox == * '''Serial prints''' – quick, but they change timing. * '''LED/GPIO toggling plus oscilloscope or logic analyzer''' – measures real timing. * '''Hardware debugger (SWD/JTAG, debugWIRE)''' – breakpoints and register view. * '''Multimeter''' – always check the supply voltage and ground first. * Common bugs: floating inputs, missing <code>volatile</code>, stack overflow, wrong baud rate, forgotten pull-ups on I2C, shared ground missing between boards. == 11. Mini project ideas == # '''Traffic light controller''' using three LEDs and a state machine. # '''Temperature logger''' with an analog sensor, ADC averaging and UART output. # '''PWM dimmer''' using a timer and a potentiometer. # '''Digital thermometer display''' using an I2C sensor and an I2C OLED. # '''Low-power door sensor''' that sleeps until a reed switch interrupt. == 12. Exercises == # Calculate the resistor needed for a blue LED (V_F = 3.0 V) from a 5 V supply at 8 mA. Which standard E12 value would you pick? # Write the C statements to set PB0 and PB3 as outputs and PB1 as an input with pull-up, without changing the other pins. # A timer runs from a 16 MHz clock with prescaler 256. What compare value gives a 100 Hz interrupt? # An ADC reads 768 on a 10-bit scale with a 3.3 V reference. What is the input voltage? # Why is <code>volatile</code> needed for <code>g_millis</code>? What bug could appear if it were missing? # Why should an ISR be short? Give two reasons. === Answers === {{hidden begin|title=Click to show answers}} # R = (5 − 3.0) / 0.008 = 250 Ω. The nearest standard E12 value is 270 Ω (≈ 7.4 mA), which is also safe. # <code>DDRB |= (1&lt;&lt;DDB0) | (1&lt;&lt;DDB3); DDRB &amp;= ~(1&lt;&lt;DDB1); PORTB |= (1&lt;&lt;PORTB1);</code> # 16 000 000 / 256 = 62 500 ticks per second. For 100 Hz, 62 500 / 100 = 625 ticks, so OCR = 625 − 1 = 624 (needs a 16-bit timer). # V = 768 × 3.3 / 1024 ≈ 2.475 V. # Without <code>volatile</code> the compiler may keep the value in a register inside the main loop and never see the ISR's updates, so the loop would behave as if time never advanced. # Long ISRs delay other interrupts (jitter, missed events), and they can overrun the stack or break the timing of the main program. {{hidden end}} == Glossary == {| class="wikitable" ! Term !! Meaning |- | GPIO || General Purpose Input/Output pin |- | ISR || Interrupt Service Routine |- | PWM || Pulse Width Modulation, a way to control average power with a duty cycle |- | ADC || Analog-to-Digital Converter |- | RTOS || Real-Time Operating System |- | SWD/JTAG || Hardware debug interfaces |- | Watchdog || Timer that resets the MCU if software hangs |- | Baud rate || Symbols per second on a serial line |} == Figure credits == {| class="wikitable" ! Figure !! File !! Author / licence |- | Figure 1 || <code>Microcontroller block diagram generic.svg</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |- | Figure 2 || <code>Arduino Uno - R3.jpg</code> || Wikimedia Commons; see the file page for author and licence |- | Figure 3 || <code>LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit.svg</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |- | Figure 4 || <code>Blinking LED animation microcontroller.gif</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |} == References == <references> <ref name="wp-embedded">{{cite web |title=Embedded system |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="ganssle">Ganssle, Jack. ''The Art of Designing Embedded Systems'', 2nd ed. Newnes, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7506-8644-0.</ref> <ref name="atmega-ds">{{cite web |title=ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P Data Sheet (DS40002061) |publisher=Microchip Technology |url=https://www.microchip.com/en-us/product/ATmega328P |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="avrlibc">{{cite web |title=AVR Libc User Manual |url=https://www.nongnu.org/avr-libc/user-manual/ |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="wp-ohm">{{cite web |title=Ohm's law |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="i2c">{{cite web |title=UM10204: I2C-bus specification and user manual |publisher=NXP Semiconductors |url=https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/user-guide/UM10204.pdf |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="wp-spi">{{cite web |title=Serial Peripheral Interface |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="barr">{{cite web |title=Embedded C Coding Standard |publisher=Barr Group |url=https://barrgroup.com/embedded-systems/books/embedded-c-coding-standard |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="misra">''MISRA C:2012 – Guidelines for the Use of the C Language in Critical Systems''. MISRA Consortium, 2012.</ref> </references> == Further reading == * The datasheet and instruction-set manual of the chip you use (always the primary source). * White, Elicia. ''Making Embedded Systems'', O'Reilly Media, 2011. * Other Wikibooks: search for "Embedded Systems", "C Programming" and "Microcontroller" books on this site. [[Category:Book:Embedded Systems]] [[Category:Computing]] <!-- Licence note: all text, code and diagrams in this page were written specifically for this page by the contributor with AI assistance and are released under CC BY-SA 4.0 and GFDL as required for Wikibooks contributions. --> 3euvjszvpiv3y54dwhck4k22y723vdf 4681750 4681628 2026-11-11T20:50:42Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 flag 4681750 wikitext text/x-wiki {{AI-suspected|reason=lack of consistency in formatting, broken files, quirks of heading formatting}} = From Blink to Bare Metal: A Practical Guide to Embedded Systems and Microcontrollers = ''This guide takes you from "what is a microcontroller?" to writing reliable, production-style firmware. It uses the ATmega328P (the chip on the Arduino Uno) as the worked example, but every concept transfers to ARM Cortex-M, ESP32, STM32, PIC and RISC-V parts.'' == What you will learn == * What an embedded system is and where it is used * How a microcontroller (MCU) is built inside * How to drive an LED safely, with the resistor calculation * How to program at register level and with the Arduino API * Interrupts, timers, ADC and communication buses (UART, I2C, SPI) * Industry practices: state machines, debouncing, watchdogs, low power, coding standards * Exercises to test yourself == 1. What is an embedded system? == An '''embedded system''' is a computer built into a larger device to do one dedicated job, usually with strict limits on cost, power, size and timing.<ref name="wp-embedded" /><ref name="ganssle" /> Unlike a laptop, it normally has no screen or keyboard, runs one program forever, and must keep working for years without a reboot. {| class="wikitable" ! Domain !! Example !! Typical requirement |- | Automotive || Anti-lock brake controller || Hard real-time, safety critical |- | Medical || Insulin pump, pulse oximeter || Reliability, certification |- | Consumer || Washing machine, TV remote || Very low cost |- | Industrial || PLC, motor drive || Noise immunity, long life |- | IoT || Smart sensor node || Ultra-low power, wireless |} === Microcontroller vs microprocessor === {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! Microcontroller (MCU) !! Microprocessor (MPU) |- | Memory || On-chip Flash and RAM || External RAM and storage |- | Peripherals || Built in (GPIO, ADC, timers, UART) || Mostly external chips |- | Operating system || None or small RTOS || Usually Linux or similar |- | Power and cost || Milliwatts, cents to a few dollars || Watts, higher cost |- | Example || ATmega328P, STM32, ESP32 || Raspberry Pi's application processor |} == 2. Inside a microcontroller == [[File:Microcontroller block diagram generic(1).svg|center|thumb|600x600px|'''Figure 1: Simplified block diagram of a typical microcontroller.''' The CPU core, Flash, SRAM, timers, ADC, interrupt controller, serial peripherals and GPIO ports all sit on one chip and communicate over an internal bus. Pins at the bottom connect to the outside world (buttons, LEDs, sensors, motors). ''Original diagram created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0); a generalised illustration, not the exact layout of any one part.'']] The ATmega328P datasheet shows the exact internal architecture, memory sizes and peripheral list for that chip.<ref name="atmega-ds" /> * '''CPU core''' – fetches, decodes and executes instructions. The ATmega328P uses an 8-bit AVR core. * '''Flash memory''' – non-volatile storage for your program. It survives power loss. * '''SRAM''' – fast volatile memory for variables and the stack. * '''EEPROM''' – small non-volatile memory for settings and calibration data. * '''GPIO''' – General Purpose Input/Output pins you control from software. * '''Timers/Counters''' – measure time, generate delays and PWM signals. * '''ADC''' – converts analog voltages (sensors) to numbers. * '''Interrupt controller''' – lets hardware events pre-empt the main program. * '''Communication peripherals''' – UART, I2C, SPI, USB, CAN. * '''Clock and reset logic''' – oscillator, power-on reset, watchdog timer. [[File:Arduino Uno - R3.jpg|thumb|center|400px|'''Figure 2: An Arduino Uno R3 development board.''' The large rectangular chip is the ATmega328P microcontroller; the header sockets along the edges expose its GPIO, analog and power pins. ''Photograph from Wikimedia Commons under its own free licence; see the file's description page for author and licence details.'']] == 3. Your first circuit: driving an LED == [[File:LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit.svg|thumb|center|[[File:LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit(1).svg|thumb]]'''Figure 3: Circuit diagram of an LED driven by a microcontroller pin.''' Pin PB5 (Arduino D13) sources current through the 330 Ω resistor R1 into the LED, and the current returns to ground. HIGH (5 V) turns the LED on; LOW (0 V) turns it off. ''Original circuit diagram created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0).'']] An LED is a diode. If you connect it directly to a pin, current is limited only by the pin's tiny internal resistance and the LED (or the pin) will burn out. Always add a series resistor. '''Resistor calculation (Ohm's law)''' <math>R = \frac{V_{CC} - V_F}{I_F}</math> With V_CC = 5 V, a red LED forward voltage V_F ≈ 2 V and a target current of 10 mA: <math>R = \frac{5 - 2}{0.010} = 300\ \Omega</math> The nearest standard value is '''330 Ω''', giving I = 3 V / 330 Ω ≈ 9.1 mA. This is safe, since an AVR pin is specified for roughly 20 mA in normal use (check the datasheet's absolute maximum ratings for your chip, and never exceed the total package limit).<ref name="atmega-ds" /> The calculation is simply Ohm's law applied to the voltage left across the resistor.<ref name="wp-ohm" /> === Parts list === {| class="wikitable" ! Qty !! Part |- | 1 || Arduino Uno or any ATmega328P board |- | 1 || 5 mm red LED |- | 1 || 330 Ω resistor (orange-orange-brown) |- | 1 || Breadboard and jumper wires |} [[File:Blinking LED animation microcontroller.gif|thumb|center|[[File:Blinking LED animation microcontroller(1).gif|thumb]]'''Figure 4: Animation of the blink program.''' Each frame shows the state of pin PB5 and the LED: HIGH (5 V) lights the LED, LOW (0 V) turns it off. In the real program the state changes every 500 ms. ''Original animation created for this book (CC BY-SA 4.0).'']] == 4. Programming it == === 4.1 The Arduino way === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> const uint8_t LED_PIN = 13; // PB5 on the Uno void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); } void loop() { digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(500); digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(500); } </syntaxhighlight> This is easy to read but hides what the hardware does, and <code>delay()</code> freezes the whole program. Professional firmware avoids blocking delays. === 4.2 Bare metal: talking to registers === Every peripheral is controlled by '''registers''', which are special memory locations. For port B:<ref name="atmega-ds" /><ref name="avrlibc" /> {| class="wikitable" ! Register !! Purpose |- | <code>DDRB</code> || Data Direction: 1 = output, 0 = input |- | <code>PORTB</code> || Output value (or pull-up enable for inputs) |- | <code>PINB</code> || Read the pin state; writing 1 toggles the output |} <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/io.h> #include <util/delay.h> #define F_CPU 16000000UL int main(void) { DDRB |= (1 << DDB5); // PB5 as output for (;;) { PORTB ^= (1 << PORTB5); // toggle LED _delay_ms(500); } } </syntaxhighlight> '''Bit-manipulation cheat sheet''' (you will use these every day): {| class="wikitable" ! Goal !! C idiom |- | Set bit n || <code>REG |= (1 << n);</code> |- | Clear bit n || <code>REG &= ~(1 << n);</code> |- | Toggle bit n || <code>REG ^= (1 << n);</code> |- | Test bit n || <code>if (REG & (1 << n)) { ... }</code> |} == 5. Reading a button correctly == Inputs must never be left floating. Use a pull-up resistor so the pin has a defined level. The ATmega has internal pull-ups you enable in software. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> DDRD &= ~(1 << DDD2); // PD2 as input PORTD |= (1 << PORTD2); // enable internal pull-up // Button wired between PD2 and GND: pressed = 0, released = 1 </syntaxhighlight> === Debouncing === Mechanical switches bounce for a few milliseconds, producing many false edges. A simple software fix is to accept a new state only after it has been stable for a set time (for example 20 ms). <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <stdbool.h> #include <stdint.h> #define DEBOUNCE_MS 20 bool read_button_debounced(bool raw, uint32_t now_ms) { static bool stable_state = false; static bool last_raw = false; static uint32_t last_change = 0; if (raw != last_raw) { // input changed, restart the timer last_raw = raw; last_change = now_ms; } if ((now_ms - last_change) >= DEBOUNCE_MS) { stable_state = last_raw; // stable long enough, accept it } return stable_state; } </syntaxhighlight> == 6. Timers and non-blocking time == A '''timer''' is a hardware counter driven by the clock. Instead of wasting the CPU in <code>delay()</code>, let a timer interrupt count milliseconds, then compare timestamps. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/io.h> #include <avr/interrupt.h> volatile uint32_t g_millis = 0; void timer0_init(void) { TCCR0A = (1 << WGM01); // CTC mode OCR0A = 249; // 16 MHz / 64 / 250 = 1 kHz TIMSK0 = (1 << OCIE0A); // enable compare-match interrupt TCCR0B = (1 << CS01) | (1 << CS00); // prescaler = 64 sei(); // enable global interrupts } ISR(TIMER0_COMPA_vect) { g_millis++; // runs every 1 ms } </syntaxhighlight> Now a non-blocking blinker looks like this: <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> uint32_t last = 0; for (;;) { uint32_t now; cli(); now = g_millis; sei(); // atomic read of a 32-bit value on an 8-bit CPU if (now - last >= 500) { last = now; PORTB ^= (1 << PORTB5); } /* the CPU is free to do other work here */ } </syntaxhighlight> '''Interrupt rules of thumb''' * Keep an ISR short: set a flag or copy data, then return. * Variables shared with an ISR must be declared <code>volatile</code>. * Multi-byte values need atomic access, as shown above. * Never call blocking functions (delays, long prints) inside an ISR. == 7. Reading the real world: the ADC == The 10-bit ADC maps 0 – V_ref to the values 0 – 1023. <math>V_{in} = \frac{ADC \times V_{ref}}{1024}</math> Example: a reading of 512 with V_ref = 5 V gives about 2.5 V. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> const uint8_t SENSOR_PIN = A0; void setup() { Serial.begin(115200); } void loop() { int raw = analogRead(SENSOR_PIN); float volts = raw * 5.0f / 1024.0f; Serial.println(volts, 3); delay(100); } </syntaxhighlight> '''Practical tip:''' noisy readings are common. Average several samples, or use a first-order low-pass filter: <code>filtered = filtered + 0.1 * (raw - filtered);</code> == 8. Talking to other chips: UART, I2C and SPI == {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! UART !! I2C !! SPI |- | Wires || 2 (TX, RX) || 2 (SDA, SCL) + pull-ups || 4+ (MOSI, MISO, SCK, CS per device) |- | Clock || Asynchronous (agreed baud rate) || Synchronous, shared || Synchronous, shared |- | Devices || Point to point || Many, each with an address || Many, one CS line each |- | Typical speed || 9.6 kbps – 1 Mbps || 100 kHz – 1 MHz || 1 – 50+ MHz |- | Used for || Debug console, GPS, Bluetooth modules || Sensors, RTC, EEPROM || Displays, SD cards, fast ADCs |} '''Choosing:''' use I2C when you want few wires and many slow devices; SPI when you need speed; UART for simple point-to-point links and logging.<ref name="i2c" /><ref name="wp-spi" /> Speeds in the table are typical ranges; exact limits depend on the specific chips. == 9. Writing firmware the way industry does == === 9.1 Use a state machine === Instead of tangled <code>if</code> statements, model behavior as states and events. This is easy to test and reason about. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> typedef enum { ST_IDLE, ST_HEATING, ST_HOLD, ST_ERROR } state_t; state_t step(state_t s, float temp_c, bool fault) { if (fault) return ST_ERROR; // safety check wins from any state switch (s) { case ST_IDLE: return (temp_c < 60.0f) ? ST_HEATING : ST_IDLE; case ST_HEATING: return (temp_c >= 80.0f) ? ST_HOLD : ST_HEATING; case ST_HOLD: return (temp_c < 75.0f) ? ST_HEATING : ST_HOLD; case ST_ERROR: return ST_ERROR; // latched until reset } return ST_ERROR; } </syntaxhighlight> === 9.2 Layer your code === <pre> Application logic (what the product does) ------------------- Drivers / HAL (uart_send(), adc_read(), gpio_write()) ------------------- Hardware registers </pre> Application code never touches registers directly. If you change chips, only the driver layer changes. === 9.3 Protect against lock-ups: the watchdog === A '''watchdog timer''' resets the MCU if the software stops "feeding" it. This is standard practice in commercial and safety-related products.<ref name="ganssle" /><ref name="avrlibc" /> <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <avr/wdt.h> wdt_enable(WDTO_2S); // reset if not refreshed within 2 seconds for (;;) { do_work(); wdt_reset(); // "kick the dog" only when everything is healthy } </syntaxhighlight> === 9.4 Save power === Battery products spend most of their life asleep. * Sleep between events and wake on an interrupt or timer. * Turn off unused peripherals. * Lower the clock speed when full speed is not needed. * Remember: average current × time determines battery life. A device drawing 5 mA for 10 ms once a second and 5 µA otherwise averages about 55 µA, which is roughly 4 years on a 2000 mAh cell in theory (before self-discharge). === 9.5 Quality checklist === The items below are widely recommended in industry coding guidelines.<ref name="barr" /><ref name="misra" /> {| class="wikitable" ! Practice !! Why |- | Follow a coding standard (for example MISRA C) || Fewer undefined behaviours and portable code |- | Use fixed-width types (<code>uint8_t</code>, <code>int32_t</code>) || Size is the same on every compiler |- | Avoid dynamic memory (<code>malloc</code>) || Fragmentation and failures after days of running |- | Version control (Git) and code review || Traceability and fewer bugs |- | Unit-test logic on a PC || Faster than debugging on hardware |- | Static analysis and compiler warnings on || Catches bugs before they ship |- | Read the datasheet and errata || Chips have documented quirks |- | Add decoupling capacitors (100 nF at every supply pin) || Prevents random resets and noise |} == 10. Debugging toolbox == * '''Serial prints''' – quick, but they change timing. * '''LED/GPIO toggling plus oscilloscope or logic analyzer''' – measures real timing. * '''Hardware debugger (SWD/JTAG, debugWIRE)''' – breakpoints and register view. * '''Multimeter''' – always check the supply voltage and ground first. * Common bugs: floating inputs, missing <code>volatile</code>, stack overflow, wrong baud rate, forgotten pull-ups on I2C, shared ground missing between boards. == 11. Mini project ideas == # '''Traffic light controller''' using three LEDs and a state machine. # '''Temperature logger''' with an analog sensor, ADC averaging and UART output. # '''PWM dimmer''' using a timer and a potentiometer. # '''Digital thermometer display''' using an I2C sensor and an I2C OLED. # '''Low-power door sensor''' that sleeps until a reed switch interrupt. == 12. Exercises == # Calculate the resistor needed for a blue LED (V_F = 3.0 V) from a 5 V supply at 8 mA. Which standard E12 value would you pick? # Write the C statements to set PB0 and PB3 as outputs and PB1 as an input with pull-up, without changing the other pins. # A timer runs from a 16 MHz clock with prescaler 256. What compare value gives a 100 Hz interrupt? # An ADC reads 768 on a 10-bit scale with a 3.3 V reference. What is the input voltage? # Why is <code>volatile</code> needed for <code>g_millis</code>? What bug could appear if it were missing? # Why should an ISR be short? Give two reasons. === Answers === {{hidden begin|title=Click to show answers}} # R = (5 − 3.0) / 0.008 = 250 Ω. The nearest standard E12 value is 270 Ω (≈ 7.4 mA), which is also safe. # <code>DDRB |= (1&lt;&lt;DDB0) | (1&lt;&lt;DDB3); DDRB &amp;= ~(1&lt;&lt;DDB1); PORTB |= (1&lt;&lt;PORTB1);</code> # 16 000 000 / 256 = 62 500 ticks per second. For 100 Hz, 62 500 / 100 = 625 ticks, so OCR = 625 − 1 = 624 (needs a 16-bit timer). # V = 768 × 3.3 / 1024 ≈ 2.475 V. # Without <code>volatile</code> the compiler may keep the value in a register inside the main loop and never see the ISR's updates, so the loop would behave as if time never advanced. # Long ISRs delay other interrupts (jitter, missed events), and they can overrun the stack or break the timing of the main program. {{hidden end}} == Glossary == {| class="wikitable" ! Term !! Meaning |- | GPIO || General Purpose Input/Output pin |- | ISR || Interrupt Service Routine |- | PWM || Pulse Width Modulation, a way to control average power with a duty cycle |- | ADC || Analog-to-Digital Converter |- | RTOS || Real-Time Operating System |- | SWD/JTAG || Hardware debug interfaces |- | Watchdog || Timer that resets the MCU if software hangs |- | Baud rate || Symbols per second on a serial line |} == Figure credits == {| class="wikitable" ! Figure !! File !! Author / licence |- | Figure 1 || <code>Microcontroller block diagram generic.svg</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |- | Figure 2 || <code>Arduino Uno - R3.jpg</code> || Wikimedia Commons; see the file page for author and licence |- | Figure 3 || <code>LED driven by microcontroller pin circuit.svg</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |- | Figure 4 || <code>Blinking LED animation microcontroller.gif</code> || Original work by the contributor, CC BY-SA 4.0 |} == References == <references> <ref name="wp-embedded">{{cite web |title=Embedded system |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="ganssle">Ganssle, Jack. ''The Art of Designing Embedded Systems'', 2nd ed. Newnes, 2008. ISBN 978-0-7506-8644-0.</ref> <ref name="atmega-ds">{{cite web |title=ATmega48A/PA/88A/PA/168A/PA/328/P Data Sheet (DS40002061) |publisher=Microchip Technology |url=https://www.microchip.com/en-us/product/ATmega328P |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="avrlibc">{{cite web |title=AVR Libc User Manual |url=https://www.nongnu.org/avr-libc/user-manual/ |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="wp-ohm">{{cite web |title=Ohm's law |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="i2c">{{cite web |title=UM10204: I2C-bus specification and user manual |publisher=NXP Semiconductors |url=https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/user-guide/UM10204.pdf |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="wp-spi">{{cite web |title=Serial Peripheral Interface |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface |website=Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="barr">{{cite web |title=Embedded C Coding Standard |publisher=Barr Group |url=https://barrgroup.com/embedded-systems/books/embedded-c-coding-standard |access-date=2026-11-11}}</ref> <ref name="misra">''MISRA C:2012 – Guidelines for the Use of the C Language in Critical Systems''. MISRA Consortium, 2012.</ref> </references> == Further reading == * The datasheet and instruction-set manual of the chip you use (always the primary source). * White, Elicia. ''Making Embedded Systems'', O'Reilly Media, 2011. * Other Wikibooks: search for "Embedded Systems", "C Programming" and "Microcontroller" books on this site. [[Category:Book:Embedded Systems]] [[Category:Computing]] <!-- Licence note: all text, code and diagrams in this page were written specifically for this page by the contributor with AI assistance and are released under CC BY-SA 4.0 and GFDL as required for Wikibooks contributions. --> 8is8r6ko90amjs70a4hiny0ob8u0dg0 2 487132 4681621 4681557 2026-11-11T14:24:43Z Thavasrinithi k 3626639 /* Electronic systems have changed considerably over the years. Earlier, many simple control applications were developed using fixed electronic circuits. As applications became more advanced, programmable devices such as microcontrollers and micro */ 4681621 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''FPGA-Based Embedded Systems''' == === '''1. Introduction''' === Electronic systems have changed considerably over the years. Earlier, many simple control applications were developed using fixed electronic circuits. As applications became more advanced, programmable devices such as microcontrollers and microprocessors became popular they allowed engineers to control hardware through software. However, certain applications require more than ordinary instruction-based processing. For example, an industrial machine may need to collect information from several sensors, monitor its operating conditions, and control different motors without introducing unnecessary delays. Handling all these operations through a single processing sequence can create performance limitations. This is where FPGA technology becomes useful. An FPGA provides a programmable hardware environment in which engineers can create circuits that perform specific operations. Instead of only changing the instructions executed by a processor, the designer can change the actual digital hardware structure.https://circuitdigest.com/tutorial/what-is-fpga-introduction-and-programming-tools ==== '''2. Fundamentals of FPGA Technology''' ==== An FPGA-based embedded system combines this configurable hardware with the input devices, memory, communication interfaces, and control elements required by an application. Such a combination is useful in situations where processing speed, parallel operation, and precise timing are important. An FPGA can be understood as a chip that allows engineers to build their own digital circuits using the hardware resources already available inside it. These resources can be connected in different ways depending on the function required by the electronic system. To understand this, consider a simple digital counter. A counter needs logic gates to calculate the next value and flip-flops to store its current value. An engineer can describe this circuit using Verilog and configure an FPGA to perform the counting operation whenever a clock signal is received. The same device can also be configured for other functions, such as frequency measurement, signal monitoring or digital communication. The designer does not need to manufacture a separate chip for every circuit design. FPGA development therefore involves both programming and hardware design. Engineers must understand how digital circuits operate before implementing them. This makes FPGA technology useful in embedded applications that require customized hardware functions.<ref>AMD, FPGA Architecture – UG1291. Official documentation..</ref> ===== '''3.FPGA Internal Architecture''' [[https://circuitdigest.com/tutorial/what-is-fpga-introduction-and-programming-tools]] ===== The internal structure of an FPGA consists of several programmable components arranged to support different digital circuit designs. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs) perform the required logical operations, while the switch matrices establish connections between these blocks. Input/Output Blocks (IOBs), located around the outer region of the device, allow signals to enter and leave the FPGA. These components work together to create the required hardware functionality. Main components shown in the figure: - Configurable Logic Block (CLB): Responsible for implementing digital functions using programmable logic resources. - Switch Matrix (SM): Controls the signal paths between different CLBs and other internal resources. - Input/Output Block (IOB): Acts as an interface between the FPGA's internal circuits and external devices such as sensors, displays and other electronic components.<ref>AMD, 7 Series FPGAs Configurable Logic Block User Guide – UG474. Official documentation.</ref> ====== '''4. Design and Programming of FPGA-Based Systems''' [[https://hardwarebee.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FPGA-design-flow.png]] ====== The development of an FPGA-based system begins with preparing the circuit design using a Hardware Description Language (HDL), such as Verilog or VHDL. The written design is first examined through simulation to check whether the circuit produces the expected results. After this stage, synthesis converts the design into a logic representation that can be implemented using the available FPGA resources. During implementation, the required logic blocks and connections are arranged within the device. Timing analysis is also performed to check whether the circuit meets its operating requirements. Once these stages are completed, a bitstream file is generated and transferred to the FPGA board. The programmed board is then tested to verify that the designed circuit works correctly in real hardware. <ref>AMD, Vivado Design Suite User Guide: Design Flows Overview – UG892. Official documentation</ref> ====== '''5. Applications of FPGA-Based Embedded Systems''' [[https://asset.watch.impress.co.jp/img/car/docs/1211/590/014 o.jpg]] ====== FPGA-based embedded systems are used in applications where electronic devices must perform specific operations with reliable timing and fast data processing. Their configurable hardware allows engineers to develop solutions according to the requirements of different industries. In industrial automation, FPGAs are used for machine control, sensor monitoring and real-time signal processing. In automotive electronics, they can support driver assistance systems, image processing and communication between electronic components. They are also used in robotics to manage motor control and process information from different sensors. In communication systems, FPGAs help implement digital signal processing and high-speed data handling. Medical equipment can also use FPGA technology for image processing, measurement and monitoring functions. These applications demonstrate how programmable hardware can support complex electronic operations in different fields.<ref>Microchip Technology, FPGA Documentation and Technical Resources. Official documentation.</ref> ====== '''6. Advantages and Limitations of FPGA-Based Embedded Systems''' ====== FPGA-based embedded systems provide several benefits in electronic design. One major advantage is hardware flexibility, which allows engineers to modify the circuit configuration when application requirements change. Their ability to perform multiple operations simultaneously makes them suitable for systems that require fast data processing and accurate timing. FPGAs can also be used to develop customized digital circuits without manufacturing a separate integrated circuit for every application. However, FPGA technology also has certain limitations. Developing an FPGA-based system requires knowledge of digital circuit design and hardware description languages such as Verilog and VHDL. The development process can become complex when the design contains many hardware components. Some FPGA devices also consume more power or have a higher initial cost than simpler microcontroller-based solutions. Therefore, selecting an FPGA depends on the processing requirements, available resources and overall cost of the application. ====== '''7. Future Scope''' ====== FPGA technology continues to develop as electronic systems require faster processing, flexible hardware and improved performance. Its use in artificial intelligence acceleration, autonomous vehicles, advanced communication systems and robotics is creating new opportunities for embedded system development. Improvements in FPGA architecture and design tools are also making it easier to develop complex hardware applications. ====== '''8. Conclusion''' ====== FPGA-based embedded systems play an important role in modern electronic design by allowing engineers to develop flexible and application-specific hardware. Their ability to execute multiple operations in parallel makes them suitable for applications such as industrial automation, robotics, automotive electronics and communication systems. With continuous advancements in technology, FPGAs are becoming useful for developing systems that require high-speed processing and precise control. Despite challenges such as design complexity, power requirements and implementation cost, their flexibility and reconfigurability make them a valuable technology for future embedded applications. == Reference: == 6qpcb68zwhrfkpec8wpkc4ifpyboes7 4681635 4681621 2026-11-11T15:42:41Z Thavasrinithi k 3626639 4681635 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''FPGA-Based Embedded Systems''' == === '''1. Introduction''' === Electronic systems have changed considerably over the years. Earlier, many simple control applications were developed using fixed electronic circuits. As applications became more advanced, programmable devices such as microcontrollers and microprocessors became popular they allowed engineers to control hardware through software. However, certain applications require more than ordinary instruction-based processing. For example, an industrial machine may need to collect information from several sensors, monitor its operating conditions, and control different motors without introducing unnecessary delays. Handling all these operations through a single processing sequence can create performance limitations. This is where FPGA technology becomes useful. An FPGA provides a programmable hardware environment in which engineers can create circuits that perform specific operations. Instead of only changing the instructions executed by a processor, the designer can change the actual digital hardware structure.https://circuitdigest.com/tutorial/what-is-fpga-introduction-and-programming-tools Modern embedded systems projects involve developing computing devices that have become a crucial part of the world today, e.g., smartphones, medical devices, microwaves, and anti-braking systems. Computer engineers use various tools and technologies to create embedded systems by combining both hardware and software. FPGA is one of the most important components used. Generally speaking, FPGA is seen as an empty canvas on which any kind of digital circuit can be built (Figure 1.1). The most important thing to note about FPGA is that the desired function can easily be programmed after the circuit has been manufactured and placed inside a device, and in some cases, even after the product has been sent out for sale. That makes FPGA quite different from other IC circuits. In a nutshell, FPGA is a programmable hardware for developers of embedded systems solutions. The application of FPGA has changed through time. Earlier, FPGA was mostly used to substitute several individual IC devices like the famous 7400 series with FPGA only. Thanks to the rapid development of semiconductor technology, the number of transistors per integrated circuit has skyrocketed. This invention has contributed to the significant improvement of FPGA technology because the logic capacity and functional capabilities ==== '''2. Fundamentals of FPGA Technology''' ==== An FPGA-based embedded system combines this configurable hardware with the input devices, memory, communication interfaces, and control elements required by an application. Such a combination is useful in situations where processing speed, parallel operation, and precise timing are important. An FPGA can be understood as a chip that allows engineers to build their own digital circuits using the hardware resources already available inside it. These resources can be connected in different ways depending on the function required by the electronic system. To understand this, consider a simple digital counter. A counter needs logic gates to calculate the next value and flip-flops to store its current value. An engineer can describe this circuit using Verilog and configure an FPGA to perform the counting operation whenever a clock signal is received. The same device can also be configured for other functions, such as frequency measurement, signal monitoring or digital communication. The designer does not need to manufacture a separate chip for every circuit design. FPGA development therefore involves both programming and hardware design. Engineers must understand how digital circuits operate before implementing them. This makes FPGA technology useful in embedded applications that require customized hardware functions.<ref>AMD, FPGA Architecture – UG1291. Official documentation..</ref> ===== '''3.FPGA Internal Architecture''' [[https://circuitdigest.com/tutorial/what-is-fpga-introduction-and-programming-tools]] ===== The internal structure of an FPGA consists of several programmable components arranged to support different digital circuit designs. Configurable Logic Blocks (CLBs) perform the required logical operations, while the switch matrices establish connections between these blocks. Input/Output Blocks (IOBs), located around the outer region of the device, allow signals to enter and leave the FPGA. These components work together to create the required hardware functionality. Main components shown in the figure: - Configurable Logic Block (CLB): Responsible for implementing digital functions using programmable logic resources. - Switch Matrix (SM): Controls the signal paths between different CLBs and other internal resources. - Input/Output Block (IOB): Acts as an interface between the FPGA's internal circuits and external devices such as sensors, displays and other electronic components.<ref>AMD, 7 Series FPGAs Configurable Logic Block User Guide – UG474. Official documentation.</ref> ====== '''4. Design and Programming of FPGA-Based Systems''' [[https://hardwarebee.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/FPGA-design-flow.png]] ====== The development of an FPGA-based system begins with preparing the circuit design using a Hardware Description Language (HDL), such as Verilog or VHDL. The written design is first examined through simulation to check whether the circuit produces the expected results. After this stage, synthesis converts the design into a logic representation that can be implemented using the available FPGA resources. During implementation, the required logic blocks and connections are arranged within the device. Timing analysis is also performed to check whether the circuit meets its operating requirements. Once these stages are completed, a bitstream file is generated and transferred to the FPGA board. The programmed board is then tested to verify that the designed circuit works correctly in real hardware. <ref>AMD, Vivado Design Suite User Guide: Design Flows Overview – UG892. Official documentation</ref> ====== '''5. Applications of FPGA-Based Embedded Systems''' [[https://asset.watch.impress.co.jp/img/car/docs/1211/590/014 o.jpg]] ====== FPGA-based embedded systems are used in applications where electronic devices must perform specific operations with reliable timing and fast data processing. Their configurable hardware allows engineers to develop solutions according to the requirements of different industries. In industrial automation, FPGAs are used for machine control, sensor monitoring and real-time signal processing. In automotive electronics, they can support driver assistance systems, image processing and communication between electronic components. They are also used in robotics to manage motor control and process information from different sensors. In communication systems, FPGAs help implement digital signal processing and high-speed data handling. Medical equipment can also use FPGA technology for image processing, measurement and monitoring functions. These applications demonstrate how programmable hardware can support complex electronic operations in different fields.<ref>Microchip Technology, FPGA Documentation and Technical Resources. Official documentation.</ref> ====== '''6. Advantages and Limitations of FPGA-Based Embedded Systems''' ====== FPGA-based embedded systems provide several benefits in electronic design. One major advantage is hardware flexibility, which allows engineers to modify the circuit configuration when application requirements change. Their ability to perform multiple operations simultaneously makes them suitable for systems that require fast data processing and accurate timing. FPGAs can also be used to develop customized digital circuits without manufacturing a separate integrated circuit for every application. However, FPGA technology also has certain limitations. Developing an FPGA-based system requires knowledge of digital circuit design and hardware description languages such as Verilog and VHDL. The development process can become complex when the design contains many hardware components. Some FPGA devices also consume more power or have a higher initial cost than simpler microcontroller-based solutions. Therefore, selecting an FPGA depends on the processing requirements, available resources and overall cost of the application. ====== '''7. Future Scope''' ====== FPGA technology continues to develop as electronic systems require faster processing, flexible hardware and improved performance. Its use in artificial intelligence acceleration, autonomous vehicles, advanced communication systems and robotics is creating new opportunities for embedded system development. Improvements in FPGA architecture and design tools are also making it easier to develop complex hardware applications. ====== '''8. Conclusion''' ====== FPGA-based embedded systems play an important role in modern electronic design by allowing engineers to develop flexible and application-specific hardware. Their ability to execute multiple operations in parallel makes them suitable for applications such as industrial automation, robotics, automotive electronics and communication systems. With continuous advancements in technology, FPGAs are becoming useful for developing systems that require high-speed processing and precise control. Despite challenges such as design complexity, power requirements and implementation cost, their flexibility and reconfigurability make them a valuable technology for future embedded applications. == Reference: == 42tn2i9krbd79j5gz9hsjsxvy26omve 0 487134 4681581 2026-11-11T12:05:14Z Etrouw16 3631078 Created page with "__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ == Reflector Feedback == This script is used to summarize insights by the group, clarifies ideas that may have been confusing or ambiguous, and negotiates next steps. === Status: === Under development === Primary nature of group task: === Convergent === Time === Preparation time: 20 minutes Time required during session: 15 minutes Follow-up time: 0 minutes === Materials === # Flip chart/whiteboard # Markers # Notepad paper for re..." 4681581 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ == Reflector Feedback == This script is used to summarize insights by the group, clarifies ideas that may have been confusing or ambiguous, and negotiates next steps. === Status: === Under development === Primary nature of group task: === Convergent === Time === Preparation time: 20 minutes Time required during session: 15 minutes Follow-up time: 0 minutes === Materials === # Flip chart/whiteboard # Markers # Notepad paper for reflector === Inputs: === * Boundary objects from session === Outputs: === * List of next steps === Roles === * One or more reflectors with expertise in system dynamics, topic under discussion, or community members === Steps === # Before the session starts, reflectors are assigned specific areas to focus based on their expertise. Generally, someone with expertise in modeling should be focusing on system dynamics insights while an expert on the topic being discussed would typically focus on what is new or similar with respect to what is already known, and someone with expertise in the community (e.g., a person with lived experience) might focus on what is new or happened within the community. # Reflectors take notes and prepare summary comments for model reflection at the end of the session. # If possible, it can be helpful to have the reflectors briefly coordinate their comments (e.g., during a brief break). # Each reflector takes a few minutes to summary 2-3 key insights, raise any questions for clarification and brief discussion, and summarizes any next steps, e.g., "So there are three things I heard as possible next steps. First,... Second, ..., And third, ... Did I get that right?" "Which of these seems the most important?" #* Start by having one reflector (typically the reflector with modeling expertise) reviewing the session and what happened, and refer back to (point to or stand by) the boundary objects around the room in temporal order. #* As one reviews what happened, highlight key insights tied to the modeling and be sure to point to any structures or diagrams as this is an important time to reinforce the conventions and types of diagrams. #* After reviewing the process insights, reflectors focused content can share how the insights relate to what is known by experts. This is an important point to help people recognize how what they came up with may or may not align with what expert researchers have found, as well as highlight what is new or innovative. #* Then, close by reviewing how this contributed to building community and connections, as well as acknowledging any remaining sources of tension or disagreement (e.g., "It seems we still have some work to do and some disagreement, but perhaps it was too much to expect that we can resolve all the issues in one day. Nonetheless, we made some good progress.") # After the summary of model, content, and community insights, it is useful to talk about and negotiate next steps. This is important for both understanding and setting realistic expectations. A number of areas might be considered and those who have the most insight into what is feasible and needed should be invited to weigh in at this point. === Evaluation Criteria: === * Unclear ideas have been clarified * The group has a shared sense of what they did, how this related to insights * Clear sense of next steps for the modeling === Author === Peter Hovmand c2012 === History === The idea of the reflector role was originally introduced by George Richardson and David Andersen in the Albany Tradition of group model building as described in (Luna-Reyes et al, 2006). This version of the reflector script was based on the Richardson and Andersen script, and documented by Annalise Calhoun in 2010 based on Luna-Reyes et al. (2006). Within the practice of community based system dynamics, the script evolved to bring in different types of reflectors and provide persons with no prior experience in group model building with a structured approach to help close out a session. === Revisions === None === References === Luna-Reyes, L. F., Martinez-Moyano, I. J., Pardo, T. A., Cresswell, A. M., Andersen, D. F., & Richardson, G. P. (2006). Anatomy of a group model-building intervention: Building dynamic theory from case study research. ''System Dynamics Review, 22''(4), 291-320. === Notes === The script is mostly a presentation, but interactive in nature and an important function of this script is to provide a means of consolidating insights from a group model building session and reaching consensus about the next steps for the modeling. {{BookCat}} qo911zj4fywsmfuqslz19hdw4q5tekx 4681583 4681581 2026-11-11T12:18:28Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681583 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ == Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits == This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context: === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status: === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}} c23fj4o9ziqjjokvay33t9gv963w9mc 4681584 4681583 2026-11-11T12:19:33Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681584 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ == Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits == This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context: === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status: === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} 9z3rkay7acwg7zzjztz2xylec619zdg 4681585 4681584 2026-11-11T12:20:32Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681585 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context: === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status: === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} bv72mtf91mz6oenqntgwu50d58a9mqa 4681586 4681585 2026-11-11T12:22:05Z Etrouw16 3631078 Redirected page to [[Scriptapedia]] 4681586 wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[Scriptapedia]]__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context: === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status: === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} iqwqxhhym59bex21wjqsb7x2ypfio8k 4681587 4681586 2026-11-11T12:23:04Z Etrouw16 3631078 Removed redirect to [[Scriptapedia]] 4681587 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context: === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status: === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} bv72mtf91mz6oenqntgwu50d58a9mqa 4681602 4681587 2026-11-11T13:02:48Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681602 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} oc22xdewxatxngrp4qrbvyjqd8os77p 4681603 4681602 2026-11-11T13:03:35Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681603 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} 4qo2c9zb4tmk86n6r9g2qfvmsf64pok 4681607 4681603 2026-11-11T13:35:30Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681607 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ < [[Scriptapedia]] This script is used during the introductory phase of the workshop to identify what participants would like to learn or explore and to establish realistic expectations regarding the use of FRIDA. Participants first discuss their expectations in pairs before the facilitator introduces the model’s intended applications and key delimitations. This helps connect the workshop activities to participants’ interests while making clear what FRIDA can and cannot represent. === Context === At the beginning of a decision-maker workshop, following the introduction to WorldTrans and FRIDA and before participants begin interacting with the model. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Participants identify different expectations and interests, followed by facilitator-led clarification of the model’s scope and limitations. === Time === # Preparation time: 5 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # Introductory WorldTrans and FRIDA slide deck. # Presentation equipment. # Paper or digital notes for recording participant expectations, if required. === Inputs === * Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants should have received a basic introduction to WorldTrans, FRIDA, and the purpose of the workshop. === Outputs === # Deliverables: A list of participant expectations and interests; key FRIDA delimitations communicated to participants. # Products: Shared understanding of what participants can expect to explore during the workshop and of the model’s appropriate scope and limitations. === Roles === * A facilitator with knowledge of FRIDA and its intended applications and limitations. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions or provide additional information where needed. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Explain that the purpose of the activity is to identify what participants would like to learn, understand, or explore during the workshop. # Divide participants into pairs and ask them to discuss what they would like to have addressed during the workshop. Suggested prompts include: What would you like to learn today? What would you like to explore using FRIDA? What would make this workshop useful for your work? Allow approximately 5 minutes for discussion. # Bring participants back together and invite pairs to briefly share the main expectations or questions that emerged from their discussion. Record the key expectations so that they remain visible to the group. # Introduce the intended scope of FRIDA and explain how the model is designed to support exploration of interconnected climate, environmental, and socioeconomic dynamics and policy interventions. # Explain the main delimitations relevant to the workshop. Emphasize that FRIDA is a simplified representation of complex Earth system and socioeconomic processes and should therefore be used to explore system behavior and policy implications rather than as a precise prediction of real-world outcomes. # Connect the identified expectations to the remainder of the workshop, indicating which questions can be explored directly through FRIDA and where the model’s limitations need to be considered. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: * Participants have had an opportunity to articulate their expectations and interests. * The facilitator has identified the main questions or areas of interest relevant to the group. * Participants understand the intended purpose and scope of FRIDA. * Participants recognize that FRIDA represents a simplified model of complex systems and understand the importance of considering its limitations when interpreting results. * The expectations identified by participants can be connected to the activities that follow in the workshop. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the introductory phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The script draws on the original workshop agenda, which included a paired discussion on participant expectations followed by a facilitator-led discussion of expectations and FRIDA delimitations. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} 4vpiidy80nusiel6016vae83ythvjs7 0 487135 4681592 2026-11-11T12:32:36Z Etrouw16 3631078 Created page with "__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used to demonstrate the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE) before participants begin their own exploration. The facilitator guides participants through concrete policy interventions - for example using a carbon tax of USD 100/tCO₂ introduced in 10 years or a land use policy -, and demonstrates how changes to a policy lever affect different model outputs over time. The demonstration familiarizes participants with the..." 4681592 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used to demonstrate the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE) before participants begin their own exploration. The facilitator guides participants through concrete policy interventions - for example using a carbon tax of USD 100/tCO₂ introduced in 10 years or a land use policy -, and demonstrates how changes to a policy lever affect different model outputs over time. The demonstration familiarizes participants with the interface and provides an example of how FRIDA can be used to explore policy interventions and system responses. === Context === During the transition from the introductory phase to the hands-on exploration of FRIDA. Participants have already been introduced to the model, its intended purpose, and its limitations. === Purpose(s) === Familiarizing participants with the FRIDA ILE; demonstrating how to implement a policy intervention; illustrating how policy changes propagate through the modeled system; preparing participants for independent experimentation. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Demonstrative: activity designed to familiarize participants with the FRIDA ILE through a facilitator-led policy scenario. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer connected to a screen or projector. # Predefined carbon tax scenario: scenarios for early action versus delayed introduction of USD 100/tCO₂ starting in 5, 10 or 20 years. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have been introduced to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and have been introduced to the model's scope and limitations. === Outputs === # Demonstration of a policy intervention using the FRIDA ILE. # Participants gain familiarity with the main functions of the interface. # Participants develop an initial understanding of how changing a policy lever produces changes in modeled system outcomes. === Roles === * A facilitator with practical experience using the FRIDA ILE and sufficient understanding of the model to explain the demonstrated policy intervention and resulting outputs. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Open the FRIDA ILE and briefly orient participants to the main elements of the interface. # Explain that the facilitator will first demonstrate a policy intervention before participants conduct their own experiments. # Introduce the example scenarios: for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax introduced in 5, 10 or 20 years. # Enter the policy intervention into the FRIDA ILE while explaining which policy lever is being modified. # Run the scenario and guide participants through the resulting outputs. # Draw participants' attention to changes in the relevant indicators and explain how the intervention produces responses across different components of the modeled system. # Encourage participants to consider not only what changes in the model, but why these changes occur. Invite brief clarification questions before transitioning to the participant-led exploration. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants understand how a policy intervention is entered into the FRIDA ILE. # Participants can identify the main outputs shown during the demonstration. # Participants understand that policy interventions can produce effects across interconnected components of the modeled system. # Participants are sufficiently familiar with the interface to begin conducting their own experiments. # Participants understand that the modeled results should be interpreted in the context of FRIDA's assumptions and limitations. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the policy demonstration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop agenda included a facilitator-led demonstration of the FRIDA ILE using for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax starting in 10 years. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} ht0qzpn92px3xs032pef0yhv5p2w8ar 4681593 4681592 2026-11-11T12:33:02Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681593 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used to demonstrate the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE) before participants begin their own exploration. The facilitator guides participants through concrete policy interventions - for example using a carbon tax of USD 100/tCO₂ introduced in 10 years or a land use policy -, and demonstrates how changes to a policy lever affect different model outputs over time. The demonstration familiarizes participants with the interface and provides an example of how FRIDA can be used to explore policy interventions and system responses. === Context === During the transition from the introductory phase to the hands-on exploration of FRIDA. Participants have already been introduced to the model, its intended purpose, and its limitations. === Purpose(s) === Familiarizing participants with the FRIDA ILE; demonstrating how to implement a policy intervention; illustrating how policy changes propagate through the modeled system; preparing participants for independent experimentation. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task: === Demonstrative: activity designed to familiarize participants with the FRIDA ILE through a facilitator-led policy scenario. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer connected to a screen or projector. # Predefined carbon tax scenario: scenarios for early action versus delayed introduction of USD 100/tCO₂ starting in 5, 10 or 20 years. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have been introduced to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and have been introduced to the model's scope and limitations. === Outputs === # Demonstration of a policy intervention using the FRIDA ILE. # Participants gain familiarity with the main functions of the interface. # Participants develop an initial understanding of how changing a policy lever produces changes in modeled system outcomes. === Roles === * A facilitator with practical experience using the FRIDA ILE and sufficient understanding of the model to explain the demonstrated policy intervention and resulting outputs. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Open the FRIDA ILE and briefly orient participants to the main elements of the interface. # Explain that the facilitator will first demonstrate a policy intervention before participants conduct their own experiments. # Introduce the example scenarios: for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax introduced in 5, 10 or 20 years. # Enter the policy intervention into the FRIDA ILE while explaining which policy lever is being modified. # Run the scenario and guide participants through the resulting outputs. # Draw participants' attention to changes in the relevant indicators and explain how the intervention produces responses across different components of the modeled system. # Encourage participants to consider not only what changes in the model, but why these changes occur. Invite brief clarification questions before transitioning to the participant-led exploration. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants understand how a policy intervention is entered into the FRIDA ILE. # Participants can identify the main outputs shown during the demonstration. # Participants understand that policy interventions can produce effects across interconnected components of the modeled system. # Participants are sufficiently familiar with the interface to begin conducting their own experiments. # Participants understand that the modeled results should be interpreted in the context of FRIDA's assumptions and limitations. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the policy demonstration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop agenda included a facilitator-led demonstration of the FRIDA ILE using for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax starting in 10 years. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} jqpbz6q5s0ihyfn2cy23dnlsbrp6gvc 4681594 4681593 2026-11-11T12:33:38Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681594 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used to demonstrate the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE) before participants begin their own exploration. The facilitator guides participants through concrete policy interventions - for example using a carbon tax of USD 100/tCO₂ introduced in 10 years or a land use policy -, and demonstrates how changes to a policy lever affect different model outputs over time. The demonstration familiarizes participants with the interface and provides an example of how FRIDA can be used to explore policy interventions and system responses. === Context === During the transition from the introductory phase to the hands-on exploration of FRIDA. Participants have already been introduced to the model, its intended purpose, and its limitations. === Purpose(s) === Familiarizing participants with the FRIDA ILE; demonstrating how to implement a policy intervention; illustrating how policy changes propagate through the modeled system; preparing participants for independent experimentation. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Demonstrative: activity designed to familiarize participants with the FRIDA ILE through a facilitator-led policy scenario. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer connected to a screen or projector. # Predefined carbon tax scenario: scenarios for early action versus delayed introduction of USD 100/tCO₂ starting in 5, 10 or 20 years. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have been introduced to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and have been introduced to the model's scope and limitations. === Outputs === # Demonstration of a policy intervention using the FRIDA ILE. # Participants gain familiarity with the main functions of the interface. # Participants develop an initial understanding of how changing a policy lever produces changes in modeled system outcomes. === Roles === * A facilitator with practical experience using the FRIDA ILE and sufficient understanding of the model to explain the demonstrated policy intervention and resulting outputs. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Open the FRIDA ILE and briefly orient participants to the main elements of the interface. # Explain that the facilitator will first demonstrate a policy intervention before participants conduct their own experiments. # Introduce the example scenarios: for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax introduced in 5, 10 or 20 years. # Enter the policy intervention into the FRIDA ILE while explaining which policy lever is being modified. # Run the scenario and guide participants through the resulting outputs. # Draw participants' attention to changes in the relevant indicators and explain how the intervention produces responses across different components of the modeled system. # Encourage participants to consider not only what changes in the model, but why these changes occur. Invite brief clarification questions before transitioning to the participant-led exploration. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants understand how a policy intervention is entered into the FRIDA ILE. # Participants can identify the main outputs shown during the demonstration. # Participants understand that policy interventions can produce effects across interconnected components of the modeled system. # Participants are sufficiently familiar with the interface to begin conducting their own experiments. # Participants understand that the modeled results should be interpreted in the context of FRIDA's assumptions and limitations. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the policy demonstration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop agenda included a facilitator-led demonstration of the FRIDA ILE using for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax starting in 10 years. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} fik4y3pyl8amtm2ard57eagmiehqy6h 4681608 4681594 2026-11-11T13:36:11Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681608 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ < [[Scriptapedia]] This script is used to demonstrate the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE) before participants begin their own exploration. The facilitator guides participants through concrete policy interventions - for example using a carbon tax of USD 100/tCO₂ introduced in 10 years or a land use policy -, and demonstrates how changes to a policy lever affect different model outputs over time. The demonstration familiarizes participants with the interface and provides an example of how FRIDA can be used to explore policy interventions and system responses. === Context === During the transition from the introductory phase to the hands-on exploration of FRIDA. Participants have already been introduced to the model, its intended purpose, and its limitations. === Purpose(s) === Familiarizing participants with the FRIDA ILE; demonstrating how to implement a policy intervention; illustrating how policy changes propagate through the modeled system; preparing participants for independent experimentation. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Demonstrative: activity designed to familiarize participants with the FRIDA ILE through a facilitator-led policy scenario. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer connected to a screen or projector. # Predefined carbon tax scenario: scenarios for early action versus delayed introduction of USD 100/tCO₂ starting in 5, 10 or 20 years. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have been introduced to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and have been introduced to the model's scope and limitations. === Outputs === # Demonstration of a policy intervention using the FRIDA ILE. # Participants gain familiarity with the main functions of the interface. # Participants develop an initial understanding of how changing a policy lever produces changes in modeled system outcomes. === Roles === * A facilitator with practical experience using the FRIDA ILE and sufficient understanding of the model to explain the demonstrated policy intervention and resulting outputs. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Open the FRIDA ILE and briefly orient participants to the main elements of the interface. # Explain that the facilitator will first demonstrate a policy intervention before participants conduct their own experiments. # Introduce the example scenarios: for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax introduced in 5, 10 or 20 years. # Enter the policy intervention into the FRIDA ILE while explaining which policy lever is being modified. # Run the scenario and guide participants through the resulting outputs. # Draw participants' attention to changes in the relevant indicators and explain how the intervention produces responses across different components of the modeled system. # Encourage participants to consider not only what changes in the model, but why these changes occur. Invite brief clarification questions before transitioning to the participant-led exploration. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants understand how a policy intervention is entered into the FRIDA ILE. # Participants can identify the main outputs shown during the demonstration. # Participants understand that policy interventions can produce effects across interconnected components of the modeled system. # Participants are sufficiently familiar with the interface to begin conducting their own experiments. # Participants understand that the modeled results should be interpreted in the context of FRIDA's assumptions and limitations. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the policy demonstration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop agenda included a facilitator-led demonstration of the FRIDA ILE using for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax starting in 10 years. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} 2hekyuv30euu3vhv30m8mx6uevxq5wa 4681609 4681608 2026-11-11T13:36:45Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681609 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ < [[Scriptapedia]] This script is used to demonstrate the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE) before participants begin their own exploration. The facilitator guides participants through concrete policy interventions - for example using a carbon tax of USD 100/tCO₂ introduced in 10 years or a land use policy -, and demonstrates how changes to a policy lever affect different model outputs over time. The demonstration familiarizes participants with the interface and provides an example of how FRIDA can be used to explore policy interventions and system responses. === Context === During the transition from the introductory phase to the hands-on exploration of FRIDA. Participants have already been introduced to the model, its intended purpose, and its limitations. === Purpose(s) === Familiarizing participants with the FRIDA ILE; demonstrating how to implement a policy intervention; illustrating how policy changes propagate through the modeled system; preparing participants for independent experimentation. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Demonstrative: activity designed to familiarize participants with the FRIDA ILE through a facilitator-led policy scenario. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer connected to a screen or projector. # Predefined carbon tax scenario: scenarios for early action versus delayed introduction of USD 100/tCO₂ starting in 5, 10 or 20 years. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have been introduced to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and have been introduced to the model's scope and limitations. === Outputs === # Demonstration of a policy intervention using the FRIDA ILE. # Participants gain familiarity with the main functions of the interface. # Participants develop an initial understanding of how changing a policy lever produces changes in modeled system outcomes. === Roles === * A facilitator with practical experience using the FRIDA ILE and sufficient understanding of the model to explain the demonstrated policy intervention and resulting outputs. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Open the FRIDA ILE and briefly orient participants to the main elements of the interface. # Explain that the facilitator will first demonstrate a policy intervention before participants conduct their own experiments. # Introduce the example scenarios: for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax introduced in 5, 10 or 20 years. # Enter the policy intervention into the FRIDA ILE while explaining which policy lever is being modified. # Run the scenario and guide participants through the resulting outputs. # Draw participants' attention to changes in the relevant indicators and explain how the intervention produces responses across different components of the modeled system. # Encourage participants to consider not only what changes in the model, but why these changes occur. Invite brief clarification questions before transitioning to the participant-led exploration. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants understand how a policy intervention is entered into the FRIDA ILE. # Participants can identify the main outputs shown during the demonstration. # Participants understand that policy interventions can produce effects across interconnected components of the modeled system. # Participants are sufficiently familiar with the interface to begin conducting their own experiments. # Participants understand that the modeled results should be interpreted in the context of FRIDA's assumptions and limitations. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the policy demonstration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop agenda included a facilitator-led demonstration of the FRIDA ILE using for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax starting in 10 years. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} blq67ud3c1h1t3yggp80o3y5u8lr345 4681748 4681609 2026-11-11T20:46:07Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 Kittycataclysm moved page [[Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] to [[Scriptapedia/Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] without leaving a redirect: consolidate into book 4681609 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ < [[Scriptapedia]] This script is used to demonstrate the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE) before participants begin their own exploration. The facilitator guides participants through concrete policy interventions - for example using a carbon tax of USD 100/tCO₂ introduced in 10 years or a land use policy -, and demonstrates how changes to a policy lever affect different model outputs over time. The demonstration familiarizes participants with the interface and provides an example of how FRIDA can be used to explore policy interventions and system responses. === Context === During the transition from the introductory phase to the hands-on exploration of FRIDA. Participants have already been introduced to the model, its intended purpose, and its limitations. === Purpose(s) === Familiarizing participants with the FRIDA ILE; demonstrating how to implement a policy intervention; illustrating how policy changes propagate through the modeled system; preparing participants for independent experimentation. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Demonstrative: activity designed to familiarize participants with the FRIDA ILE through a facilitator-led policy scenario. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 15 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer connected to a screen or projector. # Predefined carbon tax scenario: scenarios for early action versus delayed introduction of USD 100/tCO₂ starting in 5, 10 or 20 years. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have been introduced to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and have been introduced to the model's scope and limitations. === Outputs === # Demonstration of a policy intervention using the FRIDA ILE. # Participants gain familiarity with the main functions of the interface. # Participants develop an initial understanding of how changing a policy lever produces changes in modeled system outcomes. === Roles === * A facilitator with practical experience using the FRIDA ILE and sufficient understanding of the model to explain the demonstrated policy intervention and resulting outputs. A model expert should be available to clarify technical questions. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Open the FRIDA ILE and briefly orient participants to the main elements of the interface. # Explain that the facilitator will first demonstrate a policy intervention before participants conduct their own experiments. # Introduce the example scenarios: for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax introduced in 5, 10 or 20 years. # Enter the policy intervention into the FRIDA ILE while explaining which policy lever is being modified. # Run the scenario and guide participants through the resulting outputs. # Draw participants' attention to changes in the relevant indicators and explain how the intervention produces responses across different components of the modeled system. # Encourage participants to consider not only what changes in the model, but why these changes occur. Invite brief clarification questions before transitioning to the participant-led exploration. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants understand how a policy intervention is entered into the FRIDA ILE. # Participants can identify the main outputs shown during the demonstration. # Participants understand that policy interventions can produce effects across interconnected components of the modeled system. # Participants are sufficiently familiar with the interface to begin conducting their own experiments. # Participants understand that the modeled results should be interpreted in the context of FRIDA's assumptions and limitations. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the policy demonstration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop agenda included a facilitator-led demonstration of the FRIDA ILE using for early action versus delayed introduction of a USD 100/tCO₂ carbon tax starting in 10 years. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} blq67ud3c1h1t3yggp80o3y5u8lr345 0 487136 4681598 2026-11-11T12:43:12Z Etrouw16 3631078 Created page with "__NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used for the first participant-led exploration of the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). Participants test predefined policy interventions and examine their effects on selected model outputs. The activity allows participants to move from observing a facilitator-led demonstration to actively experimenting with FRIDA and developing an understanding of how different policy interventions can produce different system resp..." 4681598 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ This script is used for the first participant-led exploration of the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). Participants test predefined policy interventions and examine their effects on selected model outputs. The activity allows participants to move from observing a facilitator-led demonstration to actively experimenting with FRIDA and developing an understanding of how different policy interventions can produce different system responses. === Context === Following the introduction to FRIDA and the facilitator-led demonstration. Participants work with predefined policy interventions and subsequently share and discuss their observations in plenary. === Purpose(s) === Developing familiarity with FRIDA through hands-on experimentation; exploring the effects of different policy interventions; encouraging participants to interpret relationships between policy measures and model outcomes; identifying questions for further exploration. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Exploratory: activity designed to allow participants to investigate different policy interventions and develop their own interpretations of the resulting model behavior. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 40 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer or device for participants to access the ILE. # Screen or projector for the facilitator. # Predefined policy scenarios provided by the facilitator. # Notes or worksheets for participants to record observations, if used. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have received an introduction to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and the scope and limitations of the model. # Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios: participants have observed how a policy intervention can be implemented and explored using the ILE. === Outputs === # Observations of the effects of different policy interventions on selected FRIDA outputs. # Participant interpretations of the relationships between policy interventions and model outcomes. # Questions and points for discussion to be addressed during the plenary debrief. === Roles === * Facilitator(s) familiar with the FRIDA ILE and able to support participants during the exercise. Model experts should be available to answer technical questions and clarify model behavior without directing participants toward particular interpretations. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Divide participants into small groups, if appropriate for the number of participants and available devices. # Explain that participants will now use FRIDA themselves to investigate predefined policy interventions. # Introduce the first policy intervention and explain the question participants should investigate. # Ask participants to implement the policy in FRIDA and observe its effects on Surface Temperature Anomaly (STA), GDP per capita, and labor share of GDP. # Allow approximately 10 minutes for participants to explore the intervention and discuss what they observe. # Introduce the second policy intervention and repeat the exercise, again allowing approximately 10 minutes for exploration. # Introduce the third policy intervention and repeat the exercise for approximately 10 minutes. # During the exercises, circulate among participants and provide technical assistance where necessary. Encourage participants to ask what mechanisms or interactions within the model might explain the observed results. # Bring participants back together for a short plenary discussion. Invite groups to share notable results, unexpected outcomes, or questions arising from their exploration. # Ask participants to consider how well they think the modeled results represent possible real-world responses and what additional information or model features they would need to interpret the results in their own contexts. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants are able to independently implement the predefined policy interventions in the FRIDA ILE, with limited facilitator support. # Participants engage with the model outputs and identify changes in STA, GDP per capita, and labor share of GDP. # Participants discuss possible mechanisms or interactions that could explain the observed outcomes. # Participants identify differences between the effects of the tested policy interventions. # Participants raise questions about the interpretation, applicability, or limitations of the modeled results. # Participants are prepared to move from predefined scenarios toward more open-ended exploration of FRIDA. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the first hands-on exploration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop structure involved participants testing three policy interventions, one at a time, for approximately 10 minutes each, followed by a plenary exchange on the results and their interpretation. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} a9nsfderkx38ljjv9ltnkbzt07z0zf1 4681610 4681598 2026-11-11T13:37:21Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681610 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ < [[Scriptapedia]] This script is used for the first participant-led exploration of the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). Participants test predefined policy interventions and examine their effects on selected model outputs. The activity allows participants to move from observing a facilitator-led demonstration to actively experimenting with FRIDA and developing an understanding of how different policy interventions can produce different system responses. === Context === Following the introduction to FRIDA and the facilitator-led demonstration. Participants work with predefined policy interventions and subsequently share and discuss their observations in plenary. === Purpose(s) === Developing familiarity with FRIDA through hands-on experimentation; exploring the effects of different policy interventions; encouraging participants to interpret relationships between policy measures and model outcomes; identifying questions for further exploration. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Exploratory: activity designed to allow participants to investigate different policy interventions and develop their own interpretations of the resulting model behavior. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 40 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer or device for participants to access the ILE. # Screen or projector for the facilitator. # Predefined policy scenarios provided by the facilitator. # Notes or worksheets for participants to record observations, if used. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have received an introduction to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and the scope and limitations of the model. # Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios: participants have observed how a policy intervention can be implemented and explored using the ILE. === Outputs === # Observations of the effects of different policy interventions on selected FRIDA outputs. # Participant interpretations of the relationships between policy interventions and model outcomes. # Questions and points for discussion to be addressed during the plenary debrief. === Roles === * Facilitator(s) familiar with the FRIDA ILE and able to support participants during the exercise. Model experts should be available to answer technical questions and clarify model behavior without directing participants toward particular interpretations. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Divide participants into small groups, if appropriate for the number of participants and available devices. # Explain that participants will now use FRIDA themselves to investigate predefined policy interventions. # Introduce the first policy intervention and explain the question participants should investigate. # Ask participants to implement the policy in FRIDA and observe its effects on Surface Temperature Anomaly (STA), GDP per capita, and labor share of GDP. # Allow approximately 10 minutes for participants to explore the intervention and discuss what they observe. # Introduce the second policy intervention and repeat the exercise, again allowing approximately 10 minutes for exploration. # Introduce the third policy intervention and repeat the exercise for approximately 10 minutes. # During the exercises, circulate among participants and provide technical assistance where necessary. Encourage participants to ask what mechanisms or interactions within the model might explain the observed results. # Bring participants back together for a short plenary discussion. Invite groups to share notable results, unexpected outcomes, or questions arising from their exploration. # Ask participants to consider how well they think the modeled results represent possible real-world responses and what additional information or model features they would need to interpret the results in their own contexts. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants are able to independently implement the predefined policy interventions in the FRIDA ILE, with limited facilitator support. # Participants engage with the model outputs and identify changes in STA, GDP per capita, and labor share of GDP. # Participants discuss possible mechanisms or interactions that could explain the observed outcomes. # Participants identify differences between the effects of the tested policy interventions. # Participants raise questions about the interpretation, applicability, or limitations of the modeled results. # Participants are prepared to move from predefined scenarios toward more open-ended exploration of FRIDA. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the first hands-on exploration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop structure involved participants testing three policy interventions, one at a time, for approximately 10 minutes each, followed by a plenary exchange on the results and their interpretation. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} g1qvc3h15xmetrw8fz6vx9a66quq2bm 4681747 4681610 2026-11-11T20:45:50Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 Kittycataclysm moved page [[Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] to [[Scriptapedia/Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] without leaving a redirect: consolidate into book 4681610 wikitext text/x-wiki __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ < [[Scriptapedia]] This script is used for the first participant-led exploration of the FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). Participants test predefined policy interventions and examine their effects on selected model outputs. The activity allows participants to move from observing a facilitator-led demonstration to actively experimenting with FRIDA and developing an understanding of how different policy interventions can produce different system responses. === Context === Following the introduction to FRIDA and the facilitator-led demonstration. Participants work with predefined policy interventions and subsequently share and discuss their observations in plenary. === Purpose(s) === Developing familiarity with FRIDA through hands-on experimentation; exploring the effects of different policy interventions; encouraging participants to interpret relationships between policy measures and model outcomes; identifying questions for further exploration. === Status === Developed and implemented during the Brussels Policy Event, 30 October 2025. === Primary nature of group task === Exploratory: activity designed to allow participants to investigate different policy interventions and develop their own interpretations of the resulting model behavior. === Time === # Preparation time: 10 minutes. # Time required to complete steps in script: 40 minutes. # Follow-up time: Zero. === Materials === # FRIDA Interactive Learning Environment (ILE). # Computer or device for participants to access the ILE. # Screen or projector for the facilitator. # Predefined policy scenarios provided by the facilitator. # Notes or worksheets for participants to record observations, if used. === Inputs === # Introducing WorldTrans and FRIDA: participants have received an introduction to FRIDA and its intended purpose. # Setting Expectations and FRIDA Delimitations: participants have discussed their expectations and the scope and limitations of the model. # Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios: participants have observed how a policy intervention can be implemented and explored using the ILE. === Outputs === # Observations of the effects of different policy interventions on selected FRIDA outputs. # Participant interpretations of the relationships between policy interventions and model outcomes. # Questions and points for discussion to be addressed during the plenary debrief. === Roles === * Facilitator(s) familiar with the FRIDA ILE and able to support participants during the exercise. Model experts should be available to answer technical questions and clarify model behavior without directing participants toward particular interpretations. === Who is in the room? === # Facilitator(s). # FRIDA model expert(s). # Decision-makers, including climate negotiators, youth delegates, and other policy stakeholders === Steps === # Divide participants into small groups, if appropriate for the number of participants and available devices. # Explain that participants will now use FRIDA themselves to investigate predefined policy interventions. # Introduce the first policy intervention and explain the question participants should investigate. # Ask participants to implement the policy in FRIDA and observe its effects on Surface Temperature Anomaly (STA), GDP per capita, and labor share of GDP. # Allow approximately 10 minutes for participants to explore the intervention and discuss what they observe. # Introduce the second policy intervention and repeat the exercise, again allowing approximately 10 minutes for exploration. # Introduce the third policy intervention and repeat the exercise for approximately 10 minutes. # During the exercises, circulate among participants and provide technical assistance where necessary. Encourage participants to ask what mechanisms or interactions within the model might explain the observed results. # Bring participants back together for a short plenary discussion. Invite groups to share notable results, unexpected outcomes, or questions arising from their exploration. # Ask participants to consider how well they think the modeled results represent possible real-world responses and what additional information or model features they would need to interpret the results in their own contexts. === Evaluation Criteria: === The script is successful if: # Participants are able to independently implement the predefined policy interventions in the FRIDA ILE, with limited facilitator support. # Participants engage with the model outputs and identify changes in STA, GDP per capita, and labor share of GDP. # Participants discuss possible mechanisms or interactions that could explain the observed outcomes. # Participants identify differences between the effects of the tested policy interventions. # Participants raise questions about the interpretation, applicability, or limitations of the modeled results. # Participants are prepared to move from predefined scenarios toward more open-ended exploration of FRIDA. === Author === WorldTrans WP4 researchers; Brussels Policy Event facilitation team. === History === Based on the first hands-on exploration phase of the Brussels Policy Event held at Norway House, Brussels, on 30 October 2025. The original workshop structure involved participants testing three policy interventions, one at a time, for approximately 10 minutes each, followed by a plenary exchange on the results and their interpretation. === Revisions === === References === {{BookCat}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Scriptapedia}} g1qvc3h15xmetrw8fz6vx9a66quq2bm 0 487137 4681605 2026-11-11T13:12:59Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 Created page with "== Likable Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in a manner similar to our culture's evolution. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> Post-Frankenstein, monstrosity shifted inwa..." 4681605 wikitext text/x-wiki == Likable Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in a manner similar to our culture's evolution. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> Post-Frankenstein, monstrosity shifted inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> p9h0q1o0b47d0z8now14yb79xvcm6nj 4681622 4681605 2026-11-11T14:33:18Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681622 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change beside the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> Post-Frankenstein, monstrosity shifted inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser (1590) [The Blatant Beast] <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - Frankenstein by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - Count Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - The Beetle by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien (1937) <br> The Mummy (1932) <br> King Kong (1933) <br> Godzilla (1954) <br> The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) <br> Hannibal by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> 84wbb6yqeobcljwkpwnoqc6b26eqle7 4681624 4681622 2026-11-11T14:36:36Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681624 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change beside the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> Post-Frankenstein, monstrosity shifted inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> The Faerie Queene by Edmund Spenser (1590) [The Blatant Beast] <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - Frankenstein by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - Count Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - The Beetle by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien (1937) <br> The Mummy (1932) <br> King Kong (1933) <br> Godzilla (1954) <br> The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) <br> Hannibal by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} 1mioydnsgofhpk68b3obkrhqw1joliu 4681634 4681624 2026-11-11T15:42:36Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681634 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change beside the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> From The Monster of Ravenna, to Frankenstein's monster, monstrosity shifted inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. These monsters were born inside. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> <br> The Monk Calf and Pope Donkey. These were real or imagined malformed farm animals popularized in anti-Catholic pamphlets. The malformed animals became symbols of the corruption of papal orders. <br> <br> [[File:Carta Marina (Detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Carta Marina, by Olaus Magnus, 1539]] Olaus Magnus's Carta Marina (1539). A massive map of Northern Europe depicted areas where giant monsters roamed. The map showed sea serpents and whales that were believed to lure sailors to their doom. <br> <br> ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser (1590), has tales of the Blatant Beast, a famous literary monster. The Blatant Beast is a dog-like creature with numerous animal and human tongues. The beast is an allegory for slander, malicious gossip, and unfair public criticism. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 17th Century:''' <br> - ''The Tempest'' by William Shakespeare (1611). The literary monster Caliban is half-human, half-monster. He emerges from European colonial fear, exploring the blurry line between "civilized" humans and savages. He explores the capacity for monstrosity found within mankind. <br> <br> '''''Taxonomies''' (De Monstrorum Caussis)'' by Fortunio Liceti (1634), was a scientific text that examined physical monstrosities, such as humans with animal parts or conjoined twins. Liceti saw them as natural phenomenon "showings" (monstrare) rather than just curses from God. <br> <br> ''The History of Four-Footed Beasts'' by Edward Topsell (1658), expanded and catalogued hybrid and legendary creatures. His illustrations included the ''Manticore'', the ''lamia'', the ''Hydra'' and the ''Sphinx''. Topsell blurred zoological fact and folklore. <br> <br> ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton (1667), featured allegorical monsters like Sin and Death guarding the gates of Hell. This marks a shift from traditional monsters, like the Scorpio-men, who guarded the gates of gods like Shamash. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - Frankenstein by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - Count Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - The Beetle by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien (1937) <br> The Mummy (1932) <br> King Kong (1933) <br> Godzilla (1954) <br> The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) <br> Hannibal by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} gnowbbwsb7wrfco24ieijvd7hsm2hmg 4681636 4681634 2026-11-11T15:54:33Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 /* Changing Monsters */ 4681636 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change like the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> From The Monster of Ravenna, to Frankenstein's monster, monstrosity shifted inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. These monsters were born inside. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> <br> The Monk Calf and Pope Donkey. These were real or imagined malformed farm animals popularized in anti-Catholic pamphlets. The malformed animals became symbols of the corruption of papal orders. <br> <br> [[File:Carta Marina (Detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Carta Marina, by Olaus Magnus, 1539]] Olaus Magnus's Carta Marina (1539). A massive map of Northern Europe depicted areas where giant monsters roamed. The map showed sea serpents and whales that were believed to lure sailors to their doom. <br> <br> ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser (1590), has tales of the Blatant Beast, a famous literary monster. The Blatant Beast is a dog-like creature with numerous animal and human tongues. The beast is an allegory for slander, malicious gossip, and unfair public criticism. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 17th Century:''' <br> - ''The Tempest'' by William Shakespeare (1611). The literary monster Caliban is half-human, half-monster. He emerges from European colonial fear, exploring the blurry line between "civilized" humans and savages. He explores the capacity for monstrosity found within mankind. <br> <br> '''''Taxonomies''' (De Monstrorum Caussis)'' by Fortunio Liceti (1634), was a scientific text that examined physical monstrosities, such as humans with animal parts or conjoined twins. Liceti saw them as natural phenomenon "showings" (monstrare) rather than just curses from God. <br> <br> ''The History of Four-Footed Beasts'' by Edward Topsell (1658), expanded and catalogued hybrid and legendary creatures. His illustrations included the ''Manticore'', the ''lamia'', the ''Hydra'' and the ''Sphinx''. Topsell blurred zoological fact and folklore. <br> <br> ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton (1667), featured allegorical monsters like Sin and Death guarding the gates of Hell. This marks a shift from traditional monsters, like the Scorpio-men, who guarded the gates of gods like Shamash. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - Frankenstein by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - Count Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - The Beetle by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien (1937) <br> The Mummy (1932) <br> King Kong (1933) <br> Godzilla (1954) <br> The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) <br> Hannibal by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} jc4ijcfvkp362a45dje198xsidzefaw 4681637 4681636 2026-11-11T15:55:12Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681637 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change like the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> From The Monster of Ravenna to Frankenstein's monster, monstrosity shifted inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. These monsters were born inside. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> <br> The Monk Calf and Pope Donkey. These were real or imagined malformed farm animals popularized in anti-Catholic pamphlets. The malformed animals became symbols of the corruption of papal orders. <br> <br> [[File:Carta Marina (Detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Carta Marina, by Olaus Magnus, 1539]] Olaus Magnus's Carta Marina (1539). A massive map of Northern Europe depicted areas where giant monsters roamed. The map showed sea serpents and whales that were believed to lure sailors to their doom. <br> <br> ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser (1590), has tales of the Blatant Beast, a famous literary monster. The Blatant Beast is a dog-like creature with numerous animal and human tongues. The beast is an allegory for slander, malicious gossip, and unfair public criticism. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 17th Century:''' <br> - ''The Tempest'' by William Shakespeare (1611). The literary monster Caliban is half-human, half-monster. He emerges from European colonial fear, exploring the blurry line between "civilized" humans and savages. He explores the capacity for monstrosity found within mankind. <br> <br> '''''Taxonomies''' (De Monstrorum Caussis)'' by Fortunio Liceti (1634), was a scientific text that examined physical monstrosities, such as humans with animal parts or conjoined twins. Liceti saw them as natural phenomenon "showings" (monstrare) rather than just curses from God. <br> <br> ''The History of Four-Footed Beasts'' by Edward Topsell (1658), expanded and catalogued hybrid and legendary creatures. His illustrations included the ''Manticore'', the ''lamia'', the ''Hydra'' and the ''Sphinx''. Topsell blurred zoological fact and folklore. <br> <br> ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton (1667), featured allegorical monsters like Sin and Death guarding the gates of Hell. This marks a shift from traditional monsters, like the Scorpio-men, who guarded the gates of gods like Shamash. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - Frankenstein by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - Count Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - The Beetle by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien (1937) <br> The Mummy (1932) <br> King Kong (1933) <br> Godzilla (1954) <br> The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) <br> Hannibal by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} gi1qlpykta6e47qz49vquj7gnbxuif9 4681638 4681637 2026-11-11T15:55:57Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681638 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change like the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> From The Monster of Ravenna to Frankenstein's monster, monstrosity started to shift inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. These monsters were born inside. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> <br> The Monk Calf and Pope Donkey. These were real or imagined malformed farm animals popularized in anti-Catholic pamphlets. The malformed animals became symbols of the corruption of papal orders. <br> <br> [[File:Carta Marina (Detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Carta Marina, by Olaus Magnus, 1539]] Olaus Magnus's Carta Marina (1539). A massive map of Northern Europe depicted areas where giant monsters roamed. The map showed sea serpents and whales that were believed to lure sailors to their doom. <br> <br> ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser (1590), has tales of the Blatant Beast, a famous literary monster. The Blatant Beast is a dog-like creature with numerous animal and human tongues. The beast is an allegory for slander, malicious gossip, and unfair public criticism. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 17th Century:''' <br> - ''The Tempest'' by William Shakespeare (1611). The literary monster Caliban is half-human, half-monster. He emerges from European colonial fear, exploring the blurry line between "civilized" humans and savages. He explores the capacity for monstrosity found within mankind. <br> <br> '''''Taxonomies''' (De Monstrorum Caussis)'' by Fortunio Liceti (1634), was a scientific text that examined physical monstrosities, such as humans with animal parts or conjoined twins. Liceti saw them as natural phenomenon "showings" (monstrare) rather than just curses from God. <br> <br> ''The History of Four-Footed Beasts'' by Edward Topsell (1658), expanded and catalogued hybrid and legendary creatures. His illustrations included the ''Manticore'', the ''lamia'', the ''Hydra'' and the ''Sphinx''. Topsell blurred zoological fact and folklore. <br> <br> ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton (1667), featured allegorical monsters like Sin and Death guarding the gates of Hell. This marks a shift from traditional monsters, like the Scorpio-men, who guarded the gates of gods like Shamash. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - Frankenstein by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - Count Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - The Beetle by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien (1937) <br> The Mummy (1932) <br> King Kong (1933) <br> Godzilla (1954) <br> The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) <br> Hannibal by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} mzxnbbcvrea2vxgebi42t4ffvtnr625 4681639 4681638 2026-11-11T16:00:04Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681639 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change like the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> From The Monster of Ravenna to Frankenstein's monster, monstrosity started to shift inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. These monsters were born inside. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> <br> The Monk Calf and Pope Donkey. These were real or imagined malformed farm animals popularized in anti-Catholic pamphlets. The malformed animals became symbols of the corruption of papal orders. <br> <br> [[File:Carta Marina (Detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Carta Marina, by Olaus Magnus, 1539]] Olaus Magnus's Carta Marina (1539). A massive map of Northern Europe depicted areas where giant monsters roamed. The map showed sea serpents and whales that were believed to lure sailors to their doom. <br> <br> ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser (1590), has tales of the Blatant Beast, a famous literary monster. The Blatant Beast is a dog-like creature with numerous animal and human tongues. The beast is an allegory for slander, malicious gossip, and unfair public criticism. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 17th Century:''' <br> - ''The Tempest'' by William Shakespeare (1611). The literary monster Caliban is half-human, half-monster. He emerges from European colonial fear, exploring the blurry line between "civilized" humans and savages. He explores the capacity for monstrosity found within mankind. <br> <br> '''''Taxonomies''' (De Monstrorum Caussis)'' by Fortunio Liceti (1634), was a scientific text that examined physical monstrosities, such as humans with animal parts or conjoined twins. Liceti saw them as natural phenomenon "showings" (monstrare) rather than just curses from God. <br> <br> ''The History of Four-Footed Beasts'' by Edward Topsell (1658), expanded and catalogued hybrid and legendary creatures. His illustrations included the ''Manticore'', the ''lamia'', the ''Hydra'' and the ''Sphinx''. Topsell blurred zoological fact and folklore. <br> <br> ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton (1667), featured allegorical monsters like Sin and Death guarding the gates of Hell. This marks a shift from traditional monsters, like the Scorpio-men, who guarded the gates of the gods, like Shamash. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - The Mysteries of Udolpho by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - Frankenstein by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - Count Dracula by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - The Invisible Man by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - The Beetle by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> The Hobbit and The Lord of The Rings by Tolkien (1937) <br> The Mummy (1932) <br> King Kong (1933) <br> Godzilla (1954) <br> The Creature from the Black Lagoon (1954) <br> Hannibal by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} 8kiqyrtovmnhiih6ygtfhbctaapzsr9 4681640 4681639 2026-11-11T16:02:08Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681640 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change like the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> From The Monster of Ravenna to Frankenstein's monster, monstrosity started to shift inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. These monsters were born inside. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> <br> The Monk Calf and Pope Donkey. These were real or imagined malformed farm animals popularized in anti-Catholic pamphlets. The malformed animals became symbols of the corruption of papal orders. <br> <br> [[File:Carta Marina (Detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Carta Marina, by Olaus Magnus, 1539]] Olaus Magnus's Carta Marina (1539). A massive map of Northern Europe depicted areas where giant monsters roamed. The map showed sea serpents and whales that were believed to lure sailors to their doom. <br> <br> ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser (1590), has tales of the Blatant Beast, a famous literary monster. The Blatant Beast is a dog-like creature with numerous animal and human tongues. The beast is an allegory for slander, malicious gossip, and unfair public criticism. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 17th Century:''' <br> - ''The Tempest'' by William Shakespeare (1611). The literary monster Caliban is half-human, half-monster. He emerges from European colonial fear, exploring the blurry line between "civilized" humans and savages. He explores the capacity for monstrosity found within mankind. <br> <br> '''''Taxonomies''' (De Monstrorum Caussis)'' by Fortunio Liceti (1634), was a scientific text that examined physical monstrosities, such as humans with animal parts or conjoined twins. Liceti saw them as natural phenomenon "showings" (monstrare) rather than just curses from God. <br> <br> ''The History of Four-Footed Beasts'' by Edward Topsell (1658), expanded and catalogued hybrid and legendary creatures. His illustrations included the ''Manticore'', the ''lamia'', the ''Hydra'' and the ''Sphinx''. Topsell blurred zoological fact and folklore. <br> <br> ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton (1667), featured allegorical monsters like Sin and Death guarding the gates of Hell. This marks a shift from traditional monsters, like the Scorpio-men, who guarded the gates of the gods, like Shamash. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> - ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' by Ann Radcliffe (1794) <br> - ''Gulliver's Travels'' by Jonathan Swift (1726) <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - ''Frankenstein'' by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - ''Through the Looking-Glass'' by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - ''Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'' by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - ''Count Dracula'' by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - ''The Invisible Man'' by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - ''The Beetle'' by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> ''The Hobbit'' and ''The Lord of The Rings'' by Tolkien (1937) <br> ''The Mummy'' (1932) <br> ''King Kong'' (1933) <br> ''Godzilla'' (1954) <br> ''The Creature from the Black Lagoon'' (1954) <br> ''Hannibal'' by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} 78khrjsf62hv81rbyag8gs0ksl4g98v 4681646 4681640 2026-11-11T16:32:36Z 3MMPEYTON 3393808 4681646 wikitext text/x-wiki == Changing Monsters == Monsters change, they evolve in manners similar to the way cultures evolve. Monsters are examples of cultural evolution, they change like the changing worldviews of the people who created them. <br> <br> '''Evolution of The Monster:''' <br> <br> - '''The External Monster:''' <br> Ancient monsters came from outside human society. They emerged from the gods, the wilderness, the ocean, from the unexplored and wildest parts of nature. <br> <br> - '''The Internal Monster:''' <br> From The Monster of Ravenna to Frankenstein's monster, monstrosity started to shift inward. Humans created new monsters through Science and Psychology. A few of these new monsters were surprisingly likable! <br> <br> Monsters began to shift from magical folklore, or agents of divine punishment, into the products of human over-ambition, rationalism and laboratories. <br> [[File:Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Curious creatures in zoology (14947807574) (cropped)]] '''Monsters of the 16th Century:''' <br> In the 16th century, "monsters" were examined by naturalists, cartographers, and religious leaders. They were believed to be divine warnings, or as marvels of nature. <br> <br> During the Protestant Reformation, unusual human or animal births (prodigies) were published in broadsheets and pamphlets. These monsters were born inside. They were used as moral or prophetic omens by writers who opposed certain political or religious rivals. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 16th Century in Literature:''' <br> The Monster of Ravenna (1512), reported largely in pamphlets and diaries, was about an infamous deformed infant born near the city of Ravenna. The child was reported as having a horn, wings, one raptor's foot, an eye on the knee, and a "Y" and cross symbol on its chest. Catholics and Protestants fiercely debated its meaning as a sign of divine wrath. [1] <br> <br> The Monk Calf and Pope Donkey. These were real or imagined malformed farm animals popularized in anti-Catholic pamphlets. The malformed animals became symbols of the corruption of papal orders. <br> <br> [[File:Carta Marina (Detail).jpg|thumb|Detail of the Carta Marina, by Olaus Magnus, 1539]] Olaus Magnus's Carta Marina (1539). A massive map of Northern Europe depicted areas where giant monsters roamed. The map showed sea serpents and whales that were believed to lure sailors to their doom. <br> <br> ''The Faerie Queene'' by Edmund Spenser (1590), has tales of the Blatant Beast, a famous literary monster. The Blatant Beast is a dog-like creature with numerous animal and human tongues. The beast is an allegory for slander, malicious gossip, and unfair public criticism. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 17th Century:''' <br> - ''The Tempest'' by William Shakespeare (1611). The literary monster Caliban is half-human, half-monster. He emerges from European colonial fear, exploring the blurry line between "civilized" humans and savages. He explores the capacity for monstrosity found within mankind. <br> <br> '''''Taxonomies''' (De Monstrorum Caussis)'' by Fortunio Liceti (1634), was a scientific text that examined physical monstrosities, such as humans with animal parts or conjoined twins. Liceti saw them as natural phenomenon "showings" (monstrare) rather than just curses from God. <br> <br> ''The History of Four-Footed Beasts'' by Edward Topsell (1658), expanded and catalogued hybrid and legendary creatures. His illustrations included the ''Manticore'', the ''lamia'', the ''Hydra'' and the ''Sphinx''. Topsell blurred zoological fact and folklore. <br> <br> ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton (1667), featured allegorical monsters like Sin and Death guarding the gates of Hell. This marks a shift from traditional monsters, like the Scorpio-men, who guarded the gates of the gods, like Shamash. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 18th Century:''' <br> Writers of the 18th century used monsters to explore deep human fears about Science, power and the psyche. <br> <br> ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' by Ann Radcliffe (1794), is a story filled with gothic landscapes and hidden threats. Corrupt patriarchs lead to psychological dread where the "monster" was often human cruelty or imagined terror. ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' became a popular bestseller. <br> <br> - ''Gulliver's Travels'' by Jonathan Swift (1726), is a popular satire about human nature. The story is about Lemuel Gulliver, an Englishman who travels to strange and distant lands, each inhabited by beings that reflect different aspects of human nature and society. [2] The book is populated with unusual monsters like the Yahoo, the Houyhnhnm, the Lilliputian, the Brobdingnagian, and the Struldbrugg. <br> <br> '''Monsters of the 19th Century:''' <br> - ''Frankenstein'' by Mary Shelly (1818) <br> - ''Through the Looking-Glass'' by Lewis Carroll (1871) <br> - ''Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde'' by Robert Louis Stevenson (1886) <br> - ''Count Dracula'' by Bram Stoker (1897) <br> - ''The Invisible Man'' by H.G. Wells (1897) <br> - ''The Beetle'' by Richard Marsh (1897) <br> '''Monsters of the 20th Century:''' <br> ''The Hobbit'' and ''The Lord of The Rings'' by Tolkien (1937) <br> ''The Mummy'' (1932) <br> ''King Kong'' (1933) <br> ''Godzilla'' (1954) <br> ''The Creature from the Black Lagoon'' (1954) <br> ''Hannibal'' by Thomas Harris (1999) <br> <br> <br> ==== Reference: ==== 1. "Monster of Ravenna." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, March 15, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_of_Ravenna <br> <br> 2. "Gulliver's Travels." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, November 8, 2026. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulliver%27s_Travels <br> <br> <br><noinclude>{{Chapter navigation with TOC|Chapter Four|Questions And Answers|TOC mini}}</noinclude> <br> <br> {{bookcat}} 7bgqk5a1sshv5ec1itvev3lom929o8k 0 487138 4681612 2026-11-11T13:41:50Z Etrouw16 3631078 Created page with "[[Scriptapedia/Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits|Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] [[Scriptapedia/Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios|Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] [[Scriptapedia/Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA|Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]]" 4681612 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Scriptapedia/Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits|Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] [[Scriptapedia/Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios|Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] [[Scriptapedia/Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA|Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] 2nicfaxhshhdvjrk6ggin4a9uaq5tke 4681613 4681612 2026-11-11T13:43:28Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681613 wikitext text/x-wiki > [[Scriptapedia]] [[Scriptapedia/Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits|Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] [[Scriptapedia/Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios|Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] [[Scriptapedia/Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA|Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] 5o4e1gr2wi5aax631k5nk344j1rb22d 4681614 4681613 2026-11-11T13:45:46Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681614 wikitext text/x-wiki > [[Scriptapedia]] [[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits|Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] [[Scriptapedia/Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits|Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] [[Scriptapedia/Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios|Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] [[Scriptapedia/Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA|Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] q7kjo89l2twviehzl4w4x1rooharba9 4681615 4681614 2026-11-11T13:47:28Z Etrouw16 3631078 4681615 wikitext text/x-wiki < [[Scriptapedia]] [[Scriptapedia/Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits|Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] [[Scriptapedia/Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios|Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] [[Scriptapedia/Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA|Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] 53es37r7ny0k3e744gil7dhpnjzrfje 4681746 4681615 2026-11-11T20:45:23Z Kittycataclysm 3371989 Kittycataclysm moved page [[Scripts for gaming in system dynamics]] to [[Scriptapedia/Scripts for gaming in system dynamics]] without leaving a redirect: consolidate into book 4681615 wikitext text/x-wiki < [[Scriptapedia]] [[Scriptapedia/Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits|Setting Expectations and Understanding Model Limits]] [[Scriptapedia/Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios|Demonstrating FRIDA Through Policy Scenarios]] [[Scriptapedia/Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA|Exploring Policy Outcomes in FRIDA]] 53es37r7ny0k3e744gil7dhpnjzrfje 2 487139 4681616 2026-11-11T13:50:48Z 刘宸宁 3628809 Created page with "Thank you for coming here" 4681616 wikitext text/x-wiki Thank you for coming here 3r2i30wa3fwihlroiisz3p3y8ekulkd 2 487140 4681617 2026-11-11T13:51:05Z Veerababu.M 3630679 Created an educational article titled "Embedded Systems: From Fundamentals to Real-World Applications", covering embedded system architecture, microcontrollers, sensors, actuators, programming, communication protocols, IoT, practical applications and future trends. 4681617 wikitext text/x-wiki = Embedded Systems: From Fundamentals to Real-World Applications = '''Embedded systems''' are specialized computing systems designed to perform specific functions within larger electronic, electrical, mechanical or industrial systems. They combine hardware and software to monitor physical conditions, process information and control external devices. Unlike general-purpose computers, embedded systems are usually optimized for dedicated applications, predictable operation, reliability and efficient resource utilization. Embedded systems have become an essential part of modern technology. They are used in automobiles, medical equipment, household appliances, industrial automation, robotics, communication devices, smart agriculture and the Internet of Things (IoT). Their ability to interact with the physical environment makes them an important foundation of modern engineering. == Introduction to Embedded Systems == An embedded system is a combination of electronic hardware and software developed to perform a specific task. It generally consists of a processing unit, memory, input and output interfaces, sensors, actuators and a power supply. For example, a digital washing machine uses an embedded controller to manage water intake, motor operation, washing time and drainage. The controller receives information from sensors, processes the information according to its program and activates the required components. Similarly, an automotive engine control unit monitors different engine parameters and controls fuel injection and ignition timing to support efficient engine operation. The primary purpose of an embedded system is to perform its intended function accurately and efficiently. == Fundamental Components of an Embedded System == An embedded system consists of several hardware and software components that work together. === Processing Unit === The processing unit is responsible for executing instructions and controlling the operation of the system. It may be a microcontroller, microprocessor, digital signal processor or another specialized processing device. Microcontrollers are commonly used in embedded applications because they integrate processing, memory and peripheral interfaces into a single integrated circuit. Examples include the ATmega328P, PIC18F458, ESP32 and STM32 microcontroller families. === Memory Unit === Memory stores program instructions, configuration information and temporary data. The major types of memory include: * Read-Only Memory (ROM): Stores information that is retained without normal operating power. * Random Access Memory (RAM): Stores temporary data during program execution. * Flash Memory: Stores firmware and other non-volatile information. * Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM): Stores data that can be electrically modified and retained without power. === Input Unit === The input unit receives information from the external environment through sensors, switches and other input devices. Examples include temperature sensors, pressure sensors, ultrasonic sensors, light sensors and push buttons. === Output Unit === The output unit provides the result of processing by controlling external devices. Examples include LEDs, LCD displays, motors, relays, buzzers and actuators. === Power Supply === The power supply provides the electrical energy required by the embedded system. Depending on the application, the system may operate using batteries, regulated DC supplies or power conversion circuits. === Embedded Software === Embedded software, commonly called firmware, contains the instructions that control the hardware and implement the required application. It is commonly developed using programming languages such as C and C++, depending on the target platform. == Architecture of Embedded Systems == Embedded system architecture describes how different hardware and software components are organized and communicate with each other. A typical embedded system follows an input-process-output structure. The input devices collect information from the environment. The processing unit executes the programmed instructions and generates suitable output signals. Memory stores the required program and data. In more advanced systems, communication interfaces and additional processors may also be included. == Characteristics of Embedded Systems == Embedded systems have several characteristics that distinguish them from general-purpose computing systems. '''Dedicated functionality:''' Most embedded systems are designed to perform a particular task or a limited group of tasks. '''Real-time operation:''' Some embedded applications must respond to external events within specified timing constraints. '''Reliability:''' Embedded devices are often expected to operate continuously and consistently. '''Low power consumption:''' Battery-operated systems are designed to reduce energy consumption. '''Compact design:''' Many embedded systems are integrated into small electronic products. '''Cost efficiency:''' Hardware and software are selected according to the functional and economic requirements of the application. '''Hardware-software integration:''' Embedded systems combine electronic circuits and software to perform their intended functions. == Classification of Embedded Systems == Embedded systems can be classified according to their complexity, processing capabilities and timing requirements. === Small-Scale Embedded Systems === Small-scale embedded systems generally use simple microcontrollers and limited memory resources. Examples include digital clocks, electronic calculators and basic temperature controllers. === Medium-Scale Embedded Systems === Medium-scale systems use more capable microcontrollers or processors and may contain multiple peripherals and communication interfaces. Examples include smart home controllers, printer control systems and industrial monitoring devices. === Large-Scale and Complex Embedded Systems === These systems may contain multiple processors, advanced communication technologies and complex software architectures. Examples include automotive control platforms, aircraft control systems and advanced industrial automation systems. === Classification Based on Real-Time Requirements === '''Hard real-time systems:''' These systems must meet specified deadlines. Missing a critical deadline is considered a system failure. Certain flight-control and safety-critical functions are examples. '''Firm real-time systems:''' Results received after their deadlines may have no practical value, although occasional missed deadlines may be tolerated. '''Soft real-time systems:''' Occasional missed deadlines reduce performance or quality but do not necessarily cause complete system failure. Multimedia applications are common examples. == Microcontrollers and Microprocessors == Microcontrollers and microprocessors are important processing devices used in embedded and computing applications. A microcontroller integrates a processor, memory and peripheral interfaces into a single integrated circuit. It is commonly used in dedicated control applications. A microprocessor primarily provides processing capabilities and generally requires external memory and peripheral components to form a complete computing system. {| class="wikitable" ! Feature ! Microcontroller ! Microprocessor |- | Integration | CPU, memory and peripherals are commonly integrated | Primarily contains the processing unit |- | Power consumption | Often lower for dedicated control applications | Depends on processor and system design |- | Application | Embedded control systems | General-purpose computing and advanced processing |- | External components | Often fewer are required | Generally requires additional components |- | Cost | Often economical for dedicated systems | Depends on complete system requirements |} Examples of microcontrollers include AT89C51, PIC18F458, ATmega328P, ESP32 and STM32 devices. == Sensors and Actuators in Embedded Systems == Sensors and actuators allow embedded systems to interact with the physical environment. === Sensors === A sensor detects a physical or environmental condition and converts it into an electrical signal that can be processed by an electronic system. Common sensors include: {| class="wikitable" ! Sensor ! Measurement ! Application |- | LM35 | Temperature | Temperature monitoring |- | MQ-2 | Smoke and combustible gases | Gas detection |- | Ultrasonic sensor | Distance | Obstacle detection |- | Infrared sensor | Infrared radiation | Object detection |- | LDR | Light intensity | Automatic lighting |- | Soil moisture sensor | Soil moisture | Irrigation control |- | Pressure sensor | Pressure | Industrial monitoring |} === Actuators === An actuator converts an electrical control signal into physical action. Examples include DC motors, servo motors, stepper motors, relays, solenoid valves and buzzers. In an embedded control system, the microcontroller processes sensor information and generates output signals to operate the actuators. == Embedded System Programming == Embedded programming involves developing software that controls the hardware of an embedded device. C and C++ are widely used because they provide efficient programming capabilities and support low-level hardware interaction. Important programming concepts include variables, data types, conditional statements, loops, functions, arrays, pointers, bitwise operations and interrupt handling. === Example: LED Control Using Arduino-Compatible C++ === The following program demonstrates basic digital output control. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> #define LED_PIN 2 void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); } void loop() { digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); delay(1000); digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); delay(1000); } </syntaxhighlight> In this example, the microcontroller configures a GPIO pin as an output. The LED is switched ON for one second and OFF for one second repeatedly. The example demonstrates how software instructions can control physical electronic components. == Communication Protocols in Embedded Systems == Communication protocols allow microcontrollers to exchange information with sensors, displays, memory devices and other electronic systems. === UART === UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter. It is a serial communication method that commonly uses separate transmit and receive signals. Communication requires compatible configuration settings such as baud rate, data bits, parity and stop bits. UART is widely used for debugging, GPS modules and serial communication between microcontrollers. === SPI === SPI stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. It is a synchronous serial communication protocol commonly using four signals: * MOSI: Master Out Slave In. * MISO: Master In Slave Out. * SCLK: Serial Clock. * CS: Chip Select. SPI is commonly used with displays, memory devices and wireless communication modules. === I2C === I2C stands for Inter-Integrated Circuit. It uses two primary signal lines: * SDA: Serial Data. * SCL: Serial Clock. Multiple compatible devices can communicate through the same bus using device addresses. I2C is commonly used with sensors, LCD modules and other low-speed peripherals. == Development Platforms for Embedded Systems == Development platforms provide hardware and software environments for designing, programming and testing embedded applications. === Arduino === Arduino is an open-source electronics platform widely used for learning and developing microcontroller-based projects. It provides a simple programming environment and supports digital input/output, analog input on supported boards, PWM and peripheral interfacing. === ESP32 === ESP32 is a family of microcontrollers widely used in wireless and Internet of Things applications. Depending on the model, features include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPIO, ADC, PWM and UART, SPI and I2C communication interfaces. ESP32 development boards are used in smart home devices, wireless sensor monitoring and remote control applications. === STM32 === STM32 is a family of 32-bit microcontrollers based on ARM Cortex processor architectures. These microcontrollers are widely used in industrial automation, robotics, motor control and advanced embedded applications. == Wireless Communication Technologies == Wireless communication allows embedded devices to exchange information without direct wired connections. '''Wi-Fi:''' Provides wireless network connectivity and is widely used for internet-connected embedded devices. '''Bluetooth:''' Supports short-range wireless communication between electronic devices. '''Bluetooth Low Energy:''' Provides wireless communication designed for applications requiring low energy consumption. '''Zigbee:''' A low-power wireless communication technology used in sensor networks and home automation. '''LoRa:''' Supports long-range, low-data-rate wireless communication for applications such as agriculture and environmental monitoring. '''NRF24L01:''' A 2.4 GHz wireless transceiver module used for packet-based communication between compatible embedded devices. The selection of wireless technology depends on communication range, data rate, power consumption, network requirements and cost. == Real-Time Operating Systems == A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) is an operating system designed to manage tasks and provide predictable responses within specified timing requirements. RTOS features include task scheduling, multitasking, interrupt management, synchronization and inter-task communication. Some embedded applications require multiple tasks to execute with predictable timing. An RTOS helps organize and manage these tasks. FreeRTOS is an example of a real-time operating system used in microcontroller-based applications. RTOS technology is used in robotics, industrial automation, automotive electronics and communication systems. == Internet of Things and Embedded Systems == The Internet of Things (IoT) refers to a network of physical devices equipped with sensors, software and communication capabilities that enable them to collect and exchange information. Embedded systems form an important part of IoT because they collect information from the physical environment, process it and communicate with other devices or platforms. A typical IoT architecture contains: # Sensors and physical devices. # Microcontroller or processing unit. # Communication network. # Cloud platform or server. # User interface or monitoring dashboard. Common communication technologies include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, LoRa and cellular networks. Application protocols include MQTT and HTTP. IoT applications include smart homes, smart agriculture, healthcare monitoring, industrial automation and environmental monitoring. == Practical Applications of Embedded Systems == === Automotive Systems === Automotive embedded systems are used in engine management, anti-lock braking systems, airbag controllers, parking assistance and vehicle monitoring. These systems process information from sensors and control different vehicle functions. === Healthcare Equipment === Medical equipment uses embedded controllers for temperature measurement, patient monitoring, diagnostic instruments and other healthcare applications. === Industrial Automation === Industrial embedded systems control machines, motors, production processes and robotic equipment. They help improve operational efficiency, process monitoring and automation. === Smart Agriculture === Embedded systems are used in soil moisture monitoring, automatic irrigation, greenhouse monitoring and environmental sensing. Sensor information can be used to control irrigation and other agricultural operations. === Consumer Electronics === Televisions, washing machines, microwave ovens, air conditioners and smart appliances use embedded controllers to perform their functions. === Robotics === Robots use embedded controllers to process sensor information, control motors and perform automated operations. == Real-World Project Examples == === Automatic Water-Level Monitoring System === An automatic water-level monitoring system measures the amount of water in a storage tank. It may consist of a microcontroller, water-level sensors or float switches, a display and a power supply. The sensors detect the water level and provide information to the controller. The controller processes the signals and displays the measured level. Wireless communication can be added to transmit water-level information to a remote receiver. An additional control circuit can be used to operate a water pump automatically. === Fire-Fighting Robot === A fire-fighting robot is an embedded application designed to detect a fire source and activate a suitable extinguishing mechanism. It may use flame sensors, a microcontroller, motor drivers, DC motors and a pump. The sensors detect infrared radiation associated with a flame. The microcontroller processes the sensor information and controls robot movement. A suitable driver circuit can activate the pump when required. === Smart Irrigation System === A smart irrigation system monitors soil moisture and controls water supply according to predefined conditions. It generally consists of a microcontroller, soil moisture sensor, motor driver or relay and water pump. When the soil moisture falls below a configured threshold, the controller activates the pump. When sufficient moisture is detected, the pump can be switched OFF. Such systems can help improve water management in agricultural applications. === IoT Temperature Monitoring System === An IoT temperature monitoring system measures environmental temperature and transmits the information to a remote monitoring platform. An ESP32 can collect temperature information from a compatible sensor and transmit measurements using Wi-Fi. A web dashboard can display the data and generate alerts when the temperature exceeds a predefined threshold. == Embedded System Design and Development == Developing an embedded system requires a systematic design process. The major stages include: '''Requirement analysis:''' Identify the purpose, operating conditions, inputs, outputs and performance requirements. '''Hardware selection:''' Select the microcontroller, sensors, actuators, communication modules and power supply. '''Circuit design:''' Develop the electronic circuit and verify electrical compatibility between components. '''Software development:''' Write firmware to process input information and control the hardware. '''System integration:''' Connect the hardware and software components. '''Testing:''' Verify the system under different operating conditions. '''Optimization:''' Improve performance, power consumption, reliability and cost. Important design considerations include processing capability, memory, electrical characteristics, timing requirements, safety, environmental conditions and security. == Testing, Debugging and Troubleshooting == Testing and debugging are essential activities in embedded system development. Common testing methods include unit testing, integration testing, functional testing, performance testing and system testing. Common debugging tools include: * Digital multimeters. * Oscilloscopes. * Logic analyzers. * Serial monitors. * JTAG and SWD debuggers. * Circuit simulation software. Common problems include incorrect power supply connections, faulty sensor wiring, communication configuration errors, incorrect firmware logic and incompatible electrical voltage levels. Manufacturer datasheets should be consulted to verify component specifications, pin configurations, operating voltage and current limits. == Future Trends in Embedded Systems == Embedded systems continue to evolve with improvements in semiconductor technology, wireless communication, artificial intelligence and computing performance. Important emerging trends include: '''Edge computing:''' Processing information close to the source of data collection rather than sending all information to remote servers. '''Artificial intelligence at the edge:''' Using embedded hardware to perform intelligent operations such as image recognition, anomaly detection and predictive maintenance. '''Advanced robotics:''' Integrating sensors, embedded processors and control algorithms to perform complex automated operations. '''Connected vehicles:''' Using embedded controllers for vehicle monitoring, communication and driver assistance. '''Industrial Internet of Things:''' Connecting industrial devices and machines for monitoring, automation and predictive maintenance. '''Energy-efficient devices:''' Developing systems that consume less energy while maintaining required performance. These developments are expanding the use of embedded systems across engineering and technology industries. == Advantages and Limitations == === Advantages === * Efficient execution of dedicated functions. * Compact hardware design. * Low power consumption in optimized applications. * Reliable operation when properly designed. * Real-time response where required. * Automation of repetitive operations. * Integration with sensors and communication technologies. === Limitations === * Limited processing and memory resources in many systems. * Hardware-specific software development. * Debugging can be difficult. * Design and maintenance complexity. * Security challenges. * Dependence on hardware availability and compatibility. == Conclusion == Embedded systems are an important foundation of modern electronic and computing technology. They combine hardware and software to perform dedicated functions in an efficient and reliable manner. The development of microcontrollers, sensors, wireless communication and IoT technologies has expanded their applications across automobiles, healthcare, agriculture, industrial automation, robotics and consumer electronics. Understanding embedded architecture, programming, hardware interfacing, communication protocols and real-time operation provides a strong foundation for developing practical engineering solutions. As technology continues to advance, embedded systems will remain essential to intelligent automation and connected devices. == Glossary == ;ADC: Analog-to-Digital Converter. Converts analog signals into digital representations. ;Actuator: A component that converts an electrical control signal into physical action. ;CPU: Central Processing Unit. Executes instructions and performs processing operations. ;DAC: Digital-to-Analog Converter. Converts digital values into analog signals. ;Firmware: Software stored in a device that controls its operation. ;GPIO: General-Purpose Input/Output. Configurable input and output pins of a microcontroller. ;IoT: Internet of Things. A network of connected physical devices that collect and exchange information. ;Microcontroller: An integrated circuit containing a processor, memory and peripheral interfaces. ;PWM: Pulse Width Modulation. A method of controlling average power through duty-cycle variation. ;RTOS: Real-Time Operating System. An operating system designed for predictable task execution. ;Sensor: A device that detects physical or environmental conditions. ;UART: Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter. ;SPI: Serial Peripheral Interface. ;I2C: Inter-Integrated Circuit. == References and Further Reading == # Frank Vahid and Tony Givargis, ''Embedded System Design: A Unified Hardware/Software Introduction'', Wiley. # Jonathan W. Valvano, ''Embedded Systems: Introduction to ARM Cortex-M Microcontrollers'', Cengage Learning. Readers should consult the relevant manufacturer datasheets, technical reference manuals and application notes for detailed implementation information. [[Category:Embedded Systems]] [[Category:Electronics]] [[Category:Engineering]] [[Category:Computer Engineering]] hpz3170sweo5y0fj74af6qenet7ed2z 2 487141 4681660 2026-11-11T17:19:26Z Narasimha1980 3630688 Created page with "{{TOC right}} '''LED Interfacing with Arduino''' is the "Hello World" of physical computing. In this chapter you will learn how an LED works, how to size its resistor, how to wire it to an Arduino, and how to control it from code: blinking, fading and chasing patterns. {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;" |- ! colspan="2" | Chapter at a glance |- | Difficulty || Beginner |- | Time || 30–45 minutes |- | Board || Arduino Uno / Nano (any 5 V board)..." 4681660 wikitext text/x-wiki {{TOC right}} '''LED Interfacing with Arduino''' is the "Hello World" of physical computing. In this chapter you will learn how an LED works, how to size its resistor, how to wire it to an Arduino, and how to control it from code: blinking, fading and chasing patterns. {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;" |- ! colspan="2" | Chapter at a glance |- | Difficulty || Beginner |- | Time || 30–45 minutes |- | Board || Arduino Uno / Nano (any 5 V board) |- | You will learn || Digital output, PWM, current limiting, arrays and loops |} == What you need == {| class="wikitable" ! Part !! Qty !! Notes |- | Arduino Uno (or compatible) || 1 || Plus USB cable |- | LED (5 mm, red) || 3 || Any colour works; forward voltage differs |- | Resistor 220 Ω (red-red-brown) || 3 || 330 Ω also fine |- | Breadboard || 1 || |- | Jumper wires || 5 || |} <!-- Optional: add your own photo or a free Commons photo here [[File:YOUR_PHOTO_NAME.jpg|thumb|center|400px|Arduino Uno, LED, resistor and breadboard.]] --> == How an LED works == An LED (Light Emitting Diode) lets current flow in '''one direction only'''.<ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode Wikipedia: Light-emitting diode]</ref> * The '''anode''' (+) is the longer leg. * The '''cathode''' (−) is the shorter leg, next to the flat edge of the plastic case. An LED has almost no resistance once it turns on, so without a resistor it draws too much current and burns out (and can damage the Arduino pin). Always use a '''series resistor'''. === Choosing the resistor === Use Ohm's law:<ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law Wikipedia: Ohm's law]</ref> <math>R = \frac{V_{supply} - V_{LED}}{I_{LED}}</math> For a red LED on a 5 V pin: <math>R = \frac{5 - 2}{0.020} = 150\,\Omega</math>. We round up to a standard '''220 Ω''', which gives <math>I = \frac{3}{220} \approx 13.6\,mA</math>. This is bright enough, and safely below the 20 mA LED limit and the 40 mA per-pin limit of the Uno. {| class="wikitable" ! LED colour !! Typical V_f !! Resistor for ~15 mA at 5 V |- | Red || 2.0 V || 220 Ω |- | Yellow / Green || 2.1 V || 220 Ω |- | Blue / White || 3.0–3.3 V || 120–150 Ω |} == Experiment 1: Blink == === Circuit === [[File:Arduino LED basic circuit.svg|thumb|center|500px|Schematic: Arduino pin 13 → 220 Ω resistor → LED → GND.]] # Pin 13 → one end of the 220 Ω resistor. # Other end of the resistor → LED anode (long leg). # LED cathode (short leg) → GND. {{Warning|Never connect an LED directly between 5 V and GND without a resistor.}} === Code === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int LED_PIN = 13; // pin the LED is wired to void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // make the pin an output } void loop() { digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); // LED on (5 V) delay(500); // wait 500 ms digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); // LED off (0 V) delay(500); } </syntaxhighlight> === How it works === * <code>pinMode()</code> configures the pin as an output.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/functions/digital-io/pinmode/ Arduino Reference: pinMode()]</ref> * <code>digitalWrite(pin, HIGH)</code> puts 5 V on the pin, so current flows and the LED lights.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/functions/digital-io/digitalwrite/ Arduino Reference: digitalWrite()]</ref> * <code>delay(ms)</code> pauses the program. This is based on the standard Blink example.<ref>[https://docs.arduino.cc/built-in-examples/basics/Blink/ Arduino Docs: Blink example]</ref> [[File:Arduino LED blink animation.gif|thumb|center|300px|The expected result: the LED blinks once per second.]] <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.5em; margin:1em 0;"> '''Troubleshooting (click "expand")''' <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> * '''LED never lights:''' it is probably reversed. Flip it. * '''LED always dim:''' check the resistor value (it should not be in the kΩ range). * '''Upload fails:''' select the correct board and port under ''Tools'' in the Arduino IDE. </div> </div> == Experiment 2: Fading with PWM == Pins marked with <code>~</code> (3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 on the Uno) support '''PWM''' (pulse-width modulation).<ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation Wikipedia: Pulse-width modulation]</ref> The pin switches on and off about 490 times per second, and the '''duty cycle''' sets the apparent brightness. <code>analogWrite(pin, 0–255)</code> sets it.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/functions/analog-io/analogwrite/ Arduino Reference: analogWrite()]</ref> Move the resistor wire from pin 13 to '''pin 9'''. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int LED_PIN = 9; // must be a PWM (~) pin void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); } void loop() { for (int b = 0; b <= 255; b++) { // fade in analogWrite(LED_PIN, b); delay(5); } for (int b = 255; b >= 0; b--) { // fade out analogWrite(LED_PIN, b); delay(5); } } </syntaxhighlight> {| class="wikitable" ! analogWrite value !! Duty cycle !! Average voltage |- | 0 || 0 % || 0 V |- | 64 || 25 % || 1.25 V |- | 128 || 50 % || 2.5 V |- | 255 || 100 % || 5 V |} == Experiment 3: Three-LED chaser == [[File:Arduino three LED circuit.svg|thumb|center|600px|Three LEDs on pins 8, 9 and 10, each with its own 220 Ω resistor and a common GND rail.]] <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int leds[] = {8, 9, 10}; const int COUNT = 3; void setup() { for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; i++) { pinMode(leds[i], OUTPUT); } } void loop() { for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; i++) { digitalWrite(leds[i], HIGH); delay(200); digitalWrite(leds[i], LOW); } } </syntaxhighlight> Using an '''array''' and a '''for loop''' means you can add more LEDs by changing only two lines. == Experiment 4: Button-controlled LED == Connect a push button between pin 2 and GND. The internal pull-up resistor keeps the pin HIGH until the button is pressed.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/variables/constants/constants/ Arduino Reference: INPUT_PULLUP]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int LED_PIN = 13; const int BTN_PIN = 2; void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); pinMode(BTN_PIN, INPUT_PULLUP); } void loop() { // Button pressed = LOW, so we invert it digitalWrite(LED_PIN, digitalRead(BTN_PIN) == LOW); } </syntaxhighlight> == Try it online (no hardware needed) == You can simulate every circuit above for free: * [https://www.tinkercad.com/circuits Tinkercad Circuits] * [https://wokwi.com Wokwi Arduino simulator] == Test yourself == <quiz display=simple> { Which LED leg is the anode? - The shorter leg + The longer leg - The one next to the flat edge } { Why do we put a resistor in series with an LED? + To limit current and prevent damage - To make the LED blink - To increase voltage } { Which function sets PWM brightness? - digitalWrite() + analogWrite() - pinMode() } { What current flows with a 220 Ω resistor, 5 V supply and 2 V LED? - about 2 mA + about 13.6 mA - about 100 mA } </quiz> == Exercises == # Make an SOS pattern in Morse code (3 short, 3 long, 3 short). # Add a potentiometer on A0 and use <code>analogRead()</code> with <code>analogWrite()</code> to control brightness. # Build a traffic light with red, yellow and green LEDs. # Make a "Knight Rider" scanner that goes back and forth across 5 LEDs. == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} muq1yzj1htfi9tc7qpik4uf1la3lb8b 4681666 4681660 2026-11-11T17:34:08Z Narasimha1980 3630688 added picture and some text 4681666 wikitext text/x-wiki '''LED Interfacing with Arduino''' is the "Hello World" of physical computing. In this chapter you will learn how an LED works, how to size its resistor, how to wire it to an Arduino, and how to control it from code: blinking, fading and chasing patterns. {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;" |- ! colspan="2" | Chapter at a glance |- | Difficulty || Beginner |- | Time || 30–45 minutes |- | Board || Arduino Uno / Nano (any 5 V board) |- | You will learn || Digital output, PWM, current limiting, arrays and loops |} == What you need == {| class="wikitable" ! Part !! Qty !! Notes |- | Arduino Uno (or compatible) || 1 || Plus USB cable |- | LED (5 mm, red) || 3 || Any colour works; forward voltage differs |- | Resistor 220 Ω (red-red-brown) || 3 || 330 Ω also fine |- | Breadboard || 1 || |- | Jumper wires || 5 || |} How an LED works An LED (Light Emitting Diode) lets current flow in '''one direction only'''.<ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode Wikipedia: Light-emitting diode]</ref> * The '''anode''' (+) is the longer leg. * The '''cathode''' (−) is the shorter leg, next to the flat edge of the plastic case. An LED has almost no resistance once it turns on, so without a resistor it draws too much current and burns out (and can damage the Arduino pin). Always use a '''series resistor'''. === Choosing the resistor === Use Ohm's law:<ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law Wikipedia: Ohm's law]</ref> <math>R = \frac{V_{supply} - V_{LED}}{I_{LED}}</math> For a red LED on a 5 V pin: <math>R = \frac{5 - 2}{0.020} = 150\,\Omega</math>. We round up to a standard '''220 Ω''', which gives <math>I = \frac{3}{220} \approx 13.6\,mA</math>. This is bright enough, and safely below the 20 mA LED limit and the 40 mA per-pin limit of the Uno. {| class="wikitable" ! LED colour !! Typical V_f !! Resistor for ~15 mA at 5 V |- | Red || 2.0 V || 220 Ω |- | Yellow / Green || 2.1 V || 220 Ω |- | Blue / White || 3.0–3.3 V || 120–150 Ω |} == Experiment 1: Blink == === Circuit === [[File:Arduino LED basic circuit.svg|thumb|center|[[File:Arduino LED basic circuit(1).svg|thumb]]Schematic: Arduino pin 13 → 220 Ω resistor → LED → GND.]] # Pin 13 → one end of the 220 Ω resistor. # Other end of the resistor → LED anode (long leg). # LED cathode (short leg) → GND. {{Warning|Never connect an LED directly between 5 V and GND without a resistor.}} === Code === <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int LED_PIN = 13; // pin the LED is wired to void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); // make the pin an output } void loop() { digitalWrite(LED_PIN, HIGH); // LED on (5 V) delay(500); // wait 500 ms digitalWrite(LED_PIN, LOW); // LED off (0 V) delay(500); } </syntaxhighlight> === How it works === * <code>pinMode()</code> configures the pin as an output.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/functions/digital-io/pinmode/ Arduino Reference: pinMode()]</ref> * <code>digitalWrite(pin, HIGH)</code> puts 5 V on the pin, so current flows and the LED lights.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/functions/digital-io/digitalwrite/ Arduino Reference: digitalWrite()]</ref> * <code>delay(ms)</code> pauses the program. This is based on the standard Blink example.<ref>[https://docs.arduino.cc/built-in-examples/basics/Blink/ Arduino Docs: Blink example]</ref> [[File:Arduino LED blink animation(1).gif|center|thumb|300x300px|The expected result: the LED blinks once per second.]] <div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border:1px solid #aaa; padding:0.5em; margin:1em 0;"> '''Troubleshooting (click "expand")''' <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> * '''LED never lights:''' it is probably reversed. Flip it. * '''LED always dim:''' check the resistor value (it should not be in the kΩ range). * '''Upload fails:''' select the correct board and port under ''Tools'' in the Arduino IDE. </div> </div> == Experiment 2: Fading with PWM == Pins marked with <code>~</code> (3, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 on the Uno) support '''PWM''' (pulse-width modulation).<ref>[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation Wikipedia: Pulse-width modulation]</ref> The pin switches on and off about 490 times per second, and the '''duty cycle''' sets the apparent brightness. <code>analogWrite(pin, 0–255)</code> sets it.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/functions/analog-io/analogwrite/ Arduino Reference: analogWrite()]</ref> Move the resistor wire from pin 13 to '''pin 9'''. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int LED_PIN = 9; // must be a PWM (~) pin void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); } void loop() { for (int b = 0; b <= 255; b++) { // fade in analogWrite(LED_PIN, b); delay(5); } for (int b = 255; b >= 0; b--) { // fade out analogWrite(LED_PIN, b); delay(5); } } </syntaxhighlight> {| class="wikitable" ! analogWrite value !! Duty cycle !! Average voltage |- | 0 || 0 % || 0 V |- | 64 || 25 % || 1.25 V |- | 128 || 50 % || 2.5 V |- | 255 || 100 % || 5 V |} == Experiment 3: Three-LED chaser == [[File:Arduino three LED circuit(1).svg|center|thumb|512x512px|Three LEDs on pins 8, 9 and 10, each with its own 220 Ω resistor and a common GND rail.]] <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int leds[] = {8, 9, 10}; const int COUNT = 3; void setup() { for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; i++) { pinMode(leds[i], OUTPUT); } } void loop() { for (int i = 0; i < COUNT; i++) { digitalWrite(leds[i], HIGH); delay(200); digitalWrite(leds[i], LOW); } } </syntaxhighlight> Using an '''array''' and a '''for loop''' means you can add more LEDs by changing only two lines. == Experiment 4: Button-controlled LED == Connect a push button between pin 2 and GND. The internal pull-up resistor keeps the pin HIGH until the button is pressed.<ref>[https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/language/variables/constants/constants/ Arduino Reference: INPUT_PULLUP]</ref> <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp" line> const int LED_PIN = 13; const int BTN_PIN = 2; void setup() { pinMode(LED_PIN, OUTPUT); pinMode(BTN_PIN, INPUT_PULLUP); } void loop() { // Button pressed = LOW, so we invert it digitalWrite(LED_PIN, digitalRead(BTN_PIN) == LOW); } </syntaxhighlight> == Try it online (no hardware needed) == You can simulate every circuit above for free: * [https://www.tinkercad.com/circuits Tinkercad Circuits] * [https://wokwi.com Wokwi Arduino simulator] == Test yourself == <quiz display=simple> { Which LED leg is the anode? - The shorter leg + The longer leg - The one next to the flat edge } { Why do we put a resistor in series with an LED? + To limit current and prevent damage - To make the LED blink - To increase voltage } { Which function sets PWM brightness? - digitalWrite() + analogWrite() - pinMode() } { What current flows with a 220 Ω resistor, 5 V supply and 2 V LED? - about 2 mA + about 13.6 mA - about 100 mA } </quiz> == Exercises == # Make an SOS pattern in Morse code (3 short, 3 long, 3 short). # Add a potentiometer on A0 and use <code>analogRead()</code> with <code>analogWrite()</code> to control brightness. # Build a traffic light with red, yellow and green LEDs. # Make a "Knight Rider" scanner that goes back and forth across 5 LEDs. == References == <references /> {{BookCat}} aug8izmkjd14ojuot3efh6upe8il20t 2 487143 4681665 2026-11-11T17:33:02Z Jd1833 3630166 Created page with " = Shannon-Hartley Theorem and Channel Capacity in Communication Systems = === 1. Introduction === [[Communication Systems|Communication systems]] are used to transfer information from one place to another through different transmission media, such as cables, optical fibres and wireless channels. In digital communication, information is transmitted in the form of bits, which are represented by electrical, optical or electromagnetic signals. During transmission, the sig..." 4681665 wikitext text/x-wiki = Shannon-Hartley Theorem and Channel Capacity in Communication Systems = === 1. Introduction === [[Communication Systems|Communication systems]] are used to transfer information from one place to another through different transmission media, such as cables, optical fibres and wireless channels. In digital communication, information is transmitted in the form of bits, which are represented by electrical, optical or electromagnetic signals. During transmission, the signal may be affected by noise and other disturbances present in the communication channel. These unwanted signals can reduce the quality of communication and make it difficult for the receiver to recover the original information correctly. One important question in communication engineering is how much information can be transmitted through a channel within a given time while maintaining reliable communication. This is explained by the concept of channel capacity. Claude Shannon introduced the mathematical foundation of information theory in 1948. The Shannon-Hartley theorem gives the theoretical maximum data rate that can be achieved over a communication channel affected by additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). It shows the relationship between channel bandwidth, signal power and noise power. This theorem is widely used as a basic reference when studying and designing modern digitalcommunicationsystems. === 2. Channel Capacity === Channel capacity is defined as the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted through a communicationchannel with an arbitrarily low probability of error under the assumed channel conditions. It is generally measured in bits per second ([[Basic Physics of Digital Radiography/The Image Receptor|bps]]). Every communication channel has a limited capacity because of its available bandwidth and the noise present during transmission. If the transmission rate exceeds the channel capacity, reliable communication cannot be maintained using any coding method under the assumed channel model. Channel capacity mainly depends on the following factors: * Bandwidth available for transmission. * [[Signals and Systems/Fourier Series|Signal]] [[Power Electronics|power]] at the [[Windows XP/Removing Windows Passwords|receiver]]. * [[Mythology/Norse Mythology|Noise]] power present in the channel. * Characteristics of the [[Subject:Communication|communication]] channel. A wider bandwidth generally allows more information to be transmitted. Similarly, a stronger signal compared with the noise can improve the channel capacity. === 3. Shannon-Hartley Theorem === The Shannon-Hartley theorem explains the maximum theoretical information transmission rate of a communication channel in the presence of noise. It is based on the assumption that the channel is affected by additive white Gaussian noise and has a specified bandwidth. The [[Mathematical Proof/Methods of Proof/Direct Proof|mathematical]] expression of the theorem is: '''C = B log₂ (1 + S/N)''' Where: * C = Channel capacity in bits per second (bps). * B = Channel bandwidth in Hertz (Hz). * S = Average received signal power. * N = Average noise power. * S/N = Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR). The logarithm is taken to base 2 because the information is measured in bits. The equation shows that channel capacity increases when bandwidth or signal-to-noise ratio increases. However, the increase in capacity due to SNR is logarithmic rather than linear. This means that increasing signal power can improve the data rate, but the improvement becomes smaller for each additional increase in SNR. === 4. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) === SignaltoNoise Ratio is an important parameter used to measure the quality of a communication signal. It represents the ratio between the average signal power and the average noise power. It is expressed as: '''SNR = S/N''' SNR is also commonly represented in decibels (dB). '''SNR(dB) = 10 log₁₀(S/N)''' A higher SNR means that the useful signal is stronger compared with the unwanted noise. This generally makes it easier for the receiver to identify the transmitted information. A lower [[Strategy for Information Markets/e-Commerce|SNR]] means that noise has a greater effect on the received signal, which can increase the probability of communication errors. For example, in a [[Wireless Mesh Networks/Printable version|wireless]] [[Network Plus Certification/Objectives|network]], signals may become weaker due to distance, obstacles and interference. These conditions can reduce the [[Strategy for Information Markets/e-Commerce|SNR]] and affect the achievable data rate. === 5. Mathematical Explanation and Numerical Example === The Shannon-Hartley theorem can be used to calculate the maximum theoretical capacity of a communication channel. Consider a [[Subject:Communication|communication]] channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 15. '''Given:''' * Bandwidth (B) = 3000 Hz * SNR = 15 Using the Shannon-Hartley formula: C = B log₂ (1 + S/N) Substituting the values: C = 3000 log₂ (1 + 15) C = 3000 log₂ (16) Since log₂ (16) = 4, C = 3000 × 4 '''C = 12000 bits/second''' Therefore, the maximum theoretical channel capacity is 12 kbps. This example shows how bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio together determine the information-carrying capacity of a [[Subject:Communication|communication]] channel. === 6. Factors Affecting Channel Capacity === Several [[Factor and Remainder Theorem|factors]] influence the maximum data rate of a [[Communication Systems/Amplitude Modulation|communicationsystem]]. ==== 6.1 Bandwidth ==== Bandwidth represents the [[Metasploit/Frequently Asked Questions|frequency]] range available for transmitting information. Increasing bandwidth generally increases channel capacity because more frequency resources are available for [[Communication Systems/Amplitude Modulation|communication.]] ==== 6.2 Signal Power ==== Signal power determines the strength of the useful information-bearing signal. If the noise power remains constant, increasing signal power improves the SNR and increases channel capacity. ==== 6.3 Noise Power ==== [[Mythology/Norse Mythology|Noise]] is an unwanted disturbance that affects the transmitted signal during communication. Higher [[Mythology/Norse Mythology|noise]] power reduces the SNR and lowers the maximum achievable data rate. ==== 6.4 Transmission Medium ==== Different transmission media have different characteristics. Optical fibre, coaxial cables and wireless channels may experience different levels of attenuation, interference and distortion. These characteristics influence the practical performance of a communication system. ==== 6.5 Interference ==== In [[Wireless Mesh Networks/Printable version|wireless]] [[Subject:Communication|communication]], signals from other devices or nearby networks may interfere with the desired signal. Such interference can reduce the effective signal quality and limit the achievable transmission rate. === 7. Relationship Between Bandwidth and SNR === The Shannon-Hartley theorem shows that bandwidth and SNR are two important factors that determine channel capacity. When bandwidth increases while SNR remains constant, channel capacity increases proportionally. However, when SNR increases while bandwidth remains constant, capacity increases logarithmically. This relationship is important in communication system design because engineers must decide whether to increase the available bandwidth or improve the signal quality to achieve a higher data rate. In practical wireless systems, bandwidth is often limited by available frequency spectrum. Therefore, improving signal quality and using efficient modulation and coding techniques are important for better performance. === 8. Applications of Shannon-Hartley Theorem === The Shannon-Hartley theorem is useful in several communication technologies. ==== 8.1 Mobile Communication ==== [[Mobile Security/Understanding Modified Messaging Applications|Mobile]] [[Communication Theory/Network Society|networks]] such as 4G and 5G use the principles of channel capacity to understand the maximum possible data transmission rate under different channel conditions. ==== 8.2 Wi-Fi Communication ==== [[Wi-Fi]] systems operate through wireless channels that are affected by noise and interference. The theorem helps explain the relationship between available bandwidth, signal quality and data transmission speed. ==== 8.3 Satellite Communication ==== Satellite communication involves transmitting information over long distances. [[Signals and Systems|Signal]] attenuation and noise are important considerations, and channel capacity calculations help in communication system planning. ==== 8.4 Optical Fibre Communication ==== [[Optics/Fibre optics|Optical fibre]] systems transmit information using light signals. The concept of channel capacity helps engineers understand the theoretical limits of information transmission through optical communication channels. ==== 8.5 Digital Communication Systems ==== The theorem provides a theoretical foundation for designing digital communication systems. It helps engineers evaluate the performance limits of modulation, coding and transmission techniques. === 9. Limitations and Practical Considerations === Although the Shannon-Hartley theorem is an important result in information theory, it has certain assumptions and limitations. # The theorem assumes an additive white Gaussian noise channel. # It provides a theoretical maximum capacity rather than the actual data rate of a practical system. # [[Real Analysis/Sequences|Real]] [[Subject:Communication|communication]] channels may experience fading, interference, attenuation and multipath propagation. # Practical transmitters and receivers have hardware limitations that can affect communication performance. # Achieving a data rate very close to the theoretical capacity may require advanced channel coding and complex signal-processing techniques. # The theorem does not directly specify which modulation or coding technique should be used. In real communication systems, the actual data rate is usually lower than the theoretical channel capacity because of protocol overhead, practical noise conditions, hardware limitations and other transmission losses. === 10. Importance in Modern Communication Systems === Modern communication systems require high data rates and reliable information transfer. [[Technologies for Rural Development/Complete|Technologies]] such as video streaming, online meetings, cloud computing and mobile [[Subject:Internet|internet]] depend on efficient transmission of digital information. The Shannon-Hartley theorem helps engineers understand the fundamental limits of communication channels. It provides a useful reference for estimating the maximum data rate and selecting suitable bandwidth and [[Signals and Systems/Fourier Series|signal]] [[Power Electronics|power.]] It also explains why improving signal quality and using available bandwidth efficiently are important for achieving better communication performance. Although modern [[Technologies for Rural Development/Complete|technologies]] use advanced modulation, error correction and signal-processing methods, the basic concept of channel capacity remains important in [[Subject:Communication|communication]] [[Subject:Engineering|engineering]]. === 11. Conclusion === The Shannon-Hartley theorem is one of the [[Fundamentals of Information Systems Security/Information Security and Risk Management|fundamental]] results in information theory and digital communication. It explains how the bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio determine the maximum theoretical data rate of a noisy communication channel. The theorem shows that increasing bandwidth or improving SNR can increase channel capacity. However, practical [[Subject:Communication|communication]] [[Systems Analysis and Design/Introduction|systems]] may not achieve this theoretical limit because of noise, interference, fading and hardware restrictions. It provides an important foundation for understanding and designing modern communication [[Technologies for Rural Development/Complete|technologies]], including mobile [[Communication Theory/Network Society|networks,]] Wi-Fi, satellite links and [[Optics/Fibre optics|optical fibre]] systems. === 12. References === [1] Claude E. Shannon, "A Mathematical Theory of Communication," Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, 1948. [2] R. V. Hartley, "Transmission of Information," Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 7, 1928. [3] John G. Proakis and Masoud Salehi, ''Digital Communications'', McGraw-Hill. [4] Simon Haykin, ''Communication Systems'', Wiley. [5] B. P. Lathi and Zhi Ding, ''Modern Digital and Analog Communication Systems'', Oxford University Press. [6] Thomas M. Cover and Joy A. Thomas, ''Elements of Information Theory'', Wiley. 0k6mp26m9ppth4waji4sok4tg3lwbuh 2 487144 4681692 2026-11-11T18:06:23Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 Created page with " Welcome to '''German in Pictures''' ('''''Deutsch in Bildern'''''), a visual immersion textbook for learning the German language without relying on dense English grammar lectures or translation lists. As this book is actively being developed, you are invited to share suggestions on our [[Talk:German in Pictures|Discussion]] page or help contribute new lessons. English is to be used '''exclusively''' to explain '''abstract''' images or '''difficult''' grammatical concept..." 4681692 wikitext text/x-wiki Welcome to '''German in Pictures''' ('''''Deutsch in Bildern'''''), a visual immersion textbook for learning the German language without relying on dense English grammar lectures or translation lists. As this book is actively being developed, you are invited to share suggestions on our [[Talk:German in Pictures|Discussion]] page or help contribute new lessons. English is to be used '''exclusively''' to explain '''abstract''' images or '''difficult''' grammatical concepts. <div class="center"> {| width="800px" align="center" style="border: transparent 0px solid; background-color: transparent; color: inherit;" | width="65%" valign="top" | [[File:Flag of Germany.svg|border|x80px|Deutschland]]&nbsp; [[File:Flag of Switzerland.svg|border|x80px|Schweiz]]&nbsp; [[File:Flag of Austria.svg|border|x80px|Österreich]] <br /><br /> [[File:Dülmen, Wildpark -- 2020 -- 3427.jpg|x100px|ein Baum]][[File:Braniborská brána.jpg|x100px|ein Tor]][[File:Spiegelgalerie Herrenchiemsee.jpg|x100px|ein Palast]]<br /> [[File:Wood Cottages Verbier Valais 074.JPG|x100px|Hütten]][[File:The Sun Sets on Château de Chillon.jpg|x100px|ein Schloss]][[File:SalzburgerAltstadt02.JPG|x100px|eine Stadt]] |} </div> == Lernpfad == === Einheit 1: Menschen und Gegenstände === * [[/Einführung|Einführung und visueller Leitfaden]] * [[/Lektion 1|Lektion 1: Personen, Pronomen und grundlegender Wortschatz]] * [[/Lektion 2|Lektion 2: Grammatisches Geschlecht und Artikel (''der, die, das'')]] * [[/Lektion 3|Lektion 3: Zahlen und Pluralformen]] * [[/Wiederholung 1|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 1]] === Einheit 2: Handlungen und Alltag === * [[/Lektion 4|Lektion 4: Alltägliche Handlungen (''Was machen sie?'')]] * [[/Lektion 5|Lektion 5: Verneinung und Gegensätze (''nicht, kein'')]] * [[/Lektion 6|Lektion 6: Essen und Trinken]] * [[/Lektion 7|Lektion 7: Mein Tagesablauf]] * [[/Wiederholung 2|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 2]] === Einheit 3: Raum, Zeit und Beschreibungen === * [[/Lektion 8|Lektion 8: Wo befinden sich Dinge? (''in, auf, unter, neben'')]] * [[/Lektion 9|Lektion 9: Farben, Formen und Eigenschaften]] * [[/Lektion 10|Lektion 10: Uhrzeit, Wochentage, Jahreszeiten und Wetter]] * [[/Wiederholung 3|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 3]] === Einheit 4: Familie, Freizeit und Schule === * [[/Lektion 11|Lektion 11: Familie, Herkunft und Sprachen (''Meine Familie'')]] * [[/Lektion 12|Lektion 12: Freizeit, Hobbys und Interessen (''Was machst du gern?'')]] * [[/Lektion 13|Lektion 13: Schule, Studium und Berufe]] * [[/Lektion 14|Lektion 14: Geburtstage, Feste und Einladungen (''Alles Gute!'')]] * [[/Wiederholung 4|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 4]] === Einheit 5: Wohnen, Einkaufen und Unterwegs === * [[/Lektion 15|Lektion 15: Das Haus und die Wohnung (''Wo wohnst du?'')]] * [[/Lektion 16|Lektion 16: Kleidung und Einkaufen (''Was kostet das?'')]] * [[/Lektion 17|Lektion 17: In der Stadt und Wegbeschreibungen (''Wo ist ...?'')]] * [[/Lektion 18|Lektion 18: Verkehrsmittel und Reisen]] * [[/Lektion 19|Lektion 19: Tiere und Natur]] * [[/Wiederholung 5|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 5]] === Einheit 6: Verben und Satzbau === * [[/Lektion 20|Lektion 20: Fragen und Fragewörter (''Wer, was, wann, wo, warum?'')]] * [[/Lektion 21|Lektion 21: Verben im Präsens (''ich gehe, du gehst, er geht'')]] * [[/Lektion 22|Lektion 22: Satzbau und Wortstellung (''Das Verb an zweiter Stelle'')]] * [[/Lektion 23|Lektion 23: Modalverben und Aufforderungen (''können, müssen, wollen, dürfen'')]] * [[/Wiederholung 6|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 6]] === Einheit 7: Fälle und Pronomen === * [[/Lektion 24|Lektion 24: Der Nominativ und der Akkusativ]] * [[/Lektion 25|Lektion 25: Der Dativ und indirekte Objekte]] * [[/Lektion 26|Lektion 26: Possessiv- und Demonstrativartikel (''mein, dein, sein, dieser'')]] * [[/Lektion 27|Lektion 27: Präpositionen und Wechselpräpositionen]] * [[/Wiederholung 7|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 7]] === Einheit 8: Erweiterte Satzstrukturen === * [[/Lektion 28|Lektion 28: Vergangenheit und Perfekt (''ich habe gemacht, ich bin gegangen'')]] * [[/Lektion 29|Lektion 29: Präteritum und Futur]] * [[/Lektion 30|Lektion 30: Trennbare und untrennbare Verben]] * [[/Lektion 31|Lektion 31: Reflexive Verben und Pronomen]] * [[/Lektion 32|Lektion 32: Konjunktionen und Nebensätze]] * [[/Lektion 33|Lektion 33: Adjektivdeklination und Endungen]] * [[/Wiederholung 8|Visuelle Wiederholung: Einheit 8]] == Grammatik und Nachschlagewerk == Diese Seiten ergänzen die visuellen Lektionen und bieten ausführlichere Erklärungen, Tabellen und Beispiele. * [[/Alphabet und Aussprache|Das deutsche Alphabet und die Aussprache]] * [[/Wortarten|Wortarten und Satzglieder]] * [[/Artikel und Genus|Artikel und grammatisches Geschlecht]] * [[/Nomen und Pluralbildung|Nomen, Artikel und Pluralbildung]] * [[/Personalpronomen|Personalpronomen und Anredeformen (''du, ihr, Sie'')]] * [[/Weitere Pronomen|Possessiv-, Demonstrativ-, Reflexiv- und Fragepronomen]] * [[/Verbkonjugation|Verbkonjugation und unregelmäßige Verben]] * [[/Zeitformen|Deutsche Zeitformen: Präsens, Perfekt, Präteritum und Futur]] * [[/Modalverben|Modalverben und Imperativ]] * [[/Die vier Fälle|Die vier Fälle: Nominativ, Akkusativ, Dativ und Genitiv]] * [[/Präpositionen|Präpositionen und ihre Kasus]] * [[/Satzbau|Satzbau, Hauptsätze und Wortstellung]] * [[/Nebensätze|Nebensätze und unterordnende Konjunktionen]] * [[/Adjektive|Adjektive, Adverbien und Deklination]] * [[/Verbformen|Trennbare, untrennbare und reflexive Verben]] * [[/Wortbildung|Wortbildung und zusammengesetzte Wörter]] == Anhänge == * [[/Wortschatz|Thematischer Wortschatz]] * [[/Zahlen und Datum|Zahlen, Datum und Uhrzeit]] * [[/Redewendungen|Nützliche Redewendungen und Ausdrücke]] * [[/Falsche Freunde|Falsche Freunde (''false friends'')]] * [[/Tastatur und Sonderzeichen|Deutsche Tastatur und Sonderzeichen (''ä, ö, ü, ß'')]] * [[/Deutschsprachige Länder|Deutschland, Österreich, die Schweiz und Liechtenstein]] == Ressourcen == {{Category 2}} * [[German]] — Traditional grammar-focused German Wikibook * [[BLL German]] — Bite-sized Language Lessons * [[w:German language|Wikipedia: German language]] * [[:de:|German Language Wikibooks]] * [[wikiversity:Topic:German|German studies on Wikiversity]] <div class="center">For other German textbooks, refer to [[Deutsch]].</div> {{Shelves|German language}} {{status|25%}} h5xsbuyfayixeqras1ga5razk20hhiy 2 487145 4681716 2026-11-11T18:39:53Z Eternal88888 3631100 Created page with "== Introduction to 3D Printing == === What is 3D Printing? === 3D printing is a way to make a physical object from a digital design. A 3D printer builds object layer by layer, adding material until the shape is complete. This is different from many traditional manufacturing methods, which often cut or carve an object out for a larger piece of material. 3D printing is also called addictive manufacturing because material is added during the process. It is used to make mo..." 4681716 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction to 3D Printing == === What is 3D Printing? === 3D printing is a way to make a physical object from a digital design. A 3D printer builds object layer by layer, adding material until the shape is complete. This is different from many traditional manufacturing methods, which often cut or carve an object out for a larger piece of material. 3D printing is also called addictive manufacturing because material is added during the process. It is used to make models, tools, replacement parts, art, prototypes, and some products. === How does 3D Printing Work? === A 3D print usually begins with a digital model in computer-aided design(CAD) software or downloaded from a online library. The model is saved in a format the printer software can read. Next, slicing software divides the models into many thin layers. It creates instructions that tell the printer where to move and how much material to use. These instructions are sent to the printer. The printer then builds the object one layer at a time. Depending on the printer, it may melt plastic, harden liquid resin with light, or fuse powder together. When printing is finished, the object may need to be cleaned or have support material removed. === Common Types of 3D Printers === ==== Fused Deposition Modeling(FDM) ==== FDM printer push a thin strand of plastic, called a filament, through a heated nozzle. The nozzle melts the plastic and places it in layers. FDM printers are popular for learning and making everyday objects because they are relatively accessible.[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FDM_printing_diagram.svg] ==== Resin Printing ==== Resin printers use light to harden liquid resin in the precise patterns. They can produce detailed objects with smooth surface. The liquid resin needs careful handling, and printed parts usually require washing and additional curing. ==== Powder-Based Printing ==== Some printers use a laser or another heat source to fuse or bind material in powder form. These printers can make complex and strong parts, but the equipment and materials can be expensive. === Materials === The material used depends on the printer and the purpose of the the object. Common materials include: * '''PLA plastic:''' Often used for simple models and classroom projects. * '''ABS plastic:''' A tougher plastic used for some function parts. * '''PETG plastic:''' A durable material that is often used for a practical objects. * '''Resin:''' Used when fine details is important. * '''Model or ceramic powders:''' Used with specialized industrial powders. Each material has different strengths and limitations. Some are are easier to print with others can be stronger, more flexible, or more heat-resistant. === Uses of 3D Printing === 3D printing is used in many fields. Engineers use it to create prototypes and test designs. Schools use it to create prototypes and test designs. Schools use it to to make models for science, technology, engineering, and art projects. Doctors and researchers use specialized printing to create items such as anatomical models and customized medical devices. It is also used to make spare parts, jewelry, toys, architectural models, and tools. Because a design can be changed digitally, 3D printing can be useful for making customized object or small numbers of a product. === Benefits and Limitations === One benefit of 3D printing is that it can make complex shapes that are used difficult to create with some traditions methods. It can also be useful for producing one-off objects and quickly testing a design. However, 3D printing has limitations. Printing ca take a long time, and some objects maybe be weaker between layers. The size of an object is limited by the printer's build area. Materials and printers can also create waste, and some printing processes require careful safety practices. === Safety === Users should follow the instructions for their printer and materials. A hot nozzle or heated bed can cause burns, and resin should be handled according to its safety guidance. Printing in a suitable, well-ventilated area and keeping the workspace clean can help reduce risks. Students should use equipment with teacher supervision. === Conclusion === 3D printing turns digital designs into physical objects by building them layer by layer. It is used for for learning, design, manufacturing , and many other purposes. Understanding printer types, materials, and safety helps people chooses the right process for a project. snqv4yt74zo4v2ml9hid45aajuf1c2o 2 487146 4681721 2026-11-11T19:41:35Z Merrimack 7000 3631115 Created page with "Hello" 4681721 wikitext text/x-wiki Hello syvtbocopvw4f81bf07ocly0sl8ybqo 2 487148 4681744 2026-11-11T20:28:39Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 Created page with "== Menschen und Gegenstände == === Lernziele === * Menschen und Gegenstände erkennen und benennen. * Einfache deutsche Sätze verstehen und bilden. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' kennenlernen. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text lesen und verstehen. * Menschen und Gegenstände beschreiben. === Wahrnehmen === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100..." 4681744 wikitext text/x-wiki == Menschen und Gegenstände == === Lernziele === * Menschen und Gegenstände erkennen und benennen. * Einfache deutsche Sätze verstehen und bilden. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' kennenlernen. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text lesen und verstehen. * Menschen und Gegenstände beschreiben. === Wahrnehmen === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100px|thumb|der Mann, Herr {{w|Einstein}}[[File:De-Mann.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Noether.jpg|100px|thumb|die Frau, Frau [[w:Emmy Noether|Noether]][[File:De-Frau.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Dubious Mozart portrait (c. 1773-75).jpg|thumb|100px|der Junge, {{w|Mozart}}[[File:De-Junge.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Anne Frank (cropped).jpg|100px|thumb|das Mädchen, {{w|Anne Frank}}[[File:De-Mädchen.ogg|100px]]]] |} * Wer ist das? * Kennst du diese Personen? * Welche Personen sind Erwachsene? * Welche Personen sind Kinder? == Verstehen == === 1. Menschen === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Deutsch !! Aussprache |- | der Mann || [[File:De-Mann.ogg]] |- | die Frau || [[File:De-Frau.ogg]] |- | das Kind || [[File:De-Kind.ogg]] |- | der Junge || [[File:De-Junge.ogg]] |- | das Mädchen || [[File:De-Mädchen.ogg]] |} === 2. Gegenstände === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Deutsch !! Aussprache |- | der Tisch || [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] |- | der Stuhl || [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] |- | das Buch || [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] |- | die Tasche || [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] |- | die Lampe || [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] |- | die Tür || [[File:De-Tür.ogg]] |- | das Fenster || [[File:De-Fenster.ogg]] |- | der Stift || [[File:De-Stift.ogg]] |} === 3. Erste Sätze === {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Wer ist das? || Das ist ein Mann. |- | Wer ist das? || Das ist eine Frau. |- | Wer ist das? || Das ist ein Kind. |- | Was ist das? || Das ist ein Buch. |- | Was ist das? || Das ist eine Lampe. |} === 4. Artikel === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Bestimmter Artikel !! Unbestimmter Artikel !! Beispiel |- | der || ein || ein Mann |- | die || eine || eine Frau |- | das || ein || ein Kind |} Beobachte die Wörter: * der Mann – ein Mann * die Frau – eine Frau * das Kind – ein Kind == Anwenden == === 1. Menschen erkennen === Ordne die Wörter den richtigen Bildern zu. * der Mann * die Frau * das Kind * der Junge * das Mädchen === 2. Gegenstände erkennen === Wie heißen die Gegenstände? * [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] * [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] * [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] === 3. Artikel ergänzen === Ergänze ''der'', ''die'' oder ''das''. # ___ Mann # ___ Frau # ___ Kind # ___ Junge # ___ Mädchen # ___ Tisch # ___ Stuhl # ___ Buch # ___ Tasche # ___ Lampe === 4. Sätze ergänzen === Ergänze ''ein'' oder ''eine''. # Das ist ___ Mann. # Das ist ___ Frau. # Das ist ___ Kind. # Das ist ___ Buch. # Das ist ___ Tasche. # Das ist ___ Tisch. === 5. Fragen und Antworten === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist das? (Bild eines Mannes) # Wer ist das? (Bild einer Frau) # Was ist das? (Bild eines Buches) # Was ist das? (Bild einer Lampe) === 6. Richtig oder falsch? === Sieh dir die Bilder an. Sind die Sätze richtig oder falsch? # Das ist ein Mann. # Das ist eine Frau. # Das ist ein Tisch. # Das ist eine Lampe. == Lesen == === Im Zimmer === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Pieter Jacobsz. Codde (1599-1678) - Portrait of a Man, a Woman and a Boy in a Room - NG2576 - National Gallery.jpg|500px|thumb|Ein Zimmer]] |} ''Das ist ein Zimmer. In dem Zimmer sind ein Mann, eine Frau und ein Kind. Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. Die Frau hat einen Fächer. Das Kind hat einen Hut. Es gibt einen Tisch. Das Bild ist groß.'' === Leseverständnis === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist im Zimmer? # Was hat die Frau? # Was hat das Kind? # Wo sitzt der Mann? # Was steht auf dem Tisch? # Wie ist das Fenster? === Richtig oder falsch? === # Im Zimmer sind drei Personen. # Der Mann sitzt auf einem Tisch. # Die Frau hat ein Buch. # Das Kind hat eine Lampe. # Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. === Bilder zuordnen === Ordne die Sätze den richtigen Bildern zu. * Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. * Die Frau hat ein Buch. * Das Kind hat eine Tasche. * Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. == Produzieren == === 1. Menschen beschreiben === Sieh dir eine neue Illustration an. Beschreibe die Personen. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Mann. * Das ist eine Frau. * Das ist ein Kind. === 2. Gegenstände beschreiben === Sieh dir die Gegenstände in der Illustration an. Schreibe fünf Sätze. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Tisch. * Das ist ein Buch. * Das ist eine Lampe. === 3. Mein Zimmer === Beschreibe dein Zimmer oder Klassenzimmer. Schreibe fünf bis acht Sätze. Verwende: * Mindestens zwei Personen. * Mindestens drei Gegenstände. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das''. * Die Wörter ''ein'' und ''eine''. == Wiederholung == === Was hast du gelernt? === * Menschen benennen. * Gegenstände benennen. * ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' unterscheiden. * ''ein'' und ''eine'' verwenden. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text verstehen. * Ein Bild mit deutschen Sätzen beschreiben. cxbukxc5jc5k6qpv8i9rjm3fw2f9pk2 4681749 4681744 2026-11-11T20:50:15Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4681749 wikitext text/x-wiki == Menschen und Gegenstände == === Lernziele === * Menschen und Gegenstände erkennen und benennen. * Einfache deutsche Sätze verstehen und bilden. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' kennenlernen. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text lesen und verstehen. * Menschen und Gegenstände beschreiben. === Wahrnehmen === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100px|thumb|der Mann, Herr {{w|Einstein}}[[File:De-Mann.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Noether.jpg|100px|thumb|die Frau, Frau [[w:Emmy Noether|Noether]][[File:De-Frau.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Dubious Mozart portrait (c. 1773-75).jpg|thumb|100px|der Junge, {{w|Mozart}}[[File:De-Junge.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Anne Frank (cropped).jpg|100px|thumb|das Mädchen, {{w|Anne Frank}}[[File:De-Mädchen.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Tablecloth 01.JPG|100px|thumb|der Tisch[[File:De-Tisch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Chair 2020 P02.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stuhl[[File:De-Stuhl.ogg|100px]]]] |- | [[File:Reimski evanđelistar.10.jpg|100px|thumb|das Buch[[File:De-Buch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Handbag (drawing).jpg|100px|thumb|die Tasche[[File:De-Tasche.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Lamp with a lampshade illuminated by sunlight.jpg|100px|thumb|die Lampe[[File:De-Lampe.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Marktheidenfeld, Glasergasse 20 002.jpg|100px|thumb|die Tür[[File:De-Tür.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Fischerkirche (window), Born a. Darß.jpg|100px|thumb|das Fenster[[File:De-Fenster.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Pen 7.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stift[[File:De-Stift.ogg|100px]]]] |} * Wer ist das? * Kennst du diese Personen? * Welche Personen sind Erwachsene? * Welche Personen sind Kinder? == Verstehen == === 1. Menschen === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Deutsch !! Aussprache |- | der Mann || [[File:De-Mann.ogg]] |- | die Frau || [[File:De-Frau.ogg]] |- | das Kind || [[File:De-Kind.ogg]] |- | der Junge || [[File:De-Junge.ogg]] |- | das Mädchen || [[File:De-Mädchen.ogg]] |} === 2. Gegenstände === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Deutsch !! Aussprache |- | der Tisch || [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] |- | der Stuhl || [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] |- | das Buch || [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] |- | die Tasche || [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] |- | die Lampe || [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] |- | die Tür || [[File:De-Tür.ogg]] |- | das Fenster || [[File:De-Fenster.ogg]] |- | der Stift || [[File:De-Stift.ogg]] |} === 3. Erste Sätze === {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Wer ist das? || Das ist ein Mann. |- | Wer ist das? || Das ist eine Frau. |- | Wer ist das? || Das ist ein Kind. |- | Was ist das? || Das ist ein Buch. |- | Was ist das? || Das ist eine Lampe. |} === 4. Artikel === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Bestimmter Artikel !! Unbestimmter Artikel !! Beispiel |- | der || ein || ein Mann |- | die || eine || eine Frau |- | das || ein || ein Kind |} Beobachte die Wörter: * der Mann – ein Mann * die Frau – eine Frau * das Kind – ein Kind == Anwenden == === 1. Menschen erkennen === Ordne die Wörter den richtigen Bildern zu. * der Mann * die Frau * das Kind * der Junge * das Mädchen === 2. Gegenstände erkennen === Wie heißen die Gegenstände? * [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] * [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] * [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] === 3. Artikel ergänzen === Ergänze ''der'', ''die'' oder ''das''. # ___ Mann # ___ Frau # ___ Kind # ___ Junge # ___ Mädchen # ___ Tisch # ___ Stuhl # ___ Buch # ___ Tasche # ___ Lampe === 4. Sätze ergänzen === Ergänze ''ein'' oder ''eine''. # Das ist ___ Mann. # Das ist ___ Frau. # Das ist ___ Kind. # Das ist ___ Buch. # Das ist ___ Tasche. # Das ist ___ Tisch. === 5. Fragen und Antworten === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist das? (Bild eines Mannes) # Wer ist das? (Bild einer Frau) # Was ist das? (Bild eines Buches) # Was ist das? (Bild einer Lampe) === 6. Richtig oder falsch? === Sieh dir die Bilder an. Sind die Sätze richtig oder falsch? # Das ist ein Mann. # Das ist eine Frau. # Das ist ein Tisch. # Das ist eine Lampe. == Lesen == === Im Zimmer === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Pieter Jacobsz. Codde (1599-1678) - Portrait of a Man, a Woman and a Boy in a Room - NG2576 - National Gallery.jpg|500px|thumb|Ein Zimmer]] |} ''Das ist ein Zimmer. In dem Zimmer sind ein Mann, eine Frau und ein Kind. Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. Die Frau hat einen Fächer. Das Kind hat einen Hut. Es gibt einen Tisch. Das Bild ist groß.'' === Leseverständnis === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist im Zimmer? # Was hat die Frau? # Was hat das Kind? # Wo sitzt der Mann? # Was steht auf dem Tisch? # Wie ist das Fenster? === Richtig oder falsch? === # Im Zimmer sind drei Personen. # Der Mann sitzt auf einem Tisch. # Die Frau hat ein Buch. # Das Kind hat eine Lampe. # Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. === Bilder zuordnen === Ordne die Sätze den richtigen Bildern zu. * Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. * Die Frau hat ein Buch. * Das Kind hat eine Tasche. * Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. == Produzieren == === 1. Menschen beschreiben === Sieh dir eine neue Illustration an. Beschreibe die Personen. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Mann. * Das ist eine Frau. * Das ist ein Kind. === 2. Gegenstände beschreiben === Sieh dir die Gegenstände in der Illustration an. Schreibe fünf Sätze. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Tisch. * Das ist ein Buch. * Das ist eine Lampe. === 3. Mein Zimmer === Beschreibe dein Zimmer oder Klassenzimmer. Schreibe fünf bis acht Sätze. Verwende: * Mindestens zwei Personen. * Mindestens drei Gegenstände. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das''. * Die Wörter ''ein'' und ''eine''. == Wiederholung == === Was hast du gelernt? === * Menschen benennen. * Gegenstände benennen. * ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' unterscheiden. * ''ein'' und ''eine'' verwenden. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text verstehen. * Ein Bild mit deutschen Sätzen beschreiben. 7ny1s9ojq1hmkljewpo1b9gpwqvyl5x 4681756 4681749 2026-11-11T23:38:58Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4681756 wikitext text/x-wiki == Menschen und Gegenstände == === Lernziele === * Menschen und Gegenstände erkennen und benennen. * Einfache deutsche Sätze verstehen und bilden. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' kennenlernen. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text lesen und verstehen. * Menschen und Gegenstände beschreiben. === Wahrnehmen === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100px|thumb|der Mann, Herr {{w|Einstein}}[[File:De-Mann.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Noether.jpg|100px|thumb|die Frau, Frau [[w:Emmy Noether|Noether]][[File:De-Frau.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Dubious Mozart portrait (c. 1773-75).jpg|thumb|100px|der Junge, {{w|Mozart}}[[File:De-Junge.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Anne Frank (cropped).jpg|100px|thumb|das Mädchen, {{w|Anne Frank}}[[File:De-Mädchen.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Tablecloth 01.JPG|100px|thumb|der Tisch[[File:De-Tisch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Chair 2020 P02.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stuhl[[File:De-Stuhl.ogg|100px]]]] |- | [[File:Reimski evanđelistar.10.jpg|100px|thumb|das Buch[[File:De-Buch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Handbag (drawing).jpg|100px|thumb|die Tasche[[File:De-Tasche.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Lamp with a lampshade illuminated by sunlight.jpg|100px|thumb|die Lampe[[File:De-Lampe.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Marktheidenfeld, Glasergasse 20 002.jpg|100px|thumb|die Tür[[File:De-Tür.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Fischerkirche (window), Born a. Darß.jpg|100px|thumb|das Fenster[[File:De-Fenster.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Pen 7.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stift[[File:De-Stift.ogg|100px]]]] |} * Einstein '''ist''' ein Mann. * Noether '''ist''' eine Frau. * Mozart '''ist''' ein Junge. * Anne Frank '''ist''' ein Mädchen. * Mozart und Anne Frank '''sind''' Kinder. == Verstehen == === Erste Sätze === {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Niels Bohr - LOC - ggbain - 35303.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Mann. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Mariecurie.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Frau. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Thirteen-year-old Beethoven.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Kind. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Buch. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Lamp in Poland.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Lampe. |} === Artikel === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Bestimmter Artikel !! Unbestimmter Artikel !! Beispiel |- | der || ein || ein Mann |- | die || eine || eine Frau |- | das || ein || ein Kind |} Beobachte die Wörter: * der Mann – ein Mann * die Frau – eine Frau * das Kind – ein Kind == Anwenden == === Menschen erkennen === Ordne die Wörter den richtigen Bildern zu. * der Mann * die Frau * das Kind * der Junge * das Mädchen === Gegenstände erkennen === Wie heißen die Gegenstände? * [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] * [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] * [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] === Artikel ergänzen === Ergänze ''der'', ''die'' oder ''das''. # ___ Mann # ___ Frau # ___ Kind # ___ Junge # ___ Mädchen # ___ Tisch # ___ Stuhl # ___ Buch # ___ Tasche # ___ Lampe === Sätze ergänzen === Ergänze ''ein'' oder ''eine''. # Das ist ___ Mann. # Das ist ___ Frau. # Das ist ___ Kind. # Das ist ___ Buch. # Das ist ___ Tasche. # Das ist ___ Tisch. === Fragen und Antworten === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist das? (Bild eines Mannes) # Wer ist das? (Bild einer Frau) # Was ist das? (Bild eines Buches) # Was ist das? (Bild einer Lampe) === Richtig oder falsch? === Sieh dir die Bilder an. Sind die Sätze richtig oder falsch? # Das ist ein Mann. # Das ist eine Frau. # Das ist ein Tisch. # Das ist eine Lampe. == Lesen == === Im Zimmer === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Pieter Jacobsz. Codde (1599-1678) - Portrait of a Man, a Woman and a Boy in a Room - NG2576 - National Gallery.jpg|500px|thumb|Ein Zimmer]] |} ''Das ist ein Zimmer. In dem Zimmer sind ein Mann, eine Frau und ein Kind. Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. Die Frau hat einen Fächer. Das Kind hat einen Hut. Es gibt einen Tisch. Das Bild ist groß.'' === Leseverständnis === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist im Zimmer? # Was hat die Frau? # Was hat das Kind? # Wo sitzt der Mann? # Was steht auf dem Tisch? # Wie ist das Fenster? === Richtig oder falsch? === # Im Zimmer sind drei Personen. # Der Mann sitzt auf einem Tisch. # Die Frau hat ein Buch. # Das Kind hat eine Lampe. # Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. === Bilder zuordnen === Ordne die Sätze den richtigen Bildern zu. * Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. * Die Frau hat ein Buch. * Das Kind hat eine Tasche. * Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. == Produzieren == === 1. Menschen beschreiben === Sieh dir eine neue Illustration an. Beschreibe die Personen. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Mann. * Das ist eine Frau. * Das ist ein Kind. === 2. Gegenstände beschreiben === Sieh dir die Gegenstände in der Illustration an. Schreibe fünf Sätze. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Tisch. * Das ist ein Buch. * Das ist eine Lampe. === 3. Mein Zimmer === Beschreibe dein Zimmer oder Klassenzimmer. Schreibe fünf bis acht Sätze. Verwende: * Mindestens zwei Personen. * Mindestens drei Gegenstände. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das''. * Die Wörter ''ein'' und ''eine''. == Wiederholung == === Was hast du gelernt? === * Menschen benennen. * Gegenstände benennen. * ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' unterscheiden. * ''ein'' und ''eine'' verwenden. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text verstehen. * Ein Bild mit deutschen Sätzen beschreiben. 7retgn5izvm566rpewmkeakz9jxfykm 4681758 4681756 2026-11-12T00:09:54Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4681758 wikitext text/x-wiki == Menschen und Gegenstände == === Lernziele === * Menschen und Gegenstände erkennen und benennen. * Einfache deutsche Sätze verstehen und bilden. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das'' kennenlernen. * Einfache Fragen stellen und beantworten. * Einen kurzen deutschen Text lesen und verstehen. * Menschen und Gegenstände beschreiben. === Wahrnehmen === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100px|thumb|der Mann, Herr {{w|Einstein}}[[File:De-Mann.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Noether.jpg|100px|thumb|die Frau, Frau [[w:Emmy Noether|Noether]][[File:De-Frau.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Dubious Mozart portrait (c. 1773-75).jpg|thumb|100px|der Junge, {{w|Mozart}}[[File:De-Junge.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Anne Frank (cropped).jpg|100px|thumb|das Mädchen, {{w|Anne Frank}}[[File:De-Mädchen.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Tablecloth 01.JPG|100px|thumb|der Tisch[[File:De-Tisch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Chair 2020 P02.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stuhl[[File:De-Stuhl.ogg|100px]]]] |- | [[File:Reimski evanđelistar.10.jpg|100px|thumb|das Buch[[File:De-Buch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Handbag (drawing).jpg|100px|thumb|die Tasche[[File:De-Tasche.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Lamp with a lampshade illuminated by sunlight.jpg|100px|thumb|die Lampe[[File:De-Lampe.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Marktheidenfeld, Glasergasse 20 002.jpg|100px|thumb|die Tür[[File:De-Tür.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Fischerkirche (window), Born a. Darß.jpg|100px|thumb|das Fenster[[File:De-Fenster.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Pen 7.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stift[[File:De-Stift.ogg|100px]]]] |} * Einstein '''ist''' ein Mann. * Noether '''ist''' eine Frau. * Mozart '''ist''' ein Junge. * Anne Frank '''ist''' ein Mädchen. * Mozart und Anne Frank '''sind''' Kinder. == Verstehen == === Erste Sätze === {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Niels Bohr - LOC - ggbain - 35303.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Mann. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Mariecurie.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Frau. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Thirteen-year-old Beethoven.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Kind. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Buch. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Lamp in Poland.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Lampe. |} === Artikel === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Bestimmter Artikel !! Unbestimmter Artikel !! Beispiel |- | der || ein || ein Mann |- | die || eine || eine Frau |- | das || ein || ein Kind |} Beobachte die Wörter: * der Mann – ein Mann * die Frau – eine Frau * das Kind – ein Kind == Anwenden == === Menschen erkennen === Ordne die Wörter den richtigen Bildern zu. * der Mann * die Frau * das Kind * der Junge * das Mädchen === Gegenstände erkennen === Wie heißen die Gegenstände? * [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] * [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] * [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] === Artikel ergänzen === Ergänze ''der'', ''die'' oder ''das''. # ___ Mann # ___ Frau # ___ Kind # ___ Junge # ___ Mädchen # ___ Tisch # ___ Stuhl # ___ Buch # ___ Tasche # ___ Lampe === Sätze ergänzen === Ergänze ''ein'' oder ''eine''. # Das ist ___ Mann. # Das ist ___ Frau. # Das ist ___ Kind. # Das ist ___ Buch. # Das ist ___ Tasche. # Das ist ___ Tisch. === Fragen und Antworten === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist das? (Bild eines Mannes) # Wer ist das? (Bild einer Frau) # Was ist das? (Bild eines Buches) # Was ist das? (Bild einer Lampe) === Richtig oder falsch? === Sieh dir die Bilder an. Sind die Sätze richtig oder falsch? # Das ist ein Mann. # Das ist eine Frau. # Das ist ein Tisch. # Das ist eine Lampe. == Lesen == === Im Zimmer === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Pieter Jacobsz. Codde (1599-1678) - Portrait of a Man, a Woman and a Boy in a Room - NG2576 - National Gallery.jpg|500px|thumb|Ein Zimmer]] |} ''Das ist ein Zimmer. In dem Zimmer sind ein Mann, eine Frau und ein Kind. Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. Die Frau hat einen Fächer. Das Kind hat einen Hut. Es gibt einen Tisch. Das Bild ist groß.'' === Leseverständnis === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist im Zimmer? # Was hat die Frau? # Was hat das Kind? # Wo sitzt der Mann? # Was steht auf dem Tisch? # Wie ist das Fenster? === Richtig oder falsch? === # Im Zimmer sind drei Personen. # Der Mann sitzt auf einem Tisch. # Die Frau hat ein Buch. # Das Kind hat eine Lampe. # Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. === Bilder zuordnen === Ordne die Sätze den richtigen Bildern zu. * Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. * Die Frau hat ein Buch. * Das Kind hat eine Tasche. * Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. == Produzieren == === 1. Menschen beschreiben === Sieh dir eine neue Illustration an. Beschreibe die Personen. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Mann. * Das ist eine Frau. * Das ist ein Kind. === 2. Gegenstände beschreiben === Sieh dir die Gegenstände in der Illustration an. Schreibe fünf Sätze. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Tisch. * Das ist ein Buch. * Das ist eine Lampe. === 3. Mein Zimmer === Beschreibe dein Zimmer oder Klassenzimmer. Schreibe fünf bis acht Sätze. Verwende: * Mindestens zwei Personen. * Mindestens drei Gegenstände. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das''. * Die Wörter ''ein'' und ''eine''. reunl1af2ts1gv0d9qzkd1kmxvzroqy 4681762 4681758 2026-11-12T01:20:42Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4681762 wikitext text/x-wiki = Menschen und Gegenstände = == Wahrnehmen == ''Recognize vocabulary through images and context.'' {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100px|thumb|der Mann, Herr {{w|Einstein}}[[File:De-Mann.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Noether.jpg|100px|thumb|die Frau, Frau [[w:Emmy Noether|Noether]][[File:De-Frau.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Dubious Mozart portrait (c. 1773-75).jpg|thumb|100px|der Junge, {{w|Mozart}}[[File:De-Junge.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Anne Frank (cropped).jpg|100px|thumb|das Mädchen, {{w|Anne Frank}}[[File:De-Mädchen.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Tablecloth 01.JPG|100px|thumb|der Tisch[[File:De-Tisch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Chair 2020 P02.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stuhl[[File:De-Stuhl.ogg|100px]]]] |- | [[File:Reimski evanđelistar.10.jpg|100px|thumb|das Buch[[File:De-Buch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Handbag (drawing).jpg|100px|thumb|die Tasche[[File:De-Tasche.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Lamp with a lampshade illuminated by sunlight.jpg|100px|thumb|die Lampe[[File:De-Lampe.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Marktheidenfeld, Glasergasse 20 002.jpg|100px|thumb|die Tür[[File:De-Tür.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Fischerkirche (window), Born a. Darß.jpg|100px|thumb|das Fenster[[File:De-Fenster.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Pen 7.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stift[[File:De-Stift.ogg|100px]]]] |} * Einstein '''ist''' ein Mann. * Noether '''ist''' eine Frau. * Mozart '''ist''' ein Junge. * Anne Frank '''ist''' ein Mädchen. * Mozart und Anne Frank '''sind''' Kinder. == Verstehen == ''Understand vocabulary and simple German sentences.'' === Erste Sätze === {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Niels Bohr - LOC - ggbain - 35303.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Mann. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Mariecurie.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Frau. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Thirteen-year-old Beethoven.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Kind. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Buch. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Lamp in Poland.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Lampe. |} === Artikel === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Bestimmter Artikel !! Unbestimmter Artikel !! Beispiel |- | der || ein || ein Mann |- | die || eine || eine Frau |- | das || ein || ein Kind |} Beobachte die Wörter: * der Mann – ein Mann * die Frau – eine Frau * das Kind – ein Kind == Anwenden == ''Complete exercises and construct sentences.'' === Menschen erkennen === Ordne die Wörter den richtigen Bildern zu. * der Mann * die Frau * das Kind * der Junge * das Mädchen === Gegenstände erkennen === Wie heißen die Gegenstände? * [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] * [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] * [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] * [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] === Artikel ergänzen === Ergänze ''der'', ''die'' oder ''das''. # ___ Mann # ___ Frau # ___ Kind # ___ Junge # ___ Mädchen # ___ Tisch # ___ Stuhl # ___ Buch # ___ Tasche # ___ Lampe === Sätze ergänzen === Ergänze ''ein'' oder ''eine''. # Das ist ___ Mann. # Das ist ___ Frau. # Das ist ___ Kind. # Das ist ___ Buch. # Das ist ___ Tasche. # Das ist ___ Tisch. === Fragen und Antworten === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist das? (Bild eines Mannes) # Wer ist das? (Bild einer Frau) # Was ist das? (Bild eines Buches) # Was ist das? (Bild einer Lampe) === Richtig oder falsch? === Sieh dir die Bilder an. Sind die Sätze richtig oder falsch? # Das ist ein Mann. # Das ist eine Frau. # Das ist ein Tisch. # Das ist eine Lampe. == Lesen == ''Understand connected German text.'' === Im Zimmer === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Pieter Jacobsz. Codde (1599-1678) - Portrait of a Man, a Woman and a Boy in a Room - NG2576 - National Gallery.jpg|500px|thumb|Ein Zimmer]] |} ''Das ist ein Zimmer. In dem Zimmer sind ein Mann, eine Frau und ein Kind. Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. Die Frau hat einen Fächer. Das Kind hat einen Hut. Es gibt einen Tisch. Das Bild ist groß.'' === Leseverständnis === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist im Zimmer? # Was hat die Frau? # Was hat das Kind? # Wo sitzt der Mann? # Was steht auf dem Tisch? # Wie ist das Fenster? === Richtig oder falsch? === # Im Zimmer sind drei Personen. # Der Mann sitzt auf einem Tisch. # Die Frau hat ein Buch. # Das Kind hat eine Lampe. # Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. === Bilder zuordnen === Ordne die Sätze den richtigen Bildern zu. * Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. * Die Frau hat ein Buch. * Das Kind hat eine Tasche. * Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. == Produzieren == ''Independently describe people, objects, and situations.'' === Menschen beschreiben === [[File:Elegant man and woman in a garden PK-1933-T-5, PK-T-6840.tiff|500px]] Beschreibe die Personen. === Gegenstände beschreiben === Sieh dir die Gegenstände in der Illustration an. Schreibe fünf Sätze. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Tisch. * Das ist ein Buch. * Das ist eine Lampe. === Mein Zimmer === Beschreibe dein Zimmer oder Klassenzimmer. Schreibe fünf bis acht Sätze. Verwende: * Mindestens zwei Personen. * Mindestens drei Gegenstände. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das''. * Die Wörter ''ein'' und ''eine''. pbe31g6w80ge9eujbdxtcpysavsbj23 4681766 4681762 2026-11-12T03:09:27Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4681766 wikitext text/x-wiki = Menschen und Gegenstände = == Wahrnehmen == ''Recognize vocabulary through images and context.'' {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100px|thumb|der Mann, Herr {{w|Einstein}}[[File:De-Mann.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Noether.jpg|100px|thumb|die Frau, Frau [[w:Emmy Noether|Noether]][[File:De-Frau.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Dubious Mozart portrait (c. 1773-75).jpg|thumb|100px|der Junge, {{w|Mozart}}[[File:De-Junge.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Anne Frank (cropped).jpg|100px|thumb|das Mädchen, {{w|Anne Frank}}[[File:De-Mädchen.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Tablecloth 01.JPG|100px|thumb|der Tisch[[File:De-Tisch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Chair 2020 P02.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stuhl[[File:De-Stuhl.ogg|100px]]]] |- | [[File:Reimski evanđelistar.10.jpg|100px|thumb|das Buch[[File:De-Buch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Handbag (drawing).jpg|100px|thumb|die Tasche[[File:De-Tasche.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Lamp with a lampshade illuminated by sunlight.jpg|100px|thumb|die Lampe[[File:De-Lampe.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Marktheidenfeld, Glasergasse 20 002.jpg|100px|thumb|die Tür[[File:De-Tür.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Fischerkirche (window), Born a. Darß.jpg|100px|thumb|das Fenster[[File:De-Fenster.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Pen 7.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stift[[File:De-Stift.ogg|100px]]]] |} * Einstein '''ist''' ein Mann. '''Er''' ist ein Mann. * Noether '''ist''' eine Frau. '''Sie''' ist eine Frau. * Mozart '''ist''' ein Junge. '''Er''' ist ein Junge. * Anne Frank '''ist''' ein Mädchen. '''Sie''' ist ein Mädchen. * Mozart und Anne Frank '''sind''' Kinder. '''Sie''' sind Kinder. == Verstehen == ''Understand vocabulary and simple German sentences.'' === Erste Sätze === {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Niels Bohr - LOC - ggbain - 35303.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Mann. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Mariecurie.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Frau. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Thirteen-year-old Beethoven.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Kind. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Buch. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Lamp in Poland.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Lampe. |} === Artikel === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Bestimmter Artikel !! Unbestimmter Artikel !! Beispiel |- | der || ein || ein Mann |- | die || eine || eine Frau |- | das || ein || ein Kind |} Beobachte die Wörter: * der Mann – ein Mann * die Frau – eine Frau * das Kind – ein Kind == Anwenden == ''Complete exercises and construct sentences.'' === Menschen erkennen === Ordne die Wörter den richtigen Bildern zu. * der Mann * die Frau * das Kind * der Junge * das Mädchen === Gegenstände erkennen === Was hörst du? * Tisch: [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] * _____: [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] * ____: [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] * ______: [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] * _____: [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] === Artikel ergänzen === Ergänze ''der'', ''die'' oder ''das''. # ___ Mann # ___ Frau # ___ Kind # ___ Junge # ___ Mädchen # ___ Tisch # ___ Stuhl # ___ Buch # ___ Tasche # ___ Lampe === Sätze ergänzen === Ergänze ''ein'' oder ''eine''. # Das ist ___ Mann. # Das ist ___ Frau. # Das ist ___ Kind. # Das ist ___ Buch. # Das ist ___ Tasche. # Das ist ___ Tisch. === Fragen und Antworten === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist das? (Bild eines Mannes) # Wer ist das? (Bild einer Frau) # Was ist das? (Bild eines Buches) # Was ist das? (Bild einer Lampe) === Richtig oder falsch? === Sieh dir die Bilder an. Sind die Sätze richtig oder falsch? # Das ist ein Mann. # Das ist eine Frau. # Das ist ein Tisch. # Das ist eine Lampe. == Lesen == ''Understand connected German text.'' === Im Zimmer === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Pieter Jacobsz. Codde (1599-1678) - Portrait of a Man, a Woman and a Boy in a Room - NG2576 - National Gallery.jpg|500px|thumb|Ein Zimmer]] |} ''Das ist ein Zimmer. In dem Zimmer sind ein Mann, eine Frau und ein Kind. Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. Die Frau hat einen Fächer. Das Kind hat einen Hut. Es gibt einen Tisch. Das Bild ist groß.'' === Leseverständnis === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist im Zimmer? # Was hat die Frau? # Was hat das Kind? # Wo sitzt der Mann? # Was steht auf dem Tisch? # Wie ist das Fenster? === Richtig oder falsch? === # Im Zimmer sind drei Personen. # Der Mann sitzt auf einem Tisch. # Die Frau hat ein Buch. # Das Kind hat eine Lampe. # Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. === Bilder zuordnen === Ordne die Sätze den richtigen Bildern zu. * Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. * Die Frau hat ein Buch. * Das Kind hat eine Tasche. * Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. == Produzieren == ''Independently describe people, objects, and situations.'' === Menschen beschreiben === [[File:Elegant man and woman in a garden PK-1933-T-5, PK-T-6840.tiff|500px]] Beschreibe die Personen. === Gegenstände beschreiben === Sieh dir die Gegenstände in der Illustration an. Schreibe fünf Sätze. Beispiele: * Das ist ein Tisch. * Das ist ein Buch. * Das ist eine Lampe. === Mein Zimmer === Beschreibe dein Zimmer oder Klassenzimmer. Schreibe fünf bis acht Sätze. Verwende: * Mindestens zwei Personen. * Mindestens drei Gegenstände. * Die Artikel ''der'', ''die'' und ''das''. * Die Wörter ''ein'' und ''eine''. frlmgla2oqfnlgzvtwoaud5k43c6pha 4681768 4681766 2026-11-12T04:02:55Z It-is-Truly-Meet 3624460 4681768 wikitext text/x-wiki = Menschen und Gegenstände = == Wahrnehmen == ''Recognize vocabulary through images and context.'' {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Albert Einstein Head cleaned.jpg|100px|thumb|der Mann, Herr {{w|Einstein}}[[File:De-Mann.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Noether.jpg|100px|thumb|die Frau, Frau [[w:Emmy Noether|Noether]][[File:De-Frau.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Dubious Mozart portrait (c. 1773-75).jpg|thumb|100px|der Junge, {{w|Mozart}}[[File:De-Junge.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Anne Frank (cropped).jpg|100px|thumb|das Mädchen, {{w|Anne Frank}}[[File:De-Mädchen.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Tablecloth 01.JPG|100px|thumb|der Tisch[[File:De-Tisch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Chair 2020 P02.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stuhl[[File:De-Stuhl.ogg|100px]]]] |- | [[File:Reimski evanđelistar.10.jpg|100px|thumb|das Buch[[File:De-Buch.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Handbag (drawing).jpg|100px|thumb|die Tasche[[File:De-Tasche.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Lamp with a lampshade illuminated by sunlight.jpg|100px|thumb|die Lampe[[File:De-Lampe.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Marktheidenfeld, Glasergasse 20 002.jpg|100px|thumb|die Tür[[File:De-Tür.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Fischerkirche (window), Born a. Darß.jpg|100px|thumb|das Fenster[[File:De-Fenster.ogg|100px]]]] | [[File:Pen 7.jpg|100px|thumb|der Stift[[File:De-Stift.ogg|100px]]]] |} * Einstein '''ist''' ein Mann. '''Er''' ist ein Mann. * Noether '''ist''' eine Frau. '''Sie''' ist eine Frau. * Mozart '''ist''' ein Junge. '''Er''' ist ein Junge. * Anne Frank '''ist''' ein Mädchen. '''Sie''' ist ein Mädchen. * Mozart und Anne Frank '''sind''' Kinder. '''Sie''' sind Kinder. == Verstehen == ''Understand vocabulary and simple German sentences.'' === Erste Sätze === {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Niels Bohr - LOC - ggbain - 35303.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Mann. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Mariecurie.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Frau. |- | Wer ist das?[[File:Thirteen-year-old Beethoven.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Kind. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|100px]] || Das ist ein Buch. |- | Was ist das? [[File:Lamp in Poland.jpg|100px]] || Das ist eine Lampe. |} === Artikel === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! Bestimmter Artikel !! Unbestimmter Artikel !! Beispiel |- | der || ein || ein Mann |- | die || eine || eine Frau |- | das || ein || ein Kind |} Beobachte die Wörter: * der Mann – ein Mann * die Frau – eine Frau * das Kind – ein Kind == Anwenden == ''Complete exercises and construct sentences.'' === Menschen erkennen === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Beethoven 3.jpg|thumb|100px|#1]] | [[File:Portrait of a young girl in a white dress (by Joseph Wright of Derby).jpg|thumb|100px|#_]] | [[File:Jane Austen, from A Memoir of Jane Austen (1870).jpg|thumb|100px|#_]] | [[File:Albert Einstein at the age of three (1882).jpg|thumb|100px|#_]] |} Ordne die Wörter den richtigen Bildern zu. # der Mann # die Frau # der Junge # das Mädchen === Gegenstände erkennen === Was hörst du? * Tisch: [[File:De-Tisch.ogg]] * _____: [[File:De-Stuhl.ogg]] * ____: [[File:De-Buch.ogg]] * ______: [[File:De-Tasche.ogg]] * _____: [[File:De-Lampe.ogg]] === Artikel ergänzen === Ergänze ''der'', ''die'' oder ''das''. # ___ Mann # ___ Frau # ___ Kind # ___ Junge # ___ Mädchen # ___ Tisch # ___ Stuhl # ___ Buch # ___ Tasche # ___ Lampe === Sätze ergänzen === Ergänze ''ein'' oder ''eine''. # Das ist ___ Mann. # Das ist ___ Frau. # Das ist ___ Kind. # Das ist ___ Buch. # Das ist ___ Tasche. # Das ist ___ Tisch. === Richtig oder falsch? === Sieh dir die Bilder an. Sind die Sätze richtig oder falsch? {| class="wikitable" ! Frage !! Antwort |- | Ist das ein Mann?[[File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|100px]] || Ja, das ist ein Mann. |- | Ist das eine Frau?[[File:Carl Friedrich Gauss.jpg|100px]] || Nein, das ist keine Frau. |- | Ist das eine Lampe? [[File:Lamp in Poland.jpg|100px]] || Ja, das ist eine Lampe. |} == Lesen == ''Understand connected German text.'' === Im Zimmer === {| class="plainlinks" style="text-align:center; border:none;" |- | [[File:Pieter Jacobsz. Codde (1599-1678) - Portrait of a Man, a Woman and a Boy in a Room - NG2576 - National Gallery.jpg|500px|thumb|Ein Zimmer]] |} ''Das ist ein Zimmer. In dem Zimmer sind ein Mann, eine Frau und ein Kind. Der Mann sitzt auf einem Stuhl. Die Frau hat einen Fächer. Das Kind hat einen Hut. Es gibt einen Tisch. Das Bild ist groß.'' === Leseverständnis === Beantworte die Fragen. # Wer ist im Zimmer? # Was hat die Frau? # Was hat das Kind? # Wo sitzt der Mann? # Wie ist das Bild? === Richtig oder falsch? === # Im Zimmer sind drei Personen. # Der Mann sitzt auf einem Tisch. # Die Frau hat ein Buch. # Das Kind hat eine Lampe. # Auf dem Tisch steht eine Lampe. == Produzieren == ''Independently describe people, objects, and situations.'' === Menschen beschreiben === [[File:Elegant man and woman in a garden PK-1933-T-5, PK-T-6840.tiff|500px]] Beschreibe das Bild. ''Es gibt eine Frau und einen Mann. Die Frau hat ein Buch und der Mann hat einen Teller. Sie sitzen an einem Tisch.'' d5tvuoywdw293dechwvjqgpfq9tt0r9 2 487149 4681761 2026-11-12T00:47:17Z Aasthasverse 3631052 Introduction 4681761 wikitext text/x-wiki Coordinate Systems help robots determine the position and orientation of their links, joints, tools, and end-effector. ibzom8idr2dxxdfs4u4qcnc2nn4xun3 4681765 4681761 2026-11-12T02:36:47Z Aasthasverse 3631052 Added Types of Coordinate Systems 4681765 wikitext text/x-wiki Coordinate Systems help robots determine the position and orientation of their links, joints, tools, and end-effector. A robot operates in a 3 dimensional environment and needs to locate an object. Coordinate Systems helps to identify these points (x, y, z) in this 3D space accurately. In robotics, Coordinate Systems are used for robot kinematics, navigation, motion planning, object manipulation, and industrial robotics. What is a Coordinate System? A Coordinate System is a reference framework used to specify the position of a point in space. There are three types of Coordinate systems widely used for a manipulator: Cartesian Coordinate System, Cylindrical Coordinate System, and Spherical Coordinate System. Types of Coordinate Systems Cartesian Coordinate System: It is a three-dimensional reference system that represents the position of a point using three mutually perpendicular axes: X, Y, and Z. The point in this coordinate system is represented by P = (x, y, z) where x is the distance along X-axis, y is the distance along Y-axis, and z is the distance along Z-axis. These three axes meet at a common point called origin O(0, 0, 0). This type of coordinate system is commonly used for precise linear movements in Cartesian Robotic Manipulator, CNC machines, and 3D printers. Cylindrical Coordinate System: It is a three-dimensional reference system that represents the position of a point using two-dimensional polar coordinates in the horizontal plane and a vertical plane. It is useful for describing the position involving rotational movement around a central axis. The point in this coordinate system is represented by P = (r, θ, z) where r is the radial distance from Z-axis, θ is the angle measured from positive X-axis in the X-Y plane, and z is the vertical distance along Z-axis. The relation between cartesian and cylindrical coordinates are: x = r cosθ, y = r sinθ, and z = z. This coordinate system is appropriate for robots performing rotational and vertical movement in cylindrical robotic manipulators, automated material handling, and for representing objects arranged around a central axis. 5g9y8bw9u814ej6dgn4ox1qipdo3jdk 2 487151 4681775 2026-11-12T07:18:53Z Avishkar pathak 3630257 Electric Vehicle Charging Systems 4681775 wikitext text/x-wiki 7. Challenges and Limitations High initial installation cost. Limited charging infrastructure in some areas. Charging time can be longer than conventional refuelling. Additional electricity demand on the power grid. Compatibility issues between charging connectors and vehicles. Battery performance can be affected by temperature and charging conditions. 8. Future Scope The future of EV charging systems is expected to include ultra-fast charging, wireless power transfer, smart charging stations, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology and solar-powered charging infrastructure. These developments may improve charging convenience, energy management and the integration of electric vehicles with renewable energy systems. 9. Conclusion Electric Vehicle Charging Systems are an important part of modern electric transportation. They provide the electrical energy required to operate electric vehicles and support the transition towards cleaner mobility. With improvements in charging speed, battery technology, smart control systems and renewable energy integration, EV charging infrastructure is expected to become more efficient and widely available in the future. dqsfflheyf746e5989awwy9h98juajo 2 487152 4681776 2026-11-12T07:27:34Z Mohamed imam a 3630265 Created page with "[[File:Automating the future (IA automatingfuture967zenz).pdf|thumb]] == '''''<big>Pick and Place Robots</big>''''' '''''<big>: Working and [[Applications of ICT in Libraries/Locating Information|Applications]]</big>''''' == == Abstract == The field of robotics has been rapidly developing in recent years, and the work related to training robotic agents with reinforcement learning has been a major focus of research. This survey reviews the application of reinforcement..." 4681776 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Automating the future (IA automatingfuture967zenz).pdf|thumb]] == '''''<big>Pick and Place Robots</big>''''' '''''<big>: Working and [[Applications of ICT in Libraries/Locating Information|Applications]]</big>''''' == == Abstract == The field of robotics has been rapidly developing in recent years, and the work related to training robotic agents with reinforcement learning has been a major focus of research. This survey reviews the application of reinforcement learning for pick-and-place operations, a task that a logistics robot can be trained to complete without support from a robotics engineer. To introduce this topic, we first review the fundamentals of reinforcement learning and various methods of policy optimization, such as value iteration and policy search. Next, factors which have an impact on the pick-and-place task, such as reward shaping, imitation learning, pose estimation, and simulation environment are examined. Following the review of the fundamentals and key factors for reinforcement learning, we present an extensive review of all methods implemented by researchers in the field to date. The strengths and weaknesses of each method from literature are discussed, and details about the contribution of each manuscript to the field are reviewed. The concluding critical discussion of the available literature, and the summary of open problems indicates that experiment validation, model generalization, and grasp pose selection are topics that require additional research. Keywords: reinforcement learning; Markov decision process; policy optimization; robotic control; simulation environment; pose estimation; imitation learning == 1. Introduction == Robotic arms have been used in industry for years to automate repetitive, strenuous, and complex tasks in which speed and precision are critical. The difficulty with the conventional control of robotic arms is that they require individual programming on a task-by-task basis with no margin for error. As a result, task programming requires extensive effort by a robotics engineer or tedious online manipulation by skilled robot operators with the control pendant [1,2,3]. === 1.1. Robotics Background === With traditional robotic control strategies, motion planning is founded on forward and inverse kinematics. The forward kinematics combine the direct measurement of all joint orientations with the lengths of linkages connected to the joints to determine the end-effector position. Similarly, inverse kinematics establish the values of joint positions required to place the end effector at a new location with a new orientation. The Jacobian of the forward kinematics and the inverse Jacobian for the inverse kinematics are used to determine the velocity of the end effector at different points over the motion path [4,5]. Typically, an engineer does not directly develop the code to apply the forward and inverse kinematics to complete each robotic task. Instead, graphical or text-based programming environments implement interpreters and compilers to translate basic commands or position controls to the robot in its native language [3,6]. The programming environment is determined by the interfaces provided by the supplier and the choice between online and offline programming [7]. Online programming is traditionally used in industry to allow skilled operators to teach basic motion trajectories and operations to the robot using teach-pendant control interfaces or manual robotic arm positioning. There are many difficulties associated with online programming, such as robot downtime, range in pendant interfaces, and lack of dynamic control to handle changes in the environment. Online programming is only usable for basic tasks with high repeatability. Reprogramming is required for any minor variances in the workspace, limiting the applicability for this type of programming [7,8]. Offline programming is the alternative control technique. This approach involves skilled programmers interacting with graphical program environments and/or text-based programming languages to develop control strategies for the robotic arm. Offline programming has the advantages of reducing downtime (and the associated downtime cost) and allowing the implementation of advanced control strategies [3,7,8]. The disadvantages of offline programming include the requirement for programmers to have experience with generic or controller specific languages, and/or the graphical model based control environment selected by the manufacturer [3,7]. Due to the difficulties with both the online and offline approaches, robotic implementation in small and medium-sized labor-dependent enterprises in industry has been slow. The earliest forms of electric robotic arms driven with forward and inverse kinematics were developed in the early 1970s [9]. Nearly 50 years since this development, only 33.96% of small and medium firms have implemented any form of robotics, a value which is 35.64% less than large firms (statistic taken in 2015) [10]. Automation improves productivity and reduces labor costs [10], which puts small and medium-sized enterprises at a significant disadvantage. The barrier for small companies to incorporate robotics is the high cost of implementing and reprogramming robots and the inability of robots to handle environments that change dynamically [11]. To reduce difficulty with the implementation of robotics in factory settings, reinforcement learning (RL) is becoming a popular alternative to task-specific programming. The goal of RL in robotics is to enable the agent (the robotic arm) to complete basic operations without direct command programming, and to handle changes in the task without requiring reprogramming. The logistics action of pick-and-place is an obvious example of a task which a robotic agent should be able to perform with RL. To complete pick-and-place, a robotic arm must select a target object from a cluttered or isolated location and place the object at a specified position with a particular orientation (Figure 1) This generic task is applicable for various sorting applications which traditionally require human labor. Of the papers published on the topic of pick-and-place with RL (Section 8), implementations differ drastically. To date, no single approach has been selected as the industry standard. Figure 1. Pick-and-place of color-coded square blocks with the Franka Emika Panda robot. === 1.2. Related Work === A broad-scale generalized strategy for implementing pick-and-place with RL in robotics is needed before this technique can be implemented at scale. Mohammed and Chua [12], Liu et al. [13], and Tai et al. [14] have all written review papers focused on RL in robotics; however, these papers have a broad range of focus in terms of robotic agents used and the task completed. === 1.3. Scope of Review === This survey provides a holistic review of RL in robotics as it relates to the pick-and-place task. The fundamental formulation of RL is reviewed, and the elements unique to the robotics application are analyzed in detail. A comprehensive list of papers published on the topic are presented, and a critical analysis on the state of research is conducted. The section breakdown is as follows. Section 2 reviews the fundamental framework for RL, as it can be found in the Markov decision process. After introducing the framework, this section examines the aspects of the robotics application that makes the problem difficult to solve. Section 3 discusses the applicable value function and policy search approaches to policy optimization. The mathematical formulation for each approach is presented and explained. Section 4 investigates the intuition behind reward shaping and highlight some critical techniques developed in the past 30 years. Section 5 explains inverse reinforcement learning and its value in determining complex underlying reward functions. Section 6 explores the intuition behind pose estimation, discussing both gripper and target object pose. Section 7 assesses the choices for simulation environment and reviews how this choice affects the end testing accuracy for robotic pick-and-place. Section 8 performs an extensive audit of the available publications related to RL pick-and-place, with the goal of providing direction for individuals working on this problem in the future. Section 9 includes a brief discussion on open problems. == 2. RL Formulation == The goal for completing a pick-and-place operation without task-specific programming is to allow the agent to independently perform actions in the environment, then learn the optimal strategy for its future tasks based on its experiences [15]. The learning process is analogous to a child learning to walk. A child must first attempt the motions of moving limbs, rolling over, and crawling, before it can complete the target action of walking. The child’s behavior is driven by rewards from its environment after the completion of each task. Positive affirmation from the child’s parents is an example of an environmental reward which would drive the walking behavior. === 2.1. Markov Decision Process === The Markov decision process (MDP) is the underlying formulation for learning with these reinforcement iterations [15]. The MDP encourages specific behaviors and discourages others by feeding rewards or punishments to the agent based on the agent’s action in the environment. The agent selects an action based on its policy function for available actions 𝑎∈𝒜⁡(𝑠) in each state 𝑠∈𝒮. In the deterministic case, the same action 𝑎 is always taken in state 𝑠, and the policy is denoted as 𝜋⁡(𝑠). For an agent operating in a stochastic environment, the policy defines the probabilities of selecting each possible action given a state. The policy for the stochastic case is denoted as 𝜋⁡(𝑎|𝑠) [15]. The primary goal for RL is to find the optimal policy 𝜋∗⁡(𝑎|𝑠). The optimal policy can be found through the implementation of the value function approach [16] or directly through a policy search (both discussed further in Section 3) [17]. The goal of the policy function is to optimize the expected return 𝐺, the (weighted) sum of all discounted returns before the final time step. At time step 𝑡, the expected return is expressed as [15]. 𝐺𝑡=𝑇∑𝑘=𝑡+1𝛾𝑘−𝑡−1⁢𝑅𝑘 where 𝑇 is the total time step, 𝑅𝑘 is the reward for each step, and 𝛾 is the discounting parameter, a number between 0 and 1, which discounts future rewards. Figure 2 depicts the standard MDP for a robotic arm. Figure 2. Agent-environment interaction in the MDP. Again, the intuition behind the MDP can be understood with the analogy of a child learning to crawl. The policy function is analogous to the child’s thought process before attempting an action. The child’s policy is dependent on the reward it receives for completing the action and is the most significant factor which drives learning. === 2.2. RL for Pick-and-Place in Robotics === RL formulated around the basic MDP appears to be intuitive and straightforward; however, robotic training has specific nuances. The primary impediments include the high dimensionality, continuous action space, and extensive training time. Most robotic arms implement 6 degrees of freedom as this is the minimum freedom required to reach any position in space at any angle [18]. The freedom of movement makes the task complex, as all pick-and-place actions require the control of the torque and velocity of each joint of the agent. Additionally, the robot operates in a complex environment with a continuous operational space. Rather than having discrete state choices, the agent in this problem has infinitely many states to explore. The method of limiting the number of actions and states to a tractable set becomes a choice that affects the training time, test accuracy, and repeatability [19]. Many RL algorithms have been developed for the application with simple agents and environments. OpenAI (<nowiki>https://gym.openai.com/</nowiki>, accessed on 15 August 2021) has attempted to standardize the benchmarking environments for RL by creating open access simulations for testing control strategies. Cartpole is an example of a classic control problem found on OpenAI, in which the agent can make a command (left or right) and receive a low dimensional feedback signal (position and angular velocity) [20]. Compared to this simple benchmark, robotic arm manipulation is foundationally more difficult. The high dimensionality of robotic arms drives the need for complex reward functions to promote smooth motions and minimize training time [21]. Even with complex reward functions, the type of object picked, and the pose (orientation and position) of the target object affects the probability of task completion [22]. Due to the high dimensionality and continuous action space, the agent requires extensive training to learn the optimal policy. Online training is costly because of the required human supervision, robotic wear, danger of damaging the robot, and lack of available training robots. The costs associated with online training drives the need for simulation training [16]; however, simulation training often has a low test accuracy. The fundamental problem with simulation training is that the knowledge trained in the simulation must be transferred to the real world. Any inaccuracies in modeling physical parameters such as shapes and weights of objects handled, lighting, or friction coefficients will cause test accuracies to be lower than training accuracies [23]. == 3. Policy Optimization == Finding the optimal policy for a RL problem involves value iteration or policy search. With both policy optimization techniques, the solution process changes depending on if the approach is model-based or model-free. Additionally, the exploration-exploitation tradeoff significantly influences the speed of solution convergence. The model-based technique implements an understanding of the environment through prior learning or through state-space search to create an approximation of the transition probabilities between states given actions 𝑝⁡(𝑠′|𝑠,𝑎)) (also commonly formulated as 𝑇⁡(𝑠′|𝑎, 𝑠)). The model-free (direct) design has no explicit representation of the system dynamics. Instead, the model-free technique learns the value function directly from the rewards received during training [15,24,25]. For RL in robotics, most approaches are model-free, since creating a perfect model of all transition probabilities in a continuous space is intractable. Finding the policy for the agent always involves a tradeoff between searching random actions to find the optimal policy and greedily selecting the optimal action to improve rewards. In RL, 𝜀 is the variable used to represent the probability of not taking the reward-maximizing action during exploration [15]. To ensure that the whole action space is explored, the agent traditionally implements some form of on- or off-policy learning. On-policy learning improves the current policy marginally by selecting the optimal action for the majority (1−𝜀) of actions and selecting a random action with a probability (𝜀) for the rest. Off-policy learning applies two policies; the target policy, which is the policy being learned about, and the behavior policy, which is the policy that drives behavior for learning [15]. In the following sections, the value function and policy search approaches are explained, and different search techniques inside each methodology are reviewed [25]. === 3.1. Value Function Approach === The value function approach is based on dynamic programming (DP). DP is a strategy of breaking up a complex problem into a sequence of successive sub-problems which can be iteratively solved. Implementing DP for RL requires an understanding of value functions. ==== 3.1.1. Value Functions ==== Value functions are founded on the understanding that each state has an associated value dependent on the reward achieved in that state and that state’s potential to be a step in achieving future rewards with the agent’s current policy. A reward is often only received in a specific goal state, so positions proximal to the goal state have the highest value. The value function is found by breaking down the problem into successive sub-problems following the sequence of states. The Bellman equations in Equations (2) and (3) are established to solve for action-value function 𝑞𝜋, and state value function 𝜐𝜋 respectively [15]. 𝑞𝜋⁡(𝑠,𝑎)=∑𝑠′,𝑟𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎)⁢[𝑟+𝛾⁢𝜐𝜋⁡(𝑠′)] 𝜐𝜋⁡(𝑠)=∑𝑎𝜋⁡(𝑎|𝑠)⁢∑𝑠′,𝑟𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎)⁢[𝑟+𝛾⁢𝜐𝜋⁡(𝑠′)] In stochastic reinforcement learning, randomness in the system implies that taking an action 𝑎 from state 𝑠 does not always result in the same final state 𝑠′. The transition dynamics (or transition probability) of the environment 𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎) is used to represent the probability of reaching state 𝑠′ and receiving a reward 𝑟 given that action 𝑎 is taken in state 𝑠 [15]. Using this formulation, the action-value function 𝑞𝜋⁡(𝑠,𝑎) given in Equation (2) can be understood as being equal to the summation of the transition probabilities of reaching all possible states (𝑠′) multiplied by the value (𝑟+𝛾⁢𝜐𝜋⁡(𝑠′)) of each possible state (𝑠′). The state-value function given in Equation (3) can be understood similarly. The primary difference between the two formulations is that the state-value function (Equation (3)) incorporates action selection. The probability of selecting action 𝑎 is dependent on the stochastic policy 𝜋⁡(𝑎|𝑠). Based on this understanding, the value of a given state is equal to the summation over all actions of the probability of selecting a particular action multiplied by the state value function 𝑞𝜋⁡(𝑠,𝑎). In reinforcement learning, state- and action-value functions are implemented for finding the optimal policy with Bellman’s optimality equations. The optimal state value function 𝜐∗ and optimal action-value function 𝑞∗ are found by maximizing the probability of choosing the actions which lead to states yielding values larger or equal to those from all other policies [15]. 𝜐∗⁡(𝑠)=max𝑎∈𝒜⁡(𝑠) ⁡∑𝑠′,𝑟𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎)⁢[𝑟+𝛾⁢𝜐∗⁡(𝑠′)] 𝑞∗⁡(𝑠,𝑎)=∑𝑠′,𝑟𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎)⁢[𝑟+𝛾 max𝑎′ 𝑞∗⁡(𝑠′,𝑎′)] For finite discrete actions and states, lookup tables can be used to pick appropriate actions for each state to form the optimal policy. For pick-and-place operations in robotics, determining Bellman’s optimality equations is difficult because the space of all states is continuous. Typically the Monte Carlo (MC) or temporal difference (TD) approaches [16] are used. Both approaches are founded on dynamic programming (DP). ==== 3.1.2. Dynamic Programming ==== DP is a model-based strategy that creates internal models for transition probabilities and rewards to calculate the value function. A primary assumption of DP is that the models perfectly represent reality, which is unrealistic for continuous spaces. Even though it cannot be directly applied for RL in robotics, DP is the framework for understanding the MC and TD techniques [15]. DP consists of two fundamental approaches: policy iteration and value iteration. Policy iteration is a DP approach that consists of policy evaluation and policy improvement subtasks [26]. Policy evaluation is used to update the value of each state based on the current policy, transition probabilities, and the value of the following states [15]. 𝜐𝑘+1⁡(𝑠)=∑𝑎𝜋⁡(𝑎|𝑠)⁢∑𝑠′,𝑟𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎)⁢[𝑟+𝛾⁢𝜐𝑘⁡(𝑠′)] Policy evaluation is completed by calculating the 𝜐𝑘⁡(𝑠) (Equation (6)) for all states with an arbitrarily initiated policy. After an infinite number of exploratory steps (𝑘→∞), the transition probabilities between states given actions 𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎) and the state-values 𝜐𝑘⁡(𝑠) can be determined. Policy improvement then greedily selects the best action that can be taken in each state based on these newly found transition probabilities and state values [15,16]. Policy improvement is solved by implementing 𝑞𝜋⁡(𝑠,𝑎) as shown [15] 𝜋′⁡(𝑠)˙=argmax𝑎  𝑞𝜋⁡(𝑠,𝑎) where argmax over actions involves taking the action which maximizes the value for each state. The new choice of action indicates the agent’s policy in the next round of policy iteration. The process of policy iteration in DP consists of iterating between policy evaluation and policy improvement until the policy stops changing. At this point, the policy is assumed to be optimal [26]. Value iteration is an alternative to policy iteration, which can be used effectively by combining policy evaluation and improvement into one step. Value iteration is formulated as [15] 𝜐𝑘+1⁡(𝑠)˙=max𝑎 ⁡∑𝑠′,𝑟𝑝⁡(𝑠′,𝑟|𝑠,𝑎)⁢[𝑟+𝛾⁢𝜐𝑘⁡(𝑠′)] with this formulation, the policy evaluation step is stopped after one iteration, and the policy for each state can be updated dynamically. ==== 3.1.3. Model-Free Techniques ==== Techniques that are not model based can incorporate the DP strategy by using sample transitions and rewards to learn approximate value functions. Learning the value functions without complete probability distributions for all transitions requires exploration to ensure all states are visited, and non-greedy policies are investigated. The Monte Carlo (MC) averaging returns approach is a model-free technique that requires no prior knowledge. The model only requires experience through interaction with the environment. MC completes various actions in each state, and the average returns for each action are used as the expected action reward. After many iterations, the solution will converge to the actual underlying value for each action [16]. MC approaches implement a combined on- and off-policy technique. The state values for MC are determined during off-policy environmental interaction where sample trajectories are explored. After the state values are determined, the policy is found during the on-policy policy improvement step of policy iteration. During this step, the greedy policy is found by taking the value-maximizing actions for the values learned during off-policy exploration [15]. The Temporal Difference (TD) approach is equivalent to an incremental implementation of MC. TD updates the estimates of the state-value function based on individual experiences without waiting for the outcome of the entire sample trajectory as opposed to MC. TD uses the difference between the old estimate of the value function and the experienced reward and new state to update the value function after one step, as shown in [15,25,26]: 𝑉⁡(𝑠𝑡)←𝑉⁡(𝑠𝑡)+𝛼⁢[𝑅𝑡+1+𝛾⁢𝑉⁡(𝑠𝑡+1)−𝑉⁡(𝑠𝑡)] Here, 𝛼 is the learning rate, a real number between 0 and 1 (usually 0.1 or smaller). This form of TD is referred to as the TD(0) algorithm. State Action State Reward (SARSA) is a TD model which is used to update the action-value function (𝑄⁡(𝑠,𝑎)) [16]. SARSA implements on-policy TD control, implying that the action value is updated after each exploration step [15,25]. 𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡)←𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡)+𝛼∗[𝑅𝑡+1+𝛾⁢𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡+1,𝑎𝑡+1)−𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡)] Operating on-policy means that the action space is only explored due to the 𝜀−𝑔⁡𝑟⁢𝑒⁢𝑒⁢𝑑⁢𝑦 aspect of on-policy search [15]. Due to its lack of off-policy exploration, SARSA does not have the same convergence guarantees as to the MC approach. Q-learning is a method which is very popular in reinforcement learning research [15,25,26]. Q-learning is the off-policy equivalent of SARSA, formulated as: [15] 𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡)←𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡)+𝛼∗[𝑅𝑡+1+𝛾⁢ max 𝑎 ⁢𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡+1,𝑎)−𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡)] The use of off-policy TD allows Q-learning to perform updates to the value function regardless of the action selected [25]. This choice guarantees the convergence of 𝑄⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡) if the learning rate 𝛼 is well defined [15]. Value function approaches are intuitive; however, they often struggle to converge due to the high dimensionality of robotic state space, the continuous nature of the problem, and the bootstrapped approaches used to estimate the value function quickly. Another issue with the value function approach is that random exploration of the agent can result in mechanical damage due to range and torque limitations [27]. === 3.2. Policy Search Approach === Policy search (PS) is an approach to policy optimization which has recently shown potential in robotics as an alternative to the value function approach [16]. PS is a valuable tool in robotics due to the scalability with dimensionality, a vital issue with the value function approach [28]. Research has shown that PS is better than value function approaches for tasks that are finite horizon and are not repeated continuously [27]. PS does not approximate a policy as the value function does, i.e., by learning values of actions, then acting to optimize rewards based on these expected values. Instead, policy search implements a parameterized policy that can select the optimal action without reviewing the value function [15]. 𝜃, the variable representing the policy parameters, could be understood intuitively as weights of the deep neural network that influences the policy for a value function [15,27] The formulation for the linear case is [27] 𝜋𝜃⁡(𝑠)=𝜃𝑇⁢ Φ⁢(𝑠) where Φ⁡(𝑥) is the basis function representing the state, and the policy parameters 𝜃 determine the choice of action in each state [27]. PS has the goal of learning the policy parameters that optimizes the performance measure 𝐽⁡(𝜃), the expected cumulated discounted reward from a given state [27]. This reward is formulated as [15] 𝐽⁡(𝜃)˙=𝑣𝜋𝜃⁡(𝑠) wherein 𝑣𝜋𝜃 is the true value function for policy 𝜋𝜃. To maximize the cumulative reward, the optimal policy can be found using the policy gradient method [15], which implements gradient ascent by ∇𝐽⁡(𝜃)∝∑𝑠𝜇⁡(𝑠)⁢∑𝑎𝑞𝜋⁡(𝑠,𝑎)∇𝜃𝜋⁡(𝑎|𝑠,𝜃) where 𝜇⁡(𝑠) is the on-policy probability distributions for policy 𝜋. Like the value function approach, the policy search approach can be implemented with model-free and model-based techniques [16]. The model-free technique uses online agent actions to create trajectories from which to learn. This technique has the advantage of not needing to learn an accurate forward model, which is often more challenging to learn than the policy itself. The model-based technique is more sample conservative, as the agent creates internal simulations of the dynamics of the model based on a few observations from the online model. The agent then learns the policy based on these internal simulations [27]. The online model-free technique has been implemented more in research due to its ease of use; however, model-based approaches have shown better ability to generalize to unforeseen samples [27]. Inside of policy search, several methods have been developed and implemented in robotics, including REINFORCE, Actor-Critic, Deterministic Policy Gradient, and Proximal Policy Optimization. ==== 3.2.1. REINFORCE ==== REINFORCE is a MC based policy gradient method that uses vector samples (episodes) filled with state, action, reward triples found with the policy 𝜋𝜃 to approximate G, the return as defined in Equation (1). The algorithm updates the policy parameters incrementally with [15] 𝜃←𝜃+𝛼 𝛾𝑡⁢𝐺⁡ ∇ln⁡𝜋𝜃⁡(𝑎𝑡|𝑠𝑡, 𝜃) where ∇ln⁡𝜋𝜃 is equal to [15] ∇ln⁡𝜋𝜃=∇𝜋⁡(𝑎𝑡|𝑠𝑡, 𝜃)𝜋⁡(𝑎𝑡|𝑠𝑡, 𝜃) The intuition behind this formulation is that the policy parameter vector 𝜃 is shifted in the direction of the steepest ascent with positive return ''G'', to improve the policy 𝜋𝜃 after each step. REINFORCE is a valuable policy search method that creates a state value function and has guaranteed convergence; however, it tends to converge slowly compared to other bootstrapped methods. ==== 3.2.2. Actor-Critic Methods ==== The one-step advantage actor-critic (A2C) is analogous to the TD methods introduced above, which do not involve offline policy improvement steps. A2C implements the notion of δ𝑡, the difference between the expected value and actual value for a given state and state-value weighting 𝑤 [15]. δ𝑡=𝑅𝑡+1+𝛾⁢̂𝑣⁡(𝑠𝑡+1, 𝑤)−̂𝑣⁡(𝑠𝑡, 𝑤) The difference parameter can be used each step to update the state-value weighting 𝑤 and the policy parameter 𝜃 with the equation [15] 𝑤←𝑤+𝛼𝑤⁢δ⁢ ∇̂𝑣⁡(𝑠|𝑤) 𝜃←𝜃+𝛼𝜃⁢δ⁢ ∇ln⁡𝜋𝜃⁡(𝑎|𝑠,𝜃) The calculation for the policy and difference parameter is completed after each incremental exploration step in the search space. Another common actor-critic approach seen in the literature is asynchronous advantage actor-critic (A3C) [29]. A3C has the same formulation as A2C, with the slight difference of allowing multiple agents to asynchronously explore different policies in parallel. This approach reduces the need for experience replay to stabilize learning in time and improve stability. ==== 3.2.3. Deterministic Policy Gradient ==== Another common implementation is the deterministic policy gradient (DPG) technique [30]. DPG implements Q-learning updates to determine the action value function as shown [30] δ𝑡=𝑅𝑡+𝛾⁢𝑄𝑤⁡(𝑠𝑡+1, 𝜇𝜃⁡(𝑠𝑡+1))−𝑄𝑤⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡) In this approach, DPG moves the policy in the direction of the gradient of 𝑄 for continuous spaces, rather than selecting the globally optimal 𝑄 value in each step [30]. 𝑤←𝑤+𝛼𝑤⁢𝛿 ∇𝑤𝑄𝑤⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡) 𝜃←𝜃+𝛼𝜃∇𝜃𝜇𝜃⁡(𝑠𝑡) ∇𝑎𝑄𝑤⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡)∣𝑎=𝜇𝜃⁡(𝑠) Here 𝑄𝑤⁡(𝑠𝑡,𝑎𝑡) is a differentiable action value function which is used to replace the true action value function. ==== 3.2.4. Proximal Policy Optimization ==== Proximal policy optimization (PPO) is a policy gradient technique which was designed to provide faster policy updates then A2C or DPG. PPO applies the DPG structure, but updates the policy parameter 𝜃 based on a simple surrogate objective function [31]. The policy update includes a step of minimizing the penalty term associated with the difference between the surrogate and the original function. === 3.3. Summary === The methods reviewed are fundamental to the different implementations of RL in robotics. The choice in policy optimization has a significant impact on the convergence guarantees and training time required. == 4. Reward Shaping == In RL, the allocation of rewards drives the training process because the agent aims to maximize the reward signal [32]. Reward shaping is the technique that involves modifying the reward function to help the agent learn faster [33]. An efficient reward function can accelerate the learning process by introducing background knowledge to RL agents [34]. Traditional RL applications used monolithic goals exclusively [35]. Monolithic goals seemed to behave perfectly with well-behaved domains with clear reward objectives. However, as RL problems started to become more complex in the 1990s, this approach was found to be inadequate for modeling real physical world situations (such as robotics). The difficulties in recognizing the state information, nondeterministic and noisy environment, variances in the learning trails required, timeliness of the rewards, and the requirement of achieving multiple goals can contribute to the failure of monolithic goals for these applications [35]. To address these challenges, as an improvement to a naïve monolithic single goal reward function, Mataric proposed a heterogeneous reinforcement function [35]. The method broke the rewards down into several goals representing the knowledge of the domains, then grouped these goals with progress estimators. Goal refinement enables the system to learn through immediate transitionary rewards which can speed up learning and convergence. The issue with this approach is that the agent can achieve a net positive gain in reward by running cycles rather than finding the end state [21,32]. To address this, Ng et al. [21] introduced a potential-based shaping algorithm. The algorithm incorporated a new reward function: 𝑅′=𝑅+𝐹, where 𝑅 is the traditional reward and 𝐹 is the shaping reward function. The shaping reward function 𝐹 is a function over states, which should be chosen or constructed [34] based on the domain knowledge between two states. For example, 𝐹 could be a function of distance to the goal state, wherein 𝐹 increases as the agent selects actions closer to the goal state. Ng et al. proved that the optimal policy would not change given this new reward function [21]. Adding rewards is advantageous when the rewards represent the actual effect of the actions, however, adding rewards can also cause errors in the learning process when noisy reward inputs are given. To find balance between efficiency and effectiveness in RL reward shaping, Luo et al. proposed a method called Dense2Sparse [36]. By letting the system receive rewards continuously in the first several learning episodes, the policy is expected to converge quickly despite the noisy information. The suboptimal policy learned from the dense reward can be optimized under a noise-free sparse rewarding scheme, where a positive reward is given only when the task or sub-task is completed. Jang et al. found the concept of combining sparse and dense reward schemes to be effective with their research on training a Walker robot with high dimensional continuous action and state spaces [37]. Besides using a predefined change in the reward function, reward shaping can also be performed dynamically throughout the learning process. Tenorio-González et al. realized a dynamic reward shaping technique by implementing verbal feedback from a human observer [38]. The inclusion of human intervention can help the system converge faster but requires active human participation in the learning process. Konidaris and Barto [39] developed a method to improve the reward function autonomously. Their work focused on generalizing the knowledge learned by the agents for small tasks to produce a shaping function to apply to all rewards. Their experiment showed good performance of the shaped rewards in a rod positioning scenario. Reward shaping is a tradeoff between accuracy and speed. A monolithic goal reward can be a noise-free input, but it is sometimes not practical for complex tasks. Breaking down the task and applying rewards frequently allows the system to learn faster, but it can also distract the agent [32,40]. == 5. Imitation (Apprenticeship) Learning == Reward shaping is one of the tasks which require human intervention in RL. With only a monolithic goal, the agent may be forced to search the environment for an extended period to refine its actions. An alternative path to manual reward shaping is imitation learning [15,41,42]. Traditional robotic control systems (discussed in Section 1.1) can have imitation behavior programmed into a robot via manual robotic arm positioning. This approach has the equivalent results to implementing the teach pendant without the need for joint programming. Manual arm positioning is valid but has all the same issues as traditional control, i.e., the inability to handle changes in the environment [7,8]. As an alternative to traditional control, imitation learning can be used to learn a reward function from examples. The reward function can be used to refine the policy depending on the scenario, allowing for domain adaptation [42]. Imitation (apprenticeship) learning includes several different approaches, such as Behavior Cloning (BC) and Inverse Reinforcement Learning (IRL). Like all other approaches to RL, imitation learning has the option to implement model-based and model-free techniques [42]. === 5.1. Behavior Cloning === BC is the simplest form of imitation learning, as it borders supervised learning (SL) and RL. The objective of this learning technique is to learn the policy which determined the trajectory of the expert demonstration. The trajectory variable 𝜏=(𝑠0,𝑎0,𝑠1,𝑎1,…) is used as the functional output from the policy [42] 𝜏=𝜋∗⁡(𝑠) where 𝑠 is the state of some robotic manipulator. The problem resembles supervised learning, where the objective of mimicking behavior is set as minimizing the loss between the policy parameters 𝜃 of the policy 𝜋𝜃⁡(𝑠) and the optimal policy based on expert demonstrations of 𝜋∗⁡(𝑠). BC is easy to understand and execute, but since the problem is reduced to a supervised learning approach, error may occur when reaching a state which the expert has never visited. The policy may attempt to map a new environment with the same strategy used for an older environment, which can cause an error referred to as the covariate shift [43]. Due to undefined behavior in that state, the algorithm could lead to catastrophic problems, as was shown by Stephane Ross in his work on mismatch training and test inputs on training robotics [44]. The first application of behavior cloning was ALVINN, a project by Pomerleau in 1989 [45], where a neural network was used to estimate the policy for driving an autonomous vehicle. The inputs were sensor signals from vision cameras and laser range sensors, and the outputs were turning curvatures which translated into steering angles. Supervised learning was performed by using road snapshots and turn curvature pairs to train the network. The objective suggests that it minimizes the 1-step deviation error along the expert trajectory; therefore, it does not capture the intention of expert behavior in the long term, which reduces the accuracy of long-term planning. Due to the approach operating in the SL domain, BC is more applicable to scenarios in which massive databases of expert data are available [43]. BC has been shown to be valuable in large data domains such as autonomous vehicles [46] but has not been shown to be applicable to robotics. === 5.2. Inverse Reinforcement Learning === IRL is a way to find the underlying reward function which explains the agent’s behavior (the policy). IRL is based on the known parameters in an MDP (''s'', ''a'', 𝑝⁡(𝑠′|𝑠,𝑎),𝛾, 𝜋∗) [41,42]. The goal in IRL is to choose R, which makes the policy 𝜋 optimal, and makes any changes in policy 𝜋 as costly as possible, so that the differences between two actions in any state is significant [41]. The notation for IRL is [47] 𝑅∗⁡(𝑠)=𝑤∗⁢𝜙⁡(𝑠) where the true reward function 𝑅∗ is a function of features 𝜙, and the true weights 𝑤∗. In robotics, 𝜙 could be used to represent the features: smooth motion profiles and speed. Different weights 𝑤∗ could represent the tradeoff between these two features. One approach for implementing IRL is with the apprenticeship learning technique implemented by Abbeel and Ng [47]. This technique defines the value of a policy as: 𝐸𝑠0~ ⁢𝑝⁡(𝑠′|𝑠,𝑎1)⁡[𝑉𝜋⁡(𝑠0)]= 𝐸⁢[∑∞𝑡=0𝛾𝑡⁢𝑅⁡(𝑠𝑡)|𝜋]=𝑤∗𝐸⁢[∑∞𝑡=0𝛾𝑡⁢𝜙⁡(𝑠𝑡)|𝜋] where 𝐸𝑠0~𝑝⁡(𝑠′|𝑠,𝑎)⁡[𝑉𝜋⁡(𝑠0)] represents the expectation for value given that the agent starts in state 𝑠0 with some transition probability for the next state of 𝑝⁡(𝑠′| 𝑠,𝑎) [41]. To get the final formulation shown in Equation (25), the value function for the policy is replaced with the reward function defined in Equation (24). This formulation can be used to find the policy ̃𝜋 by minimizing the difference between the policies 𝜋𝐸 and ̃𝜋 while maximizing the minimum differences between trajectories. The formulation for this min-max problem can be expressed as [47] 𝜖≥max𝑤⁡min𝑗⁡[𝑤𝑇⁡[∑∞𝑡=0𝛾𝑡⁢𝜙⁡(𝑠𝑡)|𝜋𝐸]−[∑∞𝑡=0𝛾𝑡⁢𝜙⁡(𝑠𝑘𝑡)|̃𝜋 ] ] The IRL learning process involves the loop shown in Figure 3, where the policy is initially randomized. First, Equation (26) is implemented to compare the policies of the expert and the agent and improve the reward weighting 𝑤𝑇. Next, the updated reward weighting is used to calculate the state rewards (Equation (24)). Finally, the RL algorithm is used to compute the optimal policy. Figure 3. IRL learning process. The IRL solution is often ill-posed, so instead of forcing the system to perform exactly as the optimal behavior from the demonstrations, the constraints can be relaxed to help find a suitable solution. Abbeel and Ng [47] did so by relaxing the equality of the performance with max 𝜋∈Π⁢𝔼 𝜋⁡[𝑟⁡(𝑠,𝑎)]≥𝔼 𝜋∗⁡[𝑟∗⁡(𝑠,𝑎)]−𝜖 Algorithms based on IRL can be costly due to the inner loop, which contains internal RL calculations for each step. The reward function acquired with IRL does not tell the agent how to act, thus imitating the exact motion of the expert demonstrations still requires RL [43]. That said, IRL has shown significant potential in robotics applications, as will be shown in the Section 8. == 6. Pose Estimation for Grasp Selection == Pose estimation is a critical factor for pick and handle operations. Incorrect estimation of pose could result in poor grasp choice due to the robotic arm pose or unstable placement due to incorrect estimation of object pose. Gualtieri and Platt [19] noted the value in pose estimation when comparing the accuracy of cup placement against blocks and bottles. Blocks are symmetric in ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'', bottles are symmetric in ''x'' and ''y'', and cups are symmetric only in ''x''. The complexity of the cup pose made the pick-and-place task more difficult, which resulted in lower overall accuracy compared to blocks and bottles (Figure 4). Pose estimation is critical, as the task should be completable regardless of the complexity of the target object. Figure 4. Various grasp pose configurations for bottle and block targets. Bottle targets are symmetric in ''x'' and ''y'' compared to blocks which are symmetric in ''x, y'', and ''z''. The literature refers to two pose types, the object pose and the gripper pose (also referred to as the grasps [48]). The object pose is described by the position and orientation of the object being manipulated [49,50]. Each object pose exists inside the set of all possible poses for that object, called the pose space [50]. The gripper pose is used to describe the different gripping positions, orientations, and jaw openings that could be used to grasp a target object [23]. Each gripper pose exists inside the set of all possible grasps for an object, called the grasp space. Pose estimation can be completed using analytic (geometric) or data-driven methods. Analytic methods fit the point cloud of sensor input to known models (often CAD). Model fitting limits the agent to detecting the pose of items which have models available for comparison [51]. The analytic method first determines the target object pose, then selects an optimal gripper grasp based on the target object pose. The analytical method is usually set up as an optimization problem. The grasp is chosen from the grasp space based on maximizing the values for resistance to disturbance, dexterity for further manipulation, equilibrium to reduce object forces, and stability in the case of external forces or grasp errors [52,53]. The analytic method is useful when precise placement in a particular orientation is required [23]. Data-driven methods are free from the constraint of requiring models, as this approach implements machine learning to estimate optimal gripper poses directly [23]. There are two approaches inside of the data-driven method: the target-model-based approach and the model-free approach. The target model-based approach implements the point cloud data from the sensors to estimate a model of the target object. The target model can be used to eliminate many of the available grasp pose options. Supervised learning (SL) can be used to label objects based on the training data [23,53]. To save time on data labeling for the SL problem, simulation environments can be implemented to create a database of randomly oriented and mixed samples for training the model. The data-driven target model-based approach is optimal when accurate placement and correct target orientation is critical to receive the reward or when the target objects must be selected from a cluttered scene [23]. The model-free approach removes the model estimation step and instead focuses on optimizing the grasp pose based on the entire range of available grasps. The model-free approach is composed of discriminative and generative techniques. The discriminative technique reviews all the available grasp pose candidates and trains a convolutional neural network (NN) to select the optimal grasp based on these [19]. The generative approach recommends a grasp configuration based on the orientation of the target. This approach is fundamentally the same as object detection, where the gripper pose is selected based on the orientation of the detected object. An example of this comes from Jiang et al. [54], who implemented orientation rectangles to provide an estimate for the ideal position and orientation of the gripper head. Since multiple grasp candidates are often available, a NN is used to train the model to select the best grasp. The model-free approach is most successful when dealing with new targets and soft placement restrictions [23]. The approaches listed work well in combination with other strategies. For example, the agent could be allowed to implement the temporary placement of the object, free from clutter, to allow a better estimation of pose. This approach would be useful when accurate placement is required [19]. An alternative method would be to implement multiple viewing angles by hoisting the item in front of external cameras. Multiple viewing angles could be used to identify the object or determine if a more optimal grasp pose is available [55]. Another practical approach for estimating pose is by implementing focus. Attention focus has been successfully implemented by Gualtieri and Platt [22] via iterative zooming to regions of interest. The use of focus would limit the number of available grasp poses to those seen in the focus region. == 7. Simulation Environment == In the sections above, training in simulation was mentioned as a requirement for some approaches, and a useful tool for others. The benefit of training in a simulated environment is that the agent can perform thousands of training iterations in a short period, without any wear effects on the online device. Online training requires the availability of the robot and human supervision for safety reasons. Examples of the difficulties with training in real life can be seen from Levine and Koltun [28], who implemented 14 robotic manipulators over two months to collect 800,000 grasp attempts. The accuracy of the grasp operation after this training was 82.5 percent, a lower accuracy than has been achieved for comparable pick-and-place actions when training was completed in simulation. The benefits of training offline are often contrasted with the loss of accuracy when the trained model is applied in the real world. Inaccuracies of model parameters such as friction, weight, or dimension, may have massive influences during model testing. The difference between the offline and online models is referred to as the “reality gap”. The primary approaches for coping with the reality gap are domain randomization and domain adaptation [23]. Domain randomization is a method of training the agent in an inconsistent environment. The goal is to force the agent to learn to ignore “noise” and changes in the background. Noise added for domain randomization could include lighting, color, positions, textures, or other features that serve to confuse the scene. The goal of domain randomization is to make the online test scene appear as a training sample with different randomizations than previously experienced [56]. Domain adaptation is an approach that implements a form of generative adversarial networks (GANs) to generalize the test data onto the target domain. The process implements data from the test domain (online) to train the model in the training domain (offline) so that training in the simulation generalizes well to online testing. This approach still requires a small amount of labeled data from the test domain; however, much less data is required than online training [23,57]. The choice of simulation environment is another factor that affects test accuracy. An assortment of packages exist (MuJouCo, ODE, and Bullet), each of which have their pros and cons. Key factors include consistency, stability, numerical accuracy of simulation, and compatibility [58]. MuJouCo performs better than other simulators in terms of simulation accuracy, energy conservation, and grasp stability. ODE came in second for nearly all of these measurements. The primary difference between the two physics engines is that ODE is open source and compatible with a variety of simulators such as Gazebo and OpenRAVE [59]. In terms of support, documentation, and ease of use, MuJouCo was ranked the worst [58]. == 8. Analysis == The above sections review the primary choices that need to be made during problem formulation. This analysis section focuses on reviewing and critically discussing the current state of research. === 8.1. State of Research—Complete Pick-and-Place Task === Benchmarks for pick-and-place operations include simulation accuracy, the number of online tests required to train the model, and most importantly, the accuracy of testing. The table below reviews papers published by leading RL robotics researchers to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses of the different implementations. Success rates in each paper are difficult to compare due to the differences in the tasks. The discussion outside of the table gives clarity for each implementation and explains the results. Fu et al. [17] completed several tasks, with comparable difficulty to pick-and-place, including inserting a peg in a hole, stacking toy blocks, placing a ring on a peg, and more. The approach involved learning the system dynamics from prior examples, then completing manipulation tasks in one shot after the goal was defined. The approach did not directly use RL for learning individual tasks by searching through the state space, but instead used RL to learn the system dynamics for robotic control. The accuracy of these tasks was high; however, the approach did not incorporate a cluttered scene. Gualtieri et al. [19,22] published several papers on completing the pick-and-place action in a cluttered scene with an assortment of objects. Before this work, Gualtieri et al. [51] first published a manuscript on pose estimation. The pose estimation research completed in [51] was applied to the entire pick-and-place operation in [19,22]. The group completed testing in simulation and online. The accuracy listed represents the online accuracy of grasping a novel object after being trained on objects of similar type. The group found that an item picked from a clutter of objects had significantly lower accuracy than selecting an object in isolation. The results indicate that items with complex geometry (cups and bottles) are significantly more difficult to grasp compared to targets with a simple geometry (square blocks). Compared to other tasks completed in the literature, the complexity of the cluttered pick-and-place task was high. Popov et al. [60] completed the action of precision stacking of Lego blocks using distributed deep DPG (DDPG) with a robotic arm in simulation. The blocks were initially positioned in isolation in the same orientation, which significantly reduced the task difficulty. The team compared simple single reward and composite multi-step reward functions and proved that the single reward approach had the fastest convergence. The groups asynchronous implementation of DDPG proved that distributed training with asynchronous updates can improve convergence speed. The task had an average complexity. Mahler and Goldberg [61] applied imitation learning to complete the task of selecting novel objects from a cluttered environment and placing them aside in an organized manner. The learning approach implemented the Dex-Net 2.0 database of point clouds and grasp poses to generate training samples for learning effective Grasp Quality Convolutional Neural Networks (GQ-CNN). The policy learned appropriate NN weights based on replicating the results from the demonstrated samples. Transfer learning was effectively used to apply synthetic training to real world pick-and-place. Compared to the other examples from literature, the complexity of this cluttered pick-and-place task was high. Sehgal et al. [62] simulated a simple, single block pick-and-place task with the use of DDPG HER whose parameters were tuned with the genetic algorithm. The main contribution from this paper was to show that the GA could be used to minimize the number of training iterations required to achieve comparable convergence to that of DDPG HER without the GA. The overall task complexity for this action was low. Zuo et al. [63] implemented deterministic GAIL to complete a simple, single block pick-and-place task. The DGAIL approach implemented a NN discriminator to develop a reward function based on examples and a policy gradient method for learning ideal actions based on the discriminator. During testing, DGAIL was compared to stochastic GAIL and DDPG to prove the relevance of this approach. The approach yielded much better results than all other methods except DDPG, a more computationally expensive approach. The overall task complexity for this implementation was low. Chen et al. [64] completed a picking operation where the target object was in a cluttered environment. The robotic arm could rearrange the cluttered scene if the target was invisible from the camera vantage. The approach was limited due to the model-based grasp pose technique, however, it showed excellent performance in finding the target object in the cluttered scenario. The placement operation was not tested but could have been easily implemented since models for the target object were available. The action of selecting the target from a cluttered scene had an average complexity. Xiao et al. [65] achieved a high accuracy for the pick-and-place task in a cluttered environment with the Parameterized Action Partially Observable Monte-Carlo Planning (PA-POMCP). The system approximated the utility of available actions based on the current belief of the agent about the environment. The approach allowed the agent to change perspective or maneuver items in the scene to find an accurate estimation for the location of the target object. The approach showed significant performance for known items but was not tested on unknown items in new environments. The action sequence of rearranging the scene and selecting a target from the clutter, had a high complexity. Liu et al. [66] designed a system to complete several robotic pick-and-place tasks, including stacking, sorting, and pin-in-hole placement. A major contribution of this paper was the work around reward shaping to solve complex problems. The approach assigned rewards based on the Euclidean distance between the Objects Target Configuration (OTC) and the Objects Current Configuration (OCM). The closer the configuration of blocks, pins, etc., to the optimal configuration, the more reward allocated to the sample. Additional rewards were allocated for final task completion. Comparison between this approach and a basic linear reward approach shows a significant improvement in convergence. In addition to reward shaping, this paper compared the MAPPO learning technique to traditional PPO and Actor-Critic (A3C) techniques. MAPPO improved performance against the other techniques by directly outputting manipulation signal to the agent. The overall task complexity for the various action sequences was high. Mohammed et al. [67] simulated a robotic agent which completed the task of organizing 10 blocks dropped into a workspace. The training technique applied was Q-learning. The block geometries were not all the same, but the shapes were simple. The accuracies for the pick-and-place operations were only tested in simulation, and not applied to an online agent. Considering the average-high complexity of the task, the accuracy of the pick-and-place and the computational efficiencies are promising. Li et al. [68] applied a robotic arm to perform tasks including reach, push, multi-step push and pick-and-place using the Augmented Curiosity-Driven Experience Replay (ACDER) approach. The pick-and-place operation was applied to a single target object which was free from clutter. The novelty of the research includes a method of exploration in which rewards are allocated for the exploration of unfamiliar states (curiosity). Additionally, this approach initiated the robot in states not stored in the replay buffer to improve exploration efficiency. Through testing, this approach was proven to be several times more sample efficient than hindsight experience replay (HER). The overall task complexity for this action was low. Pore and Aragon-Camarasa [69] proposed an algorithm for robotic pick-and-place on a simple block placed in isolation on a surface. The solution method involved decomposing the task into ''approach'', ''grasp'' and ''retract'' segments. After perfect accuracy was achieved for each independently trained action, a high-level choreographer (actor-critic network) was trained to learn the policy for ordering the behaviors. The team compared a DDPG + HER approach to this A3C + subsumption architecture (SA) model. The end-to-end approach with DDPG + HER resulted in a maximum of 60% accuracy after 10,000 episodes. The A3C + SA model achieved 100% accuracy after 6000 training episodes. The relative comparison shows the potential of this SA model; however, the task had a low complexity and was never tested online with a real robot. Al-Selwi et al. [70] simulated the pick-and-place task on a simple block placed in isolation on a surface using a DDPG approach combined with HER. The approach validated what has been shown in other papers [19], that target object complexity changes task effectiveness. The work presents little novelty in terms of policy optimization. The overall task complexity in this example was low. Marzari et al. [71] presented simulations and online testing for pick-and-place task on a simple block placed in isolation on a surface by using a DDPG HER method. By implementing task decomposition, the model was able to achieve 100% accurate performance with simulation and online testing. The major contribution of this approach compared to [69] was that behavior cloning was not used for training the ''approach'' subtask, so sample operations were not required. Online testing indicated excellent generalizability for novel objects and presented a high sample efficiency compared to all other approaches. Although the overall task complexity was low, this approach shows excellent potential for future applications. Anca and Studley [72] completed a simulated pick-and-place operation in which a simple block was picked by manipulating a robot in 2D with a twin delayed actor-critic network. The result demonstrated operational accuracy without requiring example simulations (unlike [69]), however, showed little advantage over approaches based on DDPG HER [71]. The task complexity with this action sequence was lower than all other samples. === 8.2. State of Research—Pick-and-Place Subtasks === Due to the novelty of the field, Table 1 presents the (short) exhaustive list of all robotic pick-and-place with RL literature currently available. That said, there are other publications which present contribution to the field, that do not include key elements of the action sequence. Examples include the literature on grasp selection [73,74] or precision placement [75]. To provide a comprehensive survey, key examples for the pick-and-place subtasks drawn from the literature are listed in Table 2. Table 1.Summary of RL in Robotic Pick-and-place. Table 2.Robotic Pick and Place Subtasks. Finn et al. [75] developed an IRL algorithm that could be applied to various tasks in different environments to learn the policy and reward function. A task completed in simulation included peg insertion in a hole to a depth of 0.1m. The robotic model could complete this task with high precision after training with ~30 examples. Of the real robotic tasks completed, the task of placing dishes in a rack was the most like pick-and-place. After 25–30 samples of human teaching, the dish placement action could be completed with perfect accuracy. This research gives an excellent indication of the power of IRL, however, to apply this algorithm to the full pick-and-place action sequence, further extension is required to include the pose estimation step for “picking”. Kalashnikov et al. [74] developed a custom Q-learning approach focused on generalizability and scalability for unfamiliar environments. The task required the picking of random objects from a dense clutter and raising the object above the clutter. The training was completed online to incorporate all properties which were unmodeled in the physics simulation. To apply this algorithm to the full pick-and-place action sequence, the research requires additional task programming to include precision placement. Wu et al. [76] designed a custom robot which implements a 3 finger gripper to pick objects out of a clutter of 2–30 objects. The study demonstrated that attention improved the picking action in cluttered scenes by ~20% and implementing a 3-finger gripper improved object selection by ~45%. To apply this technique to the full pick-and-place operation, additional task programming is required for precision placement. Deng et al. [77] designed a custom robotic hand to be used for picking objects out of a cluttered scene with a series of fingers and a suction rod. The mode of selection allowed for a simple convolutional NN structure to be used for selecting ideal grasp locations. During testing, grasp failure occurred if 3 consecutive grasp attempts were not completed sequentially. Task simplicity and low-test accuracy limits this approach for real world application. Beltran-Hernandez et al. [78] performed the task of picking simple geometry items (cylinder, cube, and sphere) during simulation training. Accuracy for simulation testing on random objects (duck, nut, mechanical part) was high, especially considering the major differences between the trained models and the test samples. The approach was model based, so it could be easily extended to incorporate high precision placement. Berscheid et al. [79] completed the robotic task of manipulating and picking a variety of objects in a clutter with the application of Q-Learning. Results indicate high picking effectiveness and generalizability. Training was completed online, without the use of a simulation model. The task definition did not include placement, but the picking action included a high level of difficulty. To apply this algorithm to the full pick-and-place action sequence, additional task programming is required to include precision placement. Kim et al. [80] completed the task of picking up unknown target objects in a highly cluttered scene by using disentanglement of image input. The goal of this approach was to reduce the computational difficulty of performing a pick action. A key contribution of this paper is showing the value in creating a low dimensional state representation of the target object with the use of autoencoders. Additionally, this paper investigated the value of implementing disentanglement to allow simple scene recognition to guide behavior. The disentanglement approaches include attention, separation of internal (robot) and external (scene) information, and separation of position and appearance in the scene. Many other papers exist, which can be applicable for subtasks of pick-and-place, however most of them could not be easily extended to the entire operation. For more samples of individual grasping techniques for the pick action, this author recommends the review of [12]. === 8.3. Critical Discussion === The literature discussed above shows that significant progress has been made towards developing a RL approach which can be applied to robotics, however there are several issues with each approach. Additional research is required for validating simulations, reducing the loss in accuracy from crossing the reality gap, testing task variations, and lowering the amount of human intervention required. Only 40% of the literature analyzed above includes results for online testing. Most of the research only included data on testing the models in simulation, wherein the dynamics are completely dependent on accurate modeling. To validate that the various methods are accurate and implementable in real life, further testing is required. Of the manuscripts examined, several had robotic testing accuracies which were significantly lower than simulated accuracies [17,68]. Deviation between simulated and testing accuracies indicate that problems with bridging the reality gap require further investigation. As previously noted, training robotic agents online requires extensive time and equipment availability [28]. For RL to be applicable for robotic pick-and-place in industry, simulations must be developed in a way that allows for knowledge learned in simulation to be accurately transfer to the real world. The literature includes many examples where the task involved simple pick-and-place with blocks or spheres in an isolated scene [62,63,68,69,70,71,72]. This type of task is rare in an industrial environment, as most tasks involve a cluttered scene with specific placement requirements. Additional real and simulated testing is required to validate the accuracy of these approaches for more realistic tasks. The methodologies which achieved robotic test accuracies high enough to be considered for application in industry, such as [61,71] required extensive human intervention. Task decomposition significantly speeds up learning and improves overall accuracy, however this method requires human involvement. The research must be extended to include methods for automatic task decomposition, or to develop strategies for task decomposition which do not require significant effort. == 9. Open Problems == RL with robotics is a young and growing field which has many open problems to consider. The key problems include the lack of generalizability, the fostering of curiosity, and pose selection. Problem generalization is an open topic, which relates to the issue of applying learning from the training set to a broader spectrum of problems. Ref. [78] gave an excellent example of a technique that can scale a crude model to a large test set, however, this approach still requires online testing. Another quandary to be solved is finding a method to teach the agent to learn independently with intrinsic motivation. Sutton and Barto describe this idea as “curiosity” [15]. The goal is to enable the agent to learn tasks that may be useful in the future on its own, in order that the robotic arm could be more universally applicable. Grasp pose selection is another open problem which significantly affects the pick-and-place task. The literature presented samples of pose selection which implemented grasp search or model recognition. Grasp search approaches proved to be reasonably effective when combined with focus, iterative zooming, or scene rearrangement [55,77], however this approach had mixed results when trained end-to-end. Model-based approaches generically performed well, however this approach was limited to tasks involving familiar target objects. == 10. Conclusions and Future Work == This literature survey has shown that RL has potential to replace traditional robotic control. Several implementations show promising results for enabling robotic arms to perform basic pick-and-place actions consistently with high accuracy. The existing literature is optimistic; however, more research must be completed for open problems such as problem generalization, independent learning and grasp pose search. To improve task generalizability, training could be extended to include a large sample set. None of the research reviewed in this paper presented pick-and-place actions where the targets between each action were drastically different. Generalizing the training samples could make the pick-and-place task more widely applicable. The idea is conceptually equivalent to domain randomization in which the task is randomized rather than the environment. Self-motivated learning could be developed for the robotic agents, by rewarding “play”. The agent could be taught to extend their learning by completing a self-selected activity. The explorative “play” actions could be used to optimize other tasks that are currently completed in a specific way to maximize the reward function. Intrinsically motivated rewards could allow the agent to explore new actions for future use [15]. Grasp pose selection could be optimized by combining the model-based and model-free techniques for pose estimation. The agent could implement a large bank of models for application with familiar target objects. In circumstances where no model matches the target object with a high accuracy, the agent could instead implement a model-free approach. This combined model-free and model-based approach could be developed to replicate the human approach of identification. Humans identify objects by mapping them onto previously seen samples. If no sample is available, a human creates a new model for the object based on the new input. RL shows promise for implementation in the future. By applying cutting edge policy learning techniques, robotic pick-and-place tasks can be trained with minimal human intervention and high accuracy [71]. Because of the nature of the learning process, similar manipulation tasks with comparable difficulty could be trained with minor adjustments of reward functions. For the field to continue to grow, further research is required to address the open problems of generalizability, self-motivation, and grasp selection. == Author Contributions == Conceptualization, A.L.; methodology, A.L.; writing—original draft preparation, A.L.; writing—review and editing, Y.Q.; supervision, H.-J.K.; project administration, Y.Q.; funding acquisition, H.-J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. == Funding == This research was Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute (KERI), through Korea-Canada AI Research Program. == Conflicts of Interest == The authors declare no conflict of interest. == References == # Chang, G.; Stone, W. An effective learning approach for industrial robot programming. In Proceedings of the 2013 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Atlanta, Georgia, 23–26 June 2013. [Google Scholar] # Massa, D.; Callegari, M.; Cristalli, C. Manual Guidance for Industrial Robot Programming. ''Ind. Robot Int. J.'' 2015, 457–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Biggs, G.; MacDonald, B. Survey of robot programming systems. In Proceedings of the Australasian Conference on Robotics and Automation, Brisbane, Australia, 1–3 December 2003; p. 27. [Google Scholar] # Siciliano, B.; Khatib, O. ''Springer Handbook of Robotics''; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2008. [Google Scholar] # Craig, J.J. ''Introduction to Robotics Mechanics and Control''; Pearson Education International: Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar] # Hughes, C.; Hughes, T. ''Robotic Programming: A Guide to Controlling Autonomous Robots''; Que: Indianapolis, IN, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar] # Kumar Saha, S. ''Introduction to Robotics'', 2nd ed.; McGraw Hill Education: New Delhi, India, 2014. [Google Scholar] # Ajaykumar, G.; Steele, M.; Huang, C.-M. A Survey on End-User Robot Programming. ''arXiv'' 2021, arXiv:2105.01757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Gasparetto, A.; Scalera, L. A Brief History of Industrial Robotics in the 20th Century. ''Adv. Hist. Stud.'' 2019, ''8'', 24–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] # Ballestar, M.T.; Díaz-Chao, A.; Sainz, J.; Torrent-Sellens, J. Impact of Robotics on Manufacturing: A Longitudinal Machine Learning Perspective. ''Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang.'' 2020, ''162'', 120348. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Pedersen, M.R.; Nalpantidis, L.; Andersen, R.S.; Schou, C.; Bøgh, S.; Krüger, V.; Madsen, O. Robot Skills for Manufacturing: From Concept to Industrial Deployment. ''Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf.'' 2006, ''37'', 282–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Mohammed, M.Q.; Chung, K.L.; Chyi, C.S. Review of Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Object Grasping: Techniques, Open Challenges, and Recommendations. ''IEEE Access'' 2020, ''8'', 178450–178481. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Liu, R.; Nageotte, F.; Zanne, P.; de Mathelin, M.; Dresp-Langley, B. Deep Reinforcement Learning for the Control of Robotic Manipulation: A Focussed Mini-Review. ''MDPI Robot.'' 2021, ''10'', 1–13. [Google Scholar] # Tai, L.; Zhang, J.; Liu, M.; Boedecker, J.; Burgard, W. Survey of Deep Network Solutions for Learning Control in Robotics: From Reinforcement to Imitation. ''arXiv'' 2016, arXiv:1612.07139. [Google Scholar] # Sutton, R.; Barto, A. ''Reinforcement Learning: An Introduction''; The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, USA; London, UK, 2018. [Google Scholar] # Kober, J.; Bagnell, A.; Peters, J. Reinforcement Learning in Robotics: A Survey. ''Int. J. Robot. Res.'' 2013, ''32'', 1238–1274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Fu, J.; Levine, S.; Abbeel, P. One-shot learning of manipulation skills with online dynamics adaptation and neural network priors. Proceeding of the 2016 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Daejeon, Korea, 9–14 October 2016; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2016; pp. 4019–4026. [Google Scholar] # Lewis, F.; Dawson, D.; Abdallah, C. ''Robotic Manipulator Control Theory and Practice'', 2nd ed.; Revised and Expanded; Marcel Kekker, Inc.: New York, NY, USA, 2005. [Google Scholar] # Gualtieri, M.; Pas, A.; Platt, R. ''Pick and Place without Geometric Object Models''; IEEE: Brisbane, QLD, Australia, 2018; pp. 7433–7440. [Google Scholar] # Stapelberg, B.; Malan, K.M. A Survey of Benchmarking Frameworks for Reinforcement Learning. ''South Afr. Comput. J.'' 2020, ''32''. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Ng, A.Y.; Harada, D.; Russell, S. Policy Invariance under Reward Transformations Theory and Application to Reward Shaping. In Proceedings of the Sixteenth International Conference on Machine Learning, San Francisco, CA, USA, 27–30 June 1999; pp. 278–287. [Google Scholar] # Gualtieri, M.; Platt, R. Learning 6-DoF Grasping and Pick-Place Using Attention Focus. In Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Robot Learning, Zürich, Switzerland, 29 October 2018. [Google Scholar] # Kleeberger, K.; Bormann, R.; Kraus, W.; Huber, M. A Survey on Learning-Based Robotic Grasping. ''Curr. Robot. Rep.'' 2020, 239–249. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Atkeson, C.; Santamaria, J. A Comparison of Direct and Model-Based Reinforcement Learning. In Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Albuquerque, NM, USA, 25 April 1997. [Google Scholar] # Sigaud, O.; Buffet, O. ''Markov Decision Processes in Artificial Intelligence'', 2nd ed.; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2010. [Google Scholar] # Russell, S.; Norvig, P. ''Artificial Intelligence A Modern Approach'', 4th ed.; Pearson Education, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA; <nowiki>ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3</nowiki>. # Deisenroth, M.P.; Neumann, G.; Peters, J. A Survey on Policy Search for Robotics. ''Found. Trends Robot.'' 2013, ''2'', 1–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Levine, S.; Koltun, V. Guided policy search. In Proceedings of the Machine Learning Research, Journal of Machine Learning Research, Atlanta, GA, USA, 16 June 2013; Volume 28, pp. 1–9. [Google Scholar] # Mnih, V.; Badia, A.P.; Mirza, M.; Graves, A.; Lillicrap, T.; Harley, T.; Silver, D.; Kavukcuoglu, K. Asynchronous Methods for Deep Reinforcement Learning. In Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference on Machine Learning, New York, NY, USA, 19–24 June 2016; Volume 48, pp. 1928–1937. [Google Scholar] # Silver, D.; Lever, G.; Heess, N.; Degris, T.; Wierstra, D.; Riedmiller, M. Deterministic policy gradient algorithms. In Proceedings of the 31st International Conference on Machine Learning, Beijing, China, 16 June 2016; Volume 32. [Google Scholar] # Schulman, J.; Wolski, F.; Dhariwal, P.; Radford, A.; Klimov, O. Oleg Klimov Proximal Policy Optimization Algorithms. ''arXiv'' 2017, arXiv:1707.06347. [Google Scholar] # Laud, A.D. ''Theory and Application of Reward Shaping in Reinforcement Learning''; University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign: Champaign, IL, USA, 2004; <nowiki>ISBN 0496782142</nowiki>. [Google Scholar] # Nagpal, R.; Krishnan, A.U.; Yu, H. Reward Engineering for Object Pick and Place Training. ''arXiv'' 2020, arXiv:2001.03792. [Google Scholar] # Grzes, M.; Kudenko, D. Learning shaping rewards in model-based reinforcement learning. In Proceedings of the AAMAS 2009 Workshop on Adaptive Learning Agents, Budapest, Hungary, 12 May 2009; Volume 115, p. 30. [Google Scholar] # Mataric, M.J. Reward functions for accelerated learning. In ''Machine Learning Proceedings, Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA, 10–13 July 1994''; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1994; pp. 181–189. [Google Scholar] # Luo, Y.; Dong, K.; Zhao, L.; Sun, Z.; Zhou, C.; Song, B. Balance between Efficient and Effective Learning: Dense2sparse Reward Shaping for Robot Manipulation with Environment Uncertainty. ''arXiv'' 2020, arXiv:2003.02740. [Google Scholar] # Jang, S.; Han, M. Combining reward shaping and curriculum learning for training agents with high dimensional continuous action spaces. In Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Information and Communication Technology Convergence (ICTC), Jeju Island, Korea, 17–19 October 2018; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 1391–1393. [Google Scholar] # Tenorio-Gonzalez, A.C.; Morales, E.F.; Villasenor-Pineda, L. Dynamic Reward Shaping: Training a Robot by Voice. In Proceedings of the Ibero-American Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Bahía Blanca, Argentina, 1–5 November 2010; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2010; pp. 483–492. [Google Scholar] # Konidaris, G.; Barto, A. Autonomous shaping: Knowledge transfer in reinforcement learning. In Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Machine Learning, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 25–29 June 2006; pp. 489–496. [Google Scholar] # Kaelbling, L.P.; Littman, M.L.; Moore, A.W. Reinforcement Learning: A Survey. ''J. Artif. Intell. Res.'' 1996, ''4'', 237–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Ng, A.; Russell, S. Algorithms for Inverse Reinforcement Learning. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth International Conference on Machine Learning, San Francisco, CA, USA, 29 June–2 July 2000. [Google Scholar] # Osa, T.; Pajarinen, J.; Neumann, G.; Bagnell, J.A.; Abbeel, P.; Peters, J. An Algorithmic Perspective on Imitation Learning. ''Found. Trends Robot.'' 2018, ''7'', 1–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Ho, J.; Ermon, S. Generative Adversarial Imitation Learning. ''Adv. Neural Inf. Process. Syst.'' 2016, ''29'', 4565–4573. [Google Scholar] # Stephane Ross Interactive Learning for Sequential Decisions and Predictions. Ph.D. Thesis, The Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2013. # Pomerleau, D.A. ''Alvinn: An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network''; Technical Report; Carnegie—Mellon University, Artificial Intelligence and Psychology: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 1989. [Google Scholar] # Farag, W.; Saleh, Z. Behavior Cloning for Autonomous Driving Using Convolutional Neural Networks. In Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Innovation and Intelligence for Informatics, Computing, and Technologies (3ICT), Sakhier, Bahrain, 18–19 November 2018; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2018. [Google Scholar] # Abbeel, P.; Ng, A.Y. Apprenticeship learning via inverse reinforcement learning. In Proceedings of the Twenty-First International Conference on Machine Learning, Banff, AB, Canada, 4–8 July 2004; p. 1. [Google Scholar] # Bohg, J.; Morales, A.; Asfour, T.; Kragic, D. Data-Driven Grasp Synthesis—A Survey. ''IEEE Trans. Robot.'' 2016, ''30'', 289–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Hodan, T.; Matas, J.; Obdrzalek, S. On evaluation of 6D object pose estimation. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Computer Vision, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 11–14 October 2016; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2016. [Google Scholar] # Brégier, R.; Devernay, F.; Leyrit, L.; Crowley, J.L. Defining the Pose of Any 3D Rigid Object and an Associated Distance. ''Int. J. Comput. Vis.'' 2017, ''126'', 571–596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Gualtieri, M.; Ten Pas, A.; Saenko, K.; Platt, R. High precision grasp pose detection in dense clutter. In Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Daejeon, Korea, 9–14 October 2016; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2016. [Google Scholar] # Suarez, R.; Roa, M. Grasp Quality Measures: Review and Performance. ''Auton. Robot.'' 2014, ''38'', 65–88. [Google Scholar] # Sahbani, A.; El-Khoury, S.; Bidaud, P. An Overview of 3D Object Grasp Synthesis Algorithms. ''Robot. Auton. Syst.'' 2011, ''60'', 326–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Jiang, Y.; Moseson, S.; Saxena, A. Efficient grasping from rgbd images: Learning using a New Rectangle Representation. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Shanghai, China, 9–13 May 2011. [Google Scholar] # Zeng, A.; Song, S.; Yu, K.-T.; Donlon, E.; Hogan, F. Robotic pick-and-place of novel objects in clutter with multi-affordance grasping and cross-domain image matching. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Brisbane, QLD, Australia, 21–25 May 2018; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2018; pp. 3750–3757. [Google Scholar] # Tobin, J.; Fong, R.; Ray, A.; Schneider, J.; Zaremba, W.; Abbeel, P. Domain randomization for transferring deep neural networks from simulation to the real world. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Vancouver, BC, Canada, 24–28 September 2017; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2017; pp. 23–30. [Google Scholar] # Huang, S.-W.; Lin, C.-T.; Chen, S.-P.; Wu, Y.-Y.; Hsu, P.-H.; Lai, S.-H. Cross Domain Adaptation with GAN-Based Data Augmentation. In Proceedings of the Lecture Notes in Computer Science: Computer Vision—ECCV 2018, Munich, Germany, 8–14 September 2018; Springer: New York, NY, USA, 2018; Volume 11213, <nowiki>ISBN 978-3-030-01240-3</nowiki>. [Google Scholar] # Ivaldi, S.; Padois, V.; Nori, F. ''Tools for Dynamics Simulation of Robots: A Survey based on User Feedback''; IEEE: Madrid, Spain, 2014; pp. 842–849. [Google Scholar] # Erez, T.; Tassa, Y.; Todorov, E. Simulation tools for model-based robotics: Comparison of bullet, Havok, MuJoCo, ODE and PhysX. In Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA, 26–30 May 2015; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2015; pp. 4397–4404. [Google Scholar] # Popov, I.; Heess, N.; Lillicrap, T.; Hafner, R.; Barth-Maron, G.; Vecerik, M.; Lampe, T.; Tassa, Y.; Erez, T.; Riedmiller, M. Data-Efficient Deep Reinforcement Learning for Dexterous Manipulation. ''arXiv'' 2017, arXiv:1704.03073. [Google Scholar] # Mahler, J.; Goldberg, K. Learning deep policies for robot bin picking by simulating robust grasping sequences. In Proceedings of the 1st Annual Conference on Robot Learning, Mountain View, CA, USA, 13 November 2017; pp. 515–524. [Google Scholar] # Sehgal, A.; La, H.; Louis, S.; Nguyen, H. Deep reinforcement learning using genetic algorithm for parameter optimization. In Proceedings of the 2019 Third IEEE International Conference on Robotic Computing (IRC), Naples, Italy, 25–27 February 2019; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar] # Zuo, G.; Lu, J.; Chen, K.; Yu, J.; Huang, X. Accomplishing robot grasping task rapidly via adversarial training. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Real-Time Computing and Robotics, Irkutsk, Russia, 4 August 2019. [Google Scholar] # Chen, C.; Li, H.Y.; Zhang, X.; Liu, X.; Tan, U.X. Towards robotic picking of targets with background distractors using deep reinforcement learning. In Proceedings of the 2nd WRC Symposium on Advanced Robotics and Automation 2019, Beijing, China, 21 August 2019; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar] # Xiao, Y.; Katt, S.; Ten Pas, A.; Chen, S.; Amato, C. Online planning for target object search in clutter under partial observability. In Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Montreal, QC, Canada, 20 May 2019; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar] # Liu, D.; Wang, Z.; Lu, B.; Cong, M.; Yu, H.; Zou, Q. A Reinforcement Learning-Based Framework for Robot Manipulation Skill Acquisition. ''IEEE Access'' 2020, ''8'', 108429–108437. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Mohammed, M.Q.; Chung, K.L.; Chyi, C.S. Pick and Place Objects in a Cluttered Scene Using Deep Reinforcement Learning. ''Int. J. Mech. Mechatron. Eng.'' 2020, ''20'', 50–57. [Google Scholar] # Li, B.; Lu, T.; Li, J.; Lu, N.; Cai, Y.; Wang, S. ACDER: Augmented curiosity-driven experience replay. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Paris, France, 31 May–31 August 2020; pp. 4218–4224. [Google Scholar] # Pore, A.; Aragon-Camarasa, G. On simple reactive neural networks for behaviour-based reinforcement learning. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Paris, France, 31 August 2020. [Google Scholar] # Al-Selwi, H.F.; Aziz, A.A.; Abas, F.S.; Zyada, Z. Reinforcement learning for robotic applications with vision feedback. In Proceedings of the 2021 IEEE 17th International Colloquium on Signal Processing & Its Applications (CSPA), Langkawi, Malaysia, 5 March 2021; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar] # Marzari, L.; Pore, A.; Dall’Alba, D.; Aragon-Camarasa, G.; Farinelli, A.; Fiorini, P. Towards Hierarchical Task Decomposition Using Deep Reinforcement Learning for Pick and Place Subtasks. ''arXiv'' 2021, arXiv:2102.04022. [Google Scholar] # Anca, M.; Studley, M. Twin delayed hierarchical actor-critic. In Proceedings of the 2021 7th International Conference on Automation, Robotics and Applications (ICARA), Prague, Czech Republic, 4 February 2021; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2021. [Google Scholar] # Morrison, D.; Corke, P.; Leitner, J. Closing the Loop for Robotic Grasping: A Real-Time, Generative Grasp Synthesis Approach. ''arXiv'' 2018, arXiv:1804.05172. [Google Scholar] # Kalashnikov, D.; Irpan, A.; Pastor, P.; Ibarz, J.; Herzog, A.; Jang, E.; Quillen, D.; Holly, E.; Kalakrishnan, M.; Vanhoucke, V.; et al. Scalable deep reinforcement learning for vision-based robotic manipulation. In Proceedings of the 2nd Conference on Robot Learning, Zürich, Switzerland, 29–31 October 2018. [Google Scholar] # Finn, C.; Levine, S.; Abbeel, P. Guided Cost Learning: Deep inverse optimal control via policy optimization. In Proceedings of the 33rd International Conference on Machine Learning, New York, NY, USA, 19–24 June 2016; Volume 48. JMLR. [Google Scholar] # Wu, B.; Akinola, I.; Allen, P.K. Allen pixel-attentive policy gradient for multi-fingered grasping in cluttered scenes. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Macau, China, 4 November 2019; IEEE: New York, NY, USA, 2019. [Google Scholar] # Deng, Y.; Guo, X.; Wei, Y.; Lu, K.; Fang, B.; Guo, D.; Liu, H.; Sun, F. Deep reinforcement learning for robotic pushing and picking in cluttered environment. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Macau, China, 4 November 2019. [Google Scholar] # Beltrain-Hernandez, C.; Damien, P.; Harada, K.; Ramirez-Alpizar, I. Learning to Grasp with Primitive Shaped Object Policies. ''2019 IEEE/SICE Int. Symp. Syst. Integr.'' 2019, 468–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Scilit] # Berscheid, L.; Meißner, P.; Kröger, T. Robot learning of shifting objects for grasping in cluttered environments. In Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Macau, China, 3–8 November 2019. [Google Scholar] # Kim, T.; Park, Y.; Park, Y.; Suh, I.H. Acceleration of Actor-Critic Deep Reinforcement Learning for Visual Grasping in Clutter by State Representation Learning Based on Disentanglement of a Raw Input Image. ''arXiv'' 2020, arXiv:2002.11903v1. [Google Scholar] {| class="wikitable" | |Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |} © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (<nowiki>https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/</nowiki>). 9eqpxwg477a85xri6utekn5mg8tex1p 2 487154 4681778 2026-11-12T07:45:47Z Aditya31Raj 3630248 This Blog is based on Single Phase fully controlled Rectifier along with experiment . 4681778 wikitext text/x-wiki '''<u>Analysis of a Single-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier</u>''' '''1. Introduction''' Power electronics is a key field within electrical engineering and can be used to control and convert electrical power. A controlled rectifier is one of the basic circuits used within power electronics and can be used to convert alternating current (AC) to controlled direct current (DC). A single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier is a simple circuit that can convert AC to DC. This circuit uses a Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR). In contrast to an uncontrolled rectifier (which uses diodes), a controlled rectifier allows the output voltage to be controlled. This is done by controlling the firing angle of the SCR. The firing angle determines when the SCR is triggered by the gate during the positive half-cycle of the AC supply. By changing the firing angle, the conducting time of the SCR will change and therefore affect the average output voltage. Within this experiment, a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier was analysed using different firing angles. The output waveforms were observed using a digital oscilloscope. '''2. Objectives''' * To understand how a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier works. * To understand how an SCR works as a controlled switch. * To see how different firing angles affect the output waveform. * To analyse how the firing angle affects the average DC output voltage. * To understand how a controlled rectifier works practically using oscilloscope waveforms. '''3. Circuit Setup''' A single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier typically includes an AC supply, SCR, load and gate triggering circuit. The AC supply provides the sinusoidal voltage. The SCR controls the current in the load and the triggering circuit determines when the SCR will turn ON during the positive half-cycles. The main components are: AC Supply - Provides single-phase AC voltage. Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) - Acts as the controlled switch. This will allow current to flow when it is forward biased and a suitable gate pulse is applied. Load - Will receive the rectified voltage. The characteristics of the load will affect the current output and conducting time of the SCR. Gate Triggering Circuit - Produces triggering pulses at different firing angles. Digital Oscilloscope - Used to view and analyse the voltage waveforms. '''4. How a Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier Works''' A single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier operates in two main sections. ''<u>Positive Half-Cycle</u>'' During the positive half-cycle of the AC supply, the SCR will become forward biased. However, the SCR will not start to conduct as it needs to be triggered by the gate. Once the gate is triggered at the firing angle of α, the SCR will begin to conduct and current will begin to flow through the load. The SCR will continue to conduct until the current drops below the holding current. This will typically occur at the end of the positive half-cycle for a purely resistive load. ''<u>Negative Half-Cycle</u>'' During the negative half-cycle, the SCR will become reverse biased and stop conducting. There will be no current flowing through the load and so the output voltage will be approximately zero for an ideal half-wave rectifier with a resistive load. This process will repeat throughout the input cycle and will produce a controlled pulsed DC output. '''5. Firing Angle (α)''' [[File:Minimum firing angle.jpg|thumb|36 degree Firing angle (Minimum)]] The firing angle is one of the most important factors in controlled rectifiers. The firing angle is the time delay (in electrical degrees) between the start of the positive half-cycle of the AC supply and when the SCR is triggered by the gate. If the firing angle is small then the SCR will turn ON early. If the firing angle is large then the SCR will turn ON late. If the firing angle is increased, then the SCR will conduct for a shorter amount of time for a resistive load. Therefore the average output voltage will decrease. The relationship between the firing angle and conducting time for a resistive load can be seen below. '''Conducting Angle = 180° - α''' For example, if the firing angle was 30° then the SCR would conduct for approximately 150° of the positive half-cycle. [[File:2nd firing angle.jpg|thumb|86 degree Firing angle]] '''6. Effects of Different Firing Angles on Output Waveforms''' The most important part of this experiment is seeing what effect different firing angles have on the output waveform. ''Small Firing Angle'' Choosing a small firing angle means the SCR will be triggered early during the positive half-cycle. This will cause the SCR to conduct for a longer amount of time. Therefore a larger proportion of the positive input waveform will appear across the load. This will produce a relatively high average DC output voltage. ''Medium Firing Angle'' Increasing the firing angle will cause the gate to trigger later during the positive half-cycle. [[File:3rd firing angle.jpg|thumb|130 degree Firing angle ]] This means that the SCR will take longer to trigger and therefore will conduct for a shorter amount of time. A smaller proportion of the positive input waveform will appear across the output waveform. This will reduce the average DC output voltage. ''Large Firing Angle'' Choosing a large firing angle will cause the SCR to be triggered much later during the positive half-cycle. This will cause the SCR to conduct for a significantly shorter amount of time. Therefore only a small proportion of the input waveform will appear across the load. This will cause the average output voltage to drop further. [[File:Maximum firing angle.jpg|thumb|180 degree firing angle (Maximum)]] ''Very Large Firing Angle'' Choosing a very large firing angle will cause the SCR to be triggered near the end of the positive half-cycle. There will therefore be very little time for the SCR to conduct. This will cause the output voltage to drop to a very low value. This shows us that we can control the output voltage of a controlled rectifier by controlling when the SCR triggers. '''7. Mathematical Analysis''' For an ideal single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with a purely resistive load, the average output voltage can be calculated using: Vdc = (Vm / 2π)(1 + cos α) Where, Vdc = Average DC Output Voltage Vm = Peak Value of AC Input Voltage α = Firing Angle (degrees) π = Constant The RMS output voltage can be calculated using: Vrms = Vm x sqrt(1/(2π)(π - α + (sin 2α)/2)) This shows us that the average output voltage will decrease as the firing angle increases. Relationship (Theoretical) Firing Angle (α) Conducting Angle Average Output Voltage 0° 180° Maximum 30° 150° Decreases 60° 120° Decreases Further 90° 90° Half the maximum 120° 60° Low 150° 30° Very Low 180° 0° Zero This shows us how the circuit would behave theoretically for an ideal resistive load. '''8. Observing the Output Waveform Using a Digital Oscilloscope''' A digital oscilloscope was used to observe the output waveform. Throughout the experiment different firing angles were applied. The output waveform was recorded. The oscilloscope will provide us with a graphical representation of how the rectifier works. We can see that: The start point of the output waveform has changed. A smaller firing angle will cause the SCR to conduct for a longer amount of time. A larger firing angle will cause the SCR to conduct for a shorter amount of time. The average output voltage will change based on how long the SCR conducts for. During the SCR not conducting there will be no output. The oscilloscope images show us how the waveform has changed practically. The waveforms may not be exactly the same as the theory as there are losses in the circuit, triggering, load and measurement. '''9. Applications of Single-Phase Controlled Rectifiers''' * Single-phase controlled rectifiers are used within many power electronics applications such as: * Controlling the speed of a DC motor. * Battery charging systems. * Controlled DC power supplies. * Industrial heating. * DC voltage control systems for experimentation. * Small scale industrial power conversion. '''10. Conclusion''' This experiment has shown us how a single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier works. It has also highlighted the importance of controlling the firing angle within power electronics. By controlling the firing angle of the SCR, we can control how long the SCR conducts for. This will affect the average output voltage that is supplied to the load. If the firing angle is small then the SCR will conduct for a longer period of time. This will cause the average output voltage to increase. However, if the firing angle is increased then the SCR will conduct for less of a period of time and the average output voltage will decrease. The oscilloscope has shown us how this works practically. This has helped to give us a clear understanding of controlled rectifiers. Overall this experiment has provided a good base for looking at more advanced power electronics converters such as full-wave controlled rectifiers, semi-converters and fully controlled bridge converters. 9gz7djtpbis356odkaene73jtjv3p9r 2 487155 4681780 2026-11-12T08:00:01Z Sivakumar225 3630474 Created an initial educational resource on ASIC architecture and embedded systems. 4681780 wikitext text/x-wiki ASIC Design for Intelligent Embedded SystemsRTL Design, Hardware Architecture and Embedded Applications Integrated circuits are key parts of nearly every electronic device in use today. About this book Many embedded systems are designed to perform specific tasks. ASICs help to achieve these tasks with dedicated hardware. This book introduces Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) and explains how they are designed and used in embedded systems. It covers the basic hardware architecture, RTL design, Verilog HDL, memory organization and hardware accelerators. It also discusses how these components work together in modern electronic devices. The book is mainly intended for Electronics and Communication Engineering students and those interested in VLSI design and embedded systems. What readers will learn After going through this book, readers should be able to: 1.Understand the basic structure and purpose of an ASIC. 2.Explain how the RTL is used to describe digital hardware. 3.Identifies main steps involved in ASIC development. 4.Understand the role of memory, hardware accelerators. 5.Describes how ASIC's are used in embedded applications. Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction to ASIC Architecture Chapter 2 – Digital Hardware Architecture and RTL Design Chapter 3 – Verilog HDL and Functional Verification Chapter 4 – ASIC Design and Physical Implementation Chapter 5 – Memory Architecture and Hardware Accelerators Chapter 6 – ASIC Integration in Intelligent Embedded Systems Chapter 7 – Applications, Challenges and Future Developments Chapter 1: Introduction to ASIC Architecture 1.1 What is an ASIC? 1.2 ASICs compared with FPGAs and general-purpose processors 1.3 Role of ASICs in embedded systems Chapter 2: Digital Hardware Architecture and RTL Design 2.1 Combinational and sequential logic circuits 2.2 Datapath and control unit 2.3 Registers, counters and memory elements 2.4 Finite-state machine architecture Chapter 3: Verilog HDL and Functional Verification 3.1 Introduction to Verilog HDL 3.2 Writing RTL code 3.3 Testbench development 3.4 Functional simulation and verification Chapter 4: ASIC Design and Physical Implementation 4.1 Design specifications 4.2 RTL development 4.3 Functional verification 4.4 Logic synthesis 4.5 Floorplanning and placement 4.6 Clock-tree synthesis and routing 4.7 Timing analysis and design sign-off Chapter 5: Memory Architecture and Hardware Accelerators 5.1 SRAM architecture 5.2 Memory hierarchy 5.3 Application-specific hardware accelerators 5.4 Compute-in-memory architecture Chapter 6: ASIC Integration in Intelligent Embedded Systems 6.1 Embedded processors and System-on-Chip architecture 6.2 Sensor interfacing and signal processing 6.3 Edge AI accelerators 6.4 Communication interfaces Chapter 7: Applications, Challenges and Future Developments 7.1 Automotive electronics 7.2 Medical and healthcare devices 7.3 Robotics and industrial automation 7.4 Power, performance and area optimization 7.5 Emerging ASIC architectures Review Questions 1. What is an Application-Specific Integrated Circuit? 2. How does an ASIC differ from an FPGA? 3. What is Register Transfer Level design, and why is it important? 4. What are the major stages involved in ASIC development? 5. Why is SRAM important in embedded processors? Further Reading Weste and Harris–CMOS VLSI Design. Rabaey, Chandrakasan and Nikolic–Digital Integrated Circuits. Michael John Sebastian Smith–Application-Specific Integrated Circuits. 7qmybs5kcr2wkc69ajlyh2ppqiinbw3 4681781 4681780 2026-11-12T08:07:09Z Sivakumar225 3630474 Created an initial educational resource on ASIC architecture and embedded systems. 4681781 wikitext text/x-wiki ASIC Design for Intelligent Embedded Systems RTL Design, Hardware Architecture and Embedded Applications Integrated circuits are key parts of nearly every electronic device in use today. About this book Many embedded systems are designed to perform specific tasks. ASICs help to achieve these tasks with dedicated hardware. This book introduces Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) and explains how they are designed and used in embedded systems. It covers the basic hardware architecture, RTL design, Verilog HDL, memory organization and hardware accelerators. It also discusses how these components work together in modern electronic devices. The book is mainly intended for Electronics and Communication Engineering students and those interested in VLSI design and embedded systems. What readers will learn After going through this book, readers should be able to: Understand the basic structure and purpose of an ASIC. Explains how RTL is used to describe the digital hardware. Identifies the main steps involved in the ASIC development. Understands role of memory,hardware accelerators. Describes how ASIC's are used in the embedded applications. Contents Chapter 1 – Introduction to ASIC Architecture Chapter 2 – Digital Hardware Architecture and RTL Design Chapter 3 – Verilog HDL and Functional Verification Chapter 4 – ASIC Design and Physical Implementation Chapter 5 – Memory Architecture and Hardware Accelerators Chapter 6 – ASIC Integration in Intelligent Embedded Systems Chapter 7 – Applications, Challenges and Future Developments Chapter 1: Introduction to ASIC Architecture 1.1 What is an ASIC? 1.2 ASICs compared with FPGAs and general-purpose processors 1.3 Role of ASICs in embedded systems Chapter 2: Digital Hardware Architecture and RTL Design 2.1 Combinational and sequential logic circuits 2.2 Datapath and control unit 2.3 Registers, counters and memory elements 2.4 Finite-state machine architecture Chapter 3: Verilog HDL and Functional Verification 3.1 Introduction to Verilog HDL 3.2 Writing RTL code 3.3 Testbench development 3.4 Functional simulation and verification Chapter 4: ASIC Design and Physical Implementation 4.1 Design specifications 4.2 RTL development 4.3 Functional verification 4.4 Logic synthesis 4.5 Floorplanning and placement 4.6 Clock-tree synthesis and routing 4.7 Timing analysis and design sign-off Chapter 5: Memory Architecture and Hardware Accelerators 5.1 SRAM architecture 5.2 Memory hierarchy 5.3 Application-specific hardware accelerators 5.4 Compute-in-memory architecture Chapter 6: ASIC Integration in Intelligent Embedded Systems 6.1 Embedded processors and System-on-Chip architecture 6.2 Sensor interfacing and signal processing 6.3 Edge AI accelerators 6.4 Communication interfaces Chapter 7: Applications, Challenges and Future Developments 7.1 Automotive electronics 7.2 Medical and healthcare devices 7.3 Robotics and industrial automation 7.4 Power, performance and area optimization 7.5 Emerging ASIC architectures Review Questions What is an Application-Specific Integrated Circuit? How does an ASIC differ from an FPGA? What is Register Transfer Level design, and why is it important? What are the major stages involved in ASIC development? Why is SRAM important in embedded processors? Further Reading Weste and Harris – CMOS VLSI Design. Rabaey, Chandrakasan and Nikolic – Digital Integrated Circuits. Michael John Sebastian Smith – Application-Specific Integrated Circuits. fu0ru8f3eqfazszjas1ybu138fswkzv 4681791 4681781 2026-11-12T08:19:26Z Sivakumar225 3630474 Just added about of ASIC in embedded systems 4681791 wikitext text/x-wiki ASIC An Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) refers to an integrated circuit specifically designed to accomplish a particular task or series of tasks. While an integrated circuit can perform many types of tasks, an ASIC is designed according to particular specifications required by an application. This type of chip is commonly employed in electronic devices that require particular operations to be done using hardware. ASIC includes various electronic parts like transistors, logic gates, registers, and memory blocks. All these components are combined together to execute required tasks. Depending on the application, an ASIC will incorporate either digital circuits, analog circuits or a mixture of both. Advanced designs of this type of chip can include processors, memory blocks and other functional blocks. This type of integration is usually linked to SoC architecture. The process of designing an ASIC typically starts with specifying the required hardware functions. In the design of Digital ASICs, HDL programming languages, such as Verilog and VHDL, are used to describe circuit behavior. Once the design is created, it needs to be simulated for verification. Afterwards, the design proceeds to logic synthesis and physical realization stages. ASIC differs from Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). An FPGA chip includes programmable ousnl9wv41rux7wgttjj3xygm2wryvb 2 487156 4681788 2026-11-12T08:10:48Z IntellectNova 3629933 Created page with "= Introduction to Electric Locomotives = Electric locomotives are an important part of modern railway transportation. They use electrical energy to produce the mechanical power required to move trains. Unlike diesel locomotives, which generate power using an internal combustion engine, electric locomotives receive electricity from an external power supply, usually through overhead wires or an electrified third rail. Electric trains have become increasingly popular becau..." 4681788 wikitext text/x-wiki = Introduction to Electric Locomotives = Electric locomotives are an important part of modern railway transportation. They use electrical energy to produce the mechanical power required to move trains. Unlike diesel locomotives, which generate power using an internal combustion engine, electric locomotives receive electricity from an external power supply, usually through overhead wires or an electrified third rail. Electric trains have become increasingly popular because they offer several advantages, including high efficiency, powerful acceleration, lower operating emissions at the point of use, and reduced noise compared with many diesel-powered trains. lbqq4xi1vabejkkzogy0xvspeo5dud7 2 487158 4681790 2026-11-12T08:17:41Z Santhosh 0925 3630475 Created a chapter covering Embedded Systems and Microcontrollers, including 15 topics, examples and references. 4681790 wikitext text/x-wiki = Embedded Systems and Microcontrollers = == 1. Introduction to Embedded Systems and Microcontrollers == Embedded systems are an important part of modern electronic technology. They are used in many devices that we use in our daily lives, such as washing machines, smartphones, digital cameras, microwave ovens, automobiles and medical equipment. An embedded system is designed to perform a particular task. Unlike a general-purpose computer, which can perform different types of operations, an embedded system is developed to control or monitor a specific function. Microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems because they provide processing, memory and input/output facilities in a single integrated circuit. The combination of hardware and software allows embedded systems to perform operations automatically, accurately and efficiently. == 2. Embedded Systems == === 2.1 Definition === An embedded system is an electronic system that combines hardware and software to perform a specific function. It is designed to operate as a part of a larger device or machine. For example, a washing machine uses an embedded system to control the washing process, manage water levels, operate the motor and complete different washing cycles. === 2.2 Characteristics of Embedded Systems === The important characteristics of embedded systems are: * '''Specific Function:''' Designed to perform a particular task. * '''Real-Time Operation:''' Many embedded systems respond to inputs within a specified time. * '''Low Power Consumption:''' Designed to use less electrical energy. * '''Compact Size:''' Usually developed using small electronic components. * '''Reliability:''' Expected to operate continuously with minimum errors. * '''Cost-Effective:''' Designed to reduce manufacturing and operating costs. * '''Hardware and Software Integration:''' Both work together to perform the required operation. === 2.3 Components of an Embedded System === An embedded system mainly consists of the following components: ; 1. Hardware : Hardware includes the physical electronic components used in the system, such as processors, memory, sensors, actuators and communication modules. ; 2. Software : Software contains the instructions that control the hardware. It is generally written using programming languages such as C, C++ or MicroPython. ; 3. Processor : The processor executes instructions and performs calculations required for the operation. ; 4. Memory : Memory stores the program instructions and data. RAM, ROM and Flash memory are commonly used. ; 5. Input Devices : Input devices provide information to the system. Examples include switches, sensors and keypads. ; 6. Output Devices : Output devices perform actions based on the processed information. Examples include LEDs, displays, buzzers and motors. === 2.4 Working of an Embedded System === An embedded system generally works through the following steps: # An input device or sensor collects information from the environment. # The processor receives the input data. # The program processes the information according to predefined instructions. # The system generates an output based on the result. # The output device performs the required action. '''Example: Automatic Street Light''' An automatic street light uses an LDR sensor to detect the surrounding light intensity. During daytime, the system keeps the light OFF. When the surrounding light becomes low, the controller switches the light ON automatically. === 2.5 Applications of Embedded Systems === Embedded systems are used in different fields: * '''Automotive:''' Airbag control, engine management and parking assistance. * '''Healthcare:''' Patient monitoring systems, digital thermometers and medical equipment. * '''Home Appliances:''' Washing machines, refrigerators and microwave ovens. * '''Industrial Automation:''' Motor control, temperature monitoring and robotic systems. * '''Communication:''' Mobile phones, routers and networking devices. * '''Agriculture:''' Automatic irrigation and soil monitoring systems. == 3. Microcontrollers == === 3.1 Definition === A microcontroller is a small integrated circuit that contains a processor, memory and input/output peripherals on a single chip. It is mainly used to control electronic devices and perform specific operations. Microcontrollers are commonly used in embedded systems because they are compact, economical and suitable for controlling external hardware. === 3.2 Main Features of Microcontrollers === * Central Processing Unit (CPU) for executing instructions. * RAM for temporarily storing data. * ROM or Flash memory for storing programs. * Input/output ports for connecting external devices. * Timers and counters for measuring time and generating delays. * Communication interfaces such as UART, SPI and I2C. * Interrupt facilities for responding to important events. * Low-power operating modes in many microcontroller families. === 3.3 Architecture of a Microcontroller === A microcontroller contains several important internal units. ; Central Processing Unit (CPU) : The CPU is the main processing unit. It executes instructions and controls the operations of the microcontroller. ; RAM : RAM stores temporary data during program execution. Its contents are generally lost when power is switched OFF. ; ROM or Flash Memory : This memory stores the program instructions. Flash memory can usually be erased and programmed again. ; Input/Output Ports : These ports connect the microcontroller to external devices such as LEDs, switches, sensors and displays. ; Timers and Counters : Timers are used to generate delays and measure time. Counters are used to count external events or pulses. ; Communication Interfaces : Communication interfaces allow the microcontroller to exchange information with other devices. === 3.4 Working of a Microcontroller === The working process of a microcontroller can be explained as follows: # The program is stored in the microcontroller's memory. # When power is supplied, the microcontroller starts executing the program. # The CPU reads and processes instructions. # Input devices provide data through input pins or communication interfaces. # The processor makes decisions based on the program. # Output pins control external devices according to the instructions. === 3.5 Examples of Microcontrollers === Some commonly used microcontrollers are: * '''8051:''' An 8-bit microcontroller widely used for learning basic microcontroller programming. * '''PIC18F458:''' An 8-bit microcontroller from Microchip used in control and embedded applications. * '''ATmega328P:''' An 8-bit microcontroller commonly used in Arduino Uno boards. * '''ESP8266:''' A microcontroller-based Wi-Fi development platform used in IoT projects. * '''ESP32:''' A microcontroller family that provides wireless communication features such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth in supported variants. === 3.6 Applications of Microcontrollers === Microcontrollers are used in: * Automatic door control systems. * Digital temperature monitoring. * Smart home automation. * Traffic light control. * Robotics and motor control. * Industrial monitoring systems. * IoT-based applications. == 4. Difference Between Microprocessor and Microcontroller == A microprocessor and a microcontroller are both processing devices, but they are designed for different purposes. A microprocessor mainly contains the CPU and generally requires external memory and peripheral components. A microcontroller integrates the CPU, memory and peripherals into a single chip. '''Comparison:''' {| class="wikitable" ! Feature ! Microprocessor ! Microcontroller |- | Integration | Mainly contains the CPU | Contains CPU, memory and peripherals |- | Memory | Usually requires external memory | Has on-chip memory |- | Power Consumption | Generally higher | Generally lower |- | Cost | System cost can be higher | Generally economical for control applications |- | Application | General-purpose computing | Dedicated control applications |- | Size | Requires additional components | Compact system design |- | Example | Intel Core processors | 8051, PIC and ATmega328P |} '''Conclusion:''' Microprocessors are suitable for general-purpose computing, whereas microcontrollers are commonly used in dedicated embedded control applications. == 5. Programming of Embedded Systems == Programming is an important part of embedded system development. It provides instructions that tell the hardware how to operate. The program is generally stored in the memory of a microcontroller and executed whenever the system is powered ON. === 5.1 Programming Languages === The commonly used programming languages are: ; C : C is widely used in embedded system programming because it provides efficient control over hardware and memory. ; C++ : C++ supports object-oriented programming and is used in more complex embedded applications. ; Assembly Language : Assembly language provides low-level control over the processor and its internal operations. ; MicroPython : MicroPython is a lightweight version of Python designed for microcontrollers such as ESP32 and other supported boards. === 5.2 Development Tools === Some commonly used development tools are: * '''Keil uVision:''' Used for developing and debugging programs for supported microcontrollers such as 8051. * '''MPLAB X IDE:''' Used for developing programs for Microchip microcontrollers. * '''Arduino IDE:''' Used for programming supported Arduino boards and compatible development boards. * '''Thonny:''' Used for writing and executing MicroPython programs on supported microcontrollers. * '''Proteus:''' Used for circuit simulation and testing electronic designs. === 5.3 Steps in Embedded System Programming === # Select the required microcontroller. # Identify the hardware components and their connections. # Write the program using a suitable programming language. # Compile or interpret the program using the development environment. # Upload the program to the microcontroller. # Test the system and correct any errors. === 5.4 Example: LED Blinking Program === The following Arduino program demonstrates how to blink an LED using a microcontroller. <syntaxhighlight lang="cpp"> void setup() { pinMode(13, OUTPUT); } void loop() { digitalWrite(13, HIGH); delay(1000); digitalWrite(13, LOW); delay(1000); } </syntaxhighlight> '''Explanation:''' * `pinMode(13, OUTPUT)` configures pin 13 as an output. * `digitalWrite(13, HIGH)` switches the LED ON. * `delay(1000)` creates a delay of one second. * `digitalWrite(13, LOW)` switches the LED OFF. The program repeats continuously, causing the LED to blink. == 6. Advantages of Embedded Systems == Embedded systems provide several advantages in modern electronic applications. * '''High Efficiency:''' They are designed to perform specific tasks efficiently. * '''Low Power Consumption:''' Many embedded systems are optimized for low-power operation. * '''Small Size:''' Compact hardware makes them suitable for portable devices. * '''Low Cost:''' Dedicated hardware can reduce the overall cost of a product. * '''Reliability:''' They can operate continuously when properly designed and maintained. * '''Automation:''' They reduce the need for manual operation. * '''Fast Response:''' They can respond quickly to input changes. == 7. Limitations of Embedded Systems == Although embedded systems provide many benefits, they also have some limitations. * '''Limited Resources:''' They generally have limited memory and processing capacity. * '''Specific Function:''' Most embedded systems are designed for particular applications. * '''Difficult Upgrades:''' Updating hardware or software may be difficult in some devices. * '''Development Complexity:''' Hardware and software must work together correctly. * '''Debugging Challenges:''' Identifying errors in embedded hardware and software can be difficult. * '''Security Risks:''' Connected embedded devices may be affected by cybersecurity threats if they are not properly protected. == 8. Classification of Embedded Systems == Embedded systems can be classified based on their functionality, performance and operating requirements. === 8.1 Standalone Embedded Systems === Standalone embedded systems operate independently and do not require a continuous connection to another computer. '''Examples:''' * Digital calculators. * Digital cameras. * Microwave ovens. * Electronic weighing machines. === 8.2 Real-Time Embedded Systems === Real-time embedded systems must respond to inputs within a specified time limit. Their correctness depends on both the result and the time taken to produce it. '''Examples:''' * Airbag control systems. * Industrial safety systems. * Medical monitoring equipment. === 8.3 Networked Embedded Systems === Networked embedded systems communicate with other devices through wired or wireless networks. '''Examples:''' * Wi-Fi routers. * Smart home devices. * Network monitoring equipment. * IoT-based monitoring systems. === 8.4 Mobile Embedded Systems === Mobile embedded systems are designed for portable devices and generally focus on compact size and efficient power consumption. '''Examples:''' * Smartphones. * Smartwatches. * Portable medical devices. * GPS navigation devices. == 9. Real-Time Embedded Systems == === 9.1 Definition === A real-time embedded system is a system that processes information and produces the required output within a specified time limit. These systems are commonly used in applications where delays can affect performance or safety. === 9.2 Types of Real-Time Systems === ; Hard Real-Time System : A hard real-time system must meet its specified deadlines. Missing an important deadline may cause system failure or dangerous results. '''Examples:''' * Aircraft control systems. * Automotive airbag systems. * Critical medical control equipment. ; Soft Real-Time System : A soft real-time system should meet its deadlines, but occasional delays may reduce performance without causing complete system failure. '''Examples:''' * Video streaming. * Online audio applications. * Multimedia systems. === 9.3 Applications of Real-Time Systems === * Industrial automation. * Robotics. * Automotive control. * Medical equipment. * Communication systems. * Aircraft monitoring and control. == 10. Sensors and Actuators == Sensors and actuators are important components of embedded systems. Sensors collect information from the environment, while actuators perform physical actions based on control signals. === 10.1 Sensors === A sensor is an electronic component that detects a physical quantity and converts it into an electrical signal that can be measured or processed. '''Examples of Sensors:''' * '''Temperature Sensor:''' Measures temperature. Example: LM35. * '''Ultrasonic Sensor:''' Measures distance using ultrasonic sound waves. * '''LDR:''' Detects changes in light intensity. * '''Soil Moisture Sensor:''' Measures the moisture level in soil. * '''IR Sensor:''' Detects objects or infrared radiation depending on the sensor type. * '''Gas Sensor:''' Detects the presence or concentration of certain gases. === 10.2 Actuators === An actuator is a device that converts an electrical control signal into physical action. '''Examples of Actuators:''' * '''DC Motor:''' Produces rotational movement. * '''Servo Motor:''' Provides controlled angular movement. * '''Relay:''' Electrically switches another circuit. * '''Buzzer:''' Produces an audible signal. * '''Solenoid:''' Produces linear mechanical movement. === 10.3 Working of Sensors and Actuators === # The sensor detects a physical condition. # The sensor produces an electrical signal. # The microcontroller receives and processes the signal. # The controller decides which action is required. # The actuator performs the required action. '''Example: Automatic Irrigation System''' A soil moisture sensor measures the moisture level in the soil. If the moisture level falls below a predefined value, the microcontroller switches ON a water pump through a suitable relay or motor driver circuit. When sufficient moisture is detected, the controller switches the pump OFF. == 11. Communication Protocols in Embedded Systems == Communication protocols define the rules used by electronic devices to exchange information. They allow microcontrollers to communicate with sensors, displays, memory devices and other controllers. === 11.1 UART === UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter. It is a serial communication method used to exchange data between two devices without a separate clock signal. '''Main Features:''' * Uses TX and RX communication lines. * Does not require a shared clock signal. * Commonly supports full-duplex communication. * Requires both devices to use compatible communication settings. '''Applications:''' * GPS modules. * Serial debugging. * Communication with GSM modules. * Communication between microcontrollers. === 11.2 SPI === SPI stands for Serial Peripheral Interface. It is a synchronous serial communication protocol commonly used for high-speed communication between a controller and peripheral devices. '''Main Signals:''' * '''MOSI:''' Master Out Slave In. * '''MISO:''' Master In Slave Out. * '''SCLK:''' Serial Clock. * '''CS/SS:''' Chip Select or Slave Select. '''Applications:''' * Flash memory. * Display modules. * SD card modules. * Sensors. === 11.3 I2C === I2C stands for Inter-Integrated Circuit. It is a synchronous serial communication protocol that uses two main communication lines. '''Main Signals:''' * '''SDA:''' Serial Data. * '''SCL:''' Serial Clock. I2C supports communication with multiple devices on the same bus using device addresses. '''Applications:''' * I2C LCD modules. * Temperature sensors. * Real-time clock modules. * EEPROM memory. === 11.4 Comparison of UART, SPI and I2C === {| class="wikitable" ! Feature ! UART ! SPI ! I2C |- | Communication | Asynchronous | Synchronous | Synchronous |- | Main Signals | TX and RX | MOSI, MISO, SCLK and CS | SDA and SCL |- | Clock | No shared clock | Uses clock | Uses clock |- | Device Selection | Depends on connection and implementation | Usually uses chip-select signals | Uses device addresses |- | Common Applications | Serial communication | High-speed peripheral communication | Multiple peripheral devices |} == 12. Microcontroller Interfacing == Interfacing means connecting external electronic components to a microcontroller so that it can receive input or control output devices. === 12.1 LED Interfacing === An LED can be connected to a microcontroller output pin through a suitable current-limiting resistor. When the output pin is set HIGH, current flows through the LED and it glows. When the output pin is set LOW, the LED turns OFF, depending on the circuit connection. '''Applications:''' * Status indication. * Warning systems. * Display systems. === 12.2 LCD Interfacing === An LCD is used to display information such as numbers, characters and messages. A 16×2 LCD can display 16 characters in each of its two rows. It can be interfaced with a microcontroller using parallel connections or an I2C interface module. '''Applications:''' * Digital meters. * Temperature monitoring systems. * Embedded control panels. === 12.3 Keypad Interfacing === A matrix keypad is used to enter numbers and other information into an embedded system. A 4×4 keypad contains four rows and four columns, providing 16 keys. The microcontroller identifies a pressed key by scanning the rows and columns. '''Applications:''' * Password-based door locks. * Digital security systems. * Electronic control panels. === 12.4 Motor Interfacing === Motors are used to produce mechanical movement. A microcontroller generally cannot drive a motor directly because the motor may require more current than its output pins can provide. A motor driver circuit is used between the microcontroller and the motor. '''Examples of Motor Drivers:''' * L293D. * L298N. * TB6612FNG. '''Applications:''' * Robotics. * Conveyor systems. * Automatic doors. * Vehicle control systems. === 12.5 Sensor Interfacing === Sensors are connected to microcontrollers to collect information from the surrounding environment. Depending on the sensor, the output may be analog or digital. Analog sensors can be connected through an Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC), while digital sensors may communicate through GPIO, I2C, SPI or other interfaces. '''Applications:''' * Temperature monitoring. * Smart agriculture. * Obstacle detection. * Environmental monitoring. == 13. Embedded Operating Systems and RTOS == === 13.1 Embedded Operating System === An embedded operating system is software designed to manage the hardware and software resources of an embedded device. It helps applications perform tasks such as scheduling, memory management, communication and input/output operations. === 13.2 Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) === RTOS stands for Real-Time Operating System. An RTOS is designed to manage multiple tasks and provide predictable responses within specified timing requirements. === 13.3 Features of RTOS === * '''Task Scheduling:''' Determines which task should execute. * '''Multitasking:''' Allows multiple tasks to be managed. * '''Interrupt Handling:''' Responds to important hardware and software events. * '''Synchronization:''' Coordinates the execution of different tasks. * '''Communication:''' Allows tasks to exchange information. * '''Time Management:''' Provides timing services and delays. === 13.4 Examples of RTOS === * FreeRTOS. * Zephyr. * VxWorks. * QNX. === 13.5 Applications of RTOS === * Industrial automation. * Automotive electronics. * Medical devices. * Robotics. * Communication systems. == 14. Internet of Things (IoT) and Embedded Systems == === 14.1 Definition of IoT === The Internet of Things (IoT) is a technology that connects physical devices to the internet so that they can collect, exchange and process information. IoT devices commonly use embedded systems, sensors, communication modules and software to perform monitoring and control operations. === 14.2 Components of an IoT System === ; 1. Sensors : Sensors collect information such as temperature, humidity, light intensity and pressure. ; 2. Microcontroller : The microcontroller processes the sensor data and controls the connected devices. ; 3. Communication Module : Communication modules provide connectivity through technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee or cellular networks. ; 4. Cloud Platform : A cloud platform can store, process and analyze the collected information. ; 5. User Interface : A mobile application or web dashboard allows users to monitor and control the system. === 14.3 Working of an IoT System === # Sensors collect information from the environment. # The microcontroller processes the collected data. # The communication module sends the information through a network. # A server or cloud platform receives and stores the data. # Users can view the information through a mobile application or web dashboard. # Control commands can be sent back to the device when required. === 14.4 Applications of IoT === * '''Smart Homes:''' Remote control of lights, fans and appliances. * '''Smart Agriculture:''' Monitoring soil moisture and automatic irrigation. * '''Healthcare:''' Remote monitoring of health-related parameters. * '''Industrial IoT:''' Monitoring machines and industrial processes. * '''Smart Cities:''' Intelligent street lighting, traffic monitoring and waste management. * '''Environmental Monitoring:''' Measuring air quality, temperature and humidity. === 14.5 Example: Smart Agriculture System === A smart agriculture system uses sensors and a microcontroller to monitor the condition of agricultural land. A soil moisture sensor measures the moisture level of the soil. The microcontroller processes the sensor output and controls a water pump according to the programmed conditions. With internet connectivity, the collected information can also be sent to a mobile application. This system helps reduce unnecessary water usage and supports efficient irrigation. == 15. Power Management in Embedded Systems == === 15.1 Definition === Power management refers to the methods used to control and reduce electrical energy consumption in embedded systems. It is especially important in battery-powered devices such as smartwatches, wireless sensors and portable medical equipment. === 15.2 Techniques of Power Management === * '''Sleep Mode:''' The microcontroller enters a low-power state when processing is not required. * '''Clock Management:''' Reducing the clock frequency can reduce power consumption. * '''Peripheral Control:''' Unused peripherals can be switched OFF. * '''Efficient Programming:''' Optimized software can reduce unnecessary processing. * '''Power Supply Selection:''' Choosing a suitable and efficient power supply improves system performance. * '''Battery Management:''' Monitoring battery voltage and charging conditions helps protect the battery. === 15.3 Importance of Power Management === * Increases battery operating time. * Reduces unnecessary energy consumption. * Reduces heat generation. * Improves device efficiency. * Supports portable and wireless applications. === 15.4 Applications === Power management is important in: * Wireless sensor networks. * Smartwatches. * Mobile devices. * Remote monitoring systems. * Battery-operated IoT devices. == Conclusion == Embedded systems and microcontrollers play an important role in modern electronic technology. They are used in applications ranging from simple household appliances to complex industrial automation and communication systems. An embedded system combines hardware and software to perform a dedicated function, while a microcontroller provides the processing and control facilities required for many such systems. Understanding microcontroller architecture, programming, sensors, actuators, communication protocols, interfacing and power management provides a strong foundation for developing embedded applications. With the growth of the Internet of Things, robotics and automation, embedded systems continue to be an important area of electronics and communication engineering. == References == * Frank Vahid and Tony Givargis, ''Embedded System Design: A Unified Hardware/Software Introduction'', Wiley. * Jonathan W. Valvano, ''Embedded Systems: Introduction to ARM Cortex-M Microcontrollers'', available through the author's educational resources. * Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi and Rolin D. McKinlay, ''The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems'', Pearson. * Microchip Technology, official microcontroller documentation and datasheets. * Espressif Systems, official ESP32 documentation. * Arduino, official programming and hardware documentation. * FreeRTOS, official documentation. gq3lp321qufq8ywdaho791lv41s4wes 2 487159 4681793 2026-11-12T08:19:42Z Vasnth0725 3630690 Embedded Systems and Controllers chapter with references 4681793 wikitext text/x-wiki __TOC__ = Embedded Systems and Controllers = == Introduction == An '''embedded system''' is a computing system designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions as part of a larger mechanical or electrical device, frequently under real-time constraints. Unlike a general-purpose computer, it is built around a specific task, such as controlling an engine, regulating insulin delivery, or routing network packets. At the core of most embedded systems is a '''controller''': a processor, usually a microcontroller, that reads inputs, executes firmware, and drives outputs. This chapter covers the architecture, programming, design practices, and reliability engineering of embedded systems, including several topics rarely covered in introductory texts. === Learning objectives === After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to: * Describe the architecture of an embedded system and its components * Distinguish between microprocessors, microcontrollers, DSPs, FPGAs and SoCs * Explain interrupts, timers, DMA and memory-mapped I/O * Write simple firmware using safe embedded C practices * Understand reliability, safety and security issues in embedded design == A Brief History == * '''1960s''' – The Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) is one of the first widely recognised embedded computers. It had roughly 2 KB of erasable memory and 36 KB of read-only core rope memory.<ref name="hall">Hall, Eldon C. ''Journey to the Moon: The History of the Apollo Guidance Computer''. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1996.</ref> * '''1971''' – Intel introduces the 4004, the first commercial microprocessor. * '''1970s–80s''' – Microcontrollers such as the Intel 8048 and 8051 integrate CPU, memory and I/O on a single chip. * '''1990s''' – Flash memory, ARM cores and real-time operating systems become mainstream. * '''2000s onward''' – 32-bit controllers, wireless connectivity and the Internet of Things (IoT) dominate new designs. == System Architecture == === Hardware components === {| class="wikitable" ! Component !! Function !! Examples |- | Processor/Controller || Executes instructions || ARM Cortex-M, AVR, PIC, 8051, RISC-V |- | Program memory || Stores firmware (non-volatile) || Flash, ROM |- | Data memory || Stores variables and stack (volatile) || SRAM |- | Non-volatile data || Stores settings and logs || EEPROM, FRAM |- | Inputs || Sense the environment || Sensors, switches, ADC channels |- | Outputs || Act on the environment || LEDs, motors, relays, displays |- | Communication || Exchange data || UART, SPI, I2C, CAN, USB, Ethernet |- | Power management || Supply and protect || Regulators, batteries, supervisors |} === Software layers === # '''Hardware''' – the physical chip and board # '''Bootloader''' – starts the system and can update firmware # '''Hardware abstraction layer (HAL)''' – hides register-level details # '''Operating system or scheduler''' – bare-metal loop or RTOS # '''Middleware''' – protocol stacks, file systems # '''Application''' – the product's actual behaviour == Processor Architectures == === Von Neumann vs Harvard === {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! Von Neumann !! Harvard |- | Memory buses || One shared bus for code and data || Separate buses for code and data |- | Speed || Instruction and data fetch cannot overlap || Can fetch both simultaneously |- | Typical devices || Many general-purpose CPUs || 8051, AVR, PIC, many DSPs |} Many modern chips (such as ARM Cortex-M) use a '''modified Harvard''' design: separate buses internally, one unified address space externally. === RISC and CISC === '''RISC''' (e.g., ARM, RISC-V, AVR) uses simple, uniform instructions. '''CISC''' (e.g., x86, 8051) uses more complex instructions. Most modern embedded cores are RISC. === Processing options compared === {| class="wikitable" ! Option !! Strength !! Weakness !! Typical use |- | Microcontroller (MCU) || Low cost, integrated peripherals || Limited performance || Appliances, sensors |- | Microprocessor (MPU) || High performance, runs Linux || Needs external memory || Gateways, HMIs |- | DSP || Fast signal processing || Specialised tools || Audio, radar, motor control |- | FPGA || Parallel hardware, deterministic timing || Complex design flow || High-speed I/O, prototyping |- | SoC || Everything integrated || Complex, higher cost || Smartphones, smart TVs |} == Microcontroller vs Microprocessor == {| class="wikitable" ! Feature !! Microprocessor !! Microcontroller |- | Contents || CPU only || CPU, memory, I/O and peripherals on one chip |- | External components || Many || Few |- | Cost || Higher || Lower |- | Power use || Higher || Lower |- | Typical use || Computers, laptops || Appliances, automotive, IoT |} == Common Microcontroller Families == {| class="wikitable" ! Family !! Word size !! Typical use |- | 8051 || 8-bit || Education, simple control |- | PIC || 8/16/32-bit || Industrial control |- | AVR (Arduino Uno) || 8-bit || Hobby and prototyping |- | ARM Cortex-M || 32-bit || IoT, consumer electronics, automotive |- | ESP32 || 32-bit || Wi-Fi and Bluetooth projects |- | RISC-V based MCUs || 32-bit || Open-architecture designs |} == Peripherals and Key Concepts == === GPIO === General-purpose input/output pins can be configured as inputs or outputs. Inputs may need pull-up or pull-down resistors to avoid a "floating" state. === Timers and PWM === Timers generate delays, measure pulse widths, and produce '''pulse-width modulation (PWM)''' signals to control motor speed, LED brightness and power converters. === ADC and DAC === An '''analog-to-digital converter''' converts a voltage into a number. Resolution matters: a 12-bit ADC with a 3.3 V reference has a step size of about 0.8 mV (3.3 / 4096). === Interrupts === An interrupt suspends the main program so that an '''interrupt service routine (ISR)''' can respond to an event. Good ISRs are short, avoid blocking calls, and set flags for the main loop to process. === DMA === '''Direct memory access''' moves data between memory and peripherals without CPU involvement, freeing the processor for other work. === Memory-mapped I/O === Peripheral registers appear at fixed memory addresses, so writing to an address can change a hardware pin. This is why the C keyword <code>volatile</code> is essential (see below). === Communication protocols === {| class="wikitable" ! Protocol !! Wires !! Speed !! Notes |- | UART || 2 (TX, RX) || Low–medium || Simple, asynchronous |- | SPI || 4+ || High || Full duplex, one chip-select per device |- | I2C || 2 (SDA, SCL) || Medium || Many devices on one bus, addressed |- | CAN || 2 (differential) || Medium || Robust, standard in vehicles |- | USB || 4 || High || Plug-and-play host/device |} == Real-Time Systems == A system is '''real-time''' when correctness depends on both the result and the time at which it is produced. * '''Hard real-time''' – a missed deadline is a failure (airbag controller, pacemaker) * '''Firm real-time''' – a late result is useless but not catastrophic * '''Soft real-time''' – a late result is degraded but still useful (video playback) === Scheduling === * '''Rate-monotonic scheduling (RMS)''' – shorter-period tasks get higher fixed priority.<ref name="liu">Liu, C. L.; Layland, J. W. "Scheduling Algorithms for Multiprogramming in a Hard-Real-Time Environment". ''Journal of the ACM'' 20(1), 1973, pp. 46–61.</ref> * '''Earliest deadline first (EDF)''' – the task with the nearest deadline runs first * '''Round-robin''' – equal time slices, common in non-critical systems === Bare-metal vs RTOS === {| class="wikitable" ! Aspect !! Bare-metal (super-loop) !! RTOS |- | Complexity || Low || Higher |- | Multitasking || Manual, state machines || Built-in tasks, queues, semaphores |- | Footprint || Minimal || Several KB of overhead |- | Examples || Simple toys, sensors || FreeRTOS, Zephyr, ThreadX |} == Embedded Programming == === Languages === '''C''' remains dominant, followed by '''C++''', assembly for critical sections, and increasingly '''Rust''' and '''MicroPython'''. === Example: LED blink (Arduino C) === <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> void setup() { pinMode(13, OUTPUT); } void loop() { digitalWrite(13, HIGH); delay(1000); digitalWrite(13, LOW); delay(1000); } </syntaxhighlight> === Example: button debouncing with a state counter === <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> #include <stdint.h> #include <stdbool.h> #define DEBOUNCE_COUNT 5 bool read_button_debounced(bool raw) { static uint8_t counter = 0; static bool stable = false; if (raw == stable) { counter = 0; } else if (++counter >= DEBOUNCE_COUNT) { stable = raw; counter = 0; } return stable; } </syntaxhighlight> === Example: a simple PID controller === The '''PID controller''' computes a control output from the error between a setpoint and a measured value: <math>u(t) = K_p e(t) + K_i \int_0^t e(\tau)\,d\tau + K_d \frac{de(t)}{dt}</math> <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> typedef struct { float kp, ki, kd; float integral, prev_error; float out_min, out_max; } pid_ctrl_t; float pid_update(pid_ctrl_t *p, float setpoint, float measured, float dt) { float error = setpoint - measured; p->integral += error * dt; /* Anti-windup: clamp the integral term */ if (p->integral > p->out_max) p->integral = p->out_max; if (p->integral < p->out_min) p->integral = p->out_min; float derivative = (error - p->prev_error) / dt; p->prev_error = error; float out = p->kp * error + p->ki * p->integral + p->kd * derivative; if (out > p->out_max) out = p->out_max; if (out < p->out_min) out = p->out_min; return out; } </syntaxhighlight> === Finite state machines === Most embedded applications are best structured as '''finite state machines (FSMs)''': the system is always in one defined state, and events trigger transitions. This makes behaviour predictable, testable and easy to document. == Low-Power Design == Battery-powered devices spend most of their life asleep. Common techniques include: * Using sleep, deep-sleep and standby modes and waking on interrupts * Lowering clock frequency and supply voltage (dynamic power scales roughly with <math>C V^2 f</math>) * Turning off unused peripherals and clocks * Burst processing: finish work quickly, then sleep ("race to idle") * Choosing sensors and radios with duty-cycled operation A device averaging 10 µA on a 220 mAh coin cell could theoretically run for years, but battery self-discharge and peak-current limits often decide the real lifetime. == Development Tools and Workflow == * '''Toolchain''' – compiler, assembler, linker (for example GCC for ARM) * '''IDE''' – STM32CubeIDE, MPLAB X, Keil, PlatformIO * '''Programmer/debugger''' – JTAG or SWD probes (ST-Link, J-Link) * '''Instruments''' – oscilloscope, logic analyser, multimeter * '''Simulation''' – QEMU, Proteus, Renode * '''Version control and CI''' – Git with automated builds and hardware-in-the-loop tests Typical workflow: requirements → architecture → hardware selection → firmware development → unit and integration testing → hardware-in-the-loop testing → certification → production → field updates. == Reliability, Safety and Security == === Watchdog timers === A '''watchdog timer''' resets the system if the software fails to "kick" it within a set time, recovering from hangs without human intervention. === Brown-out detection === If the supply voltage drops below a safe level, a '''brown-out detector''' holds the chip in reset so that it never executes code in an unpredictable state. === Coding standards === * '''MISRA C''' – a widely used rule set for safe C in automotive and other critical industries.<ref>MISRA Consortium. ''MISRA C:2012 – Guidelines for the Use of the C Language in Critical Systems''.</ref> * '''CERT C''' – secure coding guidelines<ref>Seacord, Robert C. ''Secure Coding in C and C++''. Addison-Wesley.</ref> * Static analysis tools such as cppcheck, Coverity and PC-lint === Functional safety standards === {| class="wikitable" ! Standard !! Domain |- | IEC 61508 || General functional safety |- | ISO 26262 || Automotive |- | DO-178C || Airborne software |- | IEC 62304 || Medical device software |- | EN 50128 || Railway |} === Security basics === * '''Secure boot''' – verify firmware signatures before running * '''Encrypted, signed over-the-air (OTA) updates''' * '''Disabling debug ports''' (JTAG/SWD) in production units * '''Hardware root of trust''' – secure elements, TrustZone-M * Never hard-code shared passwords or keys in firmware == Little-Known Facts and Hidden Pitfalls == This section covers material that is seldom explained in beginner courses but regularly causes real-world failures. === The <code>volatile</code> keyword === Compilers optimise aggressively. If a variable is changed by hardware or an ISR, the compiler may cache it in a register and never re-read it, so the program hangs or misbehaves only when optimisation is turned on. Marking such variables <code>volatile</code> forces a fresh read each time. Note that <code>volatile</code> does '''not''' make operations atomic. <syntaxhighlight lang="c"> volatile uint8_t data_ready = 0; /* set in an ISR */ while (!data_ready) { /* wait */ } </syntaxhighlight> === Priority inversion === When a low-priority task holds a resource needed by a high-priority task, and a medium-priority task keeps preempting the low-priority one, the high-priority task is effectively blocked. This happened on the '''Mars Pathfinder''' lander in 1997, causing repeated system resets. The fix was enabling '''priority inheritance''' on the relevant mutex, which engineers uploaded to the spacecraft remotely.<ref>Jones, Mike. "What really happened on Mars?" (account of the Mars Pathfinder priority inversion, 1997), circulated on the RISKS Digest.</ref> === Cosmic rays and bit flips === Radiation can flip a bit in memory, called a '''single-event upset (SEU)'''. In a 2003 Belgian election, a candidate received exactly 4,096 (2¹²) extra votes, an error widely attributed to a single flipped bit. Safety-critical designs therefore use '''ECC memory''', redundancy and periodic memory checks. === Famous software failures === * '''Ariane 5, Flight 501 (1996)''' – a 64-bit floating-point value was converted to a 16-bit integer in reused code, overflowed, and the rocket self-destructed.<ref>Lions, J. L. (chair). ''ARIANE 5 – Flight 501 Failure: Report by the Inquiry Board''. European Space Agency / CNES, 1996.</ref> * '''Therac-25 (1985–1987)''' – a radiation therapy machine delivered overdoses, partly because of race conditions and the removal of hardware interlocks.<ref>Leveson, Nancy; Turner, Clark. "An Investigation of the Therac-25 Accidents". ''IEEE Computer'' 26(7), 1993, pp. 18–41.</ref> * '''Apollo 11 (1969)''' – the AGC raised "1202" and "1201" alarms during descent because of overloaded processing; its priority-based scheduler shed low-priority work and kept the landing on track.<ref name="hall" /> === Flash memory wears out === Flash cells survive a limited number of erase cycles (often 10,000–100,000). Writing a counter to the same flash page every second can destroy it within days. Use '''wear levelling''', RAM buffering, or FRAM/EEPROM for frequently changed data. === Stack overflow is silent === On many small controllers there is no memory protection unit, so a stack that grows too far quietly overwrites variables. Techniques include '''stack painting''' (filling the stack with a known pattern and checking how much is overwritten) and linker-placed guard regions. === Floating point is not always available === Many low-cost cores have no floating-point unit, so <code>float</code> operations run in slow software. Designers often use '''fixed-point arithmetic''' (for example Q15 or Q31 formats) to save time and energy. === Unused pins matter === Floating inputs can oscillate, drawing extra current and causing erratic behaviour. Configure unused pins as outputs or as inputs with pull resistors. === Clock accuracy and timekeeping === Internal RC oscillators can drift by several percent with temperature and voltage. A UART link at 115200 baud may fail unless a crystal oscillator is used. Even 32.768 kHz watch crystals drift by roughly tens of seconds per month if uncompensated. === Metastability === Sampling an asynchronous signal near a clock edge can leave a flip-flop in an undefined state for a short time. Hardware designers use '''two-flop synchronisers''' when signals cross clock domains. === Endianness and structure padding === Sending a C <code>struct</code> directly over a network or into flash can break when the compiler inserts padding bytes or when the two systems use different byte orders. Serialise fields explicitly. === The first instruction === On reset, an ARM Cortex-M reads the initial stack pointer from address 0x00000000 and the reset-handler address from 0x00000004 (the vector table). Understanding this explains how a bootloader can jump into an application. == Design Best Practices == # Write clear requirements before choosing hardware. # Leave memory and CPU headroom (a common guideline is 30–50%). # Keep ISRs short; defer work to the main loop or a task. # Always enable a watchdog in production firmware. # Validate all inputs and check return values. # Log errors with timestamps and reset reasons. # Design for updates: include a robust bootloader and rollback. # Test on real hardware under temperature and voltage extremes. # Review power, EMC (electromagnetic compatibility) and ESD early. == Applications == {| class="wikitable" ! Sector !! Examples |- | Automotive || Engine control unit, ABS, airbags, infotainment |- | Consumer || Smartphones, TVs, microwave ovens, wearables |- | Medical || Pacemakers, infusion pumps, glucose monitors |- | Industrial || PLCs, robotics, motor drives, process control |- | Aerospace || Flight controllers, satellites |- | Communication || Routers, modems, base stations |- | Smart home/IoT || Thermostats, smart locks, environmental sensors |} == Advantages and Disadvantages == {| class="wikitable" ! Advantages !! Disadvantages |- | Compact and efficient || Limited memory and processing power |- | Low cost in volume || Difficult to upgrade in the field |- | High reliability || Debugging can be difficult |- | Real-time response || Security risks if poorly designed |} == Conclusion == Embedded systems are the hidden computers behind almost every modern product, from household appliances to spacecraft. This chapter showed that building them well takes more than writing code that runs on a bench. A good embedded engineer must understand: * '''Architecture''' – how processors, memory, and peripherals work together * '''Timing''' – interrupts, schedulers, and real-time deadlines * '''Resources''' – limited memory, power, and processing capacity * '''Reliability''' – watchdogs, brown-out protection, and defensive coding * '''Safety and security''' – standards, secure boot, and protected updates The failures discussed earlier, such as Ariane 5, Therac-25, and Mars Pathfinder, share a common lesson: most serious embedded failures come from overlooked assumptions, not from the hardware itself. Careful requirements, disciplined coding standards, thorough testing on real hardware, and designing for failure from the start are what separate a working prototype from a dependable product. Embedded technology continues to evolve through open architectures such as RISC-V, low-power wireless networking, edge AI on microcontrollers, and stronger security requirements. The fundamentals covered here, however, remain the foundation for all of these developments. == Exercises == # Define an embedded system and give three examples. # List four differences between a microcontroller and a microprocessor. # Explain why <code>volatile</code> is necessary for variables shared with an ISR. # A 10-bit ADC uses a 5 V reference. What is the voltage resolution? # Describe how a watchdog timer improves reliability. # Explain priority inversion and one method of preventing it. # Why is writing to the same flash location repeatedly a bad design? # Design a state machine for a traffic light with a pedestrian button. === Answers (selected) === * Q4: 5 V / 1024 ≈ 4.88 mV per step. == References == {{reflist}} === Bibliography === * White, Elecia. ''Making Embedded Systems''. O'Reilly Media. * Yiu, Joseph. ''The Definitive Guide to ARM Cortex-M3 and Cortex-M4 Processors''. Newnes. * Barr, Michael; Massa, Anthony. ''Programming Embedded Systems: With C and GNU Development Tools''. O'Reilly Media. * Ganssle, Jack. ''The Art of Designing Embedded Systems''. Newnes. * Wolf, Marilyn. ''Computers as Components: Principles of Embedded Computing System Design''. Morgan Kaufmann. * Hall, Eldon C. ''Journey to the Moon: The History of the Apollo Guidance Computer''. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1996. * MISRA Consortium. ''MISRA C:2012 – Guidelines for the Use of the C Language in Critical Systems''. * Seacord, Robert C. ''Secure Coding in C and C++''. Addison-Wesley. === Standards === * IEC 61508 – Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems * ISO 26262 – Road vehicles: Functional safety * RTCA DO-178C – Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification * IEC 62304 – Medical device software: Software life cycle processes === Case studies and papers === * Liu, C. L.; Layland, J. W. "Scheduling Algorithms for Multiprogramming in a Hard-Real-Time Environment". ''Journal of the ACM'' 20(1), 1973, pp. 46–61. * Leveson, Nancy; Turner, Clark. "An Investigation of the Therac-25 Accidents". ''IEEE Computer'' 26(7), 1993, pp. 18–41. * Lions, J. L. (chair). ''ARIANE 5 – Flight 501 Failure: Report by the Inquiry Board''. European Space Agency / CNES, 1996. * Jones, Mike. "What really happened on Mars?" (account of the Mars Pathfinder priority inversion, 1997), circulated on the RISKS Digest. === External links === * [https://developer.arm.com ARM Developer documentation] * [https://www.freertos.org FreeRTOS documentation] * [https://docs.zephyrproject.org Zephyr Project documentation] * [https://www.st.com STMicroelectronics reference manuals] == See Also == * [[C Programming]] * [[Digital Electronics]] * [[Control Systems]] [[Category:Electronics]] [[Category:Computer engineering]] su9hu7siz7arzs8k7zdpaj6j2sm80qg 2 487160 4681794 2026-11-12T08:26:15Z Kanna6304 3630266 Created a draft article about Kadapa Ultra Mega Solar Park, including its location, project capacity, development, solar technology, infrastructure and renewable energy importance, with references to government sources. 4681794 wikitext text/x-wiki = Kadapa Ultra Mega Solar Park = '''Kadapa Ultra Mega Solar Park''', also known as '''Kadapa Solar Park''', is a large-scale solar power project located in Mylavaram mandal of Y.S.R. Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh, India. The project has an approved capacity of 1,000 megawatts (MW) and was developed under the Government of India's Solar Park Scheme. The solar park is associated with several villages in Mylavaram mandal, including Vaddirala, Thalamanchi, Pannampalli, Ramachandrayapalli, Konna Ananthapuram and Dhidium. The project was designed to support large-scale solar electricity generation and strengthen renewable energy infrastructure in Andhra Pradesh. == History and development == The Kadapa Solar Park was approved as part of the Government of India's initiative to promote renewable energy and increase solar electricity generation across the country. The project received approval with a proposed capacity of 1,000 MW in 2015. It was planned to provide common infrastructure for solar power developers, including land, electrical substations and transmission facilities. The Andhra Pradesh Solar Power Corporation Private Limited (APSPCL) was identified as the implementing agency for the project. In 2016, NTPC invited bids for solar power development in the park. Subsequently, solar power projects were allocated to developers for implementation. == Location == The solar park is located in Mylavaram mandal of Y.S.R. Kadapa district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. The villages identified in government records as being associated with the project include: * Vaddirala * Thalamanchi * Pannampalli (also referred to as Ponnampalli) * Ramachandrayapalli * Konna Ananthapuram * Dhidium Ponnampalle village is one of the local settlements associated with the wider solar park region. == Land and infrastructure == According to the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, approximately 5,600.98 acres of land had been acquired for the Kadapa Solar Park as reported in July 2022. The planned infrastructure included: * Solar photovoltaic power generation facilities. * Pooling substations. * Power transformers. * Internal transmission lines. * External transmission infrastructure. * Grid connectivity facilities. The solar park was planned with four pooling substations to collect electricity generated by individual solar power projects and transfer it towards the electricity grid. == Installed capacity and project status == The approved capacity of the Kadapa Solar Park is 1,000 MW. According to a Rajya Sabha answer dated 11 February 2020, 200 MW had been commissioned at the park. A subsequent Ministry of New and Renewable Energy report dated 19 July 2022 recorded that 250 MW had been commissioned, while the remaining 750 MW had not yet started. The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), in its audit report covering the period up to March 2024, listed the Kadapa Solar Park among the ongoing solar parks. The report identified 750 MW of the park's capacity as ongoing. These figures represent the status reported on the respective dates and should not be interpreted as a confirmed current operational capacity. == Technology and operation == The solar park is intended for grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity generation. Solar photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electrical energy using solar panels. The general process of electricity generation involves: # Solar panels receive sunlight and generate direct current (DC) electricity. # Solar inverters convert DC electricity into alternating current (AC). # Transformers increase the voltage to the required transmission level. # Pooling substations collect electricity from different solar power installations. # The electricity is transferred through the transmission network to the power grid. == Implementing agency == The project is associated with Andhra Pradesh Solar Power Corporation Private Limited (APSPCL), which is responsible for implementing solar park development activities in the state. APSPCL is a joint venture involving the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation Limited (APGENCO) and New and Renewable Energy Development Corporation of Andhra Pradesh Limited (NREDCAP). == Renewable energy significance == The Kadapa Solar Park forms part of India's wider renewable energy development programme. Solar parks provide common infrastructure that helps solar power developers establish large-scale electricity generation projects. The project is intended to contribute to: * Increasing solar electricity generation. * Supporting renewable energy development in Andhra Pradesh. * Improving electricity generation infrastructure. * Reducing dependence on conventional fossil-fuel-based electricity generation. * Supporting India's renewable energy objectives. == Kadapa Ultra Mega Solar Park – Project information == {| class="wikitable" |+ !Particulars !Details |- |Project name |Kadapa Ultra Mega Solar Park |- |Other name |Kadapa Solar Park |- |Project type |Solar photovoltaic power plant |- |Location |Mylavaram Mandal |- |Village associated |Ponnampalle (Ponnampalli) |- |District |Y.S.R. Kadapa |- |State |Andhra Pradesh |- |Country |India |- |Approved capacity |1,000 MW (1 GW) |- |Land acquired |5,600.98 acres |- |Implementing agenc |Andhra Pradesh Solar Power Corporation Pvt. Ltd. (APSPCL) |- |Technology |Solar photovoltaic (PV) |- |Grid connection |Grid-connected solar power |- |Commissioned capacity (July 2022) |250 MW |- |Remaining capacity (July 2022) |750 MW |- |Project scheme |Government of India's Solar Park Scheme |} == Project capacity table == {| class="wikitable" |+ !Description !Capacity |- |Total approved capacity |1,000 MW |- |Commissioned by July 2022 |250 MW |- |Remaining as of July 2022 |750 MW |- |Commissioned percentage |25% |- |Remaining percentage |75% |} == Conclusion == The Kadapa Ultra Mega Solar Park is an important renewable energy initiative in Andhra Pradesh, with an approved capacity of 1,000 MW. Located in Mylavaram mandal of Y.S.R. Kadapa district, the project represents the region's contribution to India's solar energy development. It aims to promote clean electricity generation, strengthen power infrastructure and support sustainable energy development. The project also highlights the potential of solar energy to contribute to the economic and environmental development of nearby villages, including Ponnampalle. Further development and commissioning of the remaining capacity will be important for achieving the project's full potential. f2z75qjfadeaecb5alb36wqnzeuv8cb 2 487161 4681796 2026-11-12T08:29:04Z KashyavPradhan07 3630226 Created blank page 4681796 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 2 487162 4681799 2026-11-12T08:34:07Z M.reddy16 3630471 I changed the old version of technology which used is vehicles 4681799 wikitext text/x-wiki = Embedded Systems in Autonomous Vehicles = === Introduction to Embedded Systems === An embedded system is a dedicated computing unit designed to perform one specific function—or a tightly defined set of functions—inside a larger mechanical or electrical system. Unlike a laptop or desktop workstation built to run spreadsheets, web browsers, and video games simultaneously, an embedded computer is engineered around a single operational purpose. Once programmed, it interacts directly with the physical world through sensors and actuators, often operating continuously for years without human intervention. The distinction between an embedded system and a general-purpose computer comes down to specialization, constraints, and determinism. A general-purpose personal computer prioritizes raw throughput and user flexibility; if an application lags for half a second while the operating system indexes files in the background, the user experiences a minor annoyance. In an embedded environment, a half-second delay can cause an anti-lock braking module to miss a wheel-lock event or a pacemaker to miss a heartbeat. Consequently, embedded systems operate under strict real-time deadlines, tight memory and power budgets, and harsh environmental conditions such as extreme heat, vibration, and electromagnetic interference. * '''Application-specific design:''' Hardware and firmware are stripped of unnecessary peripherals to minimize cost, physical footprint, and energy draw. * '''Real-time determinism:''' Correctness depends not only on producing the right logical result, but on delivering it within a strict, predictable time window. * '''Reactive operation:''' Embedded processors continuously monitor external inputs via analog-to-digital converters and digital buses, adjusting outputs in a closed feedback loop. * '''High reliability:''' Safety-critical embedded units incorporate hardware watchdogs, error-correcting memory, and fault-tolerant architectures so they can recover gracefully from transient glitches. {| class="wikitable" |'''Application''' |'''Embedded system example''' |'''Primary operational role''' |- |'''Automotive''' |Electronic Brake Control Module (EBCM) |Monitors wheel-speed sensors and modulates hydraulic brake pressure milliseconds before skidding occurs. |- |'''Healthcare''' |Implantable cardiac pacemaker |Continuously senses cardiac electrical activity and delivers timed micro-ampere pulses to regulate heart rhythm. |- |'''Industrial''' |Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) |Executes deterministic ladder-logic loops to synchronize robotic arms, conveyor belts, and safety interlocks. |- |'''Consumer electronics''' |Smart inverter washing machine controller |Measures drum load weight and water turbidity to adjust motor torque, water volume, and spin cycles. |} = Introduction to Autonomous Vehicles = An autonomous vehicle (AV) is a motor vehicle capable of sensing its surrounding environment, interpreting traffic conditions, planning a safe trajectory, and controlling its own steering, acceleration, and braking without active human input. Rather than treating the driver as the primary decision-maker, an autonomous platform shifts perception, judgment, and actuation onto onboard computers. In manual driving, a human acts as both sensor and controller: the eyes scan the road, the brain evaluates risk based on experience and traffic rules, and the hands and feet translate decisions into steering wheel torque and pedal pressure. Autonomous driving replaces this biological loop with an electronic pipeline. Cameras, radar, and laser scanners capture raw spatial data; machine learning and geometric algorithms construct a three-dimensional model of nearby vehicles, pedestrians, and lane boundaries; and electronic control units execute precise mechanical adjustments faster than human reflexes allow. {| class="wikitable" |'''Level''' |'''Classification''' |'''Operational responsibility and research notes''' |- |'''0''' |No driving automation |The human driver performs all dynamic driving tasks; systems only issue warnings (e.g., forward collision alerts). |- |'''1''' |Driver assistance |The vehicle assists with either steering ''or'' speed control (e.g., adaptive cruise control), while the human handles everything else. |- |'''2''' |Partial driving automation |The vehicle simultaneously controls both steering and acceleration/braking, but the human must continuously supervise and intervene immediately. |- |'''3''' |Conditional driving automation |The automated system handles all driving tasks within a specific Operational Design Domain (ODD), though the human must take over when requested. |} Advocates of autonomous mobility highlight substantial benefits, particularly in road safety—where human error accounts for the vast majority of collisions—alongside smoother traffic flow, reduced fuel consumption through optimized pacing, and independent mobility for elderly or disabled citizens. At the same time, significant limitations remain. = Role of Embedded Systems in Autonomous Vehicles = An autonomous vehicle is essentially a rolling network of dozens of specialized embedded computers working in concert. No single processor handles everything; instead, distinct embedded subsystems divide the workload across five tightly coupled stages. First, sensor data collection relies on dedicated front-end microcontrollers and image signal processors wired directly to cameras, LiDAR units, radar transceivers, and ultrasonic arrays. These edge nodes handle analog-to-digital conversion, noise filtering, and microsecond-level timestamp synchronization so that every frame of video aligns accurately with every laser pulse. Second, information processing moves raw sensor streams into high-throughput embedded processors that strip away background clutter, classify objects, and estimate the velocity of surrounding road users. Third, vehicle decision-making takes that structured environmental model and computes both long-term route navigation and short-term collision avoidance trajectories. Fourth, controlling vehicle functions translates mathematical path plans into physical motion. Real-time microcontrollers send pulse-width modulated (PWM) signals and digital torque commands to electric power steering motors, electro-hydraulic brake modulators, and drive-by-wire throttle inverters. Finally, communication between electronic units binds the entire vehicle together over deterministic automotive buses, ensuring that a hazard spotted by a front-facing camera reaches the braking controller within a few milliseconds. [ Sensors ] ---> [ Embedded Processing Unit ] ---> [ Decision & Control ] ---> [ Vehicle Actuators ] (Camera, LiDAR, (Sensor fusion, filtering, (Path planning, (Steering, braking, Radar, IMU) object detection) PID control loops) throttle control) = Architecture and Hardware = === Working Architecture of an Autonomous Vehicle === Engineers organize autonomous vehicle software and hardware into a layered, closed-loop architecture so that perception, reasoning, and physical control remain modular and verifiable. At the front end, the input system (Sensor Layer) gathers raw measurements from the external world and the vehicle's own internal state. External sensors observe lane lines, traffic lights, and moving obstacles, while internal proprioceptive sensors measure wheel rotation, yaw rate, and acceleration. Next, the '''d'''ata processing stage (Perception and Localization) fuses these disparate streams. Because cameras capture rich color and texture but struggle with exact depth, while LiDAR and radar measure distance accurately but lack color detail, perception algorithms combine them into a unified 360-degree occupancy map while pinpointing the vehicle's exact position on a high-definition map to within a few centimeters. The decision-making stage (Planning and Decision Layer) evaluates traffic rules, predicts how nearby pedestrians or drivers will move over the next several seconds, and generates a smooth, collision-free trajectory. Once a target path is chosen, the output system (Control Layer and Actuators) calculates the exact steering angle, brake pressure, and motor torque required to follow that trajectory, commanding the physical actuators to move the car. Crucially, this pipeline is never one-way. Feedback mechanisms continuously measure how the vehicle actually responds to every command. If wet asphalt causes the tires to slip slightly during a turn, wheel-speed sensors and the inertial measurement unit immediately report the discrepancy back to the sensor and control layers, allowing the system to trim steering angle and adjust braking force in real time. = Hardware Components = Because autonomous driving spans tasks ranging from simple sensor polling to trillion-operation neural network inference, automotive engineers combine several distinct processor architectures inside a single vehicle. * '''Microcontroller (MCU):''' A self-contained single-chip computer integrating a CPU core, flash memory, RAM, and analog/digital peripherals. MCUs excel at deterministic, low-power real-time control tasks such as reading brake pedal sensors or managing battery cells. * '''Microprocessor (MPU):''' A higher-clock-speed processing unit that relies on external DRAM and flash storage. MPUs run full operating systems like embedded Linux or QNX to manage infotainment, telematics, and gateway routing. * '''Digital Signal Processor (DSP):''' A specialized processor featuring hardware multiply-accumulate (MAC) units optimized for rapid mathematical operations on continuous streaming signals, such as radar Fast Fourier Transforms (FFTs) and acoustic noise cancellation. * '''Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA):''' An array of reconfigurable logic blocks that hardware engineers can wire into custom parallel pipelines. FPGAs bridge incompatible sensor interfaces and preprocess raw camera or LiDAR streams with near-zero latency. * '''Graphics Processing Unit (GPU):''' Originally built for rendering 3D graphics, GPUs contain thousands of parallel arithmetic cores ideal for matrix multiplication, making them workhorses for training and running deep convolutional neural networks. * '''Neural Processing Unit (NPU):''' A dedicated hardware accelerator tailored specifically for low-precision (INT8 or FP16) deep learning inference, delivering high frames-per-second object detection at a fraction of a GPU's power draw. * '''System-on-Chip (SoC):''' A heterogeneous integrated circuit—such as NVIDIA DRIVE Orin or Qualcomm Snapdragon Ride—that packs multi-core ARM CPUs, GPUs, NPUs, safety-island MCUs, and high-speed memory controllers onto a single piece of silicon. {| class="wikitable" |'''Component''' |'''Main function''' |'''Example automotive application''' |- |'''MCU''' |Deterministic real-time control and hardware interfacing |Anti-lock braking modulation and electric power steering control |- |'''MPU''' |High-level operating system execution and data routing |Central vehicle gateway and digital instrument cluster management |- |'''DSP''' |High-speed mathematical filtering of streaming signals |Millimeter-wave radar chirp processing and echo extraction |- |'''FPGA''' |Custom low-latency parallel hardware logic and sensor bridging |Synchronizing multi-camera frames with LiDAR point clouds |- |'''GPU''' |Massively parallel floating-point and matrix computation |3D point-cloud segmentation and surround-view perception rendering |- |'''NPU''' |Ultra-efficient AI neural network inference at the edge |Real-time pedestrian, lane, and traffic-sign classification |} = Sensors Used in Autonomous Vehicles = Autonomous vehicles rely on a complementary suite of external and internal sensors so that the weaknesses of one modality are covered by the strengths of another. * '''Cameras:''' Capture high-resolution RGB visual data, making them indispensable for reading traffic lights, road signs, and painted lane markings. However, standard monocular cameras struggle to gauge absolute distance directly and degrade in glare or darkness. * '''LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging):''' Emits rapid pulses of near-infrared laser light and measures time-of-flight reflections to construct dense, centimeter-accurate 3D point clouds of surrounding geometry, operating reliably in complete darkness though affected by heavy fog or rain.'''Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging):''' Transmits millimeter-wave radio signals (typically 77 GHz) to measure both object range and relative radial velocity directly via the Doppler effect, penetrating rain, snow, and dust with ease. * '''Ultrasonic sensors:''' Emit short-range high-frequency sound waves (around 40–50 kHz) to detect nearby curbs, pillars, and adjacent cars within a few meters during low-speed parking maneuvers. * '''GPS/GNSS:''' Global Navigation Satellite Systems provide global latitude, longitude, and velocity coordinates, often enhanced with Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) correction stations to achieve centimeter-level positioning under open skies. In a typical production sensor layout, long-range forward radar and stereo cameras sit behind the windshield and front grille to monitor highway traffic ahead; a roof-mounted or bumper-integrated LiDAR scans 360 degrees around the chassis; corner radars and side cameras eliminate blind spots during lane changes; and ultrasonic transducers ring the front and rear bumpers for close-quarters maneuvering. = Actuators and Electronic Control Units = Perception and path planning mean nothing unless the vehicle can physically execute decisions on the road. An actuator is an electromechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic device that converts low-power electrical control signals into physical mechanical motion. Modern autonomous vehicles replace direct mechanical linkages with drive-by-wire actuation across three primary domains: * '''Steering control:''' Electric Power Steering (EPS) systems use a brushless DC motor mounted on the steering column or rack. When the autonomous controller requests a lane change, the EPS unit applies precise rotational torque to turn the front wheels without human hand input. * '''Braking control:''' Electro-hydraulic or electromechanical brake-by-wire modules modulate hydraulic fluid pressure at each caliper independently, enabling smooth deceleration in traffic as well as split-second emergency stops. * '''Acceleration control:''' In electric and hybrid vehicles, throttle control is entirely electronic—the controller sends digital torque requests over a communication bus directly to the traction motor inverter, which regulates phase current to the drive motors. Each of these physical subsystems is governed by a dedicated Electronic Control Unit (ECU)—a ruggedized embedded computer containing a safety-certified microcontroller, power conditioning circuitry, and bus transceivers. Because a modern vehicle can house over 70 ECUs, they coordinate through deterministic in-vehicle networks. {| class="wikitable" |'''System''' |'''Primary physical function''' |'''Governing control unit''' |- |'''Steering''' |Modulates front-wheel angle and counter-steers against crosswinds |Electric Power Steering (EPS) ECU |- |'''Braking''' |Regulates hydraulic/electromechanical clamping force at each wheel |Electronic Stability Control (ESC) / Brake ECU |- |'''Acceleration''' |Controls drive motor torque or engine fuel/air throttle opening |Vehicle Control Unit (VCU) / Powertrain ECU |- |'''Power management''' |Balances high-voltage battery discharge and 12V/48V auxiliary loads |Battery Management System (BMS) & Power Distribution ECU |} = Software and Communication = === Software and Programming Languages === Developing software for autonomous vehicles requires balancing raw hardware efficiency against rapid algorithm experimentation and rigorous safety certification. * '''Embedded C:''' Remains the undisputed foundation for low-level microcontroller firmware, device drivers, and real-time operating system kernels. C offers direct memory pointer manipulation, predictable execution timing, and minimal runtime overhead, making it compliant with strict automotive coding standards such as MISRA C. * '''C++:''' Dominates high-performance middleware, sensor fusion engines, and path-planning stacks (including the Robot Operating System, ROS 2). Modern C++ provides zero-cost abstractions, object-oriented modularity, and deterministic resource management without garbage-collection pauses. * '''Python:''' Serves as the primary language for offline machine learning model training, data visualization, dataset curation, and rapid prototyping. While too slow and non-deterministic for safety-critical braking loops, Python scripts glue together simulation pipelines and test harnesses. * '''MATLAB/Simulink:''' Widely used by control engineers for Model-Based Design. Engineers model vehicle suspension dynamics, design PID steering controllers visually using block diagrams, simulate edge cases, and automatically generate production-grade C code * '''Verilog and VHDL:''' Hardware Description Languages (HDLs) used to design and verify custom digital logic circuits inside FPGAs and Application-Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), such as ultra-fast camera deserializers. {| class="wikitable" |'''Language''' |'''Main use in autonomous vehicles''' |'''Why engineers choose it''' |- |'''C''' |Low-level ECU firmware, RTOS kernels, and hardware drivers |Deterministic timing, tiny memory footprint, and MISRA C safety compliance |- |'''C++''' |Sensor fusion, SLAM localization, and real-time path planning |High execution speed combined with modular, reusable software architecture |- |'''Python''' |Deep learning training, log analysis, and test automation |Rich ecosystem of AI libraries (PyTorch, TensorFlow) and rapid prototyping |- |'''MATLAB''' |Control loop modeling, signal processing, and automatic code generation |Visual simulation of vehicle physics and verified C/C++ code export |- |'''Verilog''' |FPGA logic synthesis and high-speed sensor interface hardware |Cycle-accurate hardware timing and true parallel circuit execution |} = Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS) = A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS''')''' is a lightweight operating system engineered to guarantee that critical tasks execute within strict, predictable time bounds. Unlike desktop operating systems that optimize for average throughput—occasionally freezing user applications while updating background services—an RTOS prioritizes worst-case latency determinism. An RTOS achieves this precision through preemptive priority-based task scheduling. Every software routine is assigned a numerical priority; if a high-priority collision-avoidance task becomes ready to run, the RTOS kernel immediately suspends whatever lower-priority logging or diagnostic task is currently using the CPU and switches context in microseconds. When an external hardware event occurs—such as a radar transceiver finishing a frame capture—it triggers a hardware interrupt. The RTOS pauses normal execution, runs a brief Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) to latch the incoming data, and signals the corresponding processing task. Through rapid multitasking, the kernel interleaves dozens of concurrent threads across processor cores so cleanly that sensor acquisition, obstacle tracking, and actuator control appear to run simultaneously. In automotive engineering, missing a deadline—the maximum allowable response time between an event and the system's reaction—constitutes a system failure. Commercial automotive RTOS platforms such as QNX Neutrino, VxWorks, and AUTOSAR OS enforce strict memory partitioning so that a software bug in an infotainment display thread can never corrupt memory belonging to the steering controller. = Automotive Communication Protocols = Inside an autonomous vehicle, gigabytes of raw camera and LiDAR streams must travel alongside tiny, ultra-urgent braking commands. Because no single network wire handles both cheaply and deterministically, vehicles rely on a hierarchy of specialized communication buses. * '''CAN (Controller Area Network):''' The classic two-wire differential automotive bus. CAN uses non-destructive bitwise arbitration so that high-priority safety messages (like emergency braking) automatically win bus access without collision delays, operating at up to 1 Mbps (or up to 5–8 Mbps in CAN FD). * '''LIN (Local Interconnect Network):''' A low-cost, single-wire serial protocol running at up to 20 kbps, used for non-critical body electronics such as seat motors, rain sensors, and mirror adjusters. * '''FlexRay:''' A high-speed (10 Mbps), dual-channel deterministic protocol using Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) time slots, historically deployed in safety-critical steer-by-wire and active suspension systems. * '''Automotive Ethernet (:''' Adapts standard Ethernet to run over a single lightweight unshielded twisted pair, delivering 100 Mbps to 10+ Gbps bandwidth with Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) extensions to carry raw camera and LiDAR feeds. * '''SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface):''' A high-speed, short-distance synchronous chip-to-chip bus used inside an ECU to connect microcontrollers to inertial sensors, flash memory, and CAN transceivers. * '''I2C (Inter-Integrated Circuit):''' A simple two-wire board-level serial bus used for reading low-speed temperature monitors, voltage sensors, and configuration EEPROMs inside an ECU housing. * '''V2X (Vehicle-to-Everything):''' Wireless communication (via Dedicated Short-Range Communications or Cellular-V2X) enabling vehicles to broadcast speed, heading, and hazard warnings directly to nearby cars (V2V), traffic signals (V2I), and pedestrians (V2P). {| class="wikitable" |'''Protocol''' |'''Primary purpose''' |'''Typical automotive application''' |- |'''CAN / CAN FD''' |Robust, priority-arbitrated inter-ECU control messaging |Powertrain management, ABS braking, and airbag deployment |- |'''LIN''' |Low-cost sub-network communication for simple peripherals |Wiper motors, climate control flaps, and door lock actuators |- |'''FlexRay''' |Fault-tolerant, time-triggered deterministic control |High-end active chassis stabilization and steer-by-wire backbones |- |'''Automotive Ethernet''' |High-bandwidth, low-latency backbone data transport |Streaming uncompressed camera, LiDAR, and radar data to the central SoC |- |'''SPI''' |Fast synchronous short-range chip-to-chip data transfer |Reading gyroscope/accelerometer registers inside an IMU module |- |'''I2C''' |Simple two-wire board-level peripheral configuration |Monitoring internal ECU board temperature and power-supply voltage |- |'''V2X''' |Wireless cooperative awareness beyond line-of-sight |Receiving blind-intersection collision alerts and traffic-light phase timing |} = Mathematical Concepts and Intelligence = === Mathematical Formulas Used in Autonomous Vehicles === Every perception algorithm and control loop inside an autonomous car rests on classical physics, signal processing, and control theory equation. ==== Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) Resolution ==== '''Variables & SI Units:''' the Least Significant Bit voltage step size in volts is the ADC reference voltage is the dimensionless bit depth of the converter. '''Assumptions & Limitations:''' Assumes an ideal linear quantizer with zero offset or gain error; real automotive ADCs suffer from thermal noise and differential non-linearity at extreme temperatures. '''Assumptions & Limitations:''' Assumes light travels through homogeneous air at vacuum speed ; heavy fog, airborne dust, or atmospheric moisture scatter photons and introduce false returns. = Average Vehicle Speed = * '''Variables & SI Units:''' linear speed in meters per second ( is distance traveled in meters (is elapsed time in seconds * '''Assumptions & Limitations:''' Measures scalar average speed over interval ignoring instantaneous acceleration or curved path geometry. * '''Assumptions & Limitations:''' Assumes flat road grade, uniform maximum braking friction from the first millisecond, and zero actuator hydraulic build-up delay. Notice that stopping distance scales with the square of speed. = Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning = Traditional rule-based programming cannot anticipate every combination of pedestrians, cyclists, construction cones, and erratic drivers on public roads. Instead, autonomous vehicles rely on Artificial Intelligence (AI)—systems capable of performing tasks requiring human-like perception and judgment—and Machine Learning (ML), where algorithms learn statistical patterns directly from millions of miles of annotated driving data. * '''Object detection:''' Draws 2D or 3D bounding boxes around vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, and animals while estimating their class and orientation. * '''Lane detection:''' Segments painted road markings—and infers unmarked road boundaries—even when lines are faded or partially occluded. * '''Traffic sign recognition:''' Identifies speed limits, stop signs, and turn restrictions across varying lighting angles and weather conditions. * '''Sensor fusion:''' Combines detections across cameras, radar, and LiDAR so that a radar velocity track validates a visual pedestrian bounding box, dramatically lowering false positives. Because uploading gigabytes of video to remote cloud servers would introduce fatal network delays and fail in rural dead zones, autonomous cars execute hardware-accelerated neural networks directly on local onboard NPUs and GPUs within a strict 10-to-30-millisecond latency budget. [ Sensor Data ] ---> [ Preprocessing ] ---> [ Edge AI Model ] ---> [ Prediction ] ---> [ Vehicle Decision ] (Raw pixels, (Resizing, noise (CNN / Transformer (3D bounding (Brake, yield, or point clouds) filtering, sync) on local NPU) boxes & trajectories) change lanes) = Navigation and Path Planning = Getting an autonomous vehicle safely from origin to destination requires solving navigation across three distinct spatial scales: global routing, local localization, and real-time obstacle avoidance. First, GPS/GNSS establishes macro-level positioning, while localization refines the car's exact lane-level coordinates by matching live LiDAR and camera features against pre-built High-Definition (HD) maps that record curb geometry, lane widths, and traffic sign locations down to centimeter precision. When operating in unmapped areas or indoor parking structures, vehicles rely on SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) to build a map of unfamiliar surroundings while tracking their own movement inside it. Next, '''r'''oute planning selects the optimal road network sequence from start to finish using graph-search algorithms. Classical Dijkstra's algorithm explores outward uniformly to guarantee the shortest path across weighted road segments, while the A* (A-star) algorithm accelerates the search by adding a heuristic distance estimate toward the goal, making it the standard choice for rapid real-time replanning. Finally, obstacle avoidance and local trajectory generation operate continuously at the tactical level. Even when the global route says "continue straight," local planners such as Rapidly-exploring Random Trees (RRT) or lattice planners curve smoothly around double-parked delivery vans, cyclists, or road debris while obeying vehicle turning-radius limits. {| class="wikitable" |'''Method''' |'''Primary navigation purpose''' |'''Practical autonomous driving example''' |- |'''GPS/GNSS''' |Global satellite-based coordinate positioning |Identifying the vehicle's city block and initializing map tiles |- |'''SLAM''' |Mapping unknown spaces while tracking vehicle pose |Navigating multi-level underground parking garages without GPS |- |'''A* algorithm''' |Heuristic-guided shortest-path graph search |Rapidly computing a detour route around a closed highway exit |- |'''Dijkstra''' |Exhaustive minimum-cost road network routing |Calculating baseline travel-time weights across city intersections |- |'''Sensor fusion''' |Blending IMU, wheel odometry, GPS, and LiDAR |Maintaining centimeter lane accuracy inside long urban tunnels |} = Safety, Applications, and Future = === Safety, Reliability, and Cybersecurity === When an embedded system controls a two-ton vehicle moving at highway speed, software crashes and security breaches carry life-or-death consequences. Automotive safety engineering therefore rests on proactive fault tolerance and international compliance standards. Hardware and software incorporate continuous fault detection—such as memory Error-Correcting Code (ECC) and dual-core lockstep processors that run identical instructions in parallel and flag any mismatch within a single clock cycle. Critical subsystems use redundancy, equipping vehicles with dual steering motors, backup battery buses, and overlapping camera-radar fields of view so no single component failure disables control. Meanwhile, watchdog timers—independent hardware countdown circuits—monitor software health; if the main processor hangs in an infinite loop and fails to reset the timer on schedule, the watchdog forces an immediate hardware reboot or transfers control to a backup safety MCU. * '''ISO 26262 (Functional Safety):''' Addresses hazards caused by electrical or electronic hardware/software malfunctions, classifying risk into Automotive Safety Integrity Levels (ASIL A through ASIL D, with ASIL D governing steering and braking). * '''ISO 21448 (SOTIF — Safety of the Intended Functionality):''' Addresses hazards arising ''without'' hardware failure—such as when a camera misinterprets low-angle sun glare or heavy snow, causing an AI model to make an unsafe decision. * '''ISO/SAE 21434 (Automotive Cybersecurity):''' Mandates end-to-end cybersecurity risk management across a vehicle's entire lifecycle, protecting wireless interfaces, diagnostic ports, and internal CAN/Ethernet buses against spoofing, replay attacks, and unauthorized firmware tampering through Hardware Security Modules (HSMs) and cryptographic message authentication. {| class="wikitable" |'''Mechanism''' |'''Primary safety or security purpose''' |- |'''Watchdog timer''' |Detects frozen software threads and forces an immediate hardware reset or failover |- |'''Redundant sensors''' |Eliminates single points of failure when dirt, glare, or hardware faults blind one sensor |- |'''Fault detection''' |Identifies memory bit-flips, sensor disconnects, or processor lockstep errors in real time |- |'''Safe-state control''' |Guides the vehicle to a controlled stop on the road shoulder if a critical system fails |- |'''Cybersecurity monitoring''' |Verifies cryptographic signatures on ECU messages and blocks intrusion attempts |} = Power Management in Autonomous Vehicles = While traction motors consume the bulk of an electric vehicle's battery energy, the autonomous compute and sensor stack itself imposes a substantial continuous electrical load—often drawing between 300 W and over 1,000 W even while the car is idling at a red light. Autonomous platforms rely on a dual-voltage power supply architecture. A high-voltage traction battery system (400 V or 800 V) stores primary energy, while isolated DC-DC converters step voltage down to redundant 12 V and 48 V auxiliary rails that feed sensors, ECUs, and actuators. Tight voltage regulation using automotive-grade Power Management ICs (PMICs) protects sensitive silicon processors from cranking dips and load-dump voltage spikes. Managing energy consumption directly impacts driving range: every continuous kilowatt drawn by roof sensors and AI supercomputers can trim 5–10% off an electric vehicle's range per charge. Furthermore, dense SoCs generate intense localized heat, making thermal management—via liquid cold plates integrated into the compute module chassis—essential to prevent thermal throttling or solder-joint fatigue. To keep budgets sustainable, engineers apply low-power embedded design techniques such as dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS), duty-cycling ultrasonic sensors at highway speeds, and placing non-essential ECUs into deep sleep states when parked. {| class="wikitable" |'''Component''' |'''Primary function''' |'''Power-related engineering consideration''' |- |'''Camera''' |High-frame-rate optical image capture |Low individual draw (2–5 W), but 8–12 cameras add continuous load and serializer heat |- |'''LiDAR''' |Active laser pulse emission and spinning/solid-state scanning |Moderate draw (15–30 W per unit) with peak current pulses for laser diodes |- |'''Radar''' |Millimeter-wave RF transmission and chirp processing |Efficient continuous draw (5–15 W), requiring clean, low-noise voltage rails |- |'''Processor (SoC)''' |Real-time sensor fusion and deep neural network inference |Highest compute consumer (50–500+ W), requiring liquid cooling and multi-phase PMICs |- |'''Communication unit''' |Internal Ethernet switching and external 5G/V2X telemetry |Continuous background draw (10–25 W) even during standby wake-up monitoring |} = Applications of Embedded Systems in Autonomous Vehicles = Embedded intelligence scales across both fully driverless platforms and mass-market passenger cars equipped with advanced driver assistance. * '''Self-driving passenger vehicles:''' Robotaxis and personal Level 4 vehicles integrate full 360-degree sensor suites with dual-redundant compute platforms to navigate complex urban intersections without human intervention. * '''Autonomous buses and shuttles:''' Operate along fixed, repeatable campus or transit corridors, using V2X traffic-signal priority and centimeter-accurate docking controllers to align precisely with passenger platforms. * '''Delivery vehicles:''' Compact sidewalk rovers and autonomous middle-mile box trucks strip out passenger cabins, dedicating internal volume and battery capacity to refrigerated cargo bays and low-speed obstacle avoidance. * '''Driver assistance systems (ADAS):''' Mass-produced Level 1–2 vehicles use forward radar and windshield cameras to provide automatic emergency braking, blind-spot monitoring, and highway lane centering. * '''Autonomous parking:''' Automated Valet Parking (AVP) systems combine ultrasonic sensors, surround-view cameras, and tight low-speed steering/braking loops to maneuver cars into narrow spaces without a driver inside. * '''Intelligent traffic management:''' Roadside embedded units communicate with approaching connected vehicles via V2X to coordinate green-wave traffic signal timing, broadcast work-zone warnings, and prevent intersection gridlock. {| class="wikitable" |'''Application''' |'''Core embedded system role''' |- |'''Autonomous parking''' |Fuses ultrasonic and surround-camera data to execute millimeter-precise low-speed steering and braking |- |'''Lane assistance''' |Tracks painted lane boundaries in real time and applies subtle corrective torque to the EPS motor |- |'''Adaptive cruise control''' |Uses forward radar Doppler data to modulate throttle and brakes, maintaining a safe time gap |- |'''Collision warning''' |Computes time-to-collision trajectories and triggers audio-visual alerts or pre-charges brake hydraulics |- |'''Traffic management''' |Exchanges V2X speed and signal-phase packets between vehicles and roadside infrastructure |} = Challenges and Future Trends = ==== Current Engineering Challenges ==== Despite rapid progress, deploying autonomous embedded systems at global scale faces six persistent hurdles # '''Sensor limitations:''' Cameras blind in direct sun glare, LiDAR struggles with retro-reflective road signs and absorbs on black wet surfaces, and radar lacks the angular resolution to distinguish a stationary pedestrian next to a metal guardrail. # '''Weather conditions:''' Heavy rain, sleet, snow, and dust storms scatter optical and laser beams while coating sensor lenses in grime, requiring active heating and washer-fluid cleaning systems. # '''Processing requirements:''' Running multiple high-resolution neural networks simultaneously demands hundreds of trillions of operations per second (TOPS) while still meeting sub-20-millisecond latency deadlines. # '''Safety and reliability:''' Proving statistically that an AI-driven system is safer than a human driver requires billions of simulated and real-world test miles covering rare "long-tail" edge cases. # '''Cybersecurity:''' Every wireless V2X antenna, over-the-air (OTA) update channel, and mobile companion app expands the potential attack surface for malicious hackers. # '''Cost and maintenance:''' Solid-state LiDAR units, automotive-grade SoCs, and factory sensor recalibration after minor bumper repairs significantly raise vehicle purchase and ownership costs. {| class="wikitable" |'''Current challenge''' |'''Active research and engineering direction''' |- |'''Sensor limitations''' |4D imaging radar with elevation resolution and solid-state frequency-modulated continuous-wave (FMCW) LiDAR |- |'''Processing demands''' |Domain-specific NPU chiplets, sparse neural quantization, and zonal compute consolidation |- |'''Cybersecurity''' |Zero-trust internal Ethernet gateways, hardware root-of-trust HSMs, and post-quantum cryptography |- |'''Energy consumption''' |Zonal wiring architectures, dynamic sensor duty-cycling, and low-power 3 nm automotive SoCs |- |'''Reliability''' |Formal mathematical verification of control envelopes and large-scale digital-twin edge-case simulation |} = Conclusion, Review Questions, and References = ==== Conclusion ==== Embedded systems form the indispensable nervous system of autonomous vehicles, bridging the gap between raw physical sensors and split-second mechanical action. By uniting specialized processors, deterministic real-time operating systems, fault-tolerant communication buses, and edge artificial intelligence inside strict safety and power boundaries, modern automotive architectures turn complex perception and control theory into reliable real-world mobility. As sensor fusion, energy-efficient AI silicon, and cooperative V2X networks mature, embedded engineering will remain the decisive factor in making autonomous transportation safe, affordable, and universally accessible. '''Review Questions''' * '''How does a Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) differ from a general-purpose desktop operating system in handling task deadlines?''' * ''Answer:'' An RTOS uses deterministic, preemptive priority-based scheduling to guarantee that critical tasks complete within strict, bounded worst-case time limits, whereas general-purpose operating systems optimize for average throughput and may delay individual tasks during background operations. * '''Why do autonomous vehicles combine radar and cameras instead of relying solely on high-resolution cameras?''' * ''Answer:'' Cameras capture rich color and texture for reading signs and lane markings but struggle with direct depth measurement and poor weather, whereas radar directly measures object distance and relative velocity via the Doppler effect even in heavy rain, fog, or darkness. * '''What is the role of a watchdog timer in a safety-critical automotive ECU?''' * ''Answer:'' A watchdog timer is an independent hardware countdown circuit that monitors processor execution; if a software fault causes the main code to hang and miss periodic timer resets, the watchdog forces a hardware reboot or switches control to a safe backup controller. '''References and Technical Sources''' * '''SAE International.''' (2021). ''Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles'' . SAE International. * '''International Organization for Standardization (ISO).''' (2018). ''ISO 26262: Road vehicles Functional safety'' (2nd ed.). Geneva: ISO. * '''International Organization for Standardization (ISO).''' (2022). ''ISO 21448: Road vehicles'' ''safety of the intended functionality (SOTIF)''. Geneva: ISO. * '''ISO / SAE International.''' (2021). ''ISO/SAE Road vehicles — Cybersecurity engineering''. Geneva: ISO. * '''NXP Semiconductors.''' (2024). ''S32 Automotive Processing Platform: Architecture and Functional Safety Reference Manual''. Eindhoven: NXP. * '''Robert Bosch GmbH.''' (2022). ''Bosch Automotive Handbook'' (11th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. * '''Yurtsever, E., Lambert, J., Carballo, A., & Takeda, K.''' (2020). A Survey of Autonomous Driving: Common Practices and Emerging Technologies. 8sobq2tg5on3wuii51s066ujzv4e58u